BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

LABFILE

NAME: Akriti Varshney

ENROLMENT NO: 03201042020
BATCH: MAE-1 (M1)
SEMESTER: 2
 INDEX

S.NO. TOPIC
1. To verify Ohm’s Law

2. To verify Thevenin’s Theorem

3. To verify Norton’s Theorem

4. To verify Superposition Theorem

5. To verify Reciprocity Theorem

6. Three phase power measurement by two

watt meter method
7. R-L-C Circuit Analysis

8. Test on Single Phase Transformer

EXPERIMENT-1

AIM: To verify ohms law

REUIREMENTS: Resistances, Ammeter, Voltmeter, Wire,
Switch, Battery.
THEORY:
Ohm's Law
1.The law states that the current through a conductor between
two points is directly proportional to the voltage across the two
points. Such a conductor is characterized by its ‘Resistance’ – R
measured in Ohms.
2.V=I×R
V is the Voltage in Volts across the conductor.
I is the current in Amperes through the conductor.
Voltage(V) is directly proportional to current i.e V=I×R.
Resistance(R) in inversely proportional to current(I) i.e I=VR

Ohm's Law triangle

Explanation of Ohm's Law

Current through resistor

From the circuit:

The voltage across resistor is equal to source voltage:

VR=VS

The current through the resistance is given by:

I=VR/R
PROCEDURE:
1. Set DC voltage(0-30 V).
2. Set the Resistance Value(1 Kohm - 100 Kohm) .
3. Voltmeter is placed parallel to resistor and ammeter
series with resistor.
4. Now note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for DC
voltage.
5. Increase the DC voltage by 2 factor and note
Voltmeter and Ammeter Readings. Keep resistance
value constant
6. Plot the V-I graph to verify Ohm's Law.
7. Repeat step 2 to 6 for another set of resistance value.
8. V versus I graph is a straight line.
9. Therefore from the graph we see that the resistance do
adhere to Ohm’s law. Thus resistance is said to be an
Ohmic device.
OBSERVATION:
EXPERIMENTAL TABLE

RESULT:
We have verified ohm’s law.
EXPERIMENT-2

AIM: To verify Thevenin’s theorem.

REUIREMENTS: Resistances, Ammeter, Voltmeter, Wire,
Switch, Battery.
THEORY:
It provides a mathematical technique for replacing a given
network, as viewed from two terminals, by a single voltage
source with a series resistance. It makes the solution of
complicated networks quite quick and easy. The application of
this extremely useful theorem will be explained with the help of
following simple example.

[Fig 1: Circuit with source E and Load RL]

Suppose, it is required to find current flowing through load

resistance RL, as shown in figure 1.
This expression proceed as under:

1) Remove RL from the circuit terminals A and B and redraw the

circuit as shown in figure 2. Obviously, the terminal has become
open circuited.

[Fig 2: Circuit with RL removed.]

2) Calculate the open circuit Voltages VO.C. which appears across

terminals A and B when they are open .ie. when RL is removed.
As seen, V.O.C.= drop across R2= IR2 where I is the circuit
current when A and B is open.
I = E/(r+R1+R2)
Vo.c.= I*R1
Vo.c = E*R2/(r+R1+R2)
It is also called thevenin voltage (Vth).

3) Now, imagine the battery to be removed from the circuit,

leaving its internal resistance r behind and redraw the circuit as
shown in figure 3.

[Fig 3: Circuit with RLRL and EE removed]

When viewed inwards from the terminals A and B, the circuit
consists of two parallel paths: one containing R2 and another
containing (R1+r). The equivalent resistance of the network as
viewed from these terminals is given as,
Rth=(R1+r)*R2/(R1+r+R2)
The resistance "Rth" is also called Thevenin equivalent
resistance.

Consequently, as viewed from terminals A and B, the whole

network (excluding R1) can be reduced to single source (called
thevenin's source) whose e.m.f equal to VO.C. and whose internal
resistance equal to Rth as shown in figure 4.

4) RL is now connected back across terminals A and B from

where it was temporaily removed earlier. Current flowing
through RL is given by,
I1=Vth/(Rth+RL)

[Fig 4: Thevenin's equivalent circuit]

PROCEDURE:

[Fig 1: Circuit diagram for Experimental set-up for verification of Thevenin's

theorem]

1) Keep all the resistance close to their maximum respective values.

2) Close the switch S1 to "aa" and S2 to "cc" positions. Observe the
load current (IL) and voltage (VL) readings. The load resistance
RL=VL/IL
3) Remove the load by opening the switch S2 and read the open circuit
voltage (or Thevenin equivalent voltage) Vth.
4) Next, compute the resistance (RTH) of the network as seen from the
load terminals,
a) Replace the 220 V source by a short by closing S1 to "bb".
b) Apply 110 V at the output terminals by closing S2 to "dd". Read
the voltmeter (V) and ammeter (I) and get
Rth=V/I
5) Now compute the load current. Applying Thevenin theorem
IL=Vth/(Rth+RL)

6) Compare the above computed load current with its observed value in
step (2) and verify the theorem.

OBSERVATION:

RESULT:
Load current from case1 and case3 are equal. Hence Thevenin’s theorem
is verified.
EXPERIMENT-3

AIM: To verify Norton’s theorem.

REUIREMENTS: Resistances, Ammeter, Voltmeter, Wire,
Switch, Battery.
THEORY:
A linear active network consisting of independent and(or)
dependent voltage and current sources and linear bilateral
network elements can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of current sources in parallel with the resistance, the
current source being the short-circuited current across the load
terminal and resistance being the internal resistance of the
source network looking through the open circuited load
terminals. In order to find the current through RL, the load
resistance of the figure 1 by Norton's theorem, let, replace RL by
short circuit as shown in figure 2.

[Fig 1: Circuit with source VS and Load RL]

[Fig 2: Circuit with RL shorted]

Obviously, in Fig 2;
I=Vs/R1+(R2∗R3/R2+R3)
Is/c=I∗(R3/R3+R2)Next, the short circuit is removed and the
independent source is deactivated as shown in figure 3
[Fig 3: Circuit with source VSVS deactivated and Load RLRL open]

From Fig 3;
Rint=R2+(R1∗R3/R1+R3)

As per Norton's theorem , the equivalent circuit as shown in

figure 4, would contain a current source in parallel to the
internal resistance, the current source being the short circuited
current across the shorted terminals of the load resistor.

[Fig 4: Norton equivalent circuit]

Obviously, from Fig 4;

IL=Is/c∗(Rint/Rint+RL)
PROCEDURE:

[Fig 1: Circuit diagram for Experimental set up]

1. Keep all the resistance close to their maximum respective

values.
2. Close the switch s1 to "aa" and s2 to "cc" positions. Observe
the load current (IL) and voltage (VL) readings. The load
resistance,
RL=VL/IL
3.Short the load terminals and find the short circuited current
(Isc).
 4.Next, compute the resistance (Rint) of the network as seen
from the load terminals,
o Replace the 220 V source by a short by closing s1 to
"bb".
o Apply V=110 V at the output terminals by
closing s2 to "dd". Read the current from ammeter (I)
and get Rint=V/I
5.Now compute the load current (IL) applying Norton
theorem.
IL=Isc∗ Rint/(Rint+RL)
6. Compare the above computed load current with its
observed value in step (2) and verify the theorem.

OBSERVATION:

RESULT:Load current from case1 and case3 are equal.

Hence Norton’s theorem is verified.
EXPERIMENT-4

AIM: To verify superposition theorem.

REUIREMENTS: Resistances, Ammeter, Voltmeter, Wire,
Switch, Battery.
THEORY:
If a number of voltage or current source are acting
simultaneously in a linear network, the resultant current in any
branch is the algebraic sum of the currents that would be
produced in it, when each source acts alone replacing all other
independent sources by their internal resistances.
Circuit Diagram:

[Fig 1: analysis superposition theorem] [Fig 2: V2 short circuited]

In given figure 1 apply superposition theorem , let us first take

the sources V1 alone at first replacing V2 by short circuit as
shown in figure 2. Here,
I1′=V1/{(R2∗R3/R2+R3)+R1}
I2′=I1′∗{R3/(R2+R3)}
I3′=I1′−I2′

[Fig 3: Circuit with only V1 short circuited]

Next, removing V1 by short circuit, let the circuit be energized

by V2 only as shown in figure 3. Then,
I2′′=V2/{(R1∗R3/R1+R3)+R2}
I1′′=I2′′∗{R3/(R1+R3)}
I3′′=I2′′−I1′′
As per superposition theorem,
I3=I3′+I3′′
I2=I2′−I2′′
I1=I1′−I1′′

PROCEDURE:
Circuit Diagram:

[Fig 1: Circuit diagram of experimental set-up for verification of

Superposition theorem]

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram, keeping the

switches open and resistance at their maximum positions.
2. Set S1 to position "aa" and S2 to position "cc" respectively
which means both the sources are energized. Note down the
current I1, I2 and I3 from ammeter A1, A2 and A3.
3. Set S1 to positions "aa" and S2 to position "dd" respectively
which means the, only 220V source is energized and the
terminals of S2 are shorted. Note down
current I1′, I2′ and I3′ from the ammeter A1, A2 and A3.
4. Set S1 to position "bb" and S2 to position to "cc"
respectively. Which means the, only 110V source is
energized and the terminals of S1 are shorted. Note down
current I1′′, I2″ and I3′′ from the ammeter A1, A2 and A3.
5. Compare I1, I2 and I3 with I1′+I1′′, I2′+I2′′ and I3′+I3′′ taking
care of signs properly of verify the theorem.
6. Repeat the step (2) to (6) for five different values of
resistance for each three rheostats.
OBSERVATION:

RESULT:
We have verified superposition theorem.
EXPERIMENT-5

AIM: To verify reciprocity theorem.

REQUIREMENTS: Resistances, Ammeter, Voltmeter, Wire,
Switch, Battery, Inductors, Capacitors.
THEORY:
In any branch of a network, the current (I) due to a single
source of voltage (V) elsewhere in the network is equal to the
current through the branch in which the source was originally
placed when the source is placed in the branch in which the
current (I) was originally obtained.

In simple sense, the location of the voltage source and the

through current maybe interchange without a change in current .
However the polarity of the voltage source should have
identically with the direction of branch current in each position.
The limitation of this theorem is that it is applicable only to
single source networks and not in multisource network.
Moreover, the network where reciprocity theorem is applied
should be linear one containing resistors, inductors, capacitors
and coupled circuits.

In figure 1, apply a small voltage at a-a and measure the short

circuit current at b-b. Check the ratio =Va-a /Ib-b
[Fig 1: Circuit for analysis of reciprocity theorem with source
along a-a]

In figure 2, apply a small voltage at b-b and measure the short

circuit current at a-a. Check the ratio = Vb-b /Ia-a.

[Fig 2: Circuit for analysis of reciprocity theorem with source

along b-b]
PROCEDURE:
Circuit Diagram:

[Fig 1: Circuit digram of experimental set-up for analysis of

reciprocity theorem.]

1. Simulate any network with suitable value of R, L, and C

such that the short circuit currents in all branches are within
safe limit.
Apply a small voltage at a-a and measure the short circuit
current at b-b. Check the ratio =Va-a /Ib-b.
2. Now apply a voltage across c-c after open circuiting it and
measure the current through d-d after shorting them. find
the ratio=Vc-c /Id-d.
The two ratio should be identical that is,
Va−a/Ib−b=Vc−c/Id−d
OBSERVATION:

RESULT:
We have verified reciprocity theorem.
EXPERIMENT-6

AIM: Three phase power measurement by two wattmeter

method.
REQUIREMENTS: Resistances, Ammeter, Voltmeter, Wire,
Switch, Battery, Inductors, Wattmeter.
THEORY:

[Fig 1: Connection diagram for three phase power measurement

using two wattmeter method]

The connection diagram for the measurement of power in three

phase power measurement circuit using two wattmeter's method
is shown in figure 1. This is irrespective of the circuit
connection star or delta. The circuit may be taken as balanced or
unbalanced one, balanced type being only a special case. Please
not the connection of two wattmeter's. The current coil of the
wattmeter's 1 and 2 in series with R and B phase with the
pressure voltage coils being connected across R-Y and B-Y
respectively. Y is the third phase in which no current coil is
connected.

If star connected circuit is taken as an example the total

instantaneous power consumed in the circuit is,

W=IRN⋅V(RN)+IYN⋅V(YN)+IBN⋅VBN . . . (1)

Each of the terms in the above expression equation (1) is the

instantaneous power consumed by the phases. From the
connection diagram, the circuit in and the voltages across the
respective (current, pressure or voltage) coils in the
wattmeter, W1 are IRN and VRY=VRN−VYN.
So, the instantaneous power measured by the wattmeter W1 is
W1 = IRN*VRY.

Similarly the instantaneous power measured by the

wattmeter W2 is

W2=IBN⋅VBY=IBN⋅(VBN−VYN)
Some of the two readings as given above is,

Equation (1) is compared with equation (3) to give the total

instantaneous power consumed in the circuit . They are found to
be same. The phasor diagram of three phase balanced star
connected circuit is shown in figure 2.

[Fig 2: Phasor diagram of three phase balanced star connected

circuit]
PROCEDURE:
BALANCED LOAD :

Fig. 1. Three phase power measurement circuit under balance

condition

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 1.

2. Adjust the ganged rheostat for the maximum resistance.
3. Switch on the supply.
4. Close switch S1.
5. Read the meters to obtain VL, I1, I2 and I3. Note the
wattmeter reading W1 and W2 (Note the multiplying factor
on the wattmeter).
6. Vary the load resistance and obtain at least five sets of
observations, the current should not exceed the limit (4.1
A).
UNBALANCED LOAD :

Fig. 2. Three phase power measurement circuit under

unbalance condition

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 2.

2. Replace the ganged rheostat by three separate
rheostats of 26 Ω, 4.1 A and connect in a star.
3. Adjust the three rheostats at the maximum values.
4. Switch on the supply and set the autotransformer to
110 V.
5. Close switch S1 and take five sets of observation for
different rheostat settings such that the reading
of I1, I2and I3 in each set is appreciably different to
create unbalanced loading condition. The current
should not exceed the limits in each arm.
OBSERVATION:
• Balanced Load:

• Unbalanced Load:

RESULT: We have performed three phase power measurement

by two watt meter method.
EXPERIMENT-7

AIM: To study the behaviour of a series R-L-C circuit.

REQUIREMENTS: Resistances, Ammeter, Voltmeter, Wire,
Switch, Battery, Inductors, Capacitors.
THEORY:

[Fig 1: Sinusoidal input to series RLC circuit]

With reference to figure 1, the application of Kirchoff's law

results,
V=IR+jIXL+I/jωC,
Where, VR=IR, VL=jIXL, VC=I/jωC
V=I(R+jωL+1/jωC).......(1)
Let Z be the net impedance of the circuit, this gives from
equation(1),
V=IZ=I(R+jωL+1/jωC)
Or,
Z=R+j(ωL−1/ωC)=(√R2+(ωL−1/ωC)2)∠tan−1((ωL−1/ωC)/R)..(2)

Equation (2) gives the complex impedance(Z) which indicates

that the circuit will become inductive if ωL > 1/Cω and then the
sign of the angle of Z is positive. On the other hand, for
ωL < 1/ωC, the circuit will become capacitive and the sign of
the angle of Z is negative.

Phasor Diagram:
The phasor diagram for Inductive and capacitive series R-L-C
circuit is given in figure 2 and 3 respectively.

[Fig 2: Phasor diagram

for inductive circuit]
[Fig 3: Phasor diagram for capacitive circuit]

PROCEDURE:
Circuit Diagram:

[Fig 1: Circuit
Diagram for experimental set-up of R-L-C circuit analysis]
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram in figure 1.
2. Adjust the rheostat for maximum resistance and the auto
transformer to the position of zero-output voltage and
switch on the supply.
3. Adjust the voltage across the circuit to about 70 V and
note I, Vs, VL, VC, VR and W.
4. Adjust the rheostat for several settings and repeat step 3.
5. Adjust the rheostat to the maximum setting and change the
capacitance to 140 μF and repeat step 4.
6. Compare the values of phase angle as obtained from the
meter readings and from the phasor diagrams. (From the
phasor diagrams compute cosθ and θ). Draw phasor
diagrams showing I, Vs, VL, VC, I, and VR for different sets
of readings.

OBSERVATION:

RESULT: We have studied the behaviour of a series R-L-C

circuit.
EXPERIMENT-8

AIM: To perform a) open circuit test & b) short circuit test on a

single phase transformer and calculate its equivalent circuit
parameters.
REQUIREMENTS: Transformer, Auto transformer, dimmer stat,
Wattmeter, Voltmeter, Ammeter, Connecting wires.

THEORY:
The physical basis of the transformer is mutual induction
between two circuits linked by a common magnetic field .
Transformer is required to pass electrical energy from one
circuit to another, via the medium of the pulsating magnetic
field, as efficiently and economically as possible. This could be
achieved using either iron or steel which serves as a good
permeable path for the mutual magnetic flux.

Elementary Transformer:

[Figure 1]
 Let an alternating voltage V1 be applied to primary coil
of N1 turns linking a suitable iron core. A current flows in the
coil, establishing a flux ϕ in the core. This flux induces an
emf e1 in the coil to counter balance the applied voltage V1. This
emf is
e1=N1dϕ/dt
Assuming sinusoidal time variation of the flux ,
let ϕp=ϕmsin(ωt). Then,
e1=N1ωϕmcos(ωt), where ω=2πf

The r.m.s value of this voltage is given by :

E1=4.44fN1ϕm

Now if there is a secondary coil of N2 turns, wound on the same

core, then by mutual induction an emf e2 is developed therein.
The r.m.s value of this voltage is given by :
E2=4.44fN2ϕ'm

Where ϕ'm is the maximum value of the (sinusoidal) flux linking

the secondary coil(ϕs).
If it is assumed that ϕp=ϕs then the primary and secondary emf
bear the following ratio:
e1/e2=E1/E2=N1/N2
Equivalent Circuit of a Practical Transformer:

[Figure 2(a)]

Development of Transformer Equivalent Circuit:

[Figure 2(b)]
The practical transformer has coils of finite resistance. Though this
resistance is actually distributed uniformly, it can be conceived as
concentrated. Also, all the flux produced by the primary current cannot
confined into a desired path completely as an eletric current. On account
of the leakage flux, both the windings have a voltage drop which is due
to 'leakage reactance' . The transformer shown in the figure 1 can be
resolved into an equivalent circuit as shown in figure 2(a) in which the
resistance and leakage reactance of primary and secondary respectively
are represented by lumped R1, X1, R2 and X2. This equivalent circuit can
be simplified by referring all quantities in the secondary side of the
transformer to primary side and is shown in figure 2(b).

R'2=R2(N1/N2)2
X'2=X2(N1/N2)2
I’2=I2(N2/N1)
V’2=V2(N1/N2)
Approximate Equivalent Circuit of Transformer:
PROCEDURE:
a) Open circuit

1) Connect the circuit as shown in circuit diagram.

2) Switch on the supply after checking connection by concerned
teacher.
3) Increase the input voltage to the transformer winding upto
rated value (230V) slowly using dimmer stat.
4) Measure the primary voltage, primary current, primary circuit
power and secondary voltage of transformer.
5) Reduce the voltage slowly using Variac.
6) Switch off the supply and remove connections.

b) Short circuit
 1) Connect
the circuit as
shown in
circuit diagram.
2) Switch on the supply after checking connection by concerned
teacher.
3) Increase the input voltage very carefully and slowly so that
the current in secondary winding reaches rated value (8.6A)
slowly using dimmer stat.
4) Measure the primary voltage, primary current, primary
circuit power and secondary current of transformer.
5) Reduce the voltage slowly using dimmer stat.
6) Switch off the supply and remove connections.

OBSERVATIONS:

a) Short circuit
Serial no. Power Current I Power VR VL VC Theta Power
of supply (in Amp) (in Watt) (in Volt) (in Volt) (in Volt) (in degree) factor
observation Vs (in (in degree)
volt)

1. 45.65 1.43050643 51.1587162 35.7626607 13.4796621 32.5307325 -24.656148 24.6561486

2. 66.88 2.09577780 109.807145 52.3944524 19.7485170 47.6594828 -24.656148 24.6561486

3. 110 3.52070981 285.094144 80.9763256 66.3512971 80.0634423 -7.1580017 7.15800178

4. 110 3.12357752 263.431887 84.3365932 58.8669421 71.0323720 -6.3470506 6.34705064

5. 110 3.01244234 272.244267 90.3732704 28.3862442 68.5050790 -21.381541 21.3815417

b) Open circuit
Serial no. of Primary Primary Input Secondary Voltage
observation voltage V1 Current I0 Power Pi V2 (H.V. Side)
(L.V. Side) (Amp) (Watt)

1. 40.300 0.42178 2.6039 82.615

2. 52.000 0.54424 4.3353 106.60
3. 26.700 0.27944 1.1430 54.735
4. 52.600 0.55052 4.4360 107.83
5. 100.00 1.0466 16.033 205.00

RESULT:
We have performed open circuit test and closed circuit test on a
single phase transformer and calculated its equivalent.