1 Civil Basics, Functions of Civil Engineer, Branches, Site Selection 121021-Converted-Combined

UNIT 1
BUILDING PLANNING
FUNCTION OF CIVIL ENGINEER

BRANCHES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
SITE SLECTION
Progress Through Quality Education

UNIT -1 TOPICS
BUILDING PLANNING
• CIVIL ENGINEERS ROLE /FUNCTIONS
• CIVIL ENGINEERING BRANCHES
• SELECTION OF SITE FOR CONSTRUCTION

PROJECTS
• PLANNING THE PROJECTS –PRINCIPLES,

REGULATIONS,BYE LAWS

BASIC MATERIALS
• PROPERTIES /TYPES /USES

• BRICKS
• STONES
• AGGREGATES
• CEMENT
• CEMENT MORTAR
• CONCRETE
• STEEL
• TIMBER(WOOD)

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEVELOPMENT
• CIVIL ENGINEERING EXECUTIONS PROVIDES SAFE

AND COMFORT LIVING
• SHELTER – NEED OF A COMMON MAN –

CONSTRUCTED BY CIVIL ENGINEERS
• INITIAL CONSTRUCTION- CAVES,HUTS WITH

BAMBOO RAFTERS, PALM,COCONUT LEAVES AND
GRASS ROOF COVERING– MUD WALLS
• PALM ,COCONUT,CASURINA ,TEAK RAFTERS WITH

COUNTRY PAN TILES –MUD/STONE WALLS

• TEAK RAFTERS WITH MANGALOORE TILES
• WOODEN JOISTS WITH MADRAS TERRACED

ROOFINGS (OLD JAMIN ,VILLAGE HEAD
BUNGALOW )- STONE /BRICK WALLS
• STONE/BRICK WALLS WITH CONCRETE

ROOFING
• RCC COLOUMN/BEAMS /ROOFS WITH

PANEL WALLS

• CONCRETE CONSTRUCTIONS –BECOME
POPULAR DUE TO INCREASED SPEED IN
CONSTUCTION PROJECTS
PLYWOOD,GLASS,ALUMINIUM,STEEL
SECTIONS AND DECORATIVES MADE THE
CIVIL ENGINEERS TO DESIGN MORE
ELEGANT STRUCTURES
• DEVELOPMENT OF A COUNTRY IS
POSSIBLE WITH THE DEVELOPMENT OF
CIVIL INFRASTRUCTURES SUCH AS ROAD,
RAIL ,AIRPORT,HARBOUR, BUILDING AND
INDUSTRIAL PROJECTS

PROJECT EXECUTIONS
• RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS,BUNGALOWS,FLATS
• ROADWAY,RAILWAY,AIRWAY ,WATERWAY AND
ROPEWAY
• TUNNELS
• INDUSTRIAL
• COMMERTIAL COMPLEXES
• WATER SUPPLY
• WASTE WATER –SEWAGE
• TOWERS,CHIMNEYS
• BUNKER AND SILO

ROLE / FUNCTIONS
TO BE PERFORMED BEFORE CONSTRUCTION

• FEASIBLITY STUDIES
• SITE INVESTIGATIONS(SOIL)
• DESIGN
PERFORMED DURING CONSTRUCTION

• EXECUTION OF ACTUAL WORK
• CONTRACTOR DEALING
• CLIENT LIASON
• MEN,MATERIAL,MASHINERY MANAGEMENT

WORKS PERFORMED AFTER
CONSTRUCTION
• MAINTANENCE
• RECORDS PREPARATION
• RESEARCH

FEASIBLITY STUDIES
COLLECTION OF DATA
• AVAILABLITY OF LABOUR,MATERIALS,WATER
• LOCAL LABOURS,OTHER AREA/SITE LABOURS
• MATERIAL AVAILABLE LOCALLY /OTHER AREAS
• DEPTH OF WATER AVAILABLITY
• POTABLITY
• PROBLEMS TO BE FACED –HARD ROCK
TERRAIN,ELECRICAL OVER HEAD
LINES,ENCROCHMENT BY OTHERS (HUT)
• TECHNICAL PROBLEMS
• ECONOMY IN EXECUTION

Electrical over head line
Hard rock
Lay out
plots Main road
Water depth-150feet
Colony road
Sandy soil Water depth 200feet
hut

ROAD PROJECT FEASIBLITY
• MINIMUM CUTTING ,FILLING,BLASTING
• SHOULD NOT HAVE TUNNELS
• MINIMUM NUMBER OF RIVER BRIDGES,OVER

BRIDGES,SUBWAYS
• SHOULD NOT PASS THROUGH RELIGIOUS

AREA,WATER BODIES,HILLS
• SHOULD CONNECT TOWNS, VILLAGES

,TOURIST PLACES,PLACE OF WORSHIP

• PROPOSED ROAD ROUTE

STUDY COMPLETION
• PROJECT SITE WHICH SEEMS TO BE

FEASIBLE,ECONOMICAL FOR EXECUTION AND
COMPLETION WITHOUT FACING MUCH
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS -
RECOMMENDED,SELECTED AND FINALIZED
• PLANS ARE PREPARED /DRAWN ACCORDING

TO THE AVAILABLE SITE AREA OF THE
PROJECT

INVESTIGATIONS IN PROJECT SITE AREA
• SOIL CHARECTERS ARE STUDIED TO FIND THE LOAD

BEARING POWERS .
• ACCORDING TO THE SOIL STRENGTH , THE
COLOUMN/WALL FOUNDATION
(FOOTINGS)LENGTH,BREATH,DEPTH WILL BE
DESIGNED
• CLAY SOIL 8-10/SQ.M( FOOTING SIZE -1.5X1,5X1.5M
• SANDY SOIL 10-15T/SQ.M(FOOTING SIZE1.2X1.2X1.2 M
• HARD ROCK 15-30T/SQ.M(FOOTING SIZE-1.0X1.0X1.2 M)
• TEST BORE HOLES,TRIAL PITS,PLATE /PILE LOAD TEST
WILL BE CARRID OUT IN THE SITE AREA

COMPLETION OF SOIL INVESTIGATIONS
• SOIL STRENGTH REPORT
• ACCORDING TO SOIL STRENGTH FOOTINGS

DESINGED
• NUMBER OF FLOORS ,TYPE OF FOUNDATION

(ISOLATED,SPREAD,PILE)WILL BE CHOOSEN
• LOCATIONS AND SPACING OF COLOUMNS ARE

FINALIZED

DESIGN
• SIZE AND LOCATION ,SPACING OF

COMPONENTES OF STRUCTURE –
COLOUMN,BEAMS.ROOF SLAB FOUND OUT
• DIMENSIONS AND CAPACITIES OF

STRUCTURAL MEMBERS ARE DECIDED
• COMPONENTS DESIGNED FOR STRUCTURAL

SAFETY AND STABILITY

• SIZE AND SPACING OF MEMBERS

DRAWINGS
• DETAILED WORKING DRAWINGS REQUIRED

FOR THE PROJECT PREPARED BASED ON THE
DESIGN
• ACCORDING TO THE PREPARED DRAWINGS,

DETAILED ESTIMATES ARE PREPARED

EXECUTION OF WORK
• PREPARATION OF TENDER
• CALLING TENDER –NEWS PAPERS
• FINALIZING THE CONTRACT –CONSTRUCTION
COMPANIES
• ACTUAL WORK EXECUTION BY ENGINEERS
• DEPARTMENTAL-PWD,CPWD,TWAD,HIGHWAY,NHAI
• PRIVATE FIRMS
• SPECIFICATION,QUALITY,SAFETY OF WORKS
SUPEVISED AND MAINTAINED AS PER
STANDARDES

MAINTANENCE OF WORKS
• CARRIED OUT FOR CONTINIOUS, EFFICIENT

FUNCTIONING OF STRUCTURES
• INCREASES THE LIFE OF THE STRUCTURES
• EXECUTED BY DEPARTMENTS,PRIVATE
CONSTRUCTION COMPANIES
• GOVERNMENT BUILDINGS
SCHOOLS,HOSPITALS,OFFICES,JAIL, POST
OFFICE ,POLICE STATIONS,COURTS
• TYPES-ROUTINE,PERIODICAL,SPECIAL
MAINTANENCES

RESEARCH WORKS
• CARRIED OUT FOR NEW INVENTIONS AND

DEVELOPMENTS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING FIELD
• PRESENT RESEARCH WORK INSTITUTES -

IITS,NITS ,UNIVERSITIES,BIS (ISI)
• LABORATORIES-NEERI,CRRL,SERC,CBRI
• FINDINGS ARE PROPACATED, APPLIED IN

ACTUAL WORKS

CIVIL ENGINEERING BRANCHES
• GEOTECHNICAL- SOIL MECHANICS
• STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
• WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING
• PUBLIC HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL
• TRANSPORTATION
• SURVEYING
• ARCHITECTURAL
SOIL MECHANICS /FOUNDATION
ENGINEERING
• SOIL PROPERTIES AND BEHAVIER PATTERNS

STUDIED
• VOIDS RATIO,PERMEABLITY,DENSITY,
,CONSOLIDATION CHARACTERISTICS ,SOIL
LOAD BEARING CAPACITY DETERMINED
• TYPE AND SIZE OF FOUNDATIONS ARE
CHOOSEN,DESIGNED (L/B/D)ACCORDING TO
SAFE BEARING CAPACITY, SOIL NATURE
• ISOLATED ,COMBAINED ,SPREAD,RAFT,PILE -
TYPE SELECTED BY TEST BORES,PLATE LOAD
TESTS

FOOTING TYPES ACCORDING TO SOIL
STRENGTH

TEST BORE HOLE
GROUND LEVEL
O.5 M CLAY
1M SAND
O.3M GRAVEL
0.20 M SOFT ROCK
0.3M DIAMETER
Load-sand bags
Loading platform
Ground level
Steel coloumn
plate
Plate load
test

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND
DESIGN
• ANALYSIS AND DESIGN FOR FINDING THE SIZE

SHAPE AND LOCATION OF VARIOUS
COMPONENTS (COLOUMN,BEAM,SLAB)OF
BUILDINGS
• ANALYSIS CARRIED OUT BY SLOPE
DEFLECTION,MOMENT-
DISTRIBUTION,MATRIX,COLOUMN ANOLOGY
METHODS
• WORKING STRESS /LIMIT STATE DESIGN
• OPTIMUM, ECONOMICL DESIGN FINALIZED AND
APPLIED IN ACTUAL WORKS

COLOUMNS
BEAMS
THIRD FLOOR
SECOND FLOOR
FIRST FLOOR
GROUND
GROUND LEVEL
FLOOR
FOOTINGS
STRUCTURAL FRAME
SINGLE COLOUMN
ISOLATED FOOTING
TWO COLOUMNS
Room 1
COMBAINED FOOTING
Room 2
Room 3
PLAN OF COLOUMN FOOTINGS

LOADS CONSIDERED FOR MAKING THE
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF MEMBERS
• DEAD LOAD
• LIVE LOAD
• WIND LOAD
• EARTH QUAKE VIBRATION

WATER RESOURCES &MGNT
BRANCH DEALS WITH THE

PLANNING,DESIGNING.CONSTRUCTION,OP
ERATIOS AND MAINTANENCE OF
• DAMS-RIGID,NON RIGID
• RIVER/CANALS/FIELD SUPPLY CHANNELS
• HYDRO POWER GENERATION
• WATER SUPPLY SCHEMES
• HORBOUR/DOCKS
• IRRIGATION
• NAVIGATION

Water resources engg-dams

PH &ENVIRONMENTAL
• BRANCH DEALS WITH THE PLANNING

CONSTRUCTION OPERATION AND
MAINTANENCE OF POTABLE (DRINKING )
WATER PROJECTS
• COLLECTION-TREATMENT-CONVEYANCE-
STORAGE- DISTRIBUTION OPERATIONS FOR
DRINKING WATER
• COLLECTION ,CONVEYANCE, TREATMENT AND
DISPOSAL OF LIQUID AND SOLID WASTES
FROM THE COMMUNITY/INDUSTRIES

Water supply scheme

• KITCHEN,BATH ,TOILET LIQUID WASTES
COLLECTED
• UNDERGROUND PIPE CONVEYANCE
• TREATMENT
• DISPOSAL –RECYCLING, RIVERS,DRYING BEDS
• DRY GARBAGE WASTS -COLLECTION-DISPOSAL
• AIR,WATER,LAND AND NOISE- POLLUTION
CONTROL
• ENGINEERS PLAYS ACTIVE ROLE IN PRESERVING
ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

TRASPORTATION ENGINEERING
BRANCH DEALS WITH THE PLANNING

,DESIGNING ,EXECUTION,OPERATION AND
MAINTANENCE OF PROJECTS
SUCH AS
• ROADWAY-PLAIN AND HILL ROUTES

• ,RAILWAY
• AIRPORT /RUNWAY
• TUNNEL ROUTES,BRIDGES
• WATERWAY-HARBOUR,DOCK,JETTY
• CABLE (ROPE) WAY

• ROAD PROJECT –TRAFFIC VOLUME STUDY
CARRIED OUT TO ACERTAIN THE
NUMBER/TYPE/SPEED OF VECHICLE
• DESIGN CARRIED OUT TO FINALIZE THE

REQUIRED NUMBER OF LANES,
TYPE/WIDTH/THICKNESS OF
PAVEMENT(ROAD)
• RAPID COMMUNICATION –RAPID

,ECONOMIC AND INDUSTRIAL GROWTH OF
THE COUNTRY

SURVEYING
• ART OF DETERMINING THE RELATIVE POSITION

OF ANY POINTS,ABOVE /BELOW THE EARTH
SURFACE
• DIRECT MEASUREMENTS-CHAIN ,TAPE
• INDIRECT –TRANGULATION
• INSTRUMENTS-CHAIN,COMPASS,PLANE
TABLE,LEVEL, THEODOLITE
• CARRIED OUT FOR PREPARATION OF
MAPS,MARKING THE BOUNDARIES OF
COUNTRIES,PRIVATE LANDS,REAL ESTATE
NEW LAY OUTS

ARCHITECTURE
• PLANNING WITH STANDARD SPACES INSIDE,

OUT SIDE BUILDINGS
• LIGHITING
• VENTILATION
• ACCESS &EXITS (EMERGENCY,FIRE)
• COMFORTNESS
• SAFETY
• ELEGANT APPEARANCE-ELEVATION OF
BUILDINGS

PLANNING OF BUILDINGS
• SELECTION OF SITE
• SITUATED ON ELEVETED/LEVEL GROUND
• NOT TO BE LOCATED IN FLOOD PRONE AREAS
• GOOD BEARING CAPACITY 8-15 T/SQ.M
• CLAY/SAND/GRAVEL -PREFERED SOIL TYPES
• BLACK COTTON SOIL AREA -TO BE AVOIDED
• SHOULD NOT HAVE HIGH GROUND WATER
TABLE
• RECTANGULAR/SQUARE SHAPE
• IRREGULAR SHAPE,SHARP CORNER PLOTS –
TO BE AVOIDED

• LOCATED IN THE DEVELOPED AREAS
• WITH SHOPPING,MEDICAL,POST
&TELEGRAPH,POLICE&FIRE
STATIONS,TRANSPORT FACILITIES
• WITH UTILITY SERVICES-
WATERSUPPLY,DRAINAGE,SEWAGE
DISPOSAL,GAS&ELECTRICITY SUPPLIES
• LOCATED AWAY FROM
INDUSTRIES,QUARRIES,KILNS,ODOUR AND
NOISE POLLUTION AREAS
• UN OBSTRUCTED NATURAL LIGHT AND AIR
• NOT TO BE SHADOWED BY ADJACENT
BUILDINGS
• SHOULD HAVE EASY ACCESS
• NO ENCROACHMENTS
• SHOULD NOT HAVE ANY OVERHEAD LINES
• 0WNERSHIP AND TITLE OF THE PROPERTY
SHOULD BE CLEAR WITHOUT ANY
PROBLEM
• EXISTING ROADS SHOULD BE POSSIBLY
LOCATED IN THE EAST/NORTH SIDE OF
SITE AREA

PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING
PLANNING REGULATIONS
BUILDING BYE LAWS

PLANNING PRINCIPLES
• ASPECT • CIRCULATION
• PROSPECT • SANITATION
• GROUPING • ELEGANCE
• PRIVACY • FLEXIBLITY
• FURNITURE • ECONOMY
REQUIREMENT
• ROOMINESS

OBJECTIVES
• ENSURES THE ARRANGEMENT OF DIFFERENT

COMPONENTS IN BUILDINGS PERFORM THE
DESIRED FUNCTIONS
• MAKE THE OCCUPANTS TO FEEL

COMFORTABLE,HEALTHY AND CHEERFULL
• EFFECTIVELY UTILIZE THE ENTIRE AREA

AVAILABLE WITHIN THE BUILDING
• UTILIZE MINIMUM AREA FOR MOVEMENT

BETWEEN THE ROOMS UNITS

ASPECT (ORIENTATION)
• ARRANGEMENT OF DOORS AND WINDOWS IN

THE EXTERNAL WALLS
• ENTRY OF SUN RAYS,BREEZE
• OUTSIDE SCENERY
• ENSURES COMFORT AND HYGENIC
CONDITIONS OF THE ROOMS
• HINTS - KITCHEN FACING TOWARDS EAST TO
ADMIT MORNING SUNRAYS WHICH KILLS THE
BACTERIA PRODUCED FROM LAST DAY FOOD
WASTES
• LIVING/HALL FACING TOWARDS SOUTH SIDE
ADMITS MORE BREEZE

• BED ROOMS FACING SOUTH WEST DIRECTION
MAKES THE ROOM COOL DURING SUMMER
• MORE WINDOWS TO BE PROVIDED IN SOUTH
SIDE
• ORIENTATION TO ADMIT MORE LIGHTING
THROUGH OUT THE DAY
• PROVIDES VENTILATION /AIR CIRCULATION

• Aspect principle

PROSPECT
• OCCUPANTS CAN ENJOY THE DESIRED

OUTSIDE VIEWS FROM CERTAIN ROOMS
• TREATMENT GIVEN TO MAKE ASTHETICALLY

PLEASING OUTSIDE APPEARANCE BY
ARRANGEMENT OF DOORS &WINDOWS

GROUPING
• ARRANGING VARIOUS ROOMS OF THE

BUILDING TO CARRY OUT THEIR FUNCTIONS
• KITCHEN LOCATION CLOSE TO DINING/STORES
• BEDROOM LOCATION CLOSE TO HALL/DINING
• LOCATION OF HALL AND TOILETS AWAY FROM
KITCHEN
• BED ROOM WITH ATTACHED TOILETS
• STAIR ACCESS FROM HALL ,BED,FRONT
ENTRANCE
• OTHER BUILDINGS ARE ALSO TO BE PLANNED
TO HAVE INTERRELATIONSHIP WITH INTERNAL
ROOMS ACCORDING TO INDENDED FUNCTION

• Grouping

PRIVACY
• PREVENTING THE VISION OF THE INTERIORS IN

ONE ROOM FROM OTHER ROOMS OR PARTS
• ACHIVED BY PROVIDING
SCREENS,CURTAINS,VENETION BLINDS
• PRIVACY OUTSIDE THE BUILDING IS ACHIVED BY
LAYOUT OF STREETS,APPROACH
ROADS,ENTRANCES AND PROVISION OF TREES
• IMPORTANCE GIVEN TO BEDROOMS,TOILETS
• INDEPENDENT ACCESS WITHOUT DISTURBING
OTHERS
• DOORS WITH SINGLE SHUTTER/WITH DRAPINGS
ARE DESIARABLE

FURNITURE REQUIREMENT
• DEPENDS UPON THE FUNCTION REQUIRED TO

BE PERFORMED BY THE ROOM
• SHOULD ACCOMADATE MAXIMUM NUMBER OF
PERSONS WHO CAN USE THE ROOM WITH OUT
OVER CROWDING
• FURNITURE LAYOUT IS PREPARED FOR
DIFFERENT ROOMS
• ENSURES THE PROVISION OF
DOORS,WINDOWS,CUBBOARDS,CIRCULATION
SPACES DO NOT PREVENT THE
ARRANGEMENT OF REQUIRED NUMBER OF
FURNITURES

• Furniture requirement

ROOMINESS
• DERIVES THE MAXIMUM BENEFIT FROM

MINIMUM DIMENSIONS OF THE ROOM
• PROVISIONS MADE FOR WALL
CUBBOARDS,LOFT,RCC SHELFS
• RECTANGULAR PLAN PREFERED THAN A
SQUARE PLAN
• LENGTH PROPORTIONS ARE 1.2 TO 1 .5 TIMES
THE WIDTH
• ROOM LENGTH MORE THAN 2 TIMES WIDTH IS
NOT TO BE PRACTICED

CIRCULATION
• ACCESS PROVIDED IN A ROOM OR BETWEEN

ROOMS IN THE SAME FLOOR
• HORIZONTAL CIRCULATION -PASSAGES,
LOBBIES,HALLS VERANDHAS PERFORM THE
FUNCTIONS
• VERTICAL CIRCULATIONS-
STAIRS,ESCALATORS,LIFTS,RAMPS
• AREA OF CIRCULATION MUST BE
SHORT,STRAIGHT, WELL VENTILATED AND
SUFFICIENTLY LIGHTED

SANITATION
• COVERS SANITARY CONVENIENCES OF

TOILETS,BATHROOMS.URINALS ,WASH BASINS
AND ALSO COVERS LIGHTING, VENTILATION
FACILITIES
• CONCENTRATE THE GENERAL HYGENE AND
CLEANESS OF THE PARTICULAR BUILDING
• ARTIFITIAL OR NATURAL LIGHTING
• MECHANICAL OR NATURAL VENTILATION
• AREA OF WINDOWS OF A ROOM SHOULD NOT
BE LESS THAN 1/10 TH OF FLOOR AREA OF
THAT ROOM

ELEGANCE
• EFFECT PRODUCED BYTHE ELEVATION AND

LAYOUT OF THE ROOM
• ELEVATION SHOULD HAVE PLEASING
APPEARANCE
• LAYOUT SHOULD FIT TO THE SITE CONDITIONS
, ENVIRONMENT

FLEXIBLITY
• DESIGNING ROOMS REQUIRED FOR SPECIFIC

PURPOSES SUCH THAT THEY MAY BE USED
FOR OVERLAPPING FUNCTIONS WHEN
DESIERED
• HALL CUM DINING-WITH PARTITIONS/SCREEN
• LARGE HALL CAN BE DIVIDED INTO TWO SMALL

ROOMS WITH PARTITIONS/SCREENS

ECONOMY
• IMPORTANT IN ALL PROJECT PLANNING
ACHIVED BY
• SIMPLE ELEVATIONS
• STANDARD SIZES OF VARIOUS COMPONENTS
OF BUILDING
• USING LOCAL AVAILABLE MATERIALS
• MINIMIZING ALTERATIONS,CHANGES

BUILDING BYE LAWS
• OBJECTIVES
• SERVES AS A STANDARD DOCUMENT BY THE
LOCAL BODIES
• PREVENT CONSTRUCTIONS IN A HAPHAZARD
MANNER
• LAY DOWN GUIDE LINES TO BE FOLLOWED BY
THE ENGINEERS AND ARCHITECTES
• BUILDINGS PLANNED ACCODING TO
REGULATIONS HAVE COMFORT LIVING
CONDITIONS,LIGHT AND VENTILATION,SAFETY

REGULATIONS
• DISTANCE FROM ELECTRIC LINES

• LOW VOLTAGE LINE-VERTICAL 2.5
M,HORIZONTAL 1.2 M
• HIGH VOLTAGE LINE – VERTICAL
3.5M,HORIZONTAL1.2 M
• LINE OF FRONTAGES OF BUILDINGS
• LINE PARALLEL TO THE PLOT
BOUNDARY,BEYOND THAT NO
CONSTRUCTION IS ALLOWED

LINE OF FRONTAGE
• LINE UPTO WHICH THE PLINTH OF THE

BUILDING ADJUCENT TO A STREET MAY LAW
FULLY EXTEND
• KNOWN AS SET BACK,BUILDING FRONT LINE
• FACTORIES ,CENEMAHALLS,MALLS HAVE HIGH
SET BACK
• RESIDENCE SET BACKS-4.5M FRONT,1.5 M
SIDE ,3M REAR SIDE AREAS
• SET BACKS CAN BE USED FOR PARKING AND
GARDENING

LINE OF FRONTAGE
PLOT
ROAD
BUILDING

OPEN SPACES OF A PLOT
FRONT SPACE
REQUIREMENT
7.5 M WIDE ROAD -1.5
18M ROAD-3M
18-30 M ROAD-4.5 M
ABOVE 30M-60M
REAR SPACE -3M
SIDE SPACE- 1.5-3 M

BUILT UP AREA LIMITATIONS
• BUILT UP AREA/COVERED AREA =PLOT
AREA—OPEN SPACE AREA AROUND THE
BUILDING
• FLOOR AREA RATIO =
COVERED AREA OF ALL FLOORS
PLOT AREA
RATIO OF THE COVERED AREA OF ALL
FLOORS TO THE AREA OF PLOT-TERMED AS
F.A.R OR F.S.I (FLOOR SPACE INDEX) ,
PERMISIBLE VALUE IS 1.5

• EXAMPLE PROBLEM
PLOT AREA -4000 SQ FEET
BUILT UP AREA G.FLOOR-1200 SQ FEET
F.FLOOR-1200 SQ FEET
F.S.I= ALL FLOORS BUILT UP AREA
PLOT AREA
= 2400 SQ FEET = 0.60 HENCE OK
4000 SQ FEET

• HEIGHT REGULATIONS
RESIDENTIAL ROOMS/HALL=3.0 M
TOILETS=2.10 M
PUBLIC BUILDINGS =3.60M
EXIT AREAS - FREE FROM OBSTRUCTIONS
TYPES OF EXIT AREAS -
CORRIDORS,PASSAGES
DOORWAYS,STAIRCASES
RAMPS

PARKING SPACE
CAR PARKING SPACE REQUIRED/CAR
BASEMENT=35 SQ M
STILTS =30 SQ M
OPEN =25 SQ M
FIRE PROTECTION AS PER NBC
STRUCTURAL SAFETY -DESIGNED AS PER
I .S CODES OF PRACTICES

• BUILDING SERVICES
• ELECTRICAL
• PLUMBING
• AIR CONDITIONING
• HEATING
• LIFT AND ESCALATORS

PLAN OF A RESIDENTIAL BUUILDING

CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS
STONES
QUARREY PROCESS, ROCK

CLASSIFICATIONS, TESTS
PROPERTIES , USES

MATERIALS - STONE
BASICS
• QUARRAYING PROCESS
PROCESS OF REMOVAL OF STONE
BOULDERS FROM ROCK FORMATIONS
• SOFT ROCKS- BY MANUAL -HAND TOOLS –

CROW BARS,SPADE,PICK AXE
• HARD ROCKS –BY MECHANICAL MEANS AND

BLASTING
MECHANICAL- JCB,DOZERS
,CRANES,DRILLERS
QUARRAYING
• PROCESS-
EXCAVATION,WEDGING,HEATING,BLASTING
• BLASTING –GUNPOWDER,DYNAMITE
GELATINE, GUN COTTON,DETONATORS,FUSES
25 MM DIA HOLES TO A DEPTH OF 0.6M-1M
MADE ON ROCKS
• DYNAMITE PLACED IN HOLE

DRY CLAY POWDER ALONG WITH DETONATOR
AND FUSES ARE INSERTED AND TAMPED
• IGNITED BY MATCHES, ELECTRICAL
CONNECTIONS
Quarry process

DRESSING OF STONES
• PROCESS OF CONVERTING STONE BOULDERS

INTO REQUIRED SIZE AND SHAPE FOR
CONSTRUCTION
• HAMMER DRESS
• CHISEL DRESS
• TOOLED FINISH
• PUNCHED DRESS
• SIZE – 0.30X0.20X 0.25 M FOR STONE WALLS

0.10X0.10X 1.5M FOR FENCE POSTS
0.60X1.20X0.10 M FOR SLABS
• STONE DRESSING

Dressing of stones

CLASSIFICATIONS
• 1 GEOLOGICAL
IGNEOUS ROCKS – OBTAINED BY COOLING OF

MOLTEN MATERIAL MAGMA BELOW EARTHS
SURFACE
• PLUTONIC - COOLING OF MAGMA AT DEEPER
DEPTH,SLOW COOLINC HAPPENS,COARSLY
GRAINED CRYSTALINE STRUCTURE-GRANITE
• HYPABASAL-MAGMA COOLS AT SHALLOW
DEPTH,QUICK COOLING HAPPENS,FINELY
GRAINED CRYSTALINE STRUCTURE-DOLORITE
• VOLCANIC-VERY RAPID COOLING-BASALT

• IGNEOUS ROCKS

plutonic hypabasal
valconic
EARTH CRUST
magma
IGNEOUS ROCKS

• VALCANIC ROCK HAS EXTREMELY FINE
GRAINED STRUCTURE OF FORMATION
• SEDIMENTARY- ROCKS FORMED BY

DEPOSITION OF PRODUCTS OF WEATHERING
OVER EXISTIG ROCKS
• MATERIALS CARRIED AWAY FROM THE PLACE
OF ORIGIN ( HIGH LEVEL AREA) TO THE LOWER
VALLEY AREA AND GOT DEPOSITED LAYER BY
LAYER
• WIND , RAIN WATER FLOW,SNOW /FROST
FLOW
• SAND / LIME STONES,GYPSUM,GRAVEL
• METAMORPHIC
• ROCKS OBTAINED BY IGNEOUS OR

SEDIMENTARY PROCESS
• ROCKS SUBJECTED TO HEAT FROM LOWER
AREA BY LAVA, OVER BURDEN PRESSURE
FROM UPPER AREA BY EXISTING
SEDIMENTARY LAYERS
• CHANGES THEIR CHARACTER ,PROPERTIES
SUCH AS COLOUR , TEXTURE,
STRUCTURE,GRAIN PATTERNS
• SLATE ,MARBLE GENISIS

2 PHYSICAL CLASSIFICATIONS
• STRATIFIED- HAVE PLANES OF

SRATIFICATIONS ( SPLITTINGS) .
• TENDS TO SPLIT ALONG THE PLANES WHEN
LOADED RIGHT ANGLE TO THE PLANE
• SAND /LIME STONES,GYPSUM
• UN STRATIFIED -DO NOT HAVE SPLITTING

PLANES , HOMOGENIOUS, COMPACT
STRUCTURE-GRANITE
• FOLIATED-HAVE TENDENCY TO SPLIT IN
DEFENITE DIRECTION -MARBLE, SLATE
• PHYSICAL CLASSIFICATION

• 3 CHEMICAL CLASIFICATIONS
SILICIOUS ROCKS-MAIIN CONSTITUENT IS

SILICA ( SAND) GRANITE,QUARTZITES ARE
EXAMPLES
ARGILLACEOUS –CONSTITUENT IS CLAY

( LIME STONE ,MARBLES)
CALCAREOUS –CALCIUM CORBONATE IS THE

MAIN CONSTITUENT (PURE LIME STONE )

TESTS ON STONE
THE STONES GOT FROM QUARRAYING AND

DRESSING PROCESSES HAS TO BE TESTED
FOR ITS STRENGTH, BEFORE IT IS BEING USED
IN CONSTRUCTION
• 1 IMPACT TEST
STONE SAMPLE OF SIZE 25 MMDIA,25MM HT IS
PLACED IN THE IMPACT TEST MACHINE
A LOAD OF 2KG WEIGHT IS MADE TO FALL
AXIALLY OVER THE STONE SAMPLE
INITIAL TRIAL HEIGHT OF FALL =1CM
SECOND TRIAL HEIGHT =2CM (3CM,4CM ETC)

THE HEIGHT OF FALL AT WHICH THE SAMPLE
BREAKS IS NOTED
GOOD STONE CAN TAKE 14 BLOWS MINIMUM
IMPACT STRENGTH/TOUGHNESS INDEX =14
AXIAL LOAD 2KG
Impact loading machine
stone Sample 25mm dia,25 mm ht

Impact testing machine

2 CRUSHING TEST
STONE SAMPLE CUBE SIZE =40X40X40MM
TESTED IN THE COMPRESSION TESTNG
MACHINE (CTM)
RATE OF AXIAL LOAD ON THE
CUBE=13.7N/SQ.MM
MAX LOAD AT WHICH THE STONE CRUSHES IS
NOTED
C STRENGTH= MAX LOAD AT FAILIURE (N)
AREA OF BEARING (40X40 SQ MM)

• COMPRESSION TESTING MACHINE

• ATTRITION TEST
STONE SAMPLE OF 5KG ,50-60MM SIZE

PLACED IN THE CYLINDER
CYLINDERS ARE KEPT INCLINED 30 DEG TO
HORIZOTAL AXIS
ROTATED FOR 5 HOURS ,30 RPM RATE

TAKEN OUT AND SEIVED , % RESIDUE
WEIGHED
SHOULD NOT EXEED 3% BY WEIGHT TAKEN

• HARDENESS
STONE SMPLE OF SIZE 25 MM DIA,25 MM
HEIGHT TAKEN,WEIGHED AND KEPT OVER THE
CIRCULAR PLATE /DISC
LOAD OF 1.25 KG APPLIED ON THE TOP OF
SAMPLE, DISC ROTATED FOR 1000
REVOLUTIONS ,AT 25 RPM
SAND SPRINKILED DURING THE ROTATION

WEIGHT LOSS NOTED AFTER TEST
HARDNESS= LOSS IN WT/20

GOOD STONE HARDNESS WILL BE 14
Hardness test on stones

• WATER ABSORPTION TEST
SAMPLE OF KNOWN WEIGHT TAKEN
IMMERSED IN WATER FOR 24 HOURS
TAKEN OUT, WIPED WITH CLOTH, AGAIN
WEIGHED
WATER ABSOBTION SHOULD NOT EXEED
0.60% BY WEIGHT TAKEN
• DURABLITY TEST
STONE PIECES KEPT IN HYDRO CHLORIC ACID
TAKEN OUT AND CHECKED FOR WEIGHT LOSS,
POWDER FORMATION,COLOUR & TEXTURE

QUALITIES OF GOOD STONE
• UNIFORM COLOUR
• DURABLE
• SHARP,CLEAR EDGES
• EASILY DRESSED, CUT,MOULDED, CARVED
• RESISTANT TO FIRE,SMOKE,ACID
• CRUSHING STRENGTH ABOVE 100 N/SQ MM

• SPECIFIC GRAVITY MORE THAN 2.7
• % OF WEAR LESS THAN 3
• HARDNESS 14
• TOUGHNESS INDEX 14, W ABSORBTION 0.6 %

USES OF STONE
• FOUNDATIONS ,WALLS,COLOUMNS, ROOFS

• FLOORS-MARBLE GRANITE
• ROADS
• CONCRETE
• HOLLOW BLOCKS
• RAILWAY TRACK BALLAST

• BRIDGES,DAMS
• FENCE POST
• STONE SLABES –TEMPLES, RESIDENCE
• RESTAURANT DINING TABLES

PROPERTIES
• GRANITE
IGNEOUS ROCK
QUARTS,MICA,FELSPAR COMPOSITION
SPECIFIC GRAVITY 2.6 - 2.7
C STRENGTH 77 -130 N /SQ MM
COLOUR- RED ,GREEN ,GREY,BLACK
• SAND STONE
STRATIFIED SEDIMENTARY ROCK
SAND CEMENTED WITH
ALUMINIUM,LIME,MAGNESIUM SILICATES

S GRAVITY 2.65-2.95
C STRENGTH 65 N/ SQ MM
COLOUR –WHITE,GREY,PINK
• LIME STONE
SEDIMENTARY WITH CALCIUM CARBONATE
S G 2-2.75, CS 55 N/SQ MM
COLOUR- PURE /DULL WHITE
• LATERITE
METAMORPHIC ROCK, SOFT, POROUS
S G 2.80,CS 2-3 N/SQ MM,CONTAINS IRON OXIDE

COLOUR – BROWN, YELLOW
• GENISSES
HARDEST METAMORPHIC VARIETY
S G 2.65 , C S 210 N/ SQ MM
COLOUR –BLACK, GREY
• MARBLE
COMPACT ,DURABLE METAMORPHIC VARIETY
SG 2.65, CS 72 N /SQ MM
COLOUR – WHITE ,GEREEN, RED, GREY

GRANITE

MARBLE STONE

LIME STONE
SAND STONE

LATERITE STONE

Genisses stone wall

OLDEST CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL
BRICKS
PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE
TESTS, CLASSIFICATIONS
SPECIAL TYPES

BUIDING MATERIAL- BRICKS
BASICS
• OLDEST , CHEAPEST BUILDING MATERIAL

• LOCALLY MANUFACTURED
• EASY TO LIFT,TRANSPORT
• LESS WEIGHT
• PROPERTIES BASED ON THE SOIL USED FOR

PRODUCTION
• ECONOMY
• APPLICATIONS- TEMPLES, BRIDGES,VILLAGE
HOUSES, RESIDENCES,ARCHES,DAMS

BRICK STOCK

MOULDED RAW BRICKS

COMPOSITION OF BRICK EARTH
• ALUMINA
20-30%,IMPARTS PLASTICITY,EASY
MOULDING,EXESS QUANTITY MAKES RAW
BRICKS TO SHRINK / WARP DURING DRYING
• SILICA
50-60%,IMPARTS SHAPE , PREVENTS
CRAKING,SHRINKING, WARPING OF RAW
BRICKS
• LIME
SHOULD HAVE A SMALL QUANTITY OF
LIME,PERVENTS SHRINKAGE OF RAW BRICKS
• IRON OXIDE
5-6% IS ALLOWED,IMPARTES RED COLOUR
• MAGNESIA
SMALL QUANTITY -1%,IMPARTES YELLOW
TINT, REDUCES SHRINKAGE

BRICK MANUFACTURING AREA

MANUFACTURING PROCESS
• 1 BRICK EARTH PREPERATION
TOP SOIL REMOVAL- LOOSE SOIL FOR 20CM

DEPTH REMOVED
DIGGING,SPREADING –DUG ,KEPT AS HEAP OF
SIZE 5MX3MX0.6-1.2M
CLEANING- PAPER,GLASS,HAIR,GRASS
WEATHERING –EXPOSE TO ATMOSPHER

BLENDING –MIXING CLAY WITH SAND
TEMPERING-MANUAL, MECHNICAL (PUG MILL)
CLAY MADE HOMOGENOUS, STIFF,PLASTIC,
MAKES EASY MOULDING
• MANUAL
CLAY,SAND,WATER -KNEADED UNDER THE
FEET OF MEN, CATTLE
• PUG MILL
MECHANICAL KNEADING CARRIED OUT FOR
LARGE SCALE MANUFACTURE OF BRICKS IN
MILLS
IM DIA,2M HT IRON DRUM HAS CENTRAL
VERTICAL SHAFT WITH CUTTING KNIEFS
MIX FED INTO THE DRUM AND SHAFT
ROTATED TOR GETTING PUGGED CLAY

• 2 MOULDING
GROUND MOULDING
• GROUND CLEANED ,LEVELLED
• SAND SPRINKLED
• MOULD MADE OF TIMBER OR STEEL
IMMERSED IN WATER,KEPT ON GROUND,
FILLED WITH TEMPERED CLAY AND PRESSED
BY HAND
• EXESS SCRAPPED BY STRIKES
• FROG- MARK OR DEPTH 10- 20 MM MADE BY
PALLET BOARD
• SENT FOR DRYING
MECHANICAL TEMPERING
PUG MILL

TABLE MOULDING
• MOUDING CARRIED OUT ON THE TOP OF

2X1M SIZE TABLE
MOULD, STRIKE,STOCK BOARDS,PALLET
BOARDS,WATER POTS ARE USED
• OPEN MOULD PLACED OVER PALLET BOARDS,

FILLED WITH CLAY, PRESSED ,TRANSFERRED
TO DRYING YARD

MACHINE MOULDING
• PRACTICED FOR LARGE QUANTITY BRICK

MANUFACTURING
• CYLIDRICAL DRUM WITH RECTANGULAR SLOT
FILLED WITH CLAY, PRESSED ON SIDE
• RECTANGULAR CLAY CAKES COMES OUT
THROUGH THE SLOT
• CUT BY MECHANICALLY OPERATED
HACKSAWS TO GET PERFECT SHAPE ,SHARP
EDGES,SMOOTH SURFACE

WOODEN MOULDS

Ground moulding

TABLE MOULDING

MACHINE MOULDING-WIRE CUT BRICKS PRODUCTION

• DRYING OF BRICKS
DRYED FOR A PERIOD OF 5-12 DAYS IN SHADE

STACKED IN THE YARD WITH 8-10 BRICKS
PER ROW
SHEDS WITH TILED ROOF, THATCHED

ROOFS ARE USED
DIRECT SUNLIGHT ENTRY PREVENTED

DRYING OF BRICKS

BRICK STACKING IN DRYING
PROCESS

DRYING IN SHADE

• BURNING
BURNT IN CLAMPS,KILNS
IMPARTS STRENGTH,HARDNESS,DURABLITY
CLAMP - USES WOOD ,COWDUNG GRASS

BURNING/COOLING- 45 DAYS
LOW QUALITY
KILN - USES COAL POWDER
BURNING/COOLING-7DAYS
HIGH QUALITY

CLAMP BURNING

KILN BURNING

SECTION
PLAN
PLAN
SECTION
KILN- 1 HOFFMANS 2 BULL TRENCH

TESTS
• STRUCTURE
• SOUNDNESS
• HARDNESS
• CRUSHING STRENGTH= AXIAL LOAD

AREA OF BEARING
• WATER ABSORBTION
• DROP
• SIZE

SOUNDNESS
WATER ABSORBTION

CRUSHING STRENGTH TEST

MEASURING SIZES OF BRICKS

QUALITIES OF GOOD BRICK
• UNIFORM COPPER COLOUR

• SHARP AND SQUARE EDGES
• FREE FROM CRACKS
• HARD- SHOULD NOT SHOW IMPRESSION WHEN
SCRACHED WITH FINGAR NAIL
• HOMOGENOUS,COMPACT STRUCTURE
• STANDARD SIZE-20X10X10CM,19X9X9 CM
• SHOULD NOT ABSORB WATER MORE THAN
20% BY WEIGHT
• DROPPED FLAT FROM 1M HEIGHT ,SHOULD
NOT BREAK

• CRUSHING STRENGTH SHOULD NOT BE
BELOW 5.5 N/SQ.MM
FIRST CLASS BRICK- 14 N /SQ.MM

SECOND CLASS - 7N/SQ.MM
THIRD CLASS - 5.5 N/SQ MM
• GIVE CLEAR RINGING SOUND , WHEN

STRUCK WITH EACH OTHER
• LOW THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
• SOUND PROOF

CLASSIFICATIONS
• UNBURNT
MOULDED AND DRIED IN SUNLIGHT
TEMPORARY SHED CONSTRUCTION
• BURNT
CLAMP/KILN BURNING
• FIRST CLASS
TABLE MOULDED, KILN BURNT
C.S 14 N/SQMM
SUPERIOR WORKS
SIZE 20X10X10 CM,19X9X9CM

• SECOND CLASS
GROUND MOULDED,KILN BURNT
C S- 7 N /SQ MM
BUILDINGS, FLATS USAGE
SIZE- 22X 10X7.5 CM
• THIRD CLASS
GROUND MOULDED, CLAMP BURNT
C.S- 3.5-5.5 N/SQ.MM
TEMP/UN IMPORTANT CONSTRUCTIONS
SIZE-22X10X5.5-6 CM

• FOURTH CLASS
UNDER BURNT,OVER BURNT BRICKS

IRREGULAR/BROKEN BRICKS, BATS
USED AS BRICK AGGREGATES IN

FLOORING CONCRETE,
ROOF WEATHERING COURSE

SPECIAL BRICKS
• PERFORATED
CONTAINS HOLES FOR THE FULL THICKNESS
LIGHT IN WEIGHT
HIGH HEAT/SOUND INSULATION
PANEL WALLS OF BUILDINGS(APARTMENTS)
• HOLLOW
SQURE/RECTANGULAR HOLES
BRICK SIDE THICKNESS 20-25 MM
LIGHT WEIGHT
HEAT INSULATION

• PAVING BRICKS
BETTER ABRASIVE RESISTANCE
SIZE 15X10X 2.5 CM
USED FOR FLOOR PAVING IN TEMPLE
PRAHARAMS,GODOWNS , PLATFORMS,OLD
VILLAGE HOUSES
• SAND LIME BRICKS

HARD , UNIFORM COLOUR ,TEXTURE,
FINISHING
SURFACE PLASTERING NOT REQUIRED

• PRESSED BRICKS
CLAY PRESSED UNDER A PRESSURE
OF 4 N/SQ MM
STRONG, COMPACT,SHARP EDGES
DRYING NOT REQUIRED,BURNT DIRECTLY
USED FOR HIGH QUALITY WORKS
• FIRE /REFRACTORY BRICKS

MADE FROM FIRE CLAY
WITHSTANDS HIGH TEMPERATURE
USED FOR LINING FURNACES , CHIMNEYS

• FLY ASH BRICK
• MADE WITH CEMENT , SAND AN FLYASH

MIXTURE
• MORE DENSE, WEIGHT
• COSTLIER
• PRACTICED FOR ALL TYPE OF
CONSTRUCTIONS

USES OF BRICKS
• CONSTRUCTION OF WALLS, PILLARS IN
RESIDENTAL, COMMERTIAL , INDUSTRIAL
BUILDINGS
• BRIDGE PIERS
• COMPOUND WALLS
• CHIMNEY
• SILO
• BUNKER
• FLOOR PAVING,TEMPLE PRAHARAM PAVING
• WEATHERING COURSE LAY
• ARCHES , DAMS
• TUNNELS ,SEWERS ,CANAL LINING WORKS
• BRICK APPLICATIONS

ARTIFITIAL BINDER
CEMENT
MANUFACTURE PROCESS
TESTS, GRADES,
QUALITIES ,TYPES ,USES

BINDING MATERIAL- CEMENT
• BASICS- ARTIFITIAL BINDER
ACTS AS BINDING AGENT FOR BRICKS ,

STONE, TILES
OBTAINED BY BURNING LIME STONE AND CLAY

AT HIGH TEMPERATURE
AVAILABLE IN 50 KG BAGS, COSTING

RS 400 PER BAG IN MARKET
APPLIED FOR WALLS, CONCRETE WORKS,

ROAD ,BRIDGE, DAMS CONSTRUCTIONS
BASIC VARIETIES
• PORTLAND POZZOLONAIC VARIETY-PPC,FLY

ASH BASED
• ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT –OPC 33,43,53

GRADES
• SPECIAL CEMENTS- WATER PROOF,

CORROSION / ACID RESISTANT

CONSTITUENTS
OPC /PPC
• LIME 62%- IMPARTS STRENGTH

• SILICA 22% - STRENGTH/BINDING
• ALUMINA 5% -SETTING ACTION / STRENGTH
• GYPSUM 4%- ADDITIONS INCRESE OR

DECREASE SETTING TIME
• IRON OXIDE 3%- COLOUR

• MAGNESIA 2% -COLOUR
• SULPHUR 1%- DRIVEN OUT DURING BURNING
• ALKALIES 1%- DRIVEN OUT
• MIXING RAW MATERIALS –LIME STONE, CLAY
• BURNING AT 1600 DEG – ROTARY KILN
• GRINDING TO VERY FINE POWDER

BALL MILL - 50 MM STEEL BALLS
TUBE MILL - 25 MM STEEL BALLS
• STORAGE – CONCRETE SILO
• PACKING – 50 KG BAGS AND

FORWARDING TO SITE, OUTLETS

MIXING
• DRY PROCESS
LIME STONE / CLAY CRUSHED TO 25 MM SIZE
USING JAW CRUSHERS
GROUND IN BALL MILL TO POWDER
STORED IN SILO
• WET PROCESS
LIME STONE CRUSHED STORED IN SILOS
CLAY WASHED STORED IN BASINS
DRY LIME POWDER, WET CLAY GROUND IN
BALL MILL – SLURRY FORMATION
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION CORRECTED

BURNING
• CARRIED OUT IN ROTARY KILN -3M DIA, 100 M

LENGTH
• ROTATED AT 1 RPM RATE
• KEPT WITH 1 IN 30 INCLINATION
• SLURRY INJECTED AT UPPER END

• HOT GASES INJECTED AT LOWER END
• DURING ROTATION SLURRY DECENDS,
ENTERS DRY ZONE, BURNING ZONE
• 5-10 MM RED HOT BALLS- CLINKER FORMATION

AND CLINKERS COOLED
ROTARY KILN

BALL MILL

GRINDING / STORING/ PACKING
• COOLED CLINKERS GROUND IN TUBE MILLS TO

VERY FINE POWDER
• ADDITION OF GYPSUM DURING GRINDING-4-5%
• STORED IN SILOS
• PACKED TO 50KG BAGS
• CEMENT BAGS FORWARDED TO SITE
• TEST FOR QUALITIES CARRIED OUT DURING,

AFTER PRODUCTION BEFORE APPLICATIONS

CEMENT SILOS

TESTS
• CONSISTANCY
• VICAT APPARATUS
VOLUME OF WATER TO BE ADDED TO GET A

CEMENT PASTE OF STANDARD CONSISTANCY
FOUND OUT
CONSISTANY OF CEMENT PASTE WILL
BE 33-34 %
USED TO FIND OUT THE QUANTITY OF WATER

REQUIRED FOR SETTING TIME TESTS
VICAT APPARATUS

• SETTING TIME-INITIAL
0.85 TIMES ,QUANTITY OF WATER REQUIRED
FOR CONSISTANCY
GOOD CEMENT – 30 MINUTES MAX
• FINAL SETTING TIME

CEMENT IN VICAT MOULD SHOULD NOT SHOW
IMPERESSION -600 MINUTES (10 HOURS)
• SPECIFIC GRAVITY
NOT MORE THAN 3.2

• COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
CEMENT MORTAR 1:3 CUBES OF SIZE
7.06X7.06X7.06CM CASTED
TESTED IN CTM
C STRENGTH= MAX LOAD/ BEARING AREA
• GRADES
33 GRADE CEMENT – 33 N/ SQ MM MINIMUM
43 GRADE – 43 N / SQ MM
53 GRADE – 53 N / SQ MM

• FINENESS
KNOWN WEIGHT TAKEN, SEIVED IN IS SIEVES
WEIGHT RETAINED SHOULD NOT BE MORE
THAN 10 %
• SOUNDNESS- LE CHATELIER APPARATUS

MAX EXPANSION OF NEEDLE 10MM

LE CHATELIER MOULD

QUALITIES/ PROPERTIES
• UNIFORM COLOUR
• SHOULD SINK IF THROWN IN A BUCKET OF
WATER
• FREE FROM LUMPS
• FEEL COOL IF TOUCHED
• COMP STRENGTH 43 N/ SQ MM FOR 43 GRADE

• LOSS IN IGNITION SHOULD NOT BE MORE
THAN 4%
• EXPANSION IN LE CHATELIER NOT MORE THAN
10MM
• INITIAL SETTING TIME 30 MINUTES

• FINAL SETTING TIME 10 HOURS
• ALUMINATO IRON OXIDE RATIO , NOT BE LESS
THAN 0.66%
• SULPHUR CONTENT , NOT MORE THAN 2.75 %

• WEIGHT OF MAGNESIA SHOULD NOT
EXEED 5%

TYPES
• QUICK SETTING
• LOW HEAT
• HIGH ALUMINA
• EXPANDING
• RAPID HARDENING
• ACID RESISTANT
• WHITE
• COLOURED
• SULPHATE RESISTANT

• QUICK SETTING
QUANTITY OF GYPSUM REDUCED
ALUMINIUM SULPHATE ADDED
FINE GRINDING
UNDER WATER CONCRETING WORK USAGE
• LOW HEAT
TRICALSIUM ALUMINATE,DICALCIUM SILICATE
ADDITIONS
REDUCES HEAT GENERATIONS
DAMS ,BRIDGES,HUGE VOLUME CONCRETE
WORKS

• HIGH ALUMINA
GRINDING CLINKERS FORMED BY BURINING
LIME AND BAUXITE
INITIAL SETTING TIME 3-4 HOURS
CORROSION / ACID RESSISTING PROPERTY
• EXPANDING
SULPHO ALUMINATE ADDED
CRACK REPAIR WORKS
EXPANDS ON ADDITION OF WATER
OTHER CEMENT SHINKS

• RAPID HARDENING
INCREASED LIME CONTENT
HIGH TEMPERATURE BURNING
ATTAIN HIGH STRENGTH IN SHORT PERIODS
• ACID RESISTANT
QUARTZ, SODIUM SILICATE, SODIUM
FLUOSILICATE ADDITIONS
CHEMICAL LABS,INDUSTRIAL USAGE
• SULPHATE RESISTANT
UPTO 5% OF TRICALCIUM ALUMINATE
ADDITIONS
HAS RESISTING POWER AGAINST SULPHATE
ATTACK
• WHITE CEMENT
FREE FROM COLOURING INGREDIENTS
WHITE COLOUR
BURNT BY OIL FIRE
FOOOR /WALL TILES LAYING ,WHITE/ COLOUR
WASHING WORKS
COSTILIER
70 KG BAG COSTS RS 900

• COLOURED CEMENT
COBALT-BLUE
CHROMIUM OXIDE –GREEN
IRON OXIDE – BROWN
USED IN MANUFACTURE OF TILES,FLOOR

FINISHING WORKS

MORTARS & AGGREGATES
BASICS
TYPES
TESTS, USES

MORTARS
BASICS
• USED FOR BONDING OF BUILDING UNITS

BRICKS, STONES, TILES
• COVER THE EXPOSED STONE MASONRYAND
BRICK MASONRY WALLS BY APPLICATION OF
PLASTERING AND POINTING WORKS
• IMPARTS STRENGTH TO THE MASORY

STRUCTURES
• PROTECT THE STRUCTURES FROM
WEATHERING AGENTS

TYPES OF MORTARS
• CEMENT
• LIME
• MUD
• SURKHI
• GAUGED
• SPECIAL

CEMENT MORTAR (C M)
• MIXTURE OF CEMENT, SAND OR M –

SAND,WATER
• MIX RATIOS - 1:5 BRICK WALLS

1:8 STONE WALLS
1:4 PARTITION – BRICK WALLS
1:5 WALL PLASTER ,15 MM TH
1:3 CEILING PLASTER,12 MM TH
1:2,1:3 POINTING STONE WALLS

• MIXING CARRIED OUT BY MANUAL,
MECHANICAL
• USED FOR - WALL CONSTRUCTIONS

WALL PLASTERING
FLOOR FINISHING
STONE POINTING
• TESTS - COMP STRENGTH ( M CUBES)

TENSILE STRENGTH

LIME MORTAR
• MIXTURE OF LIME ,SAND ,WATER

• USED FOR WALL
CONSTRUCTION,PLASTERING,POINTING
• LIME STONES SLAKED –MAKING POWDER
• MIXED WITH SAND

• GROUND IN MILLS TO PREPARE MORTAR
• USED FOR WORKS
• MIX RATIOS – 1:3 ,1:2 1:4

• FAT LIME / HYDRAULIC LIME USAGE
TESTS ON LIME MORTAR
• CHEMICAL COMPOSITION- CALCIUM

CARBONATE CONTENT SHOULD BE 90-95 %

BULLOCK DRIVEN
MORTAR MIX MILL

PREPARED LIME MORTAR

MUD MORTAR
• USED FOR VILLAGE HOUSES, TEMPORARY

SHEDS
• MIX CONSISTS OF PREPARED CLAY,
SAND ,WATER
• WALL CONNSTRUCTION ,PLASTERING

• RATIOS 3:1,2:1
• MIXED WITH COWDUNG TO DRIVE OUT

INSECTS

SPECIAL MORTARS
• GAUGED
PREPARED WITH LIME,CEMENT,SAND ,WATER
• GYPSUM MORTAR
PREPARED WITH CEMENT, SAND,GYPSUM
POWDER
HAS GOOD BINDING PROPERTY
PLASTER OF PARIS PRODUCTION
• FIRE RESISTANT MORTAR

PREPARED WITH ALUMINOUS CEMENT,FINELY
GROUND FIRE BRICKS- FURNACE LINING
AGGREGATES
• FINE
SAND, MANUFACTURED SAND, SURKHI POWDER
PASS THROUGH 4.75 MM SEIVE,RETAINED ON
0.07MM SEIVE
USED TO PREPARE MORTARS, CONCRETE
• COARSE
CRUSHED STONE AGGREGATES, BRICKS BATS,
PASS THROUGH 75MM MESH, RETAINED ON 4.75
MM MESH

M SAND
• MANUFACTURED SAND – FINE AGG

• STONE CRUSHED TO FORM FINE POWDER
• STONE DUST POWDER REPLACES SAND

• USED TO PREPARE MORTAR, CONCRETE
• LESS COSTLIER THAN RIVER SAND

• SAND- RS 60/CFT, M SAND RS 40/CFT
• TESTS- COMP STRENGTH (MORTAR

CUBES, CONCRETE CUBES)

TESTS ON FINE AGGREGATE
• FINENESS MODULAS
SAND SEIVED IN SET OF 4.75

MM,2,36MM,1.18MM,600,300,150 MICRON
SEIVES
% RETAINES IN EACH SEIVE NOTED

GRAPH PLOTED
F M SHOULD NOT EXEED 3.2%

TEST ON COARSE AGG
• ABRATION
• HARDNESS
• FLAKYNESS
• WATER ABSORBTION
• IMPACT

CEMENT CONCRETE-
PLAIN/ REINFORCED
PROPORTION OF MIXES
GRADES, TESTS
TYPES

CEMENT CONCRETE
BASICS
• STRONG AND DURABLE MATERIAL

• MOULDED TO ANY SHAPE IN FRESH STATE
• HARDENEND STATE IT HAS HIGH COMPRSSIVE

STRENGTH
• DOES NOT LOOSE ITS STRENGTH WITH AGE
• CAN BE MADE FIRE PROOF, WATER PROOF

• MIXTURE OF CEMENT, FINE&COARSE
AGGREGATES, WATER

CONSTITUENTS
• CEMENT – OPC /PPC/SPECIAL VARIETIES
• FINE AGGREGATES
PASS THROUGH 4.75 MM MESH,RETAINED IN
0.07 MM MESH
RIVER SAND, SURKHI POWDER
• COARSE AGGREGATES
PASS THROUGH 75 MM MESH,RETAINED IN
4.75 MM MESH
CRUSHED STONES,BROKEN BRICKS
• WATER
USED FOR MIXING CONCRETE
WATER CEMENT RATIO
• RATIO OF WEIGHT OF WATER USED TO THAT

OF WEIGHT OF CEMET
• DESIERED STRENGTH AND WORKABLITY OF
THE MIX OBTAINED
• LOWER W/C RATIO =HIGHER STRENGTH

LESS WORKABLITY
• HIGHER W/C RATIO= LESS STRENGTH
EASILY WORKABLE
• GENERALLY 0.45-0.50 TIMES THE WT OF

CEMENT PRACTICED
MIX -WATER REQUIREMENT
• FOR 1 BAG CEMENT(50 KG)
50 KGX 0.50
=25 KG ( 1KG =1 LITRE)
= 25 LITRES
THUS , FOR MAKING CONCRETE MIX WITH 1

BAG OF CEMENT, 25 LITRES OF WATER
REQUIRED

WORKABLITY OF CONCRETE
• EASENESS WITH WHICH THE CONCRETE CAN

MIXED
LIFTED
TRASPORTED
PLACED IN POSITION
• CONCRETE REMAINS HOMOGENIOUS

• WET CONCRETE MORE WORKABLE –LOWER
STRENGTH
• DRY CONCRETE LESS WORKABLE- HIGHER

STRENGTH

MIX PROPORTIONS
• M 15 - 1:2: 4
• M 20 - 1:1.5:3
• M STANDS FOR MIX, 15 DEFINES THE

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
CUBE OF SIZE 15X15X15 CM , AFTER 28 DAYS
CURING EQUALS 15 N / SQ MM
• HERE 1= 1 BAG CEMENT (50 KG)

2= SAND 50 X2 , 100 KG
4 = COARSE AGGREGATES
(STONE JELLY 40MMSIZE)
50X4=200KG
CONCRETE GRADES
• M 5 - 1:5:10 , FLOORING ,FOUNDATION WORKS

• M 7 - 1:4:8
• M 10 – 1:3:6
• M 15 – 1:2:4 , COLOUMNS,BEAMS ,SLABS

• M 20 – 1:1.5:3
• M 25 - 1:1: 2 , HIGH RISE BUILDINGS ,ROADS
• M 30 – DESIGN MIX,BRIDGES, TUNNELS,

HEAVY COLOUMNS
• M40,M60 – BRIDGE PIERS ,INDUSTRIAL

APPLICATIONS
TESTS
• FRESH STATE
SLUMP TEST
COMPACTION FACTOR
• HARDENEND STATE
DESTRUCTIVE – COMP STRENGTH
TENSILE STRENGTH
NON DESTRUCTIVE – REBOUND HAMMER
PULSE VELOCITY

FRESH CONCRETE TEST
• SLUMP CONE
• MEASURE OF WORKABLITY
• WATER REQUIREMENT FOR MIX
• CONE OF HEIGHT 30 CM,BOTTOM DIA
20CM,TOP DIA 10 CM FILLED WITH CONCRETE
• TAMPING CONCRETE CARRIED OUT WITH

TAMPING BARS
• GRADUALLY CONE REMOVED
• SLIDING OF CONCRETE HAPPENS
• HEIGHT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SLIDED
CONCRETE AND CONE MEASURED
FIELD SLUMP TEST

• SLUMP VALUE WILL EQUALS DIFF IN HEIGHT
• NORMAL CONCRETE 80-150MM
• ROADS 20-40MM
• MASS CONCRETE WORKS 25- 50 MM

DESTRUCTIVE TESTS
• CUBES OF SIZE 15 X15X15CM CASTED

• WATER CURED FOR 28 DAYS
• TAKEN OUT, TESTED IN C T MACHINE ON

7,14,28 DAYS
• C STRENGTH = MAX LOAD / BEARING AREA
• C STRENGTH FOR M 20 GRADE CONCRETE

SHOULD NOT BE LESS THAN 20 N /SQ MM

CASTING OF CUBES

• TENSILE STRENGTH
• CONCRETE CYLINDER OF 30 CM LENGTH, 25

CM DIA CASTED
• COMP LOAD APPLIED ACROSS THE DIAMETER
CYLINDER SPLITS AND FAILS
TENSILE STRENGTH = 2p
3.14 l d
p=LOAD, l =CY LENGTH , d= CY DIA IN MM
T STRENGTH = 10-12 % OF CUBE COMP

STRENGTH

NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTS
• REBOUND HAMMER
• SPRING CONTROLLED HAMMER MASS SLIDES

ON A PLUNGER WITHIN TUBULAR HOUSING
• PLUNGER ROTATES AGAINST A SPRING, IF
PRESSED ON CONCRETE SURFACE
• THIS CAUSES THE RELEASE OF

SPRING,MAKING THE HAMMER MASS TO
REBOUND
• REBOUNDING HAMMER MOVES A NEEDLE

• NEEDLE MOVEMENT INDICATE THE R B NO
TEST ING EXISTING COLOUMN

• ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY
• TIME OF TRAVEL OF ELECTRONICALLY

GENERATED PULSES MEASURED
• PULSES PASSED AT ONE END SURFACE

(TRASDUCER PROBE),RECEIVED AT OTHER
END (RECEIVER PROBE)
• VELOCITY OF PULSE = LENGTH / TIME

• 5 KM/SEC -30 TO 35 N/SQ MM,GOOD QUALITY
• BELOW 3- 15 TO 20 N/ SQ MM MEDIUM QUALITY

TESTING COLOUMN BY SENDING ULTROSONIC PULSES

CONCRETE MANUFACTURE
STAGES OF PRODUCTION
• BATCHING - VOLUME ,WEIGHT

M15- 50KG CEMET,100KG SAND
200 KG JELLY
• MIXING – HAND MIX, MACHINE MIX
• TRANSPORTING – MORTAR PAN,ROPE WAY,

TROLLEY, PUMPING
• PLACING – WITH OUT CONC SEGGREGATION
• COMPACTING – VIBATORS, TAMP RODS

• CURING – SURFACE KEPT WET FOR 15 DAYS
TYPES OF CONCRETE
• PLAIN CEMENT (PCC)

CEMENT, SAND, AGG ,WATER MIX
PLACED WITH OUT STEEL RODS
USED FOR FLOORING, FOUNDATION BASE
CONCRETE WORKS ( M5,7,10)
• REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE (RCC)

STEEL RODS TIED AND PLACED
HIGH TENSILE/ COMP STRENGTH
USED FOR COLOUMN,BEAM, SLABS ,ROADS,
BRIDGES,TUNNELS

PRE STRESSED CONCRETE
• HIGH TENSILE STEEL WIRES USED
• PRE TENSION CARRIED OUT BY APPLYING
JACK FORCE (PULLING WIRES)BEFORE
CONCRETING
• POST TENSION CARRIED OUT BY JACKS AFTER

CONCRETING
• SAVES STEEL/CONCRETE UPTO 50 %

COMPARED TO RCC
• APPLICATIONS - BRIDGE DECKS, METRO RAIL
PIERS&DECKS,HIGH RISE BUILDINGS
• LIGHT WEIGHT
PREPARED WITH LIGHT WEIGHT AGGREGATES
DENSITY 500 – 1800 KG/ M 3 CUBIC METER
VERMICULATE, CINDERS,FLYASH ADDITIONS
PANEL WALLS OF FLATS, BUILDINGS
• NO FINES
FINE AGGREGATE USAGE ELIMINATED
CONTAINS CEMENT , 3-6MM JELLY,WATER
INDUSTRIAL FLOORINGS

• PRE CAST
CASTED IN GROUND ,LIFTED,PLACED IN
POSITION
SAVES TIME
RAILWAY SLEEPERS, SHELF SLABS,
BEAMS,SLABS
• FIBRE REINFORCED –FRC

ASBESTOS,GLASS,NYLON ,COCONUT FIBERS
USED INSTEAD OF STEEL
• WATER PROOF
W P AGENTS ACCOPROOF,IMPERMO ADDED
MATERIAL - STEEL
PROPERTIES,USES,
HEAT TREATMENTS
TESTS, GRADES

STEEL
• BASICS
METALS – FERROUS - CONSTITUENT IRON

NON FERROUS – ALUMINIUM
TIN ,BRASS ,ZINC
STEEL – IRON &CARBON ALLOY

OBTAINED BY CALCINING IRON ORE
IRON ORE – PURIFIED TO PIG IRON
PIG IRON - PURIFIED TO WROUGHT
IRON, CAST IRON, STEEL

PROCESS
• IMPURE PIG, MELTED IN BESSEMER

CONVERTER ,IMPURITIES REMOVED, FORMS
CAST IRON
• FURTHER MELTED TO REMOVE IMPURITIES TO

GET STEEL
• FURTHER PURIFIED TO GET WROUGHT IRON

• WROUHT –CARBON UPTO 0.15%
FIBROUS NATURE ,USED FOR BEAM
RESISTS TENSILE STRESSES
• STEEL –CARBON 0.25-1.5 %
STRONG IN COMP, TENSION
• CAST IRON – CARBON 2-4%
GRANULAR
TAKE UP COMP STRESS
USED FOR STEEL COLOUMN
STEEL ADOPTED FOR BOTH BEAMS ,
COLOUMNS
• OXIDATION OF
IMPURITIES(SILICON,PHOSPHORUS,SULPHUR,
MANGANESE , CARBON )IS CARRIED OUT FOR
MOLTEN PIG IRON ,IN THE BESSEMER
CONVERTER FURNACE

VARIETIES
• MILD STEEL
CARBON CONTENT 0.10 -0.25%
USED IN MAKING REINFORCEMENT ( RODS)
FOR CONCRETE WORKS
SHEET METAL,MOTOR BODY,MACHINE PARTS
TUBES,WIRES MANUFACTURE
• MEDIUM CARBON
CARBON 0.25-0.60 %
HAMMER ,RAIL LINES, STRUCTURAL STEEL –
BEAMS,COLOUMNS,DIES

• HIGH CARBON STEEL
CARBON O.6- 0.15 %
SLEDGE HAMMERS,METAL CUTTING TOOLS

CHISELS, AXES MANUFACTURE
DRILLING BITS
DIES, KNIFES, FORKS

PROPERTIES
• MILD STEEL ( LOW CARBON)
FIBROUS
MAGNETISED PERMANENTLY
MALLEABLE
DUCTILE
FORGED
WELDED
SPECIFIC GRAVITY 7.8
MELTING POINT 14000C
COMP 8-12 T/CM2 ,TENSILE 6-8 T/ CM2

• HIGH CARBON STEEL
GRANULER
MAGNETISED
FORGED, WELDED
ELASTIC THAN MILD STEEL
HARDENED,TEMPERED
SPECIFIC GRAVITY 7.9
MELTING 13000 C
COMP 14 – 20 T /CM2, TENSILE 8-10 T/CM2

HEAT TREATMENT
• APPLIED TO ALTER THE PROPERTY OF STEEL

• HARDENING
STEEL HEATED TO 600 DEG C,COOLED BY
IMMERSING IN WATER, MAKE STEEL HARD
• CASE HARDENING
HEATED,KEPT IN CARBON MIXTURE
INNER CORE SOFT, OUTER SURFACE HARD
• TEMPERING
HEATED TO 600 DEG C, IMMERSED IN WATER;
HEATED, COOLED IN AIR
MAKES STEEL STRONG AND TOUGH
• ANEALING
STEEL HEATED TO 3000 C
COOLED IN AIR
MAKES STEEL SOFT , IT CAN BE WORKED
EASILY
• NITRIDING
HEATED, SATURATED IN AMMONIA MIXTURE

MAKE STEEL RESISTANT TO CORROTION

COMMERCIAL FORMS
• ROUND BARS
AVAILABLE IN 8,12,16,20, 25, 32 MM DIAMETERS
COL, BEAM,SLAB STEEL MESH
• SQUARE BARS
SQ RODS 6 – 32 MM SIZE AVAILABLE
GRILL WORKS – WINDOW, COMPOUND GATES
• PLATES
SIZE 25X6, 50X 6, 100X6 MM SIZES
STEEL DOORS , WINDOW FABRICATION
JOINTING MEMBERS

STEEL SECTIONS

STEEL BOX (TUBULAR) SECTIONS

STEEL PIPE SECTIONS

• ANGLE SECTIONS
ISA 50X50X6 , 75X50X6MM SIZES
GRILL WORKS –GRILL DOOR, WINDOW
• I , CHANNEL, TEE SECTIONS

ISMB ,ISLB,ISHB- 200,300
ISMC,ISLC,ISHC -200,300 SIZES
USED FOR STEEL BEAMS , COLOUMNS
• TOR STEEL
ROUND BARS PROVIDED WITH RIBS , FOR
BOND BETWEEN STEELAND CONCRETE

TESTS
TENSILE TEST
• STEEL RODS CLAMPED IN TENSION TESTNG

MACHINE
• AXIAL PULL APPLIED
MAX TENSILE LOAD AT FAILIURE TAKEN
• TENSILE STRENGTH= MAX LOAD
AREA OF CROSS SEC
FOR Fe 500 – STEEL RODS WILL TAKE
500 N / MM2
A GRAPH PLOT MADE TO INDICATE STRESS-
STRAIN CURVE

GRADES OF STEEL
• RTS BARS
• HYSD BARS-HIGH YIELD STRENGTH
DEFORMED BARS
• Fe 500 – YEILD STRENGTH 500 N / MM2

• Fe 415
• Fe 230, 190 - PLAIN BARS
• TOR 40
• TOR 50
• TMT BARS – THERMO MECHANICALLY
TREATED BARS
TIMBER – WOOD
(STANDING, ROUGH , SIZED)
STRUCTURE,SEASONING
PROPERTIES ,USES
INDUSTRIAL / COMMERTIAL FORMS

TIMBER (WOOD)
BASICS
• FORM OF WOOD USED FOR ENGINEERING
PURPOSES
• OBTAINED FROM TREES

• TREES TRUNK, BRANCHES CUT, MADE INTO
REQUIRED SIZES
• SESONED
• USED FOR MAKING DOORS,
WINDOWS,FURNITURE,SPORTS
GOODS,RAILWAY WAGONS,BOATS,MATCHES

VARIETIES
• STANDING TIMBER
• ROUGH
• SIZED
• GOT FROM TEAK, ROSE WOOD, VENGAI,

MARUTHU, NEEM, MANGO,JAGG,POOVARASU
TREES

CLASSIFICATION OF TREES
• ENDOGENOUS
GROWS BY FORMATION OF LAYERS OF NEW
WOOD CROSSING AND PENETRATING FIBRES
OF WOOD ALREADY FORMED
GROWS INWARD
BAMBOO, PALM ( PANAI),COCONUT TREES
• EXOGENOUS
GROWS OUTWARD BY ADDITION OF RINGS
CROSS SECTION SHOWS CONCENTRIC RINGS
STRONG ,HARD, USED IN ENGG WORKS

• SUB DIVISION OF EXOGENOUS TREES
• CONIFERS
YEILD SOFT WOOD
CONE SHAPED FRUIT, SMALL LEAFS
WHITE IN COLOUR
PINE, DEODAR, SILVER OAK
• DESIDUOUS
BROAD LEAF,DARK COLOUR
YEILDS HARD WOOD
TEAK, SAL, ROSE WOOD, PADACK

STRUCTURE
EXOGENOUS TREE – CROSS SECTION
• PITH – INNERMOST PORTION, CELL TISSUES

• HEART WOOD – INNER ANNUAL RINGS
STRONG, DURABLE PORTION
• SAP WOOD – YELLOW IN COLOUR, PRESENCE

OF MOISTURE
• CAMBIUM LAYER – RING SORROUNDS SAP
• BARK - OUTERMOST LAYER , SKIN
• MEDULLARY RAYS –THIN RADIAL FIBERS

EXTENDS FROM PITH
STRUCTURE-CROSS SECTIONAL VIEW

SEASONING OF TIMBER
• PROCESS OF REDUCING MOISTURE FROM

TIMBER
• FRESHLY CUT TIMBER CONTAINS MOISTURE
• ATTACKED BY INSECTS, FUNGUS

• MOISTURE CONTENT REDUCED TO 10 – 12 %BY
WEIGHT
• SEASONED IN WATER, AIR, KILN

• UTILIZED IN CONSTRUCTION

METHODS OF SEASONING
• NATURAL / AIR
SAWN WOOD STACKED WITH SPACE FOR AIR
CIRCULATION FOR 6 M0NTHS T0 ONE YEAR
SLOW , CHEAP SIMPLE METHOD
• WATER
WOOD LOGS BUNDLED, FLOATED IN RIVER
WATER FOR 2 – 3 WEEKS
TAKEN OUT KEPT IN AIR TO DRY
• BOILING
KEPT IN BOILING WATER FOR 3-4 HOURS
TAKEN OUT , AIR DRIED
• ELECTRICAL
CURRENT PASSED THROUGH TIMBER LOG
FOR HEATING AND DRYING, COSTLIER
PLY WOOD MANUFACTURE
• CHEMICAL
SOAKED IN SATURATED SALT SOLUTION
REMOVED, SESONED IN AIR
• KILN
STACKED IN KILNS , HEATED TO 40 – 90 DEG C
FOR 12 DAYS, PRACTICED IN TIMBER MILLS

PROPERTIES
• YELLOW , WHITE, BROWN COLOUR

• SPECIFIC GRAVITY 0.3 – 0.9 ( LESS THAN
WATER)
• 10- 12 % MAX MOISTURE

• STRAIGHT GRAINS
• HIGH DENSITY – 400 TO 600 KG / M3
• C STRENGTH 30 - 40 N / MM2
• T STRENGTH 2-3 N / MM2
• WITHOUT DEFECTS –KNOTS SHAKES

USES
• DOOR , WINDOWS, WARDROPES

• CONCRETE FORM WORK
• FURNITURES
• AGRICULTURAL TOOLS
• SPORTS GOODS
• MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
• TOYS
• MATCHES
• BOATS
• ROOFING MATERIALS
INDUSTRIAL TIMBER
• PREPARED ARTIFITIALLY IN FACTORIES
• VENEER
THIN SHEET OF WOOD 0.4 -6 MM
THICK,OBTAINED BY ROTATING WOOD
AGAINST A ROTARY CUTTER /KNIFE
• PLYWOOD
BOARDS OBTAINED BY GLUEING VENEER
SHEETS PLACED ONE OVER OTHER
DIRCTION OF GRAINS PLACED RIGHT ANGLE
TO EACH SHEETS
7 -14 KG / SQ CM PRESSURE APPLIED
COMMERTIAL FORMS
• BATTEN BOARDS
WOODEN BATTENS PROVIDED AS CORE, PLY
COVER PROVIDED ON BOTH FACES OF
BOARDS ,USED FOR DOOR SHUTTERS
• LAMINATED BOARDS
CORE MADE OF MULTI PLY VENEERS
• FIBRE BOARDS
WOOD,CANE PIECES FILLED IN A VESSEL
STEAM UNDER PRESSURE ADMITTED
RELEASED SUDDENLY TO EXPLODE

• EXPLOTION MAKES WOOD FIBRES TO
SEPARATE FROM GUMS
FIBRES COLLECTED, CLEANED
PRESSED IN DIES TO GET SHEETS, BOARDS

OF 12,18 MM THICK
USED FOR PARTITION WORKS, CUBOARD

WORKS

TESTS
• COMP STRENGTH
• TENSILE STRENGTH

PLY WOOD

LAMIN BOARDS

WOOD LOGS- ROUGH TIMBER

SIZED WOOD

1 Civil Basics, Functions of Civil Engineer, Branches, Site Selection 121021-Converted-Combined

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1 Civil Basics, Functions of Civil Engineer, Branches, Site Selection 121021-Converted-Combined

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UNIT 1

FUNCTION OF CIVIL ENGINEER

Progress Through Quality Education

• CIVIL ENGINEERS ROLE /FUNCTIONS

• CIVIL ENGINEERING BRANCHES

• SELECTION OF SITE FOR CONSTRUCTION

• PLANNING THE PROJECTS –PRINCIPLES,

Progress Through Quality Education

• PROPERTIES /TYPES /USES

Progress Through Quality Education

• CIVIL ENGINEERING EXECUTIONS PROVIDES SAFE

• SHELTER – NEED OF A COMMON MAN –

• INITIAL CONSTRUCTION- CAVES,HUTS WITH

• PALM ,COCONUT,CASURINA ,TEAK RAFTERS WITH

Progress Through Quality Education

• WOODEN JOISTS WITH MADRAS TERRACED

• STONE/BRICK WALLS WITH CONCRETE

• RCC COLOUMN/BEAMS /ROOFS WITH

Progress Through Quality Education

Progress Through Quality Education

Progress Through Quality Education

TO BE PERFORMED BEFORE CONSTRUCTION

PERFORMED DURING CONSTRUCTION

Progress Through Quality Education

Progress Through Quality Education

Progress Through Quality Education

Sandy soil Water depth 200feet

Progress Through Quality Education

• MINIMUM CUTTING ,FILLING,BLASTING

• SHOULD NOT HAVE TUNNELS

• MINIMUM NUMBER OF RIVER BRIDGES,OVER

• SHOULD NOT PASS THROUGH RELIGIOUS

• SHOULD CONNECT TOWNS, VILLAGES

Progress Through Quality Education

Progress Through Quality Education

• PROJECT SITE WHICH SEEMS TO BE

• PLANS ARE PREPARED /DRAWN ACCORDING

Progress Through Quality Education

• SOIL CHARECTERS ARE STUDIED TO FIND THE LOAD

Progress Through Quality Education

• SOIL STRENGTH REPORT

• ACCORDING TO SOIL STRENGTH FOOTINGS

• NUMBER OF FLOORS ,TYPE OF FOUNDATION

• LOCATIONS AND SPACING OF COLOUMNS ARE

Progress Through Quality Education

• SIZE AND LOCATION ,SPACING OF

• DIMENSIONS AND CAPACITIES OF

• COMPONENTS DESIGNED FOR STRUCTURAL

Progress Through Quality Education

Progress Through Quality Education

• DETAILED WORKING DRAWINGS REQUIRED

• ACCORDING TO THE PREPARED DRAWINGS,

Progress Through Quality Education

Progress Through Quality Education

• CARRIED OUT FOR CONTINIOUS, EFFICIENT

• INCREASES THE LIFE OF THE STRUCTURES

Progress Through Quality Education

• CARRIED OUT FOR NEW INVENTIONS AND

• PRESENT RESEARCH WORK INSTITUTES -

• FINDINGS ARE PROPACATED, APPLIED IN

Progress Through Quality Education

• GEOTECHNICAL- SOIL MECHANICS