11 Substructure Foundations 151121 Converted Merged

FOUNDATIONS
(SHALLOW & DEEP)
FUNCTIONS
BEARING CAPACITY,TYPES-
FOOTINGS /PILES/CAISSONS
Progress Through Quality Education

SUB STRUCTURE-FOUNDATIONS
BASICS
• LOWEST PART OF ARTIFITIALLY PREPARED/

CONSTRUCTED STRUCTURES
• DIRECTLY RESTS ON GROUND
• RECEIVES THE LOADS FROM

SUPERSTRUCTURE AND TRASMITS SAFELY TO
THE GROUND

FUNCTIONS OF FOUNDATION
• DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS
• MINIMIZING DIFFRENTIAL SETTLEMENT
• PROVIDING LEVEL SURFACE FOR BEGINNING

CONSTRUCTION
• SAFETY AGAINST OVERTURNING

• SAFETY AGAINST UNDER MINING
• SAFETY AGAINST EARTHQUAKE MOVEMENTS

BEARING CAPACITY OF SOILS
• BEARING POWER OF SOILS TO WITHSTAND

LOADINGS
• USUALLY IN T/M2
• 1MX1M AREA OF GROUND SUPPORTS HOW
MUCH LOAD
• MAXIMUM LOAD THAT THE SOIL CAN SUPPORT
SAFELY IN T/SQ M,WITHOUT
FAILIURE/SETTLEMENT
• SAFE BEARING CAPACITY
SBC = MAX BEARING CAPACITY
FACTOR OF SAFETY (2 OR 3 )

METHODS OF IMPROVING B
CAPACITY
• INCREASING THE DEPTH OF FOUNDATIONS

• SUB –SOIL WATER DRAINING
• COMPACTION OF SOIL
• CEMENT GROUTING
• CHEMICAL APPLICATION- SILICATE GEL

• CONFINING SOIL –SHEET PILES
• SBC OF SOILS PER SQ M – CLAY 8-10 T
SAND 10-15 T
GRAVEL 12- 18 T
ROCKS 15- 30 T
TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS
• SHALLOW
DEPTH OF FOUNDATION IS EQUAL TO OR LESS
THAN THE WIDTH
ALL OPEN EXCAVATIONS MADE UPTO STRATA
ADOPTED FOR RESIDENTIAL, FLATS
COMPOUND WALLS , G +1 BUILDINGS
• DEEP
DEPTH OF FOUNDATION MORE THAN WIDTH
BEARING STRATUM AVAILABLE AT DEEPER
DEPTH ( HIGH RISE BUILDINGS, BRIDGES)
PILE / CAISSON -WELLS

SHALLOW TYPES
• WALL FOOTING ( LOAD BEARING STRUCTURE)
• FRAMED STRUCTURE
ISOLATED FOOTING
COMBAINED
CONTINIOUS – STRIP
CANTILEVER
RAFT
• COMPOUND WALLS
STEPPED

• WALL FOOTINGS
CONSISTS CONCRETE BASE MAT
STEPPED FOOTINGS – BELOW G L
BASEMENT/ PLINTH – ABOVE G L
DISTRIBUTE WALL LOADS
• ISOLATED FOOTING
CONCRETE SQUARE SPREAD, PROVIDED
BELOW EACH COLOUMNS TO DISTRIBUTE
LOADS OVER LARGE AREA

TYPE OF FOOTINGS

• COMBAINED FOOTING
COMBAINES THE BASES OF TWO COLOUMNS
HAVING UN EVEN LOADINGS
• STRIP
PROVIDED TO SUPPORT NUMBER OF
COLOUMNS IN A ROW
• CANTILEVER
TRNSFERS THE OUTER COLOUMN LOAD TO
INNER COLOUMN
• RAFT - SLAB PROVIDED AS BASE ,SUPPORTS
THE WHOLE BUILDING
• STEPPED FOOTING
PROVIDED FOR SLOPPING GROUND TERRAIN

DEEP FOUNDATION TYPES
PILES - NECCESSITY OF APPLICATION
• LOADS TRANSFERED FROM STRUCTURE IS

HEAVY
• DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS UNEVEN
• HIGH WATER TABLE

• SEA SHORE/ RIVER BANK CONSTRUCTIONS
• WHEN DEEP EXCAVATIONS LIKELY TO BE

EXECUTED IN LATER STAGE( SEWER, CANALS)

PILE CLASSIFICATIONS
BASED ON FUNCTION
• END BEARING
• FRICTION
• COMPACTION
• SHEET
• BATTER
• UNDER REAMED

• END BEARING
PENETRATE THROUGH SOFT SOILS, RESTS ON
HARD STRATA
• FRICTION
DRIVEN UPTO A DEPTH THAT THE
FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE DEVELOPED EQUALS
LOAD ON THE PILE
• COMPACTION – DUMMY
DO NOT CARRY LOADS, DRIVEN TO COMPACT
THE LOOSE SOIL MASS

• SHEET
STEEL SHEETS DRIVEN INTO SOIL FOR
CONFINING SOIL MASS , REDUCES SEEPAGE
• BATTER
PROVIDES LATERAL SUPPORT TO MAIN PILE
• UNDER REAMED
ADOPTED FOR BLACK COTTON SOILS
REAMS ( BULBS) PROVIDED BELOW G L FOR
ANCHORING THE PILES AGAINST SOIL
MOVEMENTS DUE TO TEMPERATURE
VARIATIONS
BASED ON MATERIALS
• CONCRETE PILES
CAST IN SITU – CASED/UNCASED
PRECAST
• TIMBER
• STEEL
• COMPOSITES

• CONCRETE PILES
BORED PILES – BORE HOLE MADE ON SOIL

STEEL CAGE INSERTED
CONCRETE POUR MADE
CASTED AT SITE
DRIVEN PILES – CONCRETE PILE CASTED

IN INDUSTRIES( PRE CAST)
BROUGHT TO SITE
DRIVEN IN GROUND BY
PILE DRIVER MACHINE

• PRE CAST PILES – SHAPES & SIZES
30 -50 CM DIA, 15-18 M LENGTH ,PROVIDED

WITH CONICAL IRON SHOE AT BOTTOM

• TIMBER PILES
DIA 15 – 20 CM , LENGTH NOT MORE THAN
20 TIMES TOP WIDTH
• STEEL PILES
STEEL PIPES ,TUBES, I SECTIONS DRIVEN
INTO GROUND TO SUPPORT LOADS
• COMPOSITE
COMBINES TIMBER AND CONCRETE, STEEL
AND CONCRETE

WELLFOUNDATIONS ( CAISSONS)
• PROVIDED FOR BRIDGE PIERS SUPPORT

• CIRCULAR CONCRETE RINGS PLACED ON THE
RIVER BEDS
• MADE TO SINK BY INNER AREA DREDGING

• SUNK UPTO HARD STRATA
• INNER HOLLOW PORTION FILLED WITH RIVER
SAND
• CONCRETE CAP PROVIDED

• BRIDGE PIER CONSTRUCTED OVER IT
SUPER STRUCTURE COMPONENTS
- BRICK MASONRY
BASICS,TERMS USED
BONDS,
CONSTRUCTION

SUPER STRUCTURE
BASIC COMPONENTS
• WALLS CONSTRUCTED WITH BRICK , STONE

MASONRY (LOAD BEARING )
• COLOUMNS
• LINTELS, SUNSHADE
• BEAMS
• FLOORS/ROOFS
• STAIRS, LIFTS,RAMPS – VERTIVAL MOVEMENT

PROVISIONS IN SUPER STRUCTURE
• DOORS
• WINDOWS
• DAMP PROOF COURSE ( DPC)
• WEATHER PROOF COURSE ( WPC)
VARIOUS LEVELS OF REFERENCES

• PLINTH – BASEMENT TOP
• SILL – WINDOW BOTTOM
• LINTEL –WINDOW TOP
• ROOF , PARAPET

WALLS – BRICK MASONRY
BASICS – BRICK MASONRY CONSTRUCTIONS
• BRICK UNITS BONDED TOGETHER WITH

MORTAR FOR WALL CONSTRUCTIONS
• WALLS WILL BE 1 BRICK TH – 23 CM,1/2 BRICK
TH – 12 CM
• MORTAR LAYER APPLIED WITH TROWEL
( KOLURU, KARANAI) BY MASONS
• BRICKS (SOAKED IN WATER) PLACED OVER

MORTAR LAYER WITH FROG FACING UPWARDS
• JOINTS PACKED WITH MORTAR , NEXT LAYER
OF MORTAR APPLIED
TYPE OFBRICKS & MORTARS
• TRADITIONAL BRICKS
DO NOT HAVE STANDARD SIZES (COUNTRY)
• MODULAR BRICKS
HAVE STANDARD SIZES ( FIRST CLASS)
• MORTARS
CEMENT
LIME
MUD
GAUGED

BRICK MASONRY – TERMS
• COURSE – HORIZONTAL LAYER OF MASONRY

• HEADER- LENGTH OF BRICK PERPENDICULAR
TO WALL
• STRETCHER- LENGTH OF BRICK PARALLEL TO

WALL
• HEADER COURSE , STRETCHER COURSE
• BOND - INTERLOCKING ARRANGEMENT OF

BRICKS CARRIED OUT TO AVOID FORMATION
OF VERTICAL JOINTS
• LAP – HORIZONTAL DISTANCE BETWEEN
VERTICAL JOINTS OF SUCCESSIVE COURSES
• QUEEN CLOSER – PORTION OBTAINED BY
CUTTING BRICK, LENGTH WISE INTO TWO
• KING CLOSER- OBTAINED BY CUTTING BRICK ,

HALF THE HEADER, HALF THE STRETCHER
• CLOSER – BRICK PORTIONS
• QUOIN – EXTERNAL ANGLE ON THE FACE OF

WALL ( RIGHT 90 DEG, OBTUSE 120 DEG)
• BAT – OBTAINED BY CUTTING BRICK ACCROSS

WIDTH ( ¼,1/2,3/4 BATS USED)
BONDS IN B MASONRY
• STRETCHER BOND
BRICK WALL CONSTRCTED USING STRECHERS

ONLY
PRACTICED FOR PARTITIONS ( ½ BRICK WALL)
12CM THICK WALLS

• HEADER BOND
BRICKS LAID USING STRETCHERS ONLY

1 BRICK TH, CURVED WALL CONSTRUCTIONS
OPEN WELLS, ARCHES WORKS

• ENGLISH BOND
STRONG BONDING
PRACTICED ALL OVER INDIA
ALTERNATE COURSES OF HEADERS,
STRETCHERS ARRANGEMENT
QUEEN CLOSER PLACED TO BREAK VERTICAL

JOINT CONTINUITY IN EACH HEADER COURSE
ALTERNATE HEADERS PLACED CENTRALLY
OVER A STRETCHER
ADOPTED FOR ALL WALL THICKNESSES
(1 ,1.5,2,2.5, 3)
• FLEMISH BONDING
A COURSE CONSISTS ALTERNATE HEADERS

AND STRETCHERS
GOOD APPEARANCE ( ELEVATION)
EACH HEADER CENTALLY SUPPORTED WITH
STRETCHER BELOW IT
QUEEN CLOSER PLACED TO BREAK VERTICAL

JOINT CONTINUITY IN ALTERNATE COURSES
PRACTICED FOR POSH BUNGALOW , HILLY
TERRAIN BUILDINGS
FOREIGN COUNTRY RESIDENCES
• RAKING BOND
BRICKS KEPT WITH 45 DEG INCLINATION

RAKER COURSE PROVIDED BETWEEN TWO
STRETCHERS
COMPOUND WALL CONSTRUCTION,
DIAGONAL – BRICKS LAID DIAGONALLY

HERRING BONE – BRICKS LAID WITH 45 DEG
INCLINATION
ZIG ZAG - LAID IN ZIG ZAG FASHION
TEMPLE, VERANDHA FLOOR PAVING

• GARDEN WALL BOND
G W ENGISH –HEADER COURSE PROVIDED
AFTER 3 TO 5 STRETCHER COURSES
PRACTICED FOR GARDEN/ COMPOUND WALLS

• GARDEN WALL FLEMISH
EACH COURSE CONSISTS ONE HEADER, 3TO 5

STRETCHERS

POINTS TO BE OBSERVED
• BRICKS SOAKED IN WATER BEFORE USE

• PROPER BONDING SHOULD BE ADOPTED
• FROG SHOULD POINT UPWARDS
• MINIMUM BATS USAGE

• RAISED UNIFORMLY FOR FULL LENGTH OF
WALL
• 1M HEIGHT OF CONSTRUCTION IS RESTRICTED

FOR A DAY PROGRESS
• HORIZONDAL LEVEL CHECKED BY LEVEL TUBE
• VERTICALITY CHECKED BY STRAIGHT EDGE

• GOOD MORTAR PROPORTION( CM1:5,1:6 )
ADOPTED
• QUALITY BRICKS USAGE
• TOOTHING, RECCESSING PROVIDED FOR

PARTITION WALL CONSTRUCTIONS
• SINGLE SCAFFOLDING ERRECTED FOR

CONSTRUCTION OF WALLS ABOVE 1.5 M
• WALL KEPT WET FOR ONE WEEK AFTER

CONSTRUCTION

COMPARISON
• ENGLISH BOND • FLEMISH BOND

ALTERNATE COURSE CONSISTS
HEADER, HEADER,
STRETCHER STRETCHER
COURSES SKILLED MASONS
SKILLED MASONS REQUIRED
NOT REQUIRED MORE MORTAR
LESS MORTAR REQUIRED
REQUIREMENT WEEK WALLS
STRONG THICKER MORE APPEARENCE
WALLS
STRETCHER BOND

BRICK WALL CONSTRUCTION USING CEMENT MORTAR

QUOIN VIEW- FLEMISH BONDING

RAKER BOND

STRETCHER BONDED PARTITION WALL

BRICK WALL CONSTRUCTED WITH MUD MORTAR

STONE MASONRY -
RUBBLE & ASHLAR
TERMS, CLASSIFICATIONS
CONSTRUCTION - POINTS
COMPARISON WITH BM

STONE MASONRY
BASICS
• STONE UNITS BONDED TOGETHER WITH

MORTAR
• MORTAR LAYER LAID (CM 1:6,1:8)
• DRESSED STONES RANDOMLY PLACED OVER
MORTAR LAYER
• SPALLS ( SMALL STONE PIECES) USED FOR

FILLING THE GAPS OF STONE WALL
• MORTAR WITH MORE CONSISTANCY POURED
TO FILL JOINTS /INNER GAPS IN THE COURSE

• COURSE HEIGHT WILL BE 25- 30 CM
• STONE SIZES WILL BE 30X20X25 CM APPROX
• THROUGH STONES ( STONE SIZE EQUALS FULL
WALL THICKNESS) PLACED AT 2M C/C IN EACH
COURSE FOR MORE BONDING
• MINIMUM THICKNESS OF WALLS WILL BE 45 CM

• LAYER BY LAYER WALL RAISED UPTO ROOF
HEIGHT
• POINTING( CM 1:3) WILL BE CARRIED OUT FOR

FINISHING THE JOINTS ON BOTH FACES
• WALL KEPT WET FOR MIN 1 WEEK
TERMS USED
• LACING COURSE
• SPALL
• BEDS
• THROUGH STONE
• COURSED
• UNCOURSED

S M CLASSIFICATIONS
RUBBLE MASONRY
• RANDOM RUBBLE
COURSED,UNCOURSED
• SQUARE RUBBLE
COURSED, UN COURSED
• POLYGONAL RUBBLE
• FLINT
• DRY

ASHLAR MASONRY
• ASHLAR FINE
• ROUGH TOOLED
• ROCK / QUARRAY FACED

• CHAMFERED
• BLOCK IN COURSE

RUBBLE MASONRY
• STONES OF IRREGULAR SIZES , SHAPES USED

• STONES OBTAINED FROM QURRAY SITES ,
ROUGHLY DRESSED BY HAMMER AND PLACED
OVER MORTAR LAYER
• RANDOM RUBBLE
IRREGULAR SIZE / SHAPED STONES USED,
CM 1:8 PRACTICED
STONES RANDOMLY ARRANGED IN COURES

IRRESPECTIVE OF SIZE/ SHAPE
SPALLS FILLED , MORTAR POURED, NEXT
LAYER OF MORTAR APPLIED
• COURSED RANDOM RUBBLE
COURSES OF 25 – 30 CM CARRIED OUT , WITH

SPALLS & T STONE USAGE AT 2M C/C

• UNCOURSED RANDOM RUBBLE
COURSES NOT MAINTAINED

LARGE STONE , SMALL STONES , SPALLS
USED

• SQUARE RUBBLE
STONES WITH STRAIGHT BEDS AND SIDES
USED
MORE LOAD DISTRIBUTION / APPEARENCE

• POLYGONAL RUBBLE
HAMMER DRESSED STONES ARRANGED TO
FORM POLYGONAL PATTERN
COMPOND WALL APPEARENCE

• FLINT RUBBLE
FLINT / COBBLE STONES USED

IRREGULARLY SHAPED NODULES OF SILICA
BROWN COLOURED, EXTREMELY HARD
STONES
VILLAGE HOUSES, COMPOUNDS

CONSTRUCTIONS
LACING COURSE PROVIDED AFTER 5-6

COURSES TO DISTRIBUTE LOADS UNIFORMLY

• DRY RUBBLE
NON LOAD BEARING WALLS
MORTARS NOT USED
STONES INTERLOCKED TO FORM WALLS
GARDEN/AGRI FIELD FENCING TO PREVENT
ANIMAL ENTRY

ASHLAR MASONRY
• FINELY CHESEL DRESSED STONES USED

• IRREGULAR STONES NOT USED
• ALL STONES HAVE SQUARE OR RECTANGULAR
SHAPES, SHARP /CLEAR EDGES,CORNERS
• TEMPLES ,FORTS, MONUMENTS , POSH
BUNGALOWS USAGE

• ASHLAR FINE
EACH STONE CUT TO UNIFORM SIZE,SHAPE

DRESSED WITH CHISEL, PUNCH TO MAKE
STONES OF RECTANGULAR SIDES
CM 1:3 , LM 1:2 USED
MAX THICKNESS OF 6MM ADOPTED FOR

JOINTS
MAXIMUM LOAD DISTRIBUTION
PLEASING APPEARANCE
PERFECT HORIZONDAL, VERTICAL JOINTS
• ROUGH TOOLED
BEDS, SIDES OF STONES FINELY CHISEL
DRESSED
FACE MADE ROUGH BY TOOLS
25 MM WIDE CHISEL STRIP PROVIDED ON
PERIMETER OF EACH STONE,ON THE
ELEVATION FACE
• QUARRAY FACED
25 MM CHISEL STRIP MADE ON PERIMETER OF
EACH STONES
FACE REMAINING PORTIONS UNDRESSED

• CHAMFERED
CHISEL STRIP PROVIDED
STRIP CHAMFERED/ BEVELLED AT AN ANGLE
OF 45 DEG USING CHISEL,TO A DEPTH OF
25 MM
• BLOCK –IN- COURSE

COMBINATION OF RUBBLE AND ASHLAR
MASONRY
FACE/ ELEVATION SIDE HAS ASHLAR, BACKING
MADE WITH RUBBLE TO REDUCE COST ,
IMPROOVE APPEARENCE

POINTS TO BE OBSERVED
• STRONG ,HARD ,DURABLE STONES TO BE

USED
• QUALITY MORTAR USAGE
• STONES WATERED BEFORE USAGE

• LAID ON NATURAL BEDS
• WALL UNIFORMLY RAISED FOR FULL LENGTH
• PROPER BOND MAINTAINED
• DRESSED PROPERLY
• DOUBLE SCAFFOLDING ADOPTED
• MINIMUM SPALL USAGE

• THROUGH STONES PLACED AT 2MC/C , IN
EACH AND EVERY COURSES
• JOINTS POINTED ( NOT PLASTERED) WITH
QUALITY MORTAR
• WALL KEPT WET FOR MIN 1 WEEK DURATION

COMPARISON BETWEEN SM &BM
• STONE MASONRY
MORE COST
DIFFICULT TO LIFT STONES
MORE QUANTITY OF MORTAR REQUIRED
STRONG
THINNER WALLS CAN NOT BE CONSTRUCTED
MOISTURE RESISTANT
ACID, SMOKE RESISTANT

CAN NOT RESISTS HEAT/ FIRE LOAD
MORE LIFE, MASSIVE APPEARENCE

• BRICK MASONRY
LESS COST
BRICKS EASILY LIFTED , TRANSPORTED
ALL MORTARS CAN BE USED
PARTITION WALLS CAN BE CONSTRUCTED

WEAKER THAN STONE MASONRY
SINGLE SCAFFOLDING USED
FIRE RESISTANT
NON WATER RESISTANTWATER PENETRATION
OCCURS

• REDUCED LIFE
• PLASTERED/ COLOUR WASHED WALLS GIVE

MORE APPEARANCE

ASHLAR FINE

POLYGONAL RUBBLE

ASHLAR ROUGH TOOLED
ASHLAR FINE

UNCOURSED SQ RUBBLE

DRY
RUBBLE

SUPER STRUCTURE-
STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
COLOUMNS, BEAMS
LINTELS,SLABS

COLOUMNS
BASICS
• STRUCTURAL MEMBER WHICH TAKES
COMPRESSIVE LOADS
• VERTICAL LOAD CARRYING MEMBER
• CONCRETE COLOUMNS ADOPTED IN FRAMED

STRUCTURE CONSTRUCTIONS
• ROOF LOADS TRANSFERED TO BEAMS, BEAM
LOADS TRANSFERED TO COLOUMNS WHICH
DISTRIBUTE LOADS SAFELY TO GROUND
• TIMBER , STEEL, BRICK / STONE MASONRY

TYPES WILL ALSO BE PRACTICED
CLASSIFICATIONS
• SHORT COLUMNS
EFFECTIVE LENGTH < OR = 12

LEAST LATERAL DIMENSIONS
3M / 0.30M = 10
IT IS SHORT 0.30 M
COLUMN
0.60M
3M
ELEVATION
PLAN
• LONG COLOUMNS
• FAILURE OF COLOUMNS DEPENDS ON LENGTH
EFFECTIVE LENGTH > 12

LEAST LATERAL DIMENSIONS
LENGTH 4M
LEAST DIMENSIONS 0.30M
4M/0.30M = 13.33 HENCE LONG COLOUMN

• MAX LOAD TAKEN BY MATERIAL STRENGTH,
CROSS SECTIONAL DIMENSIONS IN SHORT
COLOUMNS
SHORT COLOUMN RESISTANT TO BUCKLING
• SLENDERNESS ( BUCKLING )INFLUENCED IN

LONG COLOUMN
• ADDITIONAL BENDING PRODUCED IN LONG

COLOUMN

TYPES OF COLOUMNS
BASED ON MATERIALS
• REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE TYPE
CAST IN SITU OR PRECAST
SQUARE / RECTANGULAR/ CIRCULAR SHAPES

VERTICAL STEEL 12 -32MM DIA
LATERAL STEEL 8-10MM DIA

M20 –M40 CONCRETE GRADE

• STEEL COLOUMNS
STEEL- I , TEE , CHANEL SECTIONS, PIPES
MAKE COLOUMNS
RAIWAY PLATFORMS, FOOT OVER BRIDGES,
INDUSTRIAL , PARKING, PORTICO USAGES
• TIMBER
WOOD VERTICALS WITH CONICAL IRON SHOE
USED
TEMPORARY SHEDS , VILLAGE HOUSES, COW
SHEDS USAGE

BEAMS
BASICS
• HORIZONTAL LOAD CARRYING STRUCTURAL

MEMBER
• TAKE TENSILE LOADS
• RECEIVES LOADS FROM ROOF SLABS, WALLS ,
TRANSFERS TO COLOUMN/ WALLS BELOW
• ADOPTED IN LOAD BEARING, FRAMED

STRUCTURES
• R C CONCRETE, STEEL, TIMBER BEAMS
PRACTICED

TERMS
• SPAN
• CLEAR SPAN
• EFFECTIVE SPAN
• BENDING MOMENT
• SHEARING FORCES
• POINT LOAD
• UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD

CLASSIFICATIONS
• SIMPLY SUPPORTED
• FIXED
• CANTILEVER
• OVER HANGING
• CONTINIOUS

• SIMPLY SUPPORTED
ENDS OF BEAMS FREELY SUPPORTED ON
WALLS / COLOUMNS
MOMENTS NOT INDUCED IN SUPPORTS
RESIDENTIAL BUILDING USAGE

• FIXED BEAM
BOTH ENDS OF BEAMS RIGIDLY FIXED IN
WALLS/COLOUMNS
MOMENTS ARE INDUCED AT SUPPORTS
FRAMED STRUCTURE – FLATS, HIGH RISE
BUILDINGS

• CANTILEVER BEAM
FIXED AT ONE END, FREE AT OTHER END
MOMENT INDUCED IN FIXED END ONLY
PORTICOS, PARKING SHEDS USAGE

• OVER HANGING
ROOF BEAM RESTING ON TWO COLOUMNS
EXTENDED BEYOND SUPPORTS

• CONTINIOUS BEAMS
BEAM SUPPORTED ON MORE THAN TWO
SUPPORTS

• STEEL BEAMS
STELL I SECTIONS PROVIDED AS BEAMS
RAILWAY BRIDGES, BUILDINGS ,OLD
BUNGALOWS HAVE S BEAMS
• TIMBER BEAMS
OLD TILE HOUSES HAVE TIMBER COLOUMNS,
BEAMS MADE BY TEAK WOOD

LINTELS
BASICS
• HORIZONTAL MEMBER PROVIDED OVER

OPENINGS - DOORS/ WINDOWS VENTILATORS
• WIDTH OF LINTEL EQUALS WIDTH OF WALL
• LENGTH = LENGTH OF OPENING+ 2 WALL
THICKNESS
• BEARING = 10CM MIN,HEIGHT OF LINTEL,

1/10 SPAN OF LINTEL
• RC CONCRETE, STEEL, WOOD ,STONE, BRICK
LINTELS PRACTICED

CLASSIFICATIONS
• TIMBER LINTELS
USED IN HILLY AREAS
GOOD QUALITY TEAKS, KONGU, MARUTHU,
VENGAI WOODS USED
PRESERVATIVES APPLIED
• STONE LINTALS
CUT STONES EQUAL TO WIDTH OF WALLS
USED WITH ADEQUATE BEARING
MINIMUM 10CM THICK
TEMPLES , VILLAGE HOUSES USAGE

• BRICK LINTELS
USED FOR OPENINGS NOT EXEEDING 1.20 M
DEPTH VARIES FROM 10-20 CM
TEMPORARY SUPPORTS ERECTED
• STEEL LINTELS
PROVIDED FOR LARGE OPENINGS, HEAVY
LOADS
STEEL I SEC , CHANEL SECTIONS ( R S J)
USED

• RCC LINTELS
ADOPTED FOR SPANS FROM 1.2M TO 2.20M

PRECASTED, LIFTED, PLACED ABOVE
OPENING
FORM WORK ERRECTED,STEEL PLACED,

CONCRETED IN SITU
M15, M20 GRADES PRACTICED

RCC ROOF SLABS
BASICS
• RCC SLABS SUPPORTED BY WALLS

• SUPPORTED BY BEAMS, COLOUMNS
• FORM WORK ERECTED
• STEEL REINFORCEMENT FABRICATED

• CONCRETE POURED
• FORM DESHUTTERED
• PLASTERED/FINISHED
• ROOM OCCUPIED

TYPES OF RCC SLABS
• ONE WAY SIMPLY SUPPORTED

• TWO WAY SIMPLY SUPPORTED
• ONE WAY CONTINIOUS

• TWO WAY CONTINIOUS

• ONE WAY SIMPLY SUPPORTED
REST OVER ALROUND WALLS OR BEAM AND
COLOMNS
SMALL SPANS
IF RATIO OF LENGTH OF ROOM TO ITS WIDTH
GREATER THAN 1.5 , KNOWN AS ONE WAY

• TWO WAY SIMPLY SUPPORTED
RATIO OF LENGTH TO WIDTH OF ROOM LESS
THAN 1.5
RESTS ON ALROUND WALLS SIMPLY

ONE WAY CONTINIOUS
• CONTINIOUS OVER NUMBER OF SPANS

• ADOPTED FOR HALLS WITH MORE LENGH
• BEAMS ARE PROVIDED TO SUPPORT SLAB

• BEAMS AND SLABS CASTED MONOLITHICALLY
• LONGER/ SHOTER CONTINIOUS SPAN RATIO

MORE THAN 1.5

TWO WAY CONTINIOUS
• LONGER /SHOTER CONTINIOUS SPANS RATIO
LESS THAN 1.5
• ADOPTED IN APARTMENT, FLATS
CONSTRUCTIONS

STEEL COLOUMN /BEAMS

STEEL REINFORCEMENT FOR BEAMS AND COLOUMN

LINTELS

SITE SLAB CONCRETING WORK

DOORS AND WINDOWS
(COMPONENTS & TYPES)
SUPERSTRUCTURE PROVISIONS
FOR ACCESS AND AIR
CIRCULATION

DOORS
BASICS
• OPENABLE BARIER PROVIDED IN WALLS FOR
ACCESS
• CONNECTS VARIOUS INTERNAL ROOMS
• CONSISTS FRAME AND SHUTTER

• FRAME FIXED IN WALLS BY HOLD FASTS
• SHUTTER FIXED TO FRAME BY HINGES
• MADE OF WOOD, METAL, PLASTIC,

COMPOSITES
• SIZE OF MAIN DOOR - 1.0X2.10M,
INTERNAL-0.9X2.1M , TOILET – 0.75X 2.0 M
• NUMBER OF DOORS IN A ROOM/ BUILDING
SHOULD BE KEPT MINIMUM
• PERFERABLY LOCATED NEAR THE CORNER OF
ROOM
• SHOULD BE LOCATED MINUMUM 20 CM FROM

THE CORNER , FOR MAKING DOOR SHUTTERS
TO TOUCH THE WALL FACE

TERMS USED IN DOORS
• FRAME - ASSEMBLY OF HORIZONTAL AND

VERTICAL MEMBERS
• SHUTTER – OPENABLE PARTS
• RAILS- HORIZONTAL MEMBERS OF SHUTTER

(TOP, MIDDLE, BOTTOM RAILS)
• STYLE- VERTICAL MEMBERS OF SHUTTER
(HANGING, MEETING STYLES)
• HOLD FAST- STEEL FLATS FOR FRAME FIXING

• PANEL – AREA BETWEEN STYLES AND RAILS
CLOSED BY WOOD BOARDS

TYPES OF DOORS
PANELLED DOOR
• COMMONLY ADOPTED IN ALL TYPES OF

BUILDINGS ( FRONT/ REAR DOORS)
• CONSISTS OF FRAME,SHUTTERS OF SINGLE/

DOUBLE LEAFS
• RAILS,STYLES, PANELS
• SIZES – FRAME 80X 100 MM

RAILS ,STYLES 100X 25MM
WOOD PANELS 12- 20MM
SIX PANELLED DOOR

FLUSH DOOR
• ADOPTED FOR INTERNAL DOORS (BED/STUDY)

• CONSISTS STYLE,RAILS, VERTICAL WOODEN
RIBS CORE
• COVERED ON EITHER SIDE WITH

PLYWOOD/VENEER SHEETS
• WOODEN RIBS LAMINATED WITH ADHESIVES

TO FORM CORE PANEL

FLUSH DOOR

GLAZED DOOR
• FULLY / PARTLY GLAZED

• GLASSES FIXED BETWEEN STYLE/ RAILS
LOUVERD DOOR
• SHUTTERS PROVIDED WITH LOUVERS FULLY/

PARTLY
• LOUVERS ARE ARRANGED WITH INCLINATIONS
SUCH THAT DIRECT VISION OBSTRUCTED
,FREE AIR MOVEMENT CREATED

REVOLVING DOOR
• HAVE CENTRL SUPPORTING SHAFT, 4 RADIAL
SHUTTERS
• PROVIDES ENTRY TO ONE PERSON / EXIT TO
ONE PERSON ON REVOLUTION
SWING DOORS
• CONSISTS DOUBLE ACTING SPRINGS

• NEED GENTLE PUSHFOR OPENING,RETURN TO
ORIGINAL POSITION DUE TO SPRING ACTION
SLIDING DOOR
• CONSISTS ROLLERS FOR SLIDING ON GROOVE

COLLAPSIBLE GATE / DOOR
• CONSISTS VERTICAL DOUBLE CHANNELS

• CONNECTED WITH STEEL FLATS
• MOUNTED ON RAILS ,SLIDES ON ROLLERS
• ADDITIONAL SAFETY DOORS OF BANKS,

JEWELLERY SHOPS
ROLLING SHUTTERS
• CONSITS GUIDE FRAME, TOP DRUM WITH
CENTRAL SHAFT,SPRINGS
• SHUTTERS OF THIN STEEL PLATES I-1.25 MM
THICK
WINDOWS
BASICS
• VENTED BARIER PROVIDED IN WALL OPENINGS
• CONSISTS FRAME AND SHUTTER
• FRAME FIXED IN WALL WITH HOID FASTS
• SHUTTERS FIXED WITH FRAME USING HINGES
• PROVIDED FOR LIGHTING AND VENTILATION

• MADE OF WOOD, STEEL, COMPOSITES
• LOCATED FACING DOOR OR ANOTHER
WINDOW
• SILL OF WINDOW SHOULD BE MINIMUM 80 CM
HEIGHT

• AREA OF WINDOWS OPENINGS SHOULD BE 10-
20 % FLOOR AREA OF ROOM
• GLASS PANEL AREA WILL BE 8-10 % OF FLOOR

AREA

TERMS
• MULLION – VERTICAL MEMBER OF FRAME

PROVIDED TO SUB DIVIDE WINDOW
VERTICALLY
• TRANSOM – HORIZONTAL MEMBER IN FRAME

TO SUBDIVIDE WINDOW HORIZONTALLY
• STYLE
• RAIL
• PANEL
• HOLD FAST

TYPES OF WINDOWS
• PANALLED
GLASS/ WOOD PANELS PROVIDED BETWEEN
STYLE/RAIL
• DOUBLE HUNG
SHUTTERS ARRANGED ONE ABOVE OTHER ,
SLIDES VERTICALLY ON WITHIN THE GROOVES
METAL WEIGHTS CONNECTED TO EACH
SHUTTER
PULLED FOR VERTICAL MOVEMENT

• PIVOTED
SHUTTERS ALLOWED TO SWING ROUND THE
PIVOT
• SLIDING
• LOUVERED
• BAY
PROJECTED BEYOND THE WALLS OF ROOM
• GABLE WINDOW
WINDOW PROVIDED IN GABLE ENDS OF
SLOPED ROOF
• DORMER
PROVIDED IN THE SLOPED ROOFS
KEPT VERTICAL PARALLEL TO WALLS
• LATERN LIGHT
PROVIDED IN SLOPED ROOFS
KEPT PARALLEL TO ROOF

PANELLED DOOR
Single leaf, double panel

FLUSH DOORS

SLIDING
DOOR

SWING DOOR

LOUVERED DOOR

COLLAPSIBLE GATE

ROLLING SHUTTER

SLIDING DOOR

GLAZED /
CASEMENT
WINDOW

DORMER

GABLE WINDOW

BAY WINDOW

LATERN LIGHT

STAIRS
(STEPS, FLIGHT, LANDINGS)
SIZE REQUIREMENTS,TERMS
CLASSIFICATIONS

STAIRS
BASICS
• SET OF STEPS PROVIDED FOR ACENDING,
DECENDING BETWEEN FLOORS
• CONSTRUCTED IN THE CENTAL HALL AREA OF
BUNGALOWS
• PROVIDED IN ENTRANCE AREA IN PUBLIC

BUILDINGS
• MORE THAN ONE STAIR SHOULD BE PROVIDED
IN BIG BUILDINGS FOR EMERGENCY ESCAPE
• TIMBER, STEEL , CONCRETE, BRICK ,STONE

STAIRS PRACTICED
TERMS
• TREAD- UPPER HORIZONTAL PORTION OF

STEP
• RISE –VERTICAL PORTION OF STEP
• FLIGHT –SERIES OF STEPS BETWEEN

LANDINGS
• LANDING- LEVEL PLATFORM AT TOP AND

BOTTOM OF FLIGHT BETWEEN FLOORS
• PITCH – ANGLE OF FLIGHT WITH HORIZONTAL

REQUIREMENTS
• EASY ACCESS LOCATION

• WELL VENTILATED, LIGHTED
• WIDTH –RESIDENCE 1M
PUBLIC BUILDINGS- 1.5-2M
• NO OF STEPS MAX 12, MIN 3
• PITCH 30 - 45 DEG MAX
• STEPS – RISE 15 CM FOR RESIDENCE

10 CM FOR HOSPITALS
TREAD 25 CM RESIDENCE
30 CM PUBLIC BUILDINGS
CLASSIFICATIONS
• STRAIGHT (FLIGHT) STAIRS

RUNS STRAIGHT BETWEEN TWO FLOORS
SINGLE FLIGHT, TWO FLIGHTS WITH LINTEL
LEVEL LANDING
PRACTICED IN RESIDENCES

TURNING STAIRS
• QUARTER TURN STAIRS
TURNS LEFT OR RIGHT DIRECTION WITH TWO

FLIGHTS &ONE QUARTER SPACE LANDING

HALF TURN
• DOG LEGGED STAIR
180 DEG DIRECTION CHANGE

CONSISTS TWO FLIGHTS, ONE HALF SPACE
LANDING FOR REACHING ANOTHER FLOOR
OPEN WELL, GEOMENTRICAL ARE THE TYPES

PRACTICED

• OPEN WELL STAIRS
CONSISTS OPEN WELL BETWEEN FLIGHTS,
LANDINGS
WELL AREA UTILIZED FOR LIFT PROVISIONS

• BIFURCATED
USED FOR PUBLIC BUILDINGS ,CENEMA
THEATORS, AUDITORIAMS
WIDER FIRST FLIGHT, TWO BIFURCATED
NARROW FILIGHTS TURNING RIGHT, LEFT

• CONTINIOUS- CIRCULAR , SPIRAL, HELICAL
ADOPTED IN BUILDINGS WHERE LIMITATION

OF SPACE REQUIRED
WATER TANKS , DOUBLE DECKER BUSES,
SERVICE STAIRS OF HOTELS USAGE

MATERIAL CLASSIFICATION
• TIMBER STAIRS
• STONE
• CONCRETE
• STEEL
• BRICKS

DOG LEGGED

OPEN WELL

BIFURCATED

SPIRAL/ GEOMENTRICAL QUARTER TURN

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING-
ROADS
STRUCTURE,
CLASSIFICATIONS
CROSS SECTIONAL ELEMENTS

ROADS
BASICS
• IMPORTANT MEANS OF COMMUNICATIONS/
CONVEYANCE FOR MEN /MATERIALS FROM
ONE PLACE TO OTHER PLACE
• DEVELOPMENT OF THE COUNTRY MAINLY

DEPENDS ON EFFICIENT TRANSPORTATION
SYSTEM
• RAIL,ROAD,WATER, AIR, ROPE WAYS ARE THE
MAJOR MEANS OF COMMUNICATIONS
• TRANSPOTING GOODS, TRADE GROWTH,

MILITARY/ NATURAL RESOURCES MOVEMENT
• AREA OF PRODUCTION TO AREA OF
MARKETING ROUTES
• ANY TYPE OF VEHICLE( CAR BUS, BULLOCK
CART) USAGE
• INSTANT CHANGE OF DIRECTIONS POSSIBLE

• LESS COSTLIER THAN OTHER
COMMUNICATION MEANS

ROAD STRUCTURE
• SOIL SUB GRADE

TOP OF GROUND ON WHICH ROAD RESTS
• SUB BASE COURSE
LAYER PROVIDED TO INCREASE THE LOAD
CARRYING CAPACITY ( WMM, WBM)
• BASE COURSE
PLACED BETWEEN WEARING SURFACE TO
SUB GRADE, FOUNDATION / SOLING (
LATERITE, GRAVEL, STONE BOULDERS)
• WEARING COURSE
SMOOTH RIDING SURFACE ( BM, SDBC , RCC )

CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS
• BASED ON FUNCTIONS
NATIONAL HIGHWAYS
STATE HIGHWAYS
DISTRICT ROADS- MAJOR/MINOR
VILLAGE ROADS
• BASED ON MATERIALS
EARTH , GRAVEL , SOIL STABILIZED
WATER BOUND MECADAM/ WET MIX MECADAM
BITUMINOUS
CEMENT CONCRETE

• NATIONAL HIGHWAYS
ROADS RUNNING THROUGHOUT LENGTH /
BREATH OF COUNTRY
MIN TWO LANES 8M WIDE, SHOULDERS 2M

FOUR LANES 3.5MX4, CENTRAL MEDIAN 5M,
PAVED SHOULDER 2M , UNPAVED SHOULDER
1.5 M, CONNECTS AIRPORTS &HARBOURS
SPEED BREAKERS, SHARP CURVES, LEVEL

CROSS NOT PERMITTED
EXECUTION NHAI / MES
FUNDING CENTAL GOVERNMENT
• STATE HIGHWAYS
IMPORTANT ROADS OF PARTICULAR STATE
CONNECTS MAJOR CITIES, N HIGHWAYS
CONSISTS 8M CARRIAGE WAY, 2 M SHOULDER
CONSTRUCTION - STATE GOVERNMENT
FUNDING – C GOVERNMENT GRANT

DISTRICT ROADS
• MAJOR DISTRICT ROADS (MDR)
CONNECTS AREA OF PRODUCTION AND AREA
OF MARKETING, TOURIST PLACES, TOWNS,
PLACE OF WORSHIP, SH &NH, DISTRICT HEAD
QUARTERS
• MINOR OR OTHER DISTRICT ROADS (ODR)

RUN IN PARTICULAR TOWN
CONNECTS TOWN AND VILLAGES , SH
ROADS CONSTRUCTED /MAINTAINED BY S
GOVT , MUNICIPAL BOARDS, CORPORATIONS

• VILLAGE ROADS
CONNECTS VILLAGE TO VILLAGE
VILLAGE TO DISTRICT ROADS, RAILWAY
STATIONS
CONSTRUCTED/ MAINTAINED BY LOCAL
PANCHAYATH AUTHORITIES
GENERALLY UN-METALLED( GRAVEL, EARTH
ROADS

CROSS SECTIONAL ELEMENTS
• CARRIAGE WAY
PAVED WIDTH OF ROAD FOR VEHICLE TRAFFIC
• SHOULDER
ADDITIONAL SPACE FOR PARKING, REPARING
OVERTAKING , PROVIDES LATERAL STABILITY
TO ROADS
• CAMBER
RISE GIVEN TO ROAD CROWN/CENTRE WITH
RESPECT TO EDGE , FOR DRAINING RAIN
WATER

• RIGHT OF WAY
TOTAL WIDTH OF LAND , ACQUIRED FOR
CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS INCLUDING
FUTURE EXPANSION
• ROAD WAY WIDTH

CARRIAGE WAY +SHOULDERS ON EITHER SIDE
• CARRIAGE WAY WIDTH (IRC STANDARDS)

SINGLE LANE-3.75 M
DOUBLE LANE – 7M , 7.5M

SUPER ELEVATION
• OUTER EDGE OF ROAD RAISED WITH RESPECT

TO THE INNER EDGE IN CURVES TO COUNTER
ACT THE CENTRIFUGAL FORCES , WHICH
TENDS TO OVER TURN VEHICLES MOVING AT
HIGH SPEED
• PERMIT VEHICLES TO NEGOTIATE CURVES AT

HIGH SPEED
• EVEN DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS
• GIVEN BY FORMULA
e = V2 / g.R V Speed of vehicles m/sec
g= acc due to gravity m/ sec2
R= radious in m
e = s elevation in m
• FIND SE FOR A HORIZONTAL CURVE HAVING

RADIOUS 300 M . ASSUME AVE SPEED OF
VEHICLE =50KM /HOUR
e = V2 /g .R V = 50X1000/ 60X60=
13.89m/sec
= 13.89x13.89 / 9.81 x 300
= 0.0655 m
= 66 or 70 mm

GRADIENTS
• LONGITUDINAL SLOPE GIVEN TO THE ROAD

SURFACE FOR DRAINING WATER
• TYPES
MINIMUM GRADIENT
RULING
MAXIMUM
FLOATING
LIMITING

CLASIFICATIONS( MATERIAL)
• EARTH ROADS
CONSTRUCTED WITH NATURAL / LOCAL
AVAILABLE SOILS ( FOUNDATION , WEARING)
LIGHT TRAFFIC USAGE( VILLAGE)
LESS COST
• STABILIZED SOIL ROADS

SOIL TREATED WITH CHEMICALS
CEMENT,LIME
• GRAVEL ROADS
CONSTRUCTED WITH WELL GRADED GRAVEL
OF 15 – 30 CM LAYERS
METHODS
TRENCH SPREAD – TRENCHES MADE, GRAVEL
FILLED,ROLLER COMPACTION CARRID OUT
FEATHER EDGE -SUB GRADE COMPACTED,
GRAVEL SPREAD, ROLLED

WBM ROADS
• SUB BASE COURSE FOR BITUMINOUS,

CONCRETE ROADS
• SUB GRADE PREPARED / ROLLED
• 60 MM JELLY SPREAD
• DRY ROLLING
• SPREADING SCREENS – 6- 12 MM STONE JELLY
• WET ROLLING-EDGE TO CENTRE OF ROAD

• SPREADING GRAVEL THIN LAYER, WATERING,
WET ROLLING
• CURING -7 DAYS
• OPENING FOR TRAFFIC
BITUMINOUS ROADS
• BITUMEN IN HOT CONDITION MIXED WITH

AGGREGATES
• LAID ON WBM/WMM
• ROLLED WITH 8- 10 T ROLLERS
BITUMINOUS MECADAM (BM)

• EXISTING WBM TOP SURFACE CLENEAD
• TACK COAT ( HOT BITUMEN ) APPLIED
• HOT BITUMEN MIXED WITH 20 MM SIZE STONE
JELLY IN PLANTS, LAID , ROLLED
SDBC-( SEAL COAT) – HOT BITUMEN MIXED

WITH 3-6MM CHIPS LAID OVER BM , ROLLED
CEMENT CONCRETE ROADS
• WBM/ WMM TOP SURFACE CLEANED,

WATERED, AFTER PLACING FORMWORK
• BATCHED, MIXED CONCRETE LAID
• COMPACTED WITH VIBRATERS

• BELTED/ BROOMED
• CURED
• OPEND FOR TRAFFIC
• CARRIED OUT BY ALTERNATE BAY/

SUCCESSIVE BAY METHODS
• BAY SIZE 6MX 3.5M

WET MIX MECADAM( WMM)
• SUB BASE FOR SH/NH ROADS

• MIX CONSISTS 20MM JELLY 80%, QUARRY
DUST 20%, WATER
• LAID OVER LATERITE BASE FOR 30- 45 CM

THICKNESS
• OVER WMM, BM ,SDBC LAID

EARTHEN ROADS

GRAVEL
ROADS

WBM ROADS

BITUMEN ROADS

NH –FOUR LANES

CONCRETE ROADS

UNIT 3
SURVEYING
OBJECTS,PRIMARY DIVISIONS
MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES-
CHAIN SURVEYING

SURVEYING
BASICS
• ART OF DETERMINING RELATIVE POSITIONS
OF POINTS ABOVE OR BELOW EARTH
SURFACE
• DIRECT MEASURE – TAPE , CHAIN,COMPASS ,
LEVELS
• INDIRECT MEASURE- TRIANGULATION,

TACHOMETRY ( THEODOLITE, TACHO METER)
• GEOLOGICAL, ARCHEOLOGICAL,MILITARY
MAPS PREPARATION
• FIXING PLOT / PROPERTIES BOUNDRY POINTS

• CUTTING/FILLING QUANTITIES OF EARTH
EMBANKMENT CALCULATIONS
• FIXING CENTRE LINE / ALIGNMENT OF ROADS,
RAILWAY LINES,TUNNELS, BRIDGES,CANALS
• FINDING CAPACITY OF
RESERVOIRS/DAMS,CANALS
• MEASURING DISTANCES, ANGLES, HEIGHT
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANY TWO POINTS(
CITIES)
• ESTABLISHING BOUNDARIES OF DISTRICTS,

STATES,COUNTRIES( INDIA,TAMILNADU MAP)
OBJECTS
• PREPARATION OF PLAN OR MAP

• RESULTS OF SURVEYS, WHEN PLOTTED,
DRAWN TO SCALE ON PAPER CONSTITUTES
PLAN
• PLAN REPRESENTS GROUND FEATURES/

TERRAIN WITH ITS EXISTING
OBJECTS,PROJECTED ON HORIZONTAL PLANE
• FOR PLAN THE SCALE USED WILL BE LARGE
1:100, 1:500,1:1000
• 1 REPRESENTS DRAWING SIZE, 100

REPRESENTS ACTUAL OBJECT SIZE
• 1CM LINE IN A PAPER REPRESENTS 100CM
(1M) ACTUAL FOR 1 :100 , FOR A ROOM
DRAWING 10MX8M , LINES OF 10CM , 8CM WILL
BE DRAWN
• THUS 100CM(1M) ACTUAL HAS BEEN REDUCED

TO 1CM IN DRAWING TO ACCOMMODATE PLAN
OF BUILDINGS IN DRAWING SHEETS
• FOR ENTIRE DISTRICT PLAN 1:50,000
• FOR STATE MAP SCALE REDUCTION WILL BE
1: 10,00,000
• FOR INDIAN MAP 1:1CRORE,ATLAS 1: 20 CRORE

• MAPS PREPARED WITH SMALL SCALE
• 1:1CRORE COUNTRY MAPS SCALE
REDUCTION
• 1:50 CRORE –WORLD MAP (ATLAS) SCALE
REDUCTION
• PLAN OF BUILDINGS
• MAP OF INDIA

PRIMARY TYPE/ DIVISIONS
PLANE SURVEYING
• EARTH CURVATURE NOT CONSIDERED IN THIS
SURVEY, ALL SURFACE CONSIDERED PLANE
• DISTANCE BETWEEN ANY TWO POINTS
CONSIDERED AS STRAIGHT LINE
• ANGLE BETWEEN ANY TWO POINTS

CONSIDERED AS PLANE ANGLE
• EXTENDED OVER SMALL AREAS-260 SQ KM
• PRACTICED FOR ROAD ,RAIL, BRIDGE , TUNNEL
ALIGNMENT MARKING, BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION WORKS

GEODETIC SURVEYING
• EARTH CURVATURE CONSIDERED
• ADOPTED FOR LARGE AREAS SURVEYING
• DISTANCE BETWEEN ANY TWO POINTS IS NOT
STRAIGHT LINE, IT’S A CURVE
• ANGLE SUSPENDED AT CENTRE CONSIDERED

AS SPHERICAL ANGLE
• PRECISION SURVEY WITH ACCURATE
RESULTS, SPHERICAL TRIGNOMENTRY USED
• MAPS PREPARATION , INTERNATIONAL
BOUNDARY LINE FIXING WORKS

CLASSIFICATIONS
BASED ON INSTRUMENTS
• CHAIN SURVEYING
• COMPASS
• LEVELLING
• PLANE TABLE
• THEODOLITE

MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES
CHAIN SURVEYING
• SURVEY USED FOR MEASURING DISTANCES
IN PLAIN/ ROUGH TERRAIN AREAS
• AREAS CAN BE FOUND OUT BETWEEN
BOUNDRY LINE AND CHAIN LINES
• DISTANCE MEASUREMENT THROUGH BUSHES

AREAS, HILLY AREAS CAN BE MADE
• PLOT LAY OUT PREPARATION, INDIVIDUAL
PLOT 4 BOUNDARY CORNER FIXING WORKS
CARRIED OUT USIN CHAIN, TAPE, COMPASS
• DIRECT METHOD OF MEASURING DISTANCES

INSTRUMENTS USED
• CHAIN – 20M OR 30M -1NO

• CROSS STAFF - 1NO
• ARROWS-10NOS
• PEGS -2NOS
• RANGING RODS – 6NOS

• CHAIN (20M, 30M LENGTH)
COMPOSED OF 100 – 150 LINKS

LINKS FORMED USING MILD STEEL WIRES 4MM
IN DIA, EACH ENDS BEND TO LOOPS/HOOKS,
CONNECTED TOGETHER BY THREE OVAL
SHAPED RINGS
A LINK HAS A LENGTH OF 20 CM( 0.2 M)

100 LINKS X 0.20M =20M
150 LINKSX0.20M =30M
ENDS OF CHAIN PROVIDED WITH BRASS
HANDLES WITH SWIVEL JOINTS
• SWIVEL JOINTS PREVENTS TWISTING, MAKE
CHAIN TO TURN AROUND
• LENGTH OF LINK WILL BE DISTANCE BETWEEN
CENTRES OF TWO CONSECUTIVE MIDDLE
RING ( 20 CM OR 0.2M)
• METALLIC TAGS ( TALLIES)ARE PROVIDED AT

1M , 5M INTERVALS FOR MEASURING LENGTHS
• AT 5M (25 LINK LENGTH) ROUND TALLY WITH
ONE GROOVE PROVIDED
• AT 10M (50 LINK LENGTH) TALLY WITH TWO
GROOVES PROVIDED
LENGTH CALCULATIONS DURING CHAINING
• TALLY WITH 2 GROOVES = 10M +2.4 M

+ 12 LINKS =12.40M
• 1 CHAIN+TALLY WITH 1 GROOVE

+ 8 LINKS = 20M+5M+1.6M =26.60M
• 4 CHAIN+TALLY WITH 3 GROOVE

+4 LINKS =80M+15M+0.8M =95.80M

• ARROWS
MADE OF STEEL WIRE 4MM DIA ,40 CM
LENGTH,BOTTOM END MADE SHARP TO
PIERCE GROUND,TOP END BENT TO CIRCLE
FOR CARRYING PURPOSE
10 ARROWS SUPPLIED WITH CHAIN

DURIN SURVEY,AFTER COMPLETION OF 1
CHAIN LENGTH ,1 ARROW WILL BE INSERTED
INTO GROUND
EX – ON MAKING CHAINING, IF THE SURVEYOR
HAS 2 ARROWS IN HAND,INDICATES 160M
LENGTH
• RANGING RODS
USED FOR RANGING ( ALIGNING STRAIGHT
LINE),MARKING POSITION OF STATIONS
MADE OF TEAK WOOD, STEEL PIPE 1-2 CM
DIA,2 OR 3M LENGTH
LOWER END PROVIDED WITH CONIVAL IRON

SHOE
PAINTED ALTERNATIVELY RED/WHITE,
BLACK/WHITE
FIXED/ INSERTED INTO GROUND MANUALLY AT
REQUIRED LOCATIONS

• CROSS STAFF
USED FOR SETTING RIGHT ANGLES( 90DEG )
WITH CHAIN LINE
WOODEN BLOCK OR STEEL BOX WITH TWO

PAIR OF VERTICAL SLOTS/ GROOVE
PERPENDICULAR TO OTHER PROVIDED AT TOP
END
LOWER END PROVIDED WITH STEEL ROD OF

12MM DIA
CONICAL EDGE MADE AT THE BOTTOM OF
ROD FOR FIXING IT ON GROUND
• PEGS
USED FOR MARKING THE POSITION OF
STATION POINTS ON THE SURVEY LINES
MADE OF WOOD , 2CM DIA, 30CM HEIGHT

DRIVEN INTO THE GROUND BY HAMMER
HAS CONICAL EDGE AT BOTTOM

CHAIN SURVEY OPERATIONS
FOR MARKING A POINT , BUILDING, AN AREA,

FOLLWING OPERATIONS ARE CARRIED OUT IN
CHAIN SURVEY WORKS
• FIXING STATION POINTS ALONG THE

PROPOSED CHAIN LINE
• RANGING THE LINE
• CHAINING
• MAKING OFFSETS FOR MARKING POINTS WITH

REFERENCE TO CHAIN LINE( PERPENDICULAR
OFFSET,OBLIQUE OFFSETS)

CALCULATION OF AREAS
FROM IRREGULAR BOUNDRY LINE TO A BASE

LINE( CHAIN LINE)
• STATION POINTS FIXED AROUND THE

IRREGULAR BOUDARY (A,B,C,D,E,F) ASSUME A
VILLAGE TANK,URUNI,KULAM
• CHAIN LINE MADE TO RUN BETWEEN STATION
POINTS( A –B, B-C,C-D)
• EXACT LOCATION OF STATION POINTS ARE

MARKED WITH COMPASS WITH REFERENCE TO
MAGNETIC NORTH( CHAIN LINE DEVIATION
REFERENCE TO NORTH Θ1(THETA1)
• PERPENDICULAR OFFSETS TAKEN FROM
CHAIN LINE A-B TO TANK BOUNDARY LINE AT
REGULAR INTERVALS ( SAY 2M,3M ) USING
CROSS STAFF

• AREA ENCLOSED BETWEEN IRREGULAR
BOUNDRY LINE AND BASELINE, FIRST OFFSET
,LAST OFFSET WILL BE CALCULATED BY,
LENGTH OF CHAIN LINE X AVERAGE OF ALL
ORDINATES
•

AREA CALCULATIONS- RULES
• MID ORDINATE RULE

• AVERAGE ORDINATE RULE
• TRAPEZOIDAL RULE
• SIMPSON S RULE

MID ORDINATE RULE
• BASE LINE DIVIDED INTO NUMBER OF

DIVISIONS d ,ORDINATES ARE MEASURED
FROM MID POINTS OF EACH DIVISION
• AREA =AVERAGE OF ORDINATESX LENGTH OF
BASE LINE

AVERAGE ORDINATE RULE
• ORDINATES ( PERPENDICULAR
OFFSETS)WERE TAKEN AT DIVISIONAL
POINTS ITSELF
• AREA =AVERAGE OF ORDINATES X LENGTH OF
BASE LINE

TRAPEZOIDAL RULE
• THIS RULE ASSUME THE AREA FIGURES AS

TRAPEZOIDS
• MORE ACCURATE THAN PREVIOUS TWO
RULES

SIMPSONS RULE
• THIS RULE ASSUMESTHE SHORT LENGTHSOF

BOUNDARYBETWEEN ORDINATES AS
PARABOLIC ARCS
• MORE ACCURATE THAN OTHER RULES IN
CALCULATING AREAS

EXAMPLE PROBLEM
1) FOLLOWING PERPENDICULAR OFFSETS

WERE TAKEN AT 10 M INTERVALS FROM A
SURVEY LINE TO A IRREGULAR BOUNDATY
LINE
3.15m,4.30m,8.20m,5.60m,6.85m,7.60m,4.20m,
5.60m, 4.30m
CALCULATE THE AREA ENCLOSED BETWEEN

THE SURVEY LINE,THE IRREGULAR
BOUNDARY LINE, FIRST AND LAST OFFSETS BY
a) AVE ORDINATE RULE b)TRAPEZOIDAL RULE
c)SIMPSONS RULE

a) AVERAGE ORDINATE RULE

b) TRAPEZOIDAL RULE

c)SIMPSONS RULE

EX 2 ) A SERIES OF OFFSETS WERE TAKEN
FROM A CHAIN LINE TO A CURVED BOUNDARY
LINE AT AN INTERVAL OF 5M IN THE
FOLLOWING ORDER
0m,3.25m,4.10m,6.45m,8.90m.5.75m,8.50m,om
CALCULATE AREA BETWEEN THE CHAIN LINE
AND THE BOUNDARY LINE

PRINCIPLES OF CHAIN SURVEY
• TO DIVIDE THE WHOLE AREAS INTO NUMBER

OF TRIANGLES OF SUITABLE SIDES
• NETWORK OF TRIANGLES PLOTTED TO SCALE

ALONG WITH THEIR OFFSETS, COMPASS
ANGULAR DEVIATIONS EXIBIT A COLONY
LAYOUT, NEW REAL ESTATE PLOTS
LAYOUT,AN INDUSTRIAL LAYOUT
• FOR PREPARING A COLONY LAYOUT,MAIN

SURVEY STATION,TIE STATIONS ARE
CHOOSEN ON EXISTING AREA
• BASE LINE, TIE LINE, CHECK LINES STRECHED
• PERPENDICULAR / OBLIQUE OFFSETS ARE
MEASURED
• PLOTTED TO SCALE ON A PAPER
CONSTITUTES A LAYOUT PLAN, A MAP
• AT EACH STATION POINTS COMPASS

MEASURE WITH REFERENCE TO MAGNETIC
MERIDIAN MADE (Θ1 Θ2 )
• WITH THE PLOT LAY OUT MAP , PLOTS

PURCHASED, BUILDINGS CONSTRUCTED

CHAIN TRAVERSE
• CLOSED TRAVERSE
COMPLETE CIRCUIT OF A CLOSED POLYGON
FORMED BY BEGINNING THE SURVEY , ENDING
THE SURVEY AT SAME POINT
LENGTH MEASURED WITH CHAIN AND TAPE,
ANGLES MEASURED WITH COMPASS
PRACTICED PREPARING LAYOUT OF AN
ESTATE, A COLONY, VILLAGE TANK
• OPEN TRAVERSE
DOSE NOT FORM A POLYGON ,OPEN, SURVEY
BEGINS AT ONE POINT, ENDS AT ONE POINT

COMPASS SURVEYING -
MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES
PRISMATIC& SURVEYOR’S
COMPASS
OBSERVATION OF BEARINGS

COMPASS SURVEY - BASICS
• ALONG WITH CHAIN LINE MEASUREMENT,

COMPASS SURVEY CARRIED OUT ,IF THE AREA
TO BE SURVEYED IS LARGE
• FOR MARKING THE POSITION OF CHAIN LINE
A -B WITH RESPECT TO MAGNETIC NORTH ,
COMPASS WILL BE PLACED OVER STATION
POINT A (READING 0 DEG)
• COMPASS ROTATED CLOCK WISE TO FOCUS

THE RANGING ROD AT STATION POINT B
(READING OBSERVED 42 DEG)
• CHAIN LINE A-B ANGULAR DEVIATION FROM M
NORTH Θ 1 WILL BE 42 DEG
• PRACTICED FOR CENTRE LINE ALIGNMENT OF
ROAD,RAIL,BRIDGE,TUNNEL, DAM,BUILDING
PROJECTS
• 0-360 DEG WHOLE CIRCLE READINGS CAN BE
TAKEN
• LEAST COUNT 30 MINUTES( 1 DEG - 30

MINUTES, 2 DEG, 2DEG- 30 MINUTES ,3 DEG
AND SO ON)
• READS 0 DEG ,IF THE COMPASS POINTS
MAGNETIC NORTH

TYPES OF COMPASS
PRISMATIC
• CONSISTS FREELY SUSPENDED , GRADUATED
(DEG, MINUTES) ALUMINIUM CIRULAR RING
RESTING ON A CENTRAL PIVOT
• PIVOT CENTRALLY PLACED ON A CIRCULAR
LID / BOX OF 8 -11CM DIA
• ALUMINIUM RING HAS MAGNETIC

NEEDLE,NEEDLE ATTACHED TO ALU RING
• EYE VANE WITH PRISM UNIT FACILITATES
READINGS OF ANGLES( AT STATION A)
• PRISM UNIT MAGNIFIES READINGS

• OBJECT VANE LOCATED DIAMETRICALLY
OPPOSITE TO THE PRISM UNIT, HAS CROSS
HAIR FOR CO-INSIDING WITH RANGING RODS
(PLACED IN NEXT STATION B)
• OPERATIONS PERFORMED IN C SURVEY

COMPASS PLACED IN STATION A
MAGNETIC NORTH POINTED,WHICH READS
0 DEGREE
ROTATED CLOCK WISE TO POINT RANGING

ROD PLACED AT STATION B
SEEING THROUGH PRISM ,READING TAKEN (Θ)
SURVEYOR COMPASS
• SIMILAR TO PRISMATIC COMPASS

• NOT OFFTEN USED
• IN PLACE OF PRISM UNIT ,NARROW VERTICAL
SLIT PLACED
• DO NOT HAVE NEEDLE, INSTEAD HAS

GRADUATED CARD
• GRADUATIONS ARE QUADRANTAL BEARING
SYSTEM HAVING 0DEG AT NORTH,90 DEG AT
EAST, 180 DEG AT SOUTH

OPERATIONS IN C SURVEY
• CENTERING
COMPASS ATTACHED TO TRIPOD STAND,
PLACED AT STATION POINT A,BROUGHT OVER
THE CENTRE OF STATION USING PLUMB BOB
• LEVELLING
CENTERED COMPASS LID LEVELLED TO
HORIZONTAL MAKES GRADUATED CIRCULAR
RING OCCILATES FREELY
• OBSERVING BEARING
COMPASS POINTED NORTH, ROTATED CLOCK
WISE TO POINT R ROD AT NEXT STATION - Θ
BEARING AND ITS TYPES
• HORIZONDAL ANGLE BETWEEN THE

REFERENCE MERIDIAN (MAGNETIC NORTH)
AND THE SURVEY LINE ,MEASURED IN CLOCK
WISE DIRECTION
• MAGNETIC BEARING
IS THE ANGLE WHICH A LINE MAKES WITH THE
MAGNETIC NORTH, ALWAYS MEASURED IN
CLOCK WISE DIRECTIONS, ANGLE RANGE 0-
360°
• TRUE BEARING – IS THE ANGLE WHICH A LINE
MAKES WITH TRUE NORTH OR GEOGRAPHICAL
NORTH ( RANGE 0 – 360 DEG)

• WHOLE CIRCLE BEARING (W C B )
ANY ANGLE MEASURED IN BETWEEN 0 – 360
DEG DIRECTLY REPRESENTS WCB
MAGNETIC AND TRUE BEARINGS ARE WCB
• REDUCED BEARING ( R B )
BEARING BASED ON QUADRANTAL SYSTEM
ANGLE MEASURED WITH RESPECT TO NORTH
AND SOUTH TOWARDS EAST OR WEST
NORTH RIGHT –NE , NORTH LEFT –NW
SOUTH RIGHT –SW, SOUTH LEFT -SE

• FORE BEARING
IS THE ANGLE MEASURED FROM A SURVEY
STATION TO THE NEXT STATION ALONG THE
DIRECTION OF SURVEY ( CLOCK WISE
DIRECTION)

• BACK BEARING
BEARING TAKEN FROM NEXT STATION TO THE
PREVIOUS/PRECEEDING STATION
FB OF AB =30 DEG
BB OF BA = 30 DEG + OR – OF 180 DEG
BACK BEARING BA = 30+180 DEG = 210 DEG
IF THE ANGLE MEASURED IS MORE THAN 360

DEG , THEN WE HAVE TO DEDUCT 180 DEG
FROM FB
IF THE ANGLE IS LESS TAN 360 DEG, THEN WE
HAVE TO ADD 180 DEG WITH FB

LOCAL ATTRACTION
• MAGNETIC INFLUENCES PRESENT IN THE
PLACE OF COMPASS OBSERVATIONS DEFLECT
NEEDLE (CHANGE THE MEASURED ANGLE )
FROM ITS NORMAL POSITION
• SORROUNDING MAGNETIC FIELD DISTURB

OBSERVED READINGS –IRON LAMP
POSTS,STEEL STRUCTURES,RAILWAY
LINE,IRON SPECTACLES, IRON KEYS, CHAIN ,
ARROWS,KNIFE,IRON BUTTON
• TO DEDUCT PRESENCE,BOTH FB/BB TAKEN
FOR ASTATION POINT
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
EX 1) CONVERT THE FOLLOWING W CB TO RB

EX2) CONVERT THE FOLLOWING RB TO WCB

EX 3) CONVERT THE FOLLOWING FB TO BB

• WCB OF A LINE= 0
• WCB =90
• WCB =180
• WCB =270

Prismatic compass

MEASUREMENT OF HEIGHTS-
LEVELLING SURVEY
BASICS
INSTRUMENTS USED
REDUCTION OF LEVELS

LEVELLING - BASICS
• DETERMINE THE RELATIVE HEIGHT OR

ELEVATIONS OF POINTS , OBJECTS (EXISTING
GROUND TERRAIN SLOPE/ UNDULATIONS) ON
EARTH SURFACE
• PROVIDES AN ACCURATE NETWORK OF
HEIGHTS, COVERING THE ENTIRE AREA OF
PROJECT
• GIVES THE EARTH CUTTING,FILLING
QUANTITIES FOR PROPOSED
ROAD,RAIL,TUNNEL, BRIDGE, DAM PROJECTS
• GROUND SLOPE REQUIRED FOR RIVER,
CANAL,,DRAINS ,SEWAGE /WATER LINE KNOWN
• CENTRE LINE ALIGNMENT OF ROAD, RAIL
CANAL, BRIDGE,WATER SUPPLY /SEWAGE
LINES CAN BE MADE
• CONTOUR MAP OF EXISTING TERRAIN
PREPARATION
• NETWORK OF LEVELS PROVIDES IDEA FOR

THE ENGINEER IN PLANNING AND DESIGNING
THE WATER RESOURCES PROJECTS, ROAD
PROJECTS
• UTILIZED FOR ACHIEVING ECONOMY IN
PROJECT ACTUAL EXECUTIONS

INSTRUMENTS
THE LEVEL
• PROVIDES HORIZONTAL LINE OF
SIGHT,CONSISTS
• TELESCOPE-PROVIDES LINE OF SIGHT
• LEVEL TUBE-MAKES L O SIGHT HORIZONTAL
• LEVELLING HEAD – USED FOR BRINGING THE

BUBBLE IN LEVEL TUBE TO ITS CENTRE OF ITS
RUN
• TRIPOD- TO FIX/SUPPORTS THE INSTRUMENT
AT OBSERVATION HEIGHT

LEVELLING STAFF
• STRAIGHT RECTANGULAR WOODEN OR
ALUMINIUM ROD/BOX, GRADUATED IN M, CM
• BOTTOM MOST READING IS ZERO AND THE
READING OBSERVED BY THE LINE OF SIGHT
ON THE STAFF WILL BE THE HEIGHT OF POINT
ON WHICH THE STAFF HELD
• TELESCOPIC WITH THREE PIECES

• TOP MOST PIECE 1.25M LONG,CENTRAL 1,25 M
LONG, BOTTOM MOST WILL BE 1.5 M LONG
• GRADUATIONS- 1M, 10 DECIMETERS

• 10 DECIMETERS DIVIDED INTO 20 EQUAL
SPACES
• EACH SPACE REPRESENTS 5MM ( 0.005 M)
• LEAST COUNT WILL BE 0.005 M

• METER, DECIMETERS MARKED IN RED
COLOUR
• SPACING MARKED IN BLACK COLOUR IN WHITE

BACKGROUND
• METER NUMERICALS WRITTEN ON RIGHT SIDE
• DECIMETERS WRITTEN ON LEFT SIDE

TECHNICAL TERMS
• DATUM SURFACE
ARBITRARY SURFACE (ASSUMED LEVEL
SURFACE)WITH REFERENCE TO WHICH THE
HEIGHT OF POINTS ARE MEASURED
GIVES THE HEIGHT OF INSTRUMENT
• REDUCED LEVEL( R L)
R L OF A POINT A,B,C WILL BE ITS HEIGHT
ABOVE OR BELOW DATUM SURFACE (+102 M)
• BENCH MARK ( B M)
FIXED REFERENCE POINT OF KNOWN
ELEVATION
R L OF BM WILL BE USED FOR DETERMININTHE
RL OF OTHER POINTS
BM WITH RL OF +50 M, +100 M WILL BE
ASSUMED ON THE TOP SURFACE OF A
PERMANENT STRUCTURE ( ROAD , BUILDING
BASEMENT , FLAG POST PEDESTAL)
• BACK SIGHT ( B S)
FIRST STAFF READING TAKEN AFTER SETTING
UP THE INSTRUMENT AT ANY STATION POINT
INSTRUMENT SET AT STATION O1
STAFF KEPT IN BM ( +100 M)

FROM INSTRUMENT STATION O1, STAFF HELD
AT BM ( FIRST STAFF READING) WILL BE
FOCUSED AND READING TAKEN
LET THE STAFF READING WILL BE BACK SIGHT

( 1.500 M)
NOW THE HEIGHT OF INSTRUMENT OR

ASSUMED DATUM SURFACE LEVEL WILL BE
BM+ 1.500 M
100+1.500M = +101.500 M

• INTERMEDIATE SIGHT ( I S)
ANY STAFF READING TAKEN ON A POINT OF
UNKNOWN ELEVATION AFTER BACK SIGHT
BEFORE FORE SIGHT ( IS 1 =2M, IS 2 = 2.50 M)
• FORE SIGHT ( F S)
LAST STAFF READING TAKEN BEFORE
SHIFTING THE INSTRUMENT FROM O1 TO O2
( FS 1= 1.0M)
• CHANGE POINT ( C P )
INDICATES SHIFTING OF INSTRUMENT TO O2
BOTH BS, FS TAKEN ON C POINT( CP1= C)
REDUCTION OF LEVELS ( R L)
HEIGHT OF COLLIMATION OR HEIGHT OF

INSTRUMENT METHOD(HCL METHOD)
• INSTRUMENT SET AT O1, FIRST STAFF

READING TAKEN ON BM BS1=1.500
• HT OF INSTRUMENT = 101.500M
• INTERMEDIATE STAFF READING IS 1 TAKEN ON
POINT A = 2M, IS 2 TAKEN ON POINT B = 2.50M
• NOW RL OF A = 101 .500 – 2M = +99.500M

• RL OF B =101.50 – 2.500 M = +99.00M
• BEFORE SHIFTING INSTRUMENT FROM O1 TO
O2, LAST STAFF READING TAKEN ON POINT C
• FS1 = 1.00M
• RL OF POINT C = 101.500- 1.000M = +100.500M
• INSTRUMENT SHIFTED TO STATION O2 ( CP1 )
• INSTRUMENT SET AT O2, AGAIN POINT C

STAFF READING WILL BE TAKEN FROM O2
• LET IT BE BS 2 = 2.50M
• NEW INSTRUMENT HEIGHT / DATUM SURFACE
O2 = 100.500+2.50M = + 103 .000 M
• FROM O2 , POINT D STAFF READING TAKEN ,

(END OF SURVEY) WILL BE 1.90M
• RL OF POINT D = 103.00-1.90 =101.100M
LEVEL FIELD BOOK ENTRY
• HCL METHOD – REDUCED LEVELS ARE

CALCULATED AFTER ENTERING THE
READINGS IN A PAGE OF LEVEL BOOK

• RISE AND FALL METHOD OF FINDING RL

EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
1) THE FOLLOWING STAFF READINGS WERE

TAKEN WITH A LEVEL,THE INSTRUMENT
HAVING BEEN MOVED AFTER THIRD AND
SEVENTH READINGS
2.340,1.725,0.625,2.890,1.420,0.805,1.485,0.980 M
ENTER THE ABOVE READINGS IN A PAGE OF

LEVEL BOOK AND CALCULATE THE REDUCED
LEVELS OF THE POINTS , IF THE FIRST STAFF
READING WAS TAKEN WITH A STAFF HELD ON
A BENCH MARK OF 100.000M

SOLUTION
• BM =+100.000M
• FIRST STAFF READING BS =2.340 M FROM O1,
• IS1=1.725 ---A , FS1=0.625 ----B( CP1)
• AFTER THIRD READING INSTRUMENT SHIFTED

TO O2, FROM O2 POINT B VIEWED BS2=2.890
• IS2=2.20 ---C , IS3 =1.420 ----D
• FS2 =0.805----E (7TH READING- CP2)

• INS SHIFTED FROM O2 TO O3
• FROM O3 ,E WILL BE VIEWED BS3 =0.505
• IS4 =1.485-----F
• LAST READING FS 3 =0.980M-----G
• THE ABOVE READINGS WERE ENTERED IN

PAGE OF LEVEL BOOK, R L OF A,B, C,D,E,F ,G
WILL BE CALCULATED
• PLOTTED IN GRAPH SHEET TO EXIBIT THE

ACTUAL GROUND TERRAIN


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FOUNDATIONS

(SHALLOW & DEEP)

Progress Through Quality Education

• LOWEST PART OF ARTIFITIALLY PREPARED/

• DIRECTLY RESTS ON GROUND

• RECEIVES THE LOADS FROM

Progress Through Quality Education

• PROVIDING LEVEL SURFACE FOR BEGINNING

• SAFETY AGAINST OVERTURNING

• SAFETY AGAINST EARTHQUAKE MOVEMENTS

Progress Through Quality Education

• BEARING POWER OF SOILS TO WITHSTAND

Progress Through Quality Education

• INCREASING THE DEPTH OF FOUNDATIONS

• CHEMICAL APPLICATION- SILICATE GEL

Progress Through Quality Education

• WALL FOOTING ( LOAD BEARING STRUCTURE)

Progress Through Quality Education

Progress Through Quality Education

Progress Through Quality Education

PROVIDED FOR SLOPPING GROUND TERRAIN

Progress Through Quality Education

PILES - NECCESSITY OF APPLICATION

• LOADS TRANSFERED FROM STRUCTURE IS

• HIGH WATER TABLE

• WHEN DEEP EXCAVATIONS LIKELY TO BE

Progress Through Quality Education

Progress Through Quality Education

Progress Through Quality Education

Progress Through Quality Education

BORED PILES – BORE HOLE MADE ON SOIL

DRIVEN PILES – CONCRETE PILE CASTED

Progress Through Quality Education

30 -50 CM DIA, 15-18 M LENGTH ,PROVIDED

Progress Through Quality Education

Progress Through Quality Education

• PROVIDED FOR BRIDGE PIERS SUPPORT

• MADE TO SINK BY INNER AREA DREDGING

• CONCRETE CAP PROVIDED

Progress Through Quality Education

• WALLS CONSTRUCTED WITH BRICK , STONE

Progress Through Quality Education

VARIOUS LEVELS OF REFERENCES

Progress Through Quality Education

BASICS – BRICK MASONRY CONSTRUCTIONS

• BRICK UNITS BONDED TOGETHER WITH

• BRICKS (SOAKED IN WATER) PLACED OVER

Progress Through Quality Education

• COURSE – HORIZONTAL LAYER OF MASONRY

• STRETCHER- LENGTH OF BRICK PARALLEL TO

• BOND - INTERLOCKING ARRANGEMENT OF

• KING CLOSER- OBTAINED BY CUTTING BRICK ,

• CLOSER – BRICK PORTIONS

• QUOIN – EXTERNAL ANGLE ON THE FACE OF

• BAT – OBTAINED BY CUTTING BRICK ACCROSS

BRICK WALL CONSTRCTED USING STRECHERS

Progress Through Quality Education

BRICKS LAID USING STRETCHERS ONLY

Progress Through Quality Education

QUEEN CLOSER PLACED TO BREAK VERTICAL

A COURSE CONSISTS ALTERNATE HEADERS

QUEEN CLOSER PLACED TO BREAK VERTICAL

BRICKS KEPT WITH 45 DEG INCLINATION