Civil Engineering

Materials and Geology

Soil Compaction
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CKzAO
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=scH9sZ
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jK52O9
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Overview

Introduction
Laboratory compaction
Field compaction
Specification and control of field compaction
 Compaction
• A simple ground improvement
technique, where the soil is
densified through external
Compactive
compactive effort.
effort

+ water =
 Compaction

Increases the density

Increases the strength
Increases the bearing capacity of foundations
Increases stability of slopes
Decreases settlement
The process of compaction
reduces the air voids content
of the soil

Water content is largely

the same

6
 • Only a reduction in Va is
caused; Vw remains the same

Va air Ma = 0

Vv
Vw water Mw
V M

Vs solid Ms
Introduction

• Compaction is the densification of soils by

the application of mechanical energy.
– rearrangement of the particles; and
– reduction in the void ratio.
• Reduction in the air void content (Ar)
Reasons for compaction?
– reduce subsequent settlement under
working loads
– increase the shear strength of the soil
– reduce the voids ratio making it more
difficult for water to flow through soil.
Therefore:
– density increased
– shear strength increased
– void ratio decreased
– permeability decreased
– compressibility (and associated settlement) decreased
Compaction is one of the main tools available to the engineer for
changing a variable product (imported soil) into a uniform
product (compacted fill).
Factors affecting Compaction

– water content of the soil

– type of soil being compacted
– amount of compactive energy used

11
 Factors affecting Compaction

– water content of the soil

Dry = too much friction

prevents compaction Too wet = mud splashes,
no compaction could happen

OPTIMUM amount of water will improve the compaction and makes the compaction
effort most effective.
12
 Factors affecting Compaction
– type of soil being compacted

Coarse grained material: best compacts using vibration (vibratory rollers, …)

Fine grained material: best compacts using rollers (Sheep foot roller, …)
13
 Factors affecting Compaction
– amount of compactive energy used

Bigger compaction effort will result in better (more) compaction

if other criteria are kept identical

14
 Factors affecting Compaction
Degree of compaction measured in
terms of d

15
Overview

Introduction
Laboratory compaction
Field compaction
Specification and control of field compaction
 Laboratory Compaction
Several types of test which can be used to study the compactive
properties of soils.
– Because of the importance of compaction in most earth works
standard procedures have been developed.
– These generally involve compacting soil into a mould at
various moisture contents:

BS1377 (1990) Methods of test for soils for Civil Engineering

purposes. BSI. (Part 4)
Degree of compaction measured in terms of dry density
If dry density is defined as:

Ms
d 
Vt
From:

Ms
Gs   M s  G sVs  w
Vs  w
Giving:

M s G sVs  w G s Gs
d    w d  w
Vt Vs  Vv 1  e 1 e
 Vs = unit volume = 1

We obtain:

M s G sVs  w G s Gs  w
d    w e 1
V Vs  Vv 1  e d

as the void ratio decreases,

the dry density must increase, i.e.
 Vs = unit volume = 1

Bulk density

Similarly, if: M Ms Mw Ms Mw

  
V Vs  Vv 1 e

Water content is:

Mw
w  M w  wM s
Ms
We can obtain:
M s  wM s

1 e

And so:
G s  wG s G s 1  w 
 w    w
1 e 1 e
 Vs = unit volume = 1

The dry density can then be written in terms of the

bulk density
If:
Gs G 1  w 
d   w and   s w
1 e 1 e
Then,

   d 1  w  and  d 
1 w
 Laboratory compaction test

Aims:

- Determining maximum dry density

achievable using standard compaction
effort applied in the test
- Determining the optimum moisture
content to achieve the maximum dry density
 Proctor test

Handle

collar (mould
extension)
Sleeve guide

Cylindrical soil
mould
Hammer for
compacting soil
Base plate
 Handle

collar (mould
extension)

Metal guide to control

drop of hammer

Cylindrical
soil mould

Hammer for
compacting soil
Base plate

Test type Mould volume Hammer mass Hammer drop

cm3 kg height mm
BS Light 1000 2.5 300

BS Heavy 1000 4.5 450

24
 Standard laboratory compaction test
(light compaction test)

Volume of mould = 1000

cm3
Hammer 2.5 kg
Falling from 300 mm

Compaction in 3 layers
27 blows (drops of hammer
of 2.5kg from the height
of 300mm per layer)
Test type Mould Hammer Hammer
volume cm3 mass kg drop height
mm
BS Light 1000 2.5 300

3 Layers
27 drops each layer

26
Test type Mould Hammer Hammer
volume cm3 mass kg drop height
mm
BS Heavy 1000 4.5 450

5 Layers
27 drops each layer

27
Procedure:

– the bulk density is determined (we know mass of

soil in mould of known volume)

– determine moisture content for each compaction

test

NOTE: test is repeated at least 5 times at 5 different

water content values
 Standard compaction test procedure
- 5 kg dry soil Maximum dry density
- Add 4% water
- Compact in 3 layers (27 blows
with 2.5kg rammer drops
freely from the height of
300mm)
- Measure the bulk density
- Measure water content
- Calculate the dry density and
put the point on the dry density Optimum water (moisture) content
against water content plot
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GuKrKRcohYo)
- Add 2% water to the same mix
- Repeat the procedure
- Put the second point on the dry Maximum unit weight
density against water content plot
- Add another 2% and plot a third
point
- Add another 2% and plot a fourth
point
- Find the best fit curve for the 4
points (DO NOT PASS A LINE
THROUGH ALL POINTS)
- Find the TOP point on the curve and
Optimum water (moisture) content
read the maximum dry density and
optimum moisture content values

(NOTE: If the soil is susceptible to crushing use different samples of soil at each stage)
 
d 
1 w
Water content (w)

2.05
l
2

1.95

Dry Density Mg/m 3

1.9

1.85

1.8

1.75

1.7
0 5 10 15 20

BEST FIT Water Content %

 Compaction Curve
Dry density (d)

Soil grains densely packed

- good strength and
stiffness
d, max - low permeability

optimum
water content Water content
 2.05
Compaction is more effective with
a well-graded soil containing a Well-graded silty
proportion of fines than with a 2 sand
uniform soil with a low percentage
1.95
of fines.

Dry Density Mg/m 3

1.9
For a uniform sand, variations in
water content produce very little 1.85
change in dry density, certainly
not as much as the well-graded 1.8 Uniform sand
soil.
1.75

1.7
0 5 10 15 20
Water Content %

33
Holtz34
and Kovacs, 1981; Das, 1998
 2.05
Both curves do however exhibit a Well-graded silty
similar trend, that is an initial 2 sand
increase in dry density with
increasing water content up to 1.95
a maximum value, followed by a

Dry Density Mg/m 3

subsequent decrease in dry 1.9
density as the water content
continues to increase. The 1.85

peak defines the optimum water

content, wopt at which the soil 1.8 Uniform sand
obtains its maximum dry
density, d(max) 1.75

1.7
0 5 10 15 20
Water Content %

35
 Tutorial example 1:

The following results are obtained from a compaction test using the 2.5kg
rammer.

Mass of mould + 2783 3057 3224 3281 3250 3196

wet soil (g)

Water content (%) 8.1 9.9 12 14.3 16.1 18.2

The weight of the compaction mould less its collar and base was 1130g and
the soil had a particle specific gravity of 2.7.

- Determine the maximum dry density and the optimum water content.
 Tutorial example 2:

A compaction test is carried out on a sample of sandy clay gave the following
results:

1952 2006 2069 2099 2091 2081

Water content (%) 12.5 13.4 14.8 16.2 17.4 18.4

Plot the curve of dry density against water content and thus determine the
maximum dry density and optimum water content.
As water content increases, 2.05
the dry density increases maximum dry density
to a maximum value 2

Decreases as the water 1.95

content continues to

Dry Density Mg/m 3

increase. 1.9

Why ?
1.85

1.8

1.75

optimum water content

1.7
0 5 10 15 20
Water Content %

38
As water content increases, 2.05
the dry density increases maximum dry density
to a maximum value 2

Decreases as the water 1.95

content continues to

Dry Density Mg/m 3

increase. 1.9

Why ?
1.85
Low water contents imply
high suctions 1.8

Resultant soil is stiff and not

1.75
readily compacted
optimum water content
1.7
… 0 5 10 15 20
Water Content %

39
 This is the zero air voids line or saturation
line (Sr=100%; Ar = 0 %) – not practically
achievable.

At high water contents, a 2.05

limit to the degree of
saturation achievable by 2

compaction is reached
1.95

Dry Density Mg/m 3

1.9

At Sr = 0.9, any remaining air

1.85
pockets will be surrounded
by water and very difficult to 1.8
remove by compaction.
1.75

1.7
0 5 10 15 20
Water Content %

40
 Comactive Effort

2.1

2.05 5% Ar = 0 %
Higher compactive 2
10 %

effort is seen to give 1.95

3
Dry Density Mg/m
a higher maximum 1.9 4.5 kg rammer
1.85
dry density but at a 1.8
2.5 kg rammer
lower water content 1.75

1.7

1.65

1.6
0 5 10 15 20
Water Content %
 “Air voids” or “Air content” (A%) estimates
The compaction test
result:
Also,

Zero

G s (1  A)
Air voids line

d  w
1  wG s
The 0%, 5% and 10% air void lines are plotted based on the
above equation by replacing A as 0, 0.05 and 0.1 respectively
to help estimate the air void contents at maximum dry density

Va
A
V
Zero Air voids line = densities would be obtained if all air was removed by compaction!
 For example to draw 5% air content (air voids) line for a soil with Gs=2.65:

2.65 0.05
1
G s (1  A)
d  w
1  wG s
Zero
Air voids line

2.65
w%
(at least two arbitrary
values in reasonable
range of the graph)

0.05 From above equation

0.08 From above equation

0.14 From above equation

… Draw the 5% air line

For example to draw 5% air content (air voids) line for a soil with Gs=2.65:
Repeat the same process and draw 0% and 10% air lines.

Zero
Air voids line
Repeat the same process and draw 0% and 10% air lines.

Zero
Air voids line
 Tutorial example 1:

The following results are obtained from a compaction test using the 2.5kg
rammer.

Mass of mould + wet 2783 3057 3224 3281 3250 3196

soil (g)

Water content (%) 8.1 9.9 12 14.3 16.1 18.2

The weight of the compaction mould less its collar and base was 1130g and
the soil had a particle specific gravity of 2.7.

- Determine the maximum dry density and the optimum water content.
- Draw 0%, 5%, and 10% air content lines and estimate the air content of the soil
at maximum dry density.
 Tutorial example 1:

The following results are obtained from a compaction test using the 2.5kg
rammer.

Mass of mould + wet 2783 3057 3224 3281 3250 3196

soil (g)

Water content (%) 8.1 9.9 12 14.3 16.1 18.2

The weight of the compaction mould less its collar and base was 1130g and
the soil had a particle specific gravity of 2.7.

- Determine the maximum dry density and the optimum water content.
- Draw 0%, 5%, and 10% air content lines and estimate the air content of the soil
at maximum dry density.
 Tutorial example 2:

A compaction test is carried out on a sample of sandy clay gave the following
results:

1952 2006 2069 2099 2091 2081

Water content (%) 12.5 13.4 14.8 16.2 17.4 18.4

a) Plot the curve of dry density against water content and thus determine the
maximum dry density and optimum water content.

b) Plot the zero and 5% air voids lines and hence estimate the air voids content
at the maximum dry density (Gs=2.67).
Tutorial example 3:
Results obtained from a BS light compaction test are shown below:

Mass of mould + wet 2750 3040 3200 3261 3232 3175

soil (g)

Moisture content measurements:

Mass of soil plus tin 55 63 61 64 60 56

before oven (g)

Mass of oven dried 27.25 28.65 29.32 30.46 30.42 30

soil plus tin (g)

The mass of tin was 25g. The weight of the compaction mould less its collar and base
was 1100g and the soil specific gravity is 2.68.

- Determine the maximum dry density and the optimum water content.
- Draw 0%, 5%, and 10% air content lines and estimate the air content of the soil
at maximum dry density.