UNIT –II SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS Engineering physics

Introduction:-
At absolute zero a pure, perfect crystal of the most of the semiconductors will be an
insulator. Semiconductors are electronic conductors with electrical resistivity value
generally in the range of 102 to 109 ohm-cm at room temperature, intermediate

between good conductors ( 106 ohm-cm) and insulators ( 1014 to 1022 ohm-cm). The
electrical resistivity of semiconductors dependent on temperature. Devices based on
the properties of semiconductors include transistors, rectifiers, modulators, detectors,
thermostats, and photocells. Broadly speaking we can have two types of
semiconductors i.e. intrinsic semiconductors and extrinsic semiconductors.
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS:-
1. A pure semiconductor is called intrinsic semiconductor. At absolute zero, the valence
band of an intrinsic semiconductor is completely filled. For this reason at absolute zero
they behave as insulators.

2. However, as the temperature is gradually increased some of the electrons of the

valence band get excited to conduction band. The excitation of electrons from the
valence band to the conduction band leaves an equal number of holes in the valence
band.

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3. Both electron in the conduction band and holes in the valence band serve as charge
carriers and contribute to the electrical conductivity. Pure form of the germanium and
silicon are the best examples of intrinsic semiconductors.

EXTRINSIC SEMI-CONDUCTORS: -
If a small amount of a pentavalent (or) trivalent impurity is introduced into a pure
germanium (or) silicon crystal, the conductivity at the crystal increases appreciably and
the crystal becomes an “Extrinsic” Semi-conductor.
Extrinsic semi-conductors are of two types: n- type and p- type.

n- Type semiconductors: -

1. When a pentavalent (antimony, phosphorus (or) arsenic) atom replaces a Ge

atom in the crystal lattice. Four of its five valence electrons form covalent bonds
with neighboring Ge (or) Si atoms.
2. The fifth electron free at room temperature to move about in the crystal and acts
as a charge carrier. The crystal is now called an “n- type semi-conductor”
because it has an excess of negative charge carries. The impurity is called a
“donor” because it donates the conducting electrons.
3. In the energy level diagram, the impurity atoms introduce discrete energy levels
for the electrons just below the conduction band. These are called “donor
impurity levels”.
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4. Therefore, at room temperature, the ‘fifth’ electrons of donor atoms are

thermally excited from the donor levels into conduction band.
5. At ordinary temperature, almost all the electrons in the conduction band come
from the donor levels. Only a few come from the valence band. Therefore, the
main charge carriers responsible for conduction are electrons contributed by the
donors. Thus, in an n-type semi-conductor the electrons are the “majority
carriers” and the holes are “minority carriers”.

Carrier concentration in Intrinsic Semiconductor:-

Calculation of density of electrons:-
Let dn be the number of electrons available between the energy ranges E and E  dE in
the conduction band is
dn  g ( E ) F ( E )dE ---------------------------- (1)

Where g ( E )dE is the density of electrons in the energy interval E and E  dE .we know

4 3 1

that g ( E )dE  3 (2m) E 2 dE

2
h
Since electron is moving in a periodic potential, its mass has to be replaced by its
effective mass me* and E starts at the bottom of the conduction band Ec , then

4 3 1
g ( E )dE  3 (2me ) ( E  Ec ) 2 dE
* 2

h
1
 c( E  Ec ) dE ------------------------------- (2)
2

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4 3

Where c  3 (2me )
* 2

h
In equation (1) F ( E ) is the probability occupancy of the electrons for a given energy
1
level E. i.e. F (E)  ------------------------- (3)
 E  EF 
1  exp 
 KT 
Now from equation (1),(2) and (3)
1
dn  c( E  Ec ) F ( E )dE 2

Now to obtain total number of electrons in the conduction band at any temperature we
have integrate equation (1) from Ec to Etop .
Etop 1
1
n  c ( E  Ec ) 2
 E  EF 
dE
Ec 1  exp  
 KT 

For all possible temperatures E  EF  KT , so that the term unity in the denominator is

neglected. Then
Etop 1
1
n  c( E  E ) c
2
 E  EF 
dE
Ec exp  
 KT 
Etop 1
 E  EF 

Ec
 c(E  E ) c
2
exp  
 KT 
 dE

In the above integral the upper limit is taken as infinity. Since the probability of
electrons occupying upper level of conduction band is zero at infinity.

 E  EF 
1
n   c( E  Ec ) exp  
2
 dE ---------------------- (4)
Ec  KT 

E  Ec
To solve this integral let us assume that x
KT
 E  Ec  kT x

dE  kT dx

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f E  Ec then x  0
and E   then x  
Now equation (4) becomes

 E  Ec  Ec  EF
1

n  c  ( E  Ec ) 2 exp    dE
Ec  KT 

 E  Ec   E  EF 
1
n  c  ( xKT ) 2 exp    exp   c dx ( KT )
0  KT   KT 

 E  EF   E  Ec 
3

x
1
n  c( KT ) 2 exp   c 2
exp   dx
 KT  0  KT 

 E  EF 
3

x
1
n  c( KT ) exp   c
2 2
e  x dx --------------------------- (5)
 KT  0

Simplifying above integral, we get

1
 1
2
x
x
2
e dx 
0
2

Now equation (5) becomes

1

 E  EF   2
3
n  c( KT ) exp   c
2

 KT  2

 12   Ec  EF 
4 3
 3
n  3 (2m ) ( KT )   e
* 2 
2 KT 
 e  
h  2 
 
3
2
 Ec  E F 
 2 m e kT    *

n  2 2  e
KT 

 h 
i.e. the number of electrons per unit volume of the material is given by
3
2
 Ec  EF 
 2  m e kT    *

n  2  e
KT 
------------------------- (6)
 h2 
Calculation of density of holes:-
Let dp be the number of holes available between the energy ranges E and E  dE in the
valence band is
dp  g ( E ) 1  F ( E )  dE ------------------------------ (7)

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Where g ( E )dE is the density of holes in the energy interval E and E  dE . We know that

4 3 1
g ( E ) dE  3
(2 m ) 2
E 2
dE
h
Since hole is moving in a periodic potential, its mass has to be replaced by its effective
mass mh* and Ev is the energy of the top of the valence band

4 3 1
g ( E )dE  (2 mh
* 2
) ( E v  E ) 2
dE
h3
1
 c( Ev  E ) 2 dE ------------------------------- (8)

4 3
Where c  (2 mh
* 2
)
h3
In equation (7) 1  F ( E )  is the probability of existence of holes in the valence band.

For all possible temperatures EF  E  KT , so that the term unity in the denominator is

neglected. Then
1
1 F (E) 
E E
exp  F  1
 KT 

 E E
1  F ( E ) = exp   F 
 KT 

Now equation (7) becomes

1
dp  c( Ev  E ) 2 1  F ( E )  dE

 E E
1
p  c ( Ev  E ) 2 exp   F  dE
 KT 

Now to obtain total number of holes in the valence band at any temperature we have
integrate equation (1) from Ev to  .

Ev 1
 E  EF 
p  c( E

v  E ) exp 
2

 KT 
 dE ------------------------ (9)

Now equation (9) becomes

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Ev
 E E E E
1
p   c(Ev  E)2 exp   F V V  dE
  KT 
Ev
 E  E   EF  EV 
1
p   c(Ev  E) exp   V
2
 exp    dE
  KT   KT 
Ev  E
To solve this integral let us assume that x
KT
 Ev  E  kT x

dE  kT ( dx)

 EF  EV  2  x
3 1

KT  0
p  c(kT ) exp  
2

 x e dx ----------------------------- (10)

Simplifying above integral, we get
1
 1
 2

x
0
2
e x dx 
2
Now equation (10)
 12 
 E  EV  
3

p  c (kT ) exp   F
2 
 
 KT  2 
 
3
 2 mh* KT  2  EF  EV 
p  2 2  exp   
 h   KT 

i.e. the number of holes per unit volume of the material is given by
3
 E F  EV 
 2 mh KT   
* 2
KT 
p  2  e ---------------------- (11
 h2 
Intrinsic carrier concentrations:-
In an intrinsic semiconductor n  p  ni is called intrinsic carrier concentration.
3
3 2
 E F  EV   Ec  E F 
 2 m h KT 
* 2  KT   2 m e kT    *
KT 
ni 2  np  2   e

2  e
 h2   h2 
3
3  Ec  EF  EF  EV 
 2 KT 
  mh me  e
2  
ni  np  4 
2
2
* *  KT 

 h 
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3
3  EC  EV 
 2 KT 
m 
2  
ni 2  4  2  h
*
me *
e  KT 

 h 
Where Ec  Ev  Eg is the forbidden energy gap.
3 3  Eg 
 2 KT  2   

  mh me  e
4
 2 KT 
Hence ni  2  2
* *

 h 
FERMI ENERGY:-
Since n = p in intrinsic semiconductor,
3
2
3
 Ec  EF   EF  EV 
 2 me kT   
*
  2 mh* KT  2   
2  e
KT 
 2  e
KT 

 h2   h2 
3
 Ec  EF  3  EF  EV 

m    mh 
*
2   KT  * 2   KT 
   
e e e
3
 Ec  EF   E F  EV 
     m  * 2
e  KT 
e  KT 
  h* 
 me 
3
 E F  EV  E c  E F 
  m  * 2
e  KT 
  h* 
 me 
3
 2 EF   EV  E c 
     m  * 2
e  KT 
e  KT 
  h* 
 me 
Apply the log on both sides
3
 2 EF   EV  E c 
 KT     m  * 2
e  
e  KT 
  h* 
 me 
3
2EF E  Ec  m  * 2
 V  lo g  h* 
KT KT  me 

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3  m h* 
2 E F  K T log  *    EV  E c 
2  me 
If we assume that me*  mh*

 E  Ec 
EF   v 
 2 
Thus Fermi level is located half way between the valence band and conduction bands
and its position is independent of temperature.

Carrier concentration in Extrinsic Semiconductor:

Carrier concentration in n- type semi-conductor: -

Consider an extrinsic semi-conductor doped with donor atoms. The donor atoms
give rise to donor levels Ed close to the conduction band Ec as shown in figure. Let N D

be the number of impurity atoms gives rise to a single electrons state at Ed . Then the

number of electrons in the energy level Ed would be

nd  g e  Ed  Fe  Ed  ----------------------------------- (1)

But, g e ( Ed )  N D represents the density of states and

1
Fe ( ED )  Ed  E F --------------------------------------- (2)
e kT
1
Substituting the above values in equation (1) we get
1
nd  N D Ed  EF ------------------------------ (3)
e kT
1
Total number of energy states per unit volume at Ed is N D . The total number of filled

energy state per unit volume at Ed is nd . The total number of vacant energy states per

unit volume at Ed is N D   N D  nd .
ND
From equation (3) N D  ND 
 E  EF 
1  exp  d 
 KT 

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 
 1 
N D  N D 1  
 1  exp  Ed  EF 
  
  KT 
  Ed  EF  
 exp  KT  
 ND    
 1  exp  Ed  EF  
  
  KT  
ND
N D  ------------------------------ (4)
 F  Ed 
E
exp   1
 KT 

The density of electrons per unit volume in the conduction band is given by
3/2 EF  Ec
 2 me* KT 
ne  2   e kT
---------------------------------- (5)
 h2 
Where EF = Energy of the Fermi level

EC = Energy corresponding to the bottom of the conduction band.

Density of empty donors (or) number of vacancies per unit volume in the donor
level of energy Ed is
N
ND  D
( E F  Ed ) ---------------------------------------- (6)
e KT
1
The concentration of electrons in conduction band must be equal to the number
of vacancies per unit volume in the donor level. Therefore, equating equations (5) and
(6)
3/ 2
 2 me* KT  EF  Ec
N
2  e KT
 D
( EF  Ed ) -------------------------------- (7)
 h2  e KT
1
If we suppose EF  Ed  kT . We can neglect 1 from the denominator of R.H.S. of

equation (7). Hence,

3/2 EF  Ec
 2 me* KT  N
2  e KT
 D
EF  Ec
 h2  e KT

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3/2 EF  Ec
 2 me* KT  ND
2 2  e KT
 EF  Ed
 h  e KT

3/2 EF  Ec ( Ed  E F )
 2 me* KT 
2  e KT
 N D .e KT

 h2 
Taking log on both sides, we get
 2 me* KT  EF  EC E  EF
log 2    log N D  d
 h2  KT KT

2 EF  Ec  Ed ND
 log 3/ 2
KT  2 me* KT 
2 
 h2 
ND
2 EF  Ec  Ed  KT .log 3/ 2
 2 me* KT 
2 
 h2 
ND
2 EF  Ec  Ed  KT .log 3/2
 2 me* KT 
2 
 h2 
EC  Ed KT ND
EF   .log 3/ 2 ----------------- (8)
2 2  2 me* KT 
2 
 h2 
Putting the value of EF from equation (8) in equation (5), we get

 Ed  Ec KT ND 
  .log 3/2
 Ec 
2 2  2 me* KT 
 2 
3/ 2
   
 2 me KT 
*
 h 2

ne  2   exp  
 h2   kT 
 
 
 
 
3/2  
 2 me* KT   Ed  Ec 1 ND EC 
= 2  exp   log 
 h2  2 KT 2  2 m *
KT 
3/ 2
KT 
 2 e 
 2  
  h  

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 
3/ 2  
 2 me KT 
*
 E  Ec 1 ND 
= 2  exp  d  log 3/2 
 h2  2 KT 2  2 me* KT 
 2 
  
  h2  
3/2 1/2 Ed  Ec
 2 me* KT   ND  1
ne  2     3/ 4
.e 2 KT

 h2   2   2 me* KT 
 
 h2 
3/ 4
 2 me* KT  
E
 ne   2 N D 
1/ 2
  e 2 KT
------------------------- (9)
 h2 
When E  Ec  Ed ionization energy of the donor.

The equation (8) at T = 0 k becomes

Ed  Ec
EF 
2
This shows that the Fermi level lies exactly halfway between the donor levels and the
bottom of conduction band as shown in figure. But when the temperature is increased
the Fermi level falls below the donor level and at high temperature the value of EF
Ec  Ev
becomes .
2
P- Type semi-conductor: -
1. When a trivalent impurity (boron, aluminum, gallium (or) indium) atom replaces a Ge
atom in the crystal lattice. Only three valence electrons are available to form covalent
bands with the neighboring Ge atoms.
2. This results into an empty space (or) a positive hole around the impurity atom. An
electron bound to a neighbouring Ge (or) Si atom drops into the hole, when an external
field is applied, thereby creating a new hole. This phenomenon continues and the hole
moves in the crystal lattice, acting as a positive charge – carrier. The crystal is called a p-
type semi-conductor because it has an excess of positive charge carriers. The impurity is
called an ‘acceptor’ because the impurity atoms create holes which accept electrons.
In the energy level diagram the trivalent impurity atoms introduce vacant discrete levels
just above the top of the valence band. There are called “acceptor impurity levels”.

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At room temperature, electrons are easily excited from the valence band into the
acceptor levels. The corresponding holes created in the valence band are the main
charge carries in the crystal when an electric field is applied.
Thus, in a p- type semi-conductor the holes are the majority carriers and few
electrons, thermally excited from the valence band into conduction band are minority
carriers.
Carrier Concentration p-type semi-conductor: -

Consider a semi-conductor doped with N A number of acceptor atoms per unit

volume. The acceptor atoms give rise to acceptor levels Ea slightly above the valence

band energy Ev as shown in figure.

If some of the atoms, let na get ionized by accepting electrons, then those atoms

are becoming negatively charged.

The number of such electrons na occupying energy level Ea would be

na  g e ( Ea ) Fe ( Ea )  N A  ----------------------------------- (1)

But g e ( Ea )  N A represents the density of states and

1
Fe ( E ) 
 E  EF 
1  exp  a 
 KT 
NA
na   N A  ------------------------------------ (2)
 E  E F 
1  exp  a 
 KT 

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Ea  EF
Since Ea  EF  KT , e KT
is a large quantity and thus 1 can be neglected from

denominator.
 Number of electrons per unit volume in acceptor level
EF  Ea
 N Ae kT
---------------------------------------------- (3)

Since we have neglected the effect of conduction band, the number of electrons in the
acceptor level is equal to the number of holes in valence band.
The density of holes per unit volume in the valence band is given by
3/2 Ev  EF
 2 mh* KT 
nh  2   e KT
----------------------------------- (4)
 h2 

Now, equating equation (3) and (4)

3/ 2 Ev  EF EF  Ea
 2 mh* KT 
2  e KT
 N A .e KT
------------------------------- (5)
 h2 
Taking log of both sides (5) we get
3/2
 2 mh* KT  Ev  EF E  Ea
log 2     log N A  F
 h2  KT KT
3/2
Ev  EF  EF  Ea  2 mh* KT 
 log N A  log 2  
KT  h2 
3/2
2 EF  ( Ea  Ev )  2 mh* KT 
  log N A  log 2  
KT  h2 
2 EF  ( Ea  Ev ) NA
  log 3/2
KT  2 mh* KT 
2 
 h2 
NA
2 EF  Ea  Ev  KT log 3/ 2
 2 mh* KT 
2 
 h2 
Ea  Ev KT NA
EF   log 3/2
--------------------------------- (6)
2 2  2 mh* KT 
2 
 h2 

Putting the values of EF from (6) in (4) we get

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 Ea  Ev KT NA 
 Ev  2  2 log 3/2 
  2 mh* KT  
3/ 2 2 
 2 mh* KT    h2  
nh  2  2  exp  
 h   KT 
 
 
 

 
3/2  
 2 mh* KT   Ev  Ea 1 NA 
nh  2   exp   log 3/2 
 h2  2kT 2  2 mh KT  
*
 2  
  h2  
3/2 1/2 Ev  Ea
 2 mh* KT   NA  1
 2    e 2 KT
3/4
 h2   2   2 mh* KT 
2 
 h2 
3/ 4 Ev  Ea
 2 mh* KT 
nh  (2 N A )  1/ 2
 e 2 KT

 h2 
If we put E  Ev  Ea we have
3/ 4
 2 mh* KT  E
nh  (2 N A )  1/2
 e 2 KT
-------------------------- (7)
 h2 
This represents the carrier concentration in P-type semiconductor.
At T = 0k, the form of equation (6) becomes
Ea  Ev
EF 
2
Hence, in this case, the Fermi level lies exactly halfway between the acceptor
levels and the top of valence band.
But when T increases the Fermi level rises.
Ea  Ev
At high temperature the value of EF becomes i.e., EF approaches the center of
2
band gap and crosses the acceptor level which makes the substance an intrinsic semi-
conductor.

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It is clear from equation (7) that density of the holes in the valence band is proportional
to the square root of the acceptor concentration.

Carrier transport:
Intrinsic Semiconductor:
At any temperature T the number of electrons generated will be equal to the number of
the holes produced. At this temperature T the charge carriers possess an average

velocity vth.

Drift:
If a potential difference is applied to the solid, the charge carriers will move. This
movement of the electrons and holes is the known as drift and the corresponding

velocity of the electrons is known as drift velocity (vd) .

The relation between dift velocity and current density is

 J  n e vd --------------- (1)

We know that the drift velocity is directly proportional to the applied electric field E

Therefore vd  E

 vd = E ---------------- (2)
 is mobility of the charges.
From the eq (1) & (2)

 J e  n e e E is the current density of the electrons.

And J p  p e  p E is the current density of the holes.

 e and  p are motilities of electron and holes respectively, and P is number of the

holes.

Therefore the total density is J  Je  J p

 J   n e e E    p e  p E 

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 J  eE  n  e + p  p  ------------- (7)
Comparing eq (7) and (5) we get

  e  n e + p  p 
In intrinsic semiconductors number of electron generated is equal to the number of

holes produced. Therefore n  p  ni

   e n i   e +  p  ----------------- (8)
This represents the carrier transport in intrinsic semiconductor.

Extrinsic Semiconductor:
In extrinsic semiconductor the carrier transport is the sum of the carrier transport of
n-type and p-type semiconductors.
Hence the carrier transport of n-type semiconductor can be given as

  e  n e + p  p 
Where nn and pn are number of electrons and holes in n-type semiconductor.

Diffusion:
The process by which, charge carriers (electrons and holes) in a semiconductor moves
from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration without any
external voltage is known as diffusion.
Or
Without external voltage there is a movement of charges provided a concentration
gradient of charges is exist, this is known as diffusion.
The current density due to the diffusion is directly proportional to the concentrate
gradient.
Therefore current density for n-type and p-type semiconductors are given as
dn dp
Jn  e Jp  e
dx dx

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dn dp
 J n = Dn e J n = - Dp e
dx dx

Therefore the total current density is J  J  Drift   J  Diffusion 

 dn 
 J n   n e e E    Dn e 
 dx 
 dn 
J n  e  n e E  Dn 
 dx 
dp
and J p  p e  p E  D p e
dx
 dp 
J p  e  p  p E  Dp 
 dx 

Variation of Fermi level with temperature

N-type Semiconductor
 In the n-type Semiconductor at low temperatures some donor atoms are
ionized and provide electrons to the conduction band. As electrons in the
conduction are only due to the transitions from donor level, the town level
must lie between the impurity donor level and bottom of the conduction
band.
 i.e. at T=0K ,EFn lies between the donor level and bottom of conduction
band.As the temperature increases the donor levels gradually depleted and
Fermi level moves downward

Ec  Ed
EFN  at T=0K
2

 At the temperature of complete depletion of donor level (Td). The Fermi

level coincides with donor level. Thus

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EFN  Ed at T=0K

As the temperature grows further Td, Fermi level shifts downward. At a

temperature Ti, intrinsic process contributes to electron concentration. At higher
temperatures, n-type semiconductor loses its intrinsic character and behaves as
an intrinsic semiconductor

Variation of fermi level with temperature in a P- type semiconductor.

In case of P-type semiconductor, in the low temperature region holes in the

valence band are only due to the transition of electrons from valence band to
acceptor levels. So, T = OK Fermi level lies midway between the acceptor levels
and the top of the valence band.
EV  Ea
EFp  at T=0K
2
As temperature increases the acceptor levels gradually gets filled and the Fermi
level moves upward. At the temperature of saturation is, the Fermi devil coincides
with the acceptor level Ea
EFp  Ea at T=Ts
As the temperature grows above Ts, the Fermi level shifts upward. At a
temperature Ti, intrinsic behaviour set in. At higher temperature P-type

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semiconductor loses its intrinsic character and behaves as an intrinsic

semiconductor.
EV  Ea
EFP  EFi = T=Ti
2

Variation of Fermi level with impurity concentration

N-type
 The addition of donor impurity to an intrinsic semiconductor leads to the
formation of discrete donor level below the conduction. At low impurity
concentration, the impurity atoms are distantly spaced from one another.
Therefore they do not interact with each other.
 With increase of impurity concentration, the separation between impurity
atoms decreases and they torn as an energy band below conduction band.
The larger the doping concentration, the broader is the impurity band.
 The broadening of donor level into band is accompanied by a decrease in
the width of the forbidden gap and also by the upward displacement of
Fermi level.
 The Fermi level shifts closer and closer to the conduction band with
increasing impurity concentration. Finally moves into the conduction band
when donor band overlaps on the conduction band.

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P-Semiconductor
In P-type semiconductor, the acceptor levels broaden and form into a band with
increasing impurity concentration. The acceptor band ultimately overlaps on the
valence band. The Fermi level moves down closer to the valence band and finally
at very high impurity concentration it will shifts into valence band.
HALL EFFECT:

When a current carrying material or semiconductor is placed in a transverse magnetic

field then a potential difference is developed across the semiconductor which is
mutually perpendicular to both the electric and magnetic fields. This phenomenon is
known as Hall Effect.
The voltage produced in this phenomenon is known as Hall Voltage (VH)

From the Lorentz force FL  e E --------------- (1)

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E ---- is Applied electric field

e ---- is charge of the electron or hole
The magnetic force acting on the charges is given as

FB  B e vd ------------- (2)

B ---- is magnetic field vd is drift velocity

From eq (1) and (2) we get e EH  B e vd

 EH  B vd --------- (3)
The applied electric field EH is written as

VH
EH  ----------- (4)
d
VH is Hall Voltage and d is thickness of the sample.
VH
From the above equations we get  B vd
d
 VH  B vd d ---------- (5)
Due to the Hall field there will be development of current density J

J  n e vd
J
 vd  --------- (6)
ne
J
Therefore VH  B d --------- (7)
ne
I I
But we know the current density J in terms of current is J  J  ------- (8)
A dw
Where A  d w

d is thickness of the sample and w is width of the sample.

Substitute the equations (6) and (7) in (5) we get

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I  1 
VH  B  d
d wn e

BI 1 
VH    -------- (9)
w n e
This equation represents the Hall Voltage.

Hall Coefficient (RH):

It can be defined as it is the ration of the electric field across the semiconductor to the
current density per unit volume per unit magnetic field.
EH
i.e., RH 
J B
V  1
i.e., RH   H  From equation (4)
 d J B
Substitute the value of VH from eq (7) in the above equation
J 1
RH  B d
dne J B
1
 RH 
ne
This equation represents the Hall coefficient.

Applications of Hall Effect:

Hall Effect is a very useful phenomenon and helps to

Determine the Type of Semiconductor:
By knowing the direction of the Hall Voltage, one can determine that the given sample is
whether n-type semiconductor or p-type semiconductor. This is because Hall coefficient
is negative for n-type semiconductor while the same is positive in the case of p-type
semiconductor.

if RH  ve it is n-type semiconductor and if RH   ve it is p-type semiconductor.

Calculate the Carrier Concentration:

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The expressions for the carrier concentrations of electrons (n) and holes (p) in terms of

1 1
Hall coefficient are given by n  and p 
e RH e RH
Determine the Mobility (Hall Mobility):
Mobility expression for the electrons (μn) and the holes (μp), expressed in terms of Hall

coefficient is given by, n   n RH and  p   p RH

Where, σn and σp represent the conductivity due to the electrons and the holes,
respectively.
Measure Magnetic Flux Density:
This equation can be readily deduced from the equation of Hall voltage and is given by

BI 1  VH w
VH    B R I
w n e H

Further, there are many commercially available types of equipment based on the
principle of Hall effect including Hall-effect sensors and Hall-effect probes.

Generation and recombination

 In a semiconductor a single covalent bond breaking leads to the generation

of charges. An electron in the conduction band and a hole in the valence
band
Covalent bond + Thermal energy → (electron + hole) Pair
This Process is known as electron-hole Pain Thermal energy is one of the
agent which causes Pair generation another agent is optical illumination.
 After generation the charge carriers move independently and randomly as
long as no eternal electric field is applied. The electrons in conduction band
may lose its energy due to collision with other Particles in the lattice and
fall into valence band. When a free electron fall into valence band it merges
with hole. This process is called recombination.
Electron + hole → covalent band-1 energy

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 At a steady temperature a dynamic equilibrium crusts which balances the

two process of electron-hole generation and recombination. When a
Semiconductor material is invited with optical radiation, electron-hole Pairs
are generated.

Formation a PN junction:-

 A P-N junction is formed by joining P-type and N-type semiconductors to

gather in very close contact. The term junction refers to the boundary
interface where two regions of the semiconductor meet.
 In N- type the “donor” ion is represented by plus sign because, after this
impurity atom donates an electron it becomes a positive ion and in P-type
acceptor ion is indicated by minus sign because, after this atom accepts an
electron, it becomes a negative ion. This p-n junction forms a most popular
semiconductor device known as diode.

 There is a large concentration of holes in the P-type material and a large

concentration of electrons in the N-type material. Because there is density
gradient across the junction, holes will initially diffuse to the right across the
junction, and electron to left. The flow of holes from P-region results a
negatively charge acceptor ions and flow of electrons from N-region leaves

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positively charged donor ions.

 The unneutralized ions in the neighborhood of the junction are referred to as

“uncovered charges”. Since the region of the junction is depleted of mobile
charges, it is called depletion region, the space-charge region or transition
region.

 Once pn junction is formed and depletion layer created, the diffusion of free
electrons stops. The positive and negative charges set up an electric field.
 The electric field is a barrier to the free electrons in the n-region. There exists a
potential difference across the depletion layer and is called barrier potential
(V0). The barrier potential of a pn junction depends upon several factors
including the type of semiconductor material, the amount of doping and
temperature

Energy band diagram of Pn-Junction diode

 The energy band diagram of the individual p- and n-semiconductors is

shown in figure. The Fermi levels are different EFP and EFn are different
levels.

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 By joining two semiconductors the Fermi levels are not aligned. The
concentration of electrons are in conduction band on n-side is high
compared to p-side, so electrons will diffuse from conduction in n-side to p-
side. Similarly holes from will diffuse from valance band in p-side to valance
band in n-side.

 In n-side as high energy electrons leaves n-region, causes downward shift of

the entire band structure in n-region. On the p-side holes having higher
energy leave the valence band in that region causes entire band structure
in p-region shifts upward. The shifting of energy bands continues till the
energy levels EFP and EFn attain the same level.

The below figure shows the energy band diagram of pn-junction in

equilibrium.

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This shifting causes a potential barrier V0 or energy hill of energy eV0 . Now the
electron in n-region face an energy hill called conduction hill to go to conduction
band in p-region. Similarly holes from valence band from p-region face valence hill
to go to valence band in n-region.

I-V Characteristics of PN Junction:

The V-I characteristics or voltage-current characteristics of the p-n junction diode is
shown in the graph. X-axis represents the voltage applied across the p-n junction diode
whereas Y-axis represents the current flows in the p-n junction diode.
Forward Bias:
If the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type semiconductor and the
negative terminal of the battery is connected to the n-type semiconductor, the diode is
said to be in forward bias. In forward biased p-n junction diode, VF represents the
forward voltage whereas IF represents the forward current.

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When the external voltage applied on the diode, then it starts allowing large electric
current through it. At this point, a small increase in voltage increases the electric current
rapidly.
The forward voltage at which the diode starts allowing large electric current is called
cut-in voltage.
Reverse biasing:-
If the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type semiconductor and the
positive terminal of the battery is connected to the n-type semiconductor, the diode is
said to be in reverse bias.
In reverse biased p-n junction diode, VR represents the reverse voltage whereas IR
represents the reverse current.

If the external reverse voltage applied on the p-n junction diode is increased, the free
electrons from the n-type semiconductor and the holes from the p-type semiconductor
are moved away from the p-n junction. This increases the width of depletion region.

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Then it does not allow the majority charge carriers but it allows the minority charge
carrier current.

The free electrons (minority carriers) in the p-type semiconductor and the holes
(minority carriers) in the n-type semiconductor carry the electric current. The electric
current, which is carried by the minority charge carriers in the p-n junction diode, is
called reverse current.
In n-type and p-type semiconductors, very small number of minority charge carriers is
present. Hence, a small voltage applied on the diode pushes all the minority carriers
towards the junction. Thus, further increase in the external voltage does not increase
the electric current. This electric current is called reverse saturation current.

Zener Diode:
 It is a special Purpose diode, named after the inventor C- Zener.
 A Zener diode is a P-n junction Semiconductor device designed to operate in the
reverse breakdowns region.
 The breakdown voltage of a Zener diode is carefully set by controlling the doping
level during manufacture.
 Due to higher temperature and current capability, silicon is preferred in
comparison to germanium. The Symbol of Zener diode is shown in fig

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 Zener diode is heavily doped than the normal p.n Junction. Hence, it has very
thin depletion region. Therefore, Zener diodes allow more electric current than
the normal P-n junction diodes.
 Zener diodes are widely used in voltage- regulation circuits

Breakdown in Zener diode

There are two types of reverse breakdown regions in a zener diode:

1. Avalanche breakdown and

2. Zener breakdown.

1. Avalanche breakdown

 The avalanche breakdown occurs in both normal diodes and zener diodes at high
reverse voltage. When high reverse voltage is applied to the p-n junction diode,
the free electrons (minority carriers) gains large amount of energy and
accelerated to greater velocities.

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 The free electrons moving at high speed will collides with the atoms and knock
off more electrons. These electrons are again accelerated and collide with other
atoms.
 Because of this continuous collision with the atoms, a large number of free
electrons are generated. As a result, electric current in the diode increases
rapidly. This sudden increase in electric current may permanently destroys the
normal diode.
 However, avalanche diodes may not be destroyed because they are carefully
designed to operate in avalanche breakdown region. Avalanche breakdown
occurs in zener diodes with zener voltage (Vz) greater than 6V.
2. Zener breakdown

 The zener breakdown occurs in heavily doped p-n junction diodes because of
their narrow depletion region. When reverse biased voltage applied to the diode
is increased, the narrow depletion region generates strong electric field.
 When reverse biased voltage applied to the diode reaches close to zener voltage,
the electric field in the depletion region is strong enough to pull electrons from
their valence band.

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 The valence electrons which gains sufficient energy from the strong electric field
of depletion region will breaks bonding with the parent atom. The valance
electrons which break bonding with parent atom will become free electrons.
 These free electrons carry electric current from one place to another place. At
zener breakdown region, a small increase in voltage will rapidly increases the
electric current.
V-I characteristics of Zener diode
 When reverse biased voltage is applied to a zener diode, it allows only a small
amount of leakage current until the voltage is less than zener voltage. When
reverse biased voltage applied to the zener diode reaches zener voltage, it starts
allowing large amount of electric current.
 At this point, a small increase in reverse voltage will rapidly increase the electric
current. Because of this sudden rise in electric current, breakdown occurs called
zener breakdown. However, zener diode exhibits a controlled breakdown that
does damage the device.
 When reverse biased voltage is applied to a zener diode, it allows only a small
amount of leakage current until the voltage is less than zener voltage. When
reverse biased voltage applied to the zener diode reaches zener voltage, it starts
allowing large amount of electric current.
 At this point, a small increase in reverse voltage will rapidly increase the electric

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current. Because of this sudden rise in electric current, breakdown occurs called
zener breakdown. However, zener diode exhibits a controlled breakdown that
does damage the device.

Bipolar Junction Transistors:

 A transistor consists of two pn junctions formed by sandwiching either p-type or
n-type semiconductor between a pair of opposite types. Accordingly; there are
two types of transistors, namely; (i) n-p-n transistor (ii) p-n-p transistor.
 An n-p-n transistor is composed of two n-type semiconductors separated by a
thin section of p-type as shown in Fig. (i). However, a p-n-p transistor is formed
by two p-sections separated by a thin section of n-type as shown in Fig. (ii).

 A transistor (pnp or npn) has three sections of doped semiconductors. The

section on one side is the emitter and the section on the opposite side is the
collector. The middle section is called the base and forms two junctions between

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the emitter and collector.

Emitter: Emitter is heavily doped and has moderate region. It supplies or provides the
majority carriers i.e holes in P-region and electrons in N- region. The emitter is always
forward biased w.r.t. base so that it can supply a large number of majority carriers.
Base: The middle section which forms two pn-junctions between the emitter and
collector is called the base. The base-emitter junction is forward biased, allowing low
resistance for the emitter circuit. The base-collector junction is reverse biased and
provides high resistance in the collector circuit.
Collector: it has got wider region (high region) and is moderately doped. The collector is
always reverse biased. It collects the majority charge carriers from the emitter after
recombination in Base region.
Transistor Symbols:

1. Always emitter is indicated by an arrowhead

2. It always shows direction of the conventional current flow i.e P to N
3. The arrowhead shows the type of the transistor.
4. It always shows the emitter location.

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Formation of Depletion layer:

When no battery is connected between different terminals of transistor, then it is said
to be unbiased transistor.

In NPN transistor diffusion of electrons from N side to P side and diffusion of holes from
P side to N side takes place, as a result of which depletion layer is formed as shown in
figure.

The width of the depletion layer depends on the doping level in the semiconductor. It
penetrates deeply into lightly doped regions and penetrates less in collector and emitter
regions. Due to formation of depletion layer barrier potentials are formed. Barrier
potentials are negative on base and positive on emitter and collector in NPN transistor.
Working of transistor (BJT):
P-N-P transistor:
One of the P-region in P-N-P transistor is connected in forward bias at EB Junction and
another is in connected in reverse bias at CB Junction. From emitter (p region) a lot of
holes crossover to the base region (n region).

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As base lightly doped with n-type, hence few of holes only recombine with electrons
and causes IB current is very small.

95% of remaining holes cross over into the collector region to constitute a collector
current IC.

 I E  I B  IC
N-P-N transistor:
One of the N-region in N-P-N transistor is connected in forward bias at EB Junction and
another is in connected in reverse bias at CB Junction. From emitter (N- region) a lot of
electrons crossover to the base region (P-region).
As base lightly doped with P-type, hence few of electrons only recombine with holes and
causes IB current which is very small.

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95% of remaining electrons cross over into the collector region to constitute a collector
current IC.

 I E  I B  IC

In BJT, the junction consisting of forward bias has low resistance due to narrow junction,
and the junction consisting of reverse bias has high resistance due to wider junction.
Hence in the transistors the transfer of the resistance is takes place.
In BJT, the current flow through the junctions is due to both majority and minority
charge carriers, hence it is known as bipolar transistors.

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