EENG 591 Opto Electronics Lecture Notes, Chuka University 1

Week 6
Semiconductor Laser Diodes (SLDs)
Laser Diodes: Comparing LEDs and Laser Diodes
LEDs are based on spontaneous emission, and have
1. A broad output beam that is hard to capture and focus
2. A relatively broad spectral profile
3. Low to moderate overall efficiency
4. Moderate to high speed (≈ 1/tmin)
Laser Diodes are based on stimulated emission, and have the opposite characteristics
1. Narrow, highly directed output
2. Sharp, narrow emission spectrum
3. High differential and overall efficiency
4. High to very high speed
Stimulated emission occurs when a passing photon triggers the recombination of an electron and hole,
with emission of a second photon with the same frequency (energy), momentum, and phase.
Laser diodes: achieving stimulated gain
To understand what is necessary to obtain net optical gain, rather than net absorption, we consider optical
transitions between two levels in a solid (E1 and E2), and we look at three transitions occurring with the
absorption or emission of photons:
Laser Diodes: Comparing LEDs and Laser Diodes
LEDs are based on spontaneous emission, and have
1. A broad output beam that is hard to capture and focus
2. A relatively broad spectral profile
3. Low to moderate overall efficiency
4. Moderate to high speed (≈ 1/tmin)
Laser Diodes are based on stimulated emission, and have the opposite characteristics
1. Narrow, highly directed output
2. Sharp, narrow emission spectrum
3. High differential and overall efficiency
4. High to very high speed
Stimulated emission occurs when a passing photon triggers the recombination of an electron and hole,
with emission of a second photon with the same frequency (energy), momentum, and phase.
Laser diodes: achieving stimulated gain
To understand what is necessary to obtain net optical gain, rather than net absorption, we consider optical
transitions between two levels in a solid (E1 and E2), and we look at three transitions occurring with the
absorption or emission of photons:
1. from E1 to E2 due to absorption
2. from E2 to E1 due to spontaneous emission
3. from E2 to E1 due to stimulated emission
We model the rate of each process using the Einstein A and B coefficients, and then find when the
probability is higher that a photon passing will stimulate emission than be absorbed.
Laser diodes: achieving stimulated gain
In a semiconductor we consider one state, E1, to be in the valence band, and the other, E2 to be in the
conduction band:
EENG 591 Opto Electronics Lecture Notes, Chuka University 2

The rates these processes occur depend on the populations:

 Absorption rate, Rab: photon pop. x E1 pop. x E2 empty state pop.
 Spontaneous emission rate, Rsp: E2 pop. x E1 empty state pop.
 Stimulate emission rate, Rst: E2 pop. x E1 empty state pop. x photon pop.
Laser diodes: achieving stimulated gain
Absorption rate:
Rab =B12 . f 1 . N v ( E 1) . ( 1−f 2 ) . N c ( E2 ) . ρ p (E 2−E1 )
where B12: transition probability for absorption
N v : valence band density of states at E1
N c : conduction band density of states at E2
ρ p (E 2−E1 ): density of photons with correct energy
f 1: Fermi function evaluated at E1.
f i=1/ ( e E −E +1 )
i fi

where E fi: quasi-Fermi level for level i

Spontaneous emission rate:
R sp=A 21 . f 2 . N c ( E 2 ) . ( 1−f 1 ) . N v (E1 )
Laser diodes: achieving stimulated gain
In the last equation we introduced:
A21: transition probability for spontaneous emission
Stimulated emission rate:
R st =B21 . f 2 . N c ( E 2 ) . ( 1−f 1 ) . N v ( E1 ) . ρ p (E2−E 2)
Where
B21: transition probability for stimulated emission
Note, finally, that in these expressions the Fermi function is evaluated either in the conduction band (i =
2) or valence band (i =1):
1 1
f 1= E1− Efv
, f 2= E1 −Ef c
e +1 e +1
The coefficients, A1 2, B1 2 and B21 are related, as we can see by looking at the thermal equilibrium,
where.
3
8 π r0 2 1
Rab =R sp + Rst , E fv=E fc , ρ p ( Ei )= 3 3
Ei
h c (e Ei /kT
−1 )
Proceeding forward, we find:
3 2
8 π r0 E i
B12=B 21, ∧ A21= 3 3
B 21
h c
EENG 591 Opto Electronics Lecture Notes, Chuka University 3

Now we are ready to find the condition for optical gain, which we take as when the probability of
stimulated emission is greater than that for absorption. Looking back at our equations, we find R sp > R ab
leads to:
B21 . f 2 N c . ( 1−f 1 ) N v . ρ p ( E2−E 1) > B12 . f 1 N v . ( 1−f 2 ) N c . ρ p ( E 2−E1 )
Canceling equivalent terms yields:
f 2 ( 1−f 1 ) > f 1 ( 1−f 2 )
And substituting the appropriate Fermi function gives as:
E fc−E fv >(E ¿ ¿ 2−E1)=hv ≥ E g ¿
Our conclusion is that we will have net optical gain, i.e., more stimulated emission than absorption, when
we have the quasi-Fermi levels separated by more than the band gap. This in turn requires high doping
and current levels. It is the equivalent of population inversion in a semiconductor:
E fc−E fv > E g
Working of Semiconductor Laser Diode
The quantum electronics concepts common to all lasers are combined in the semiconductor laser with a
pn junction that is typical of many semiconductor devices.
Semiconductor laser action relies upon the inter-band recombination of charge carriers (electrons and
holes) and the subsequent liberation of photons.
Forward bias makes possible a diffusion and drift of carriers across the junction.
In a narrow depletion region, electron-holes pairs can recombine either radiatively or nonradiatively.
When the current through the junction exceeds a critical value, a population inversion is achieved and the
rate of photon emission due to carrier recombination exceeds the rate of absorption due to carrier
generation.
Radiative transition takes place between the conduction and valence bands.
Optical transitions are between a continuous band of states within the valence and conduction bands.
Higher concentration of electronic states in the bands ⟹potential for higher optical gain in a diode laser.
Excited eh pairs are transported through the material by conduction or diffusion leading to a spatial
variation of the optical mode through the stimulated emission.
The transition from the conduction band to the valence one should be radiative and yield a photon with
energy hv= E2−E1 .
Conservation of both the energy and wave vector.
Direct band-gap semiconductors required for radiative recombination.
Net stimulated emission or optical gain: E fn −Efp >hv .
This condition is necessary, but not sufficient: to achieve lasing, the stimulated emission rate must be
sufficient to overcome various loss mechanisms
Optical Transmitter
Convert electrical signals into optical signals. Optical transmitters can be light emitting diodes (LEDs)
or lasers. When selecting fiber optic transmitters, you can consider performance specifications like data
rate, transmitter rise time, wavelength, spectral width, and maximum optical output power.
Optical transmitter is an optical transceiver that realizes electro-optical conversion. It consists of a light
source, a driver and a modulator. Its function is to modulate the light wave emitted by the light source
from the electric signal from the electric terminal to become a modulated light wave, and then couple the
modulated light signal to the optical fiber or cable for transmission.
EENG 591 Opto Electronics Lecture Notes, Chuka University 4

In the FOC system, the light source like an LED or laser diode is used as a transmitter. The main function
of a light source like LED / Laser is to change an electrical signal into the light signal. These light sources
are small semiconductor devices which efficiently converts electrical signal to light signal. These light
sources require connections of power supply and modulation circuitry. All these are generally connected
within one IC package. The best example of the transmitter LED is HFBR 1251. This kind of LEDs
requires an external driver circuit. Here we IC 75451can be used for driving the light source.
Transmitter Specifications
 Type of LED is DC coupled
 Interface connectors are 2mm socket
 The wavelength of source is 660nm
 Supply current is a maximum of 100 mA
 A serial port is Max232 IC Driver
 Type of input signal is digital data
 The LED driver is on board IC Driver
 The interface of LED is self-locking Cap
 Highest input voltage is +5V
 Data rate speed is 1 Mbps
 Supply Voltage is +15V DC
Sources of Fiber Optic Transmitter
The fiber optic transmitter uses sources based on several criteria’s like diodes, DFB laser, FP lasers,
VCSEL, etc. The main function of these sources is to changes from an electrical signal to an optical
signal. All these are semiconductor devices.
The LEDs & VCSELs are made-up on semiconductor wafers to produce light from the outside of the
chip, whereas f-p laser emits from the surface of the chip as of a laser cavity formed within the center of
the chip.
EENG 591 Opto Electronics Lecture Notes, Chuka University 5

optical-transmitters-and-receivers-block-diagram
The outputs of LEDs have low-power outputs compare with lasers. The bandwidth of LEDs is less
compare with lasers Due to the fabrication methods of LEDs & VCSELs, they are inexpensive to build.
But lasers are expensive due to the laser cavity within the device.
Specifications of Different Fiber Optic Sources
The different fiber optic sources are LED, Fabry-Perot Laser, DFB Laser, and VCSEL
For LED
 Wavelength in nm is 850, 1300
 Power into Fiber in dBm is -30 to -10
 Bandwidth is <250 MHz
 Type of Fiber is MM
For Fabry-Perot Laser
 Wavelength in nm is 850, 1310 (1280-1330), 1550 (1480-1650)
 Power into Fiber in dBm is 0 to +10
 Bandwidth is >10 GHz
 Types of Fibers are MM, SM
For DFB Laser
 Wavelength in nm is 1550 (1480-1650)
 Power into Fiber in dBm is 0 to +25
 Bandwidth is >10 GHz
 Type of Fiber is SM
For VCSEL
 Wavelength in nm is 850
 Power into Fiber in dBm is -10 to 0
 Bandwidth is >10 GHz
 Type of Fiber is MM
Optical Fiber
An optical fiber is the transmission medium within FOC systems. Here, optical fiber is the crystal clear
and stretchy filament which transmits the light from a transmitter end to a receiver end. When the optical
signal enters at the transmitter end of fiber then optical communication system transmits to the end of the
receiver using the optical fiber.
EENG 591 Opto Electronics Lecture Notes, Chuka University 6

Optical receivers
Convert optical signals back into electrical signals. At the receiver, the optical signal is converted back
into the electrical signals using a photodiode. Optical receiver is an optical transceiver that realizes
optical/electrical conversion. The optical transceiver consists of an optical detector and an optical
amplifier. Its function is to convert the optical signal transmitted by the optical fiber or optical cable into
an electrical signal by the photodetector, and then restore it to the electrical signal before transmission
after being processed by the amplifier.

In the FOC system, a photodetector can be used as a receiver. The main function of the receiver is to
change an optical data signal back to an electrical signal. This is a semiconductor photodiode in
photodetector in current FOC system. This is a small device generally fabricated jointly with electrical
circuitry to form an IC package to offer connections like power supply & signal amplification. The best
example of the receiver photodetector is HFBR 2521. This kind of photodiode includes driver circuit so it
doesn’t require an external driver circuit.
Receiver Specifications
 Type of photodiode is DC coupled
 The interface connector is 2mm socket
 The wavelength of diode ranges from 660nm to 850nm
 The maximum current supply is 50mA
 The speed of data rate is 5 Mbps
 Index of fiber cladding is 1.402
 The interface of the photodiode is the self-locking cap
 The optical cable is plastic fiber multimode
 Receiver driver is internal diode driver
 The serial port is Max232 IC Driver
Thus, this is all about optical transmitters and receivers. The fiber optic source used in the transmitter is
LED otherwise laser source & electronics for signal conditioning is mainly used for adding a signal into
fiber. The receiver in fiber optic captures the light signal from a FOC, and decodes the binary information
and transmits it into an electrical signal.
The data can be transmitted from an LED source to a transmitter through an electrical signal. After that, it
takes the binary information & transmits it in the direction of a light signal. The light signal can be
transmitted by means of FOC until it arrives at the receiver. Then the receiver receives a light signal to
decode it back to an electrical signal to allow the binary information to be studied by the operator. A
transceiver of FOC is one kind of device which unites both the transmitter & receiver functions.