INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

PHN-513: Semiconductor Devices and Applications

Department of Physics

I.I.T. Roorkee

Autumn: 2020-21
Equilibrium Carrier Concentration in a Semiconductor

Equilibrium electron concentration: no

Equilibrium hole concentration: po
Intrinsic semiconductors: no = po = ni
Extrinsic semiconductors:
no >> po for n-type (Electrons are majority carriers, holes are
minority carriers)
po >> no for p-type (Holes are majority carriers, electrons are
minority carriers)

Derivation of expressions for no and po

 Density of states: N(E) (Free electron theory of metal)

 Fermi-Dirac distribution function: F(E)

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 Free electron theory of metals
According to free electron model of metals, the valence electrons of the constituent atoms
become conduction electrons and move about freely through the volume of the metal.
Consider electrons are confined to a cube of edge L. For free electrons potential energy V=0.
Schrodinger equation for a free electron of mass m is given by

Periodic boundary conditions: Ψ(x+L,y,z) =ψ(x,y,z), Ψ(x,y+L,z) =ψ(x,y,z), Ψ(x,y,z+L) =ψ(x,y,z)

Wavefunctions satisfying the free particle Schrodinger equation and the periodic boundary
are of the form of a travelling plane wave:
|k|= 2π/λ
provided that the components of wavevector k satisfy
Kx , ky , kz = 2nπ/L, n =0, ±1, ±2,------, ms = ± 1/2
Energy of a state with wavevector k is given by

Momentum p=ħk Pauli exclusion principle

Fermi energy N= Number of electrons

Fermi wavevector
In volume V.
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Number of states in a sphere of radius k is given by

N‘ = 2x [(4πk3/3)/(2π/L)3 , E =ħ2k2/2m
Density of states (N(E)): Number of states per unit
volume and per unit energy range

N(E) = (1/L3)dN'/dE = . . E1/2

Number of states per unit volume in the energy range

dE at energy E = N(E)dE

Electrons are Fermions and obey Fermi-Dirac

distribution.

Number of electrons per unit volume in the energy

range dE at energy E, dn(E) = N(E)F(E)dE

F(E) = Fermi-Dirac distribution function

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 Fermi-Dirac distribution function
F(E) = 1/[exp(E-EF)/kT +1] Probability of occupancy of a state of
energy E by an electron at temperature T.
EF = Energy of Fermi-level
At T = 0 K
1-F(E)
F(E) = 1 for E<EF , F(E) = 0 for E >EF
At T > 0 K
F(E) = ½ for E = EF
1- F(E) Probability of
unoccupancy of a state of energy E
by an electron, i.e. a state of
energy E is empty.
The Fermi-Dirac function is
symmetrical about EF for all
Temperatures. 0K
F(EF+ΔE) = 1 – F(EF- ΔE)
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 Fermi-Dirac distribution function to semiconductors

Position of Fermi-level in the band gap of semiconductor

As there are no available state at E in the band gap of a semiconductor,

there is no probability of finding an electron there.

F(EC ) [1-F(EV)]
F(EC )
EF
EF
EF

Intrinsic semiconductor n-type semiconductor p-type semiconductor

no=po no>>po po>>no
Fermi-level lies at the Fermi-level lies near the Fermi-level lies near to
center of band gap conduction band valence band

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 Electron and Hole concentration at equilibrium
Density of states at energy E is
N(E) = (1/2π2). (2m/ħ2)3/2.E1/2
Density of states at energy E in the
conduction band:

NC(E) = (1/2π2). (2mn*/ħ2)3/2.(E-EC)1/2

Where mn* is the effective mass of
an electron in the conduction band and
E ≥ EC .

Density of states at energy E in the

valence band: NC(E) NC(E)F(E)

NV(E) = (1/2π2). (2mp*/ħ2)3/2.(EV-E)1/2

NV(E)[1-F(E)]
NV(E)
Where mp* is the effective mass of NV(E), NC(E)
a hole in the conduction band and E ≤ EV . Equilibrium concentration of holes in the
Equilibrium concentration of electrons in the valence band in the energy range E and
conduction band in the energy range E and E+dE is E+dE is dp = N (E). [1-F(E)].dE
o V
dno = NC(E). F(E).dE
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 EF-E ≥ 3kT
E-EF ≥ 3kT

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Nondegenerate semiconductor: If the Fermi level EF is at least 3kT above EV
or 3kT below EC, (EC-EF ≥ 3kT or EF-EV ≥ 3kT) the semiconductor is referred to as a
nondegenerate semiconductor. In this case, the electron or hole concentration is
much smaller than the effective density of states in the conduction band or the
valence band, respectively.
The expressions no = NC exp[-(EC-EF)/kT] and po =NV exp[-(EF-EV)/kT] are applicable
to nondegenerate semiconductors.

Degenerate Semiconductor: When the doping concentration becomes equal

or larger than the corresponding effective density of states, the semiconductor is
referred to as a degenerate semiconductor. For degenerate semiconductor, i.e.
heavily doped n-type or p-type semiconductor, EF will be above EC (for n-type) or
below EV (for p-type).

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 Equilibrium carrier concentrations
no = NC. Exp[-(EC – EF)/kT ], NC = 2. (2πmn*kT/h2)3/2 EC
Eg
po =NV . Exp[-(EF-EV)/kT], NV = 2. (2πmp*kT/h2)3/2
EV
no. po = NC.NV.exp[-(EC-EV)/kT] = NC.NV. Exp[-Eg / kT], Eg = EC-EV
For intrinsic semiconductor, EF lies at some intrinsic level Ei near the middle of the
EC
band gap.
Ei
The intrinsic electron and hole concentrations are
EV
ni = NC. exp[-(EC – Ei)/kT ], pi =NV . exp[-(Ei-EV)/kT ],
ni. pi = NC.NV. Exp[-Eg/kT]
For intrinsic semiconductor ni = pi . Ei = (EV + Eg /2) + (¾) kT.ln(mp*/mn*)
Intrinsic carrier concentration:
ni = (NC.NV)1/2.exp[-Eg / 2kT]

no. po = ni2 : Mass action law. This is valid for both intrinsic and
extrinsic semiconductors under thermal equilibrium.
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The electron and hole concentrations can also be expressed in
terms of the intrinsic carrier concentration, ni and the intrinsic
Fermi-level Ei.
no = NC. Exp[-(EC – EF)/kT ] = NC. exp[-(EC-Ei)/kT].exp[(EF-Ei)/kT]

no = ni . exp[(EF-Ei)/kT]
Similarly, po = ni. exp[(Ei-EF)/kT]
Ei = (EV + Eg /2) + (¾) kT.ln(mp*/mn*)
EC EC
EF
Ei Ei
EF
EV EV
n-type p-type

Prob.: Consider Si doped with donor impurity concentration ND = 1016 cm-3.

Take ni = 1.5 x1010 cm-3 at T=300 K for Si. Calculate EF-Ei and po.
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Position of Fermi-level as a function of impurity concentration
and temperature.

[Semiconductor Devices: Physics and Technology by S. M. Sze]

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Temperature dependence of carrier concentrations
Intrinsic carrier concentration

Here exponential temperature dependence

dominates ni(T).

Doped semiconductors (extrinsic semiconductors)

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 Compensation and space charge neutrality
Suppose a semiconductor contains both donors and acceptors.
ND = Concentration of donors
NA = Concentration of acceptors

 ND > NA : n-type material

 NA > ND : p-type material
 ND = NA : Intrinsic
Space charge neutrality
For material to remain electrostatically neutral, the sum of
positive charges (holes and ionized donor atoms) must ND > NA
balance the sum of negative charges (electrons and ionized Compensation in an
acceptor atoms). n-type semiconductor
po + ND+ = no + NA-
If ND+ > NA- , semiconductor is n-type.
no = po + (ND+ - NA-) , Mass action law: no.po = ni2 po = ni2/no
no2 – no ( ND+ - NA-) – ni2
no = ½[(ND-NA) + {(ND-NA)2 + 4ni2}1/2 (It is assumed that all dopants are ionized).
If ND-NA >> ni then no ≈ (ND-NA) and po = ni2/(ND-NA)
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 po + ND+ = no + NA-
If ND+ < NA- , semiconductor is p-type.

po = ½[(NA-ND) + {(NA-ND)2 + 4ni2}1/2

If NA-ND>> ni then po ≈ (NA-ND) and no = ni2/(NA-ND)

If NA = ND then no= po = ni Intrinsic behavior
NA > N D NA < ND

Fabrication of p-n junction by diffusion

NA
ND

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Electrical conductivity and mobility of carriers
Drift velocity of electrons
Random thermal motion in an applied electric field
of an electron

Scattering of carriers with lattice and impurity

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Resistance of bar

Resistivity ρ = 1/σ
Jx = Jnx + Jpx
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