331155

mm
AA
⑤*
Ell
E
SSTTUUDDYY
 signal function that often
signals that exist in finite interval energy signals
Varies in
only
•
any time .
a ace
,

it "
Ex
Set data =D
Signal
⇒
a of info Not an
energy
or .

it
↳
"
most Often the team
signal
"
is used to refer to a
quantity that Changes in time Can still be a
power signal though
,

-1=0 a

periodic with Satisfies the

lot X' ltldt TO
any signal period whose integcai
T
WMM
period

if
2 A

lxltllldt
+
5
fin
. . . . .
.
. .
. -

(
I volt is a
power signal in the case of Px .
.
so at

there
•

that not
ace
power signals ace
periodic
' "
5£ t
>
5

{
Vc =
volts signal
-

vdtl in a
rxlo ,
t
←
I
unit step function ult ) = if so
.

"
O if t so
a constant can be signal
-

also a

°
ex : iltl.sn .
↳
Ex =D
Px =L →
ult ) is a
power signal

It

temp .

voltage ,
current
,
etc . ace all signals
°
Note : CT =/ Cont .
function
,

•
•
have formula there that
a
Signal may
or
may
not a ace
Signals ace neither power nor
energy Signals

t
: →
ex voices no formula

→
not
power because it to A
a or
energy Signal goes

Two broad of
types Signals

Signals (
•

Cont .
time Cil

"
a line
signal is cont .
if its value is defined I exists for every
time t
Signal alterations

↳
ex :
voltage Current in circuit Can Create a
Signal by add Sub Mutt divide 2 01 more
new
signals
or a
, , ,

Shift /
•

Also to for don't have formula time

applicable Signals which We a
delay
"
•

Desccete time signals ( DT ) Ntl =

X (t -
a ) →
old
Signal sxltl ,
new
signal
= Ntl →
Nfl replaces Changes original Ntl

" it
Xin ) desceete if it defined for whenever have Xlt ) Xlt a) the
"
"
( Shifts the
signal delays seconds left
→ it
of
a is is int values n we
signal by a to
-

↳
the
Closing price of Stock the time Wake each
day
if ta and eight if a )
you up
-

Can be CT T seconds
ta →
X ( t a) →
left
-

a→ X I tta ) →
obtained
through Stamping of Signal every right
-

a
regular

important if want to
input
a CT
signal into a
comp
→
comp Can Store
°
to obtain the math expression for the new
signal just replace all t by (t a)
only
-

ya ,
.
.

DT signals
.
in a unit step function → Ntl = ult -
a ) -
ult -
b)
Tie ( )
-
ends circle

\
it open
where
CT

to
Dl
"

iii.
?I,;!
is
°
"

! pick a
point on the CT Signal may t
always
=/ the 1st
point starts ( closed circle )
"

"

( CT DT time ) and
↳
if
multiplied
j?
time =
Changes
, , , , , , , , i , ,
graph →
ywsnft.hu/t.s )
I I I I
I I I I I I
it DT
n ,
on
graph

•
time Reversal

"
time
Energy and
power
reversal Creates a now
signal by flipping it over the y-axis

x #

the t
I
•

Represent Size of a Signal

-

"
hes →
in CT
Signals t

xctls-x-f.nl/Xltllddt
-

- - o .
I
°

Energy of a
signal →

power of a
signal
→ pxs.fi .
if I lxltllldt .
time Scaling
2 IT
°
is I Itis X ( 1st )

if Ex C X
→
Xltl
°
if K I → the Signal
Signal
s
is called an
energy compress

I
"
O Xlzt )
•

if s
Px so →
Ntl is called Signal
→ the
a
power
ex :
length

°
if KCI →
the
expands signal
'I
ex :
Xl 's t ) → 2x the length
 when
°

this circuit
given
in order : a
signal
•
alterations
apply

①
KVL and
"
shift I do these first ! ) laws
apply
time
always apply voltage

② time Compression expansion take the derivative of the KVL

apply

Ntl ilt )
"
③
apply time reversal replace all VCH with f all with Nfl

right Xltl
Vltand
↳
on the ) the left
put on

↳
this resulting is the System
Systems equation
•

the name to
anything that can
Change a
signal
given
"

Very abstract be Circuits phone invariant

system
: a
Time
that does not Change with time
→
can
,
vocal waves , signals , comp programs .

System

out , system Ntl it

if the
system in TI
,
the output of X ( t -

a ) will be Mt -

a )
output
input
"
signal
signal if has parameters that don't change in time it is time invariant
a
system
-

different
•

May
be made Of
physical components I be a combination of
physical Components

"

electrical mechanical etc linear Systems

, ,

S, Tilt inputs
outputs Ntl
°
with ) Xzctl and
°

assume certain t
ex : an electric circuit
,
a heating system a
System
temp Output
thermostat .

,
It , system ill system
v on/off signal fyz ( t )
Xltl Ntl
St St
' I X. L ti Y, ( tl Xz ( t ) kelt
"
if for Constants Is tlsz
goals any
,

be
°
Is X. ( tltlsixzltl → Si "
kill , ( tltlszyzltl
able to Characterise time
signals ,

know more than the mathematical expression for Xlt ) I important details of
↳
then Si is linear

"
) .
to
understand the distinctive nature and features of a
signal a signal if a
system
is linear
,
then it makes it easier Simplify dealing with con -

example :
plex inputs
"
°

( sum )
"
has Can into Smaller
signal high frequency Components
L decompose Simple ,
systems Of versions

"

has
important broad
"

signal oscillatory
behavior
picture
"
"

faster than another

" ) '

?
it
Iiv
signal decays to zero in
in
→
'

T
.
' . .

i
-
i . -- i

'
•

be able to Characterise '

systems
-

start details

from
"

than the Ntl Xl

.

its ⑦ and
knowing more
just output for
every possible input allows US to
Study a
system input 0
output
"

infer Of
predict the Of the output signal
for different kinds of
input
general native

signal linear time invariant ( LTI )

to
"
don't know Ntl before
•
assume
example we

"

the for t
°

Ntl LTI the input

.
blocks frequency Of
depend
"

output
s o
system high components an
System On
may
°

"
"

the
system
is unstable
"

} important big pic

for too and also for tco

Finding Vlt )
" •
the System will remove Gotta interference

"

assign Cuccent and voltages

described differential equation KCL node

Systems by a at a

↳
°

Xlt ) ⇒
usually means voltage vltl unless otherwise Stated iltlsiiltltizlt )
J→
•
Ntl →

usually means current ill

"
for
any
first order ODE
→
DI t Afltl =
B for Some at B

at
Recall Solution
•
:
voltage
o
laws

"
Ups ik "
=L di I
Cdvc I →
Htt Is e- att for
.

h too
-
-

Bg
-

dt
at
 ①
has that the

eat
LTI System State variables describe State Of the at if fi and
Complex
⇒
1,2 Atbj
-

every system
•
ace
-

Any given time TEICH = Is , cos threats

Cbt ) in Cbt ) for t so

't
•

signal internal to the

system and also the output Can be
expressed as
"
in all a C
: It te eatin ( btl and eatcoslbtl Called Characteristic modes of
every ace
a -

, , ,

linear combination Of the State variables the System ( does not include the Constants ) →
also known as natural modes

( so
"
•
the value of the State Variables ) at t=o is what we call the even before for
kykz
→
know how the will behave
Solving . . . we
system

initial Conditions Of the

system
⑥ Find ki Isa
,
.
. .
kn from initial conditions

dyes ( oil
"
*
the t then : the How Yet Ot Rlc ?
.

when Su at 0 System is Teco to obtain and dt in

-

at an
say
o
at
equal system
-

we .

/
' '

initial Conditions Zero State From Capa cites

voltage and inductor cuecents at t so
,
which ace maintained at Ot

Vitti Vrltltvcltl
•

for t
°

determine the LTI if know look : Xlt )

yctl System so t
of at :O
output
t
you can an
-

you
dyes ( old
both the input and the I. C
°

How find form ?

Signal -
to dt voltage @ capacitor
↳ dyes ( oil
Of
an LTI Rep the effect of
it
the Vc (Ot ) with dt KCL KVL
system , .
relate
using Oe

the
•

inputs nth DE have that

past System characteristic
note :
on
Key a by an order will to n modes
system governed up

We Can decompose a signal into mutipie Smaller signals , put it into the System ,
and obtain multiple makes YEIHI

"
Smaller ⇒
add knowing the Chae
outputs then together to
get a
larger Signal . modes is
important because :

•
for ① kilts
gives the
in LTI : it form
general , every System

ylto-lqsftltt-ci.lt ②
"

) how the system returns to its state is determined the Chae

resting by . modes

↳
disturbed
"

to find Yasht : assume the

system is at Zero Ic and
apply
Xlt ) for too if it is from its
resting State
,
it does not return to the resting State instant an -

°
to find Y-ct.lt ) :
assume XLH so for t 30 and Consider
only the IC →
Returns
using
the Chae modes
iously .

③
the Char modes tell if is stable
System
. a

Finding Zero ④ Chae modes State

input response .

play an important Cole in Teco cesponce

?
why

"

allows Ntl for too Zero state

us to
compute Finding response

( i. )
"

tells us how behaves after the ends

•
assume the is at Zero Ic don't know Ic
a
system input system e we

°
how it down to state
"
even if we don't know the input Of System actions we know that the system will
resting
-

goes
a
,

°
tells the stability of Cause Ntl to return to its
resting state determined by its char modes
a
system ,
.

Steps to find YEI l to •

assume Xlt ) .
-

cont .
and non -

Zero for O →
T

① assume
you
have the differential
equation
it

approx .

using rectangular
intervals → and son ( Rect .
Shifted pulse )

② make Xltlso and all its derivatives so foe 1-30

"

bk the system is linear and time Invariant

,
we Can break down the signal into individual

③
"

different
"

Replace each derivative with D and teat them each as individual inputs at times
graphs
↳
\
④
gives us a Characteristic
⇒
a D 't BD t C
=
O
equation
µ
.
.
' .

find the coots of the Chae .

equ .
→
4,12
rn
,
. .
)
I
T

Xs
' '

↳ Xy " "
X6
!
"

t.it
these roots characterize the N roots Nth order X "
'
t
"

System
=
system t \
'
t 1- i
-
i in
,
Xz
.
. , . .
.

Xi
. .
. .
,
.

. .
.
. . .
.
.
.
.

⑤
.

"
Find the form of the Teco input response from the coots S
T,
Tz is Ty 56

⑨ if r , and a are real and different (X →

syst
→ x ItXz
%)
( → t ( Xn Yn )
syst syst
, .
→ . . . .
→
.

t
I threat
' Y
6
Ya ,slH=k , foe too y, y ,

"

if 9=9 ④and ace real t t

:\-[t
.
t t

Ett
't "
y ( tis Is
, thee for to Ti
Tz is Ty
S
56
 •

keynote
I : each
pulse Xi Ltd . . .
halt ) puts a
system
in a certain stale that depends on ④ at Htt .
Htt Idt HolHtt
.
=
f (d) at Kt )
ultl d
⑨ at
left ) =
Jlt )
the amplitude Of Xlt )

Xltl Xiltl
•

key note 2 : when we decompose in .

.
.
halt ) and consider
only
I
pulse, the
syst
.

input after the ends

⑤ time compass Expansion → flat ) = at flt )
poise
:

"
the behaves Char
output according
to .
modes

d- ( t )
"

because Xlt I Xnlti Ntl Eh ltlt hltl

•

the is linear ) Xlt txzltlt and Htt in →

LTI →

system general
. .
.
.

,
. .

Ecco
°

State Ce
spouse will also be influenced by Chae .
modes htt is the Output of the System at ① IC when the input is Flt )

II
the
→
Ecco
°

State response will depend on both Xlt ) AND Chae . modes at t so the
input Of tilt )
instantaneously puts the
system at a nan
-
Zero
,

State

Being at too Atto which Zero

input for t > o
precise means it
more is
,

£ ↳

pltl duration
•
let be of A and behaves the II Case
a
pulse amp .

→
at ① Ic
system
as

"
htt
pltl kotiltdt
•

let be the Nfl Char modes

output
=

signal to
-
.

Xlt Shifted Kosa Constant ki

pltl =/
•
) Several time Kz
approx .
by Scale and
pulse , . .
of Chae . modes

Xlolspltl
it

Xlolshltl

Xlslsplt ) Xlslshlt )
"
constants
s → s
Finding
- -

too ( )
"

Xlnslsplt as ) Xlnslsh
(t as )
°

after kilts ⇒
htt =
KOICHI .

char modes for also written as Nlt )

solving
- -
.

"
Char . modes come from Yai .lt )
↳
till .is/sofltltlge-StuCtl

because of
•
to find Constants Cannot IC b/c htt is the to Htt the
linearity ,
we use
response when system is

)
•

xltl → →
Htt = oxlnsls.tn ( t na at Ic
system
-

"

assume m to Xlt
"
Vashti = FIX htt -

T )dT "
have to use
impulse
pulses rep matching
g
.

( dltl ) ( htt )
"
to after the form Htt the and into DE
b
writing of input output
→
improve approx . make
go
to 0
, plug in

②
•
htt ) is the Of the in the form of htt ) into the DE and derivatives Of htt ) and Htt
impulse response System plug compute
s
] ..
. . .
, , , ,

D=
) dltl
•
it
i ↳
it is the to the Dirac impulse area use rules
response
=

°
a
very
narrow
pulse
③
plug
result into DE and
equate
the Atl ,df¥ ,
. .
.
terms on the left with

↳
A the the =L the teens the
as
amplitude t is A but equivalent fight
→ o at so area remains or ,
,

d It
←
Slt ) ←
the dirac impulse ④ create an
equation for each of the flt )
,
dt teens and Solve
System of equations

⑤ write final htt )

:& /!
Htt
"
htt ) she SHI I Chai ]
fftldtsl
Note t
mathematically
: : modes multi
by
const
may give
us an incomplete pictuce
because

iipfgt.to
.

→
.

Some of the Constants 0

may lmay equal
.
not

↳
•

Rules SCH Cannot determine do just at htt )

if
they by looking
to work with

0 f (t T ) for t FT
↳
to infer the Chae htt ) incomplete
by just observing
so modes
toying may give
an picture
.

② fltl .
fltlsflolofltl

High
" "
I
Hol
→
→
dirac impulse with Area Convolution
integral
=

⑨ also fltiflt.tl =
Hits ( t.tl#MsIif
I → "
I .

the name
given
to →
ksltisf.INT/hlt-TldT
③ Ij flu .
fltldt =
15 Hol
-
fltldt
=
f ( 0115 fftldt
-
=
Xo ) ↳
also symbolized by
* →
Ntl # htt )
to I
goes
"
turns into a constant when Solved
,
We
get
the Atloutput
I:
Todt
Ij
Hdt
GI
fft
⑨ LISA
flit
Ht f
'

flu Ht = =
at
-
.
.

to solve
.

- -
ways
to
goes
1

turns into a constant

 ① brute face → limited in Calculations for some Cases
properties of Convolution

② convolution table
•

common alive : Xlt ) # htt ) =

htt ) # Xlt )

③
graphically
→
intuitive feeling
•

distributive : I Xi Ltd t Xzltd ] #

htt ) =
Xi It ) # htt t Ndt ) #
htt )

④ laplace transform °
time Shift :

•
with brute force
it
X ( t T, ) # htt ) ?
y (t Ti )
solving
-

:
-

(
"
"
in Xlt ) t htt ) the and save Xlt ) # htt Tz ) =
y t Tz )
plug into intigcai
- -

d A "

ex : Hus e
'

tutti tilt settee ,

→ f. I I I Tl . e- felt -

TIDT
"
Xlt .

I ) # htt -

Tz ) =
y ( t -

Ti -
Tz )
-
-

Xlt ) )
htt -

T •
convolution with impulse :

① note : ult ) :O for Tio and ee

l t -

T ) so for t -
Tso → t s T
it
Xlt # Slt
=
Xltl

{ "
(t )

In
tf
?!
Xlt # S T) X ( t T

(
-
= -

" T
② now .

sp
Cts constant ,
,
.

width of convolution : if alto has duration I and Hel has duration Tz then
,
"

Itf
T
alt
e- ! Tidy est e' Te "dT
"
-

got Got
-

,
-

e →
e .
.
e at →
Xlt # tilts has duration Titta
-

Edt

jhtfoteidi =
e-
t
,
Et fo , too →
yltl e
.

te=/ ]
't
left ) Resonance phenomenon

Wh # is
←

↳
this is the ES
Resp .
•
when SCH #
a
signal
→
turns into as

•
method Resonance : happens when the Xltl identical ( the same
graphing is has
•

phenomenon input or

procedure frequency ) or is close to the Chai .

modes Of the
System

① Sketch the
"
:
more Complicated signal on a
piece Of
paper intuitively resonance happens when Ntl reinforces the Teco input response

② draw the
•
Xlt ) htt →
Htt
the decompose
→
for below Can
axis result
right we

⑨
"

the both Ntl is the sum of the broken the

align y-axis of
graphs all
up pacts put into System

③ Sketch the simpler signal in a translucent

paper - at

( potted ) And
⑨ from the
•
example those sin
Draw an arrow top to bottom below and aligned to
y-axis i

Htt
, '

f
'

④ Flip g g f .
-
.

the that
.

translucent So the to the left

paper x-axis is
pointing . - . .

s
as
⑤ -
B B
slide the signal down in the translucent over the other Signal
paper 13

⑨ from the left to the

Start
, Sliding eight

⑥
mentally estimate the product of the signals µ
It
f 11

.
f
LIT 2.2T
B-
⑨ keep
-

in mind EVERYTHING under the is

yl
B
graphs ,
not just what
directly above
y
t
HII HII
the arrow
b
µ
b
b
① the the
mentally
estimate
integral of product

Mr
I .

t
⑨
Mr µ
did the ?
since last Calculation , integral increase or decrease
45

⑧
B B-
the the lower
plot estimation on
graph

µµ
⑨ Repeat steps 5-8 until Slide the Whole Signal
=
you over

convolution impulse
by

"
Elt ) # Kfc to =
KILT )

°
just scales ICH K
by

UH # Slt -

a) '
Ect -
a ) •
what happens if HH =
Cos ( wtl.ee ( to

° "

just Shifts ICH #

" "
we know that yctd will be Aces ( wt to ) after transient dies
by
a a
 •
if =P then Ntl the and Should the
0
BI BO bounded Bounded
reinforces input input
⇒
w
,
Teco
response you See , output

↳
highest of ylt ) Bounded =
of the to
infinity
amp . no
pact graph goes
°
⇒
D= the Liapvnoc Criteria
resonance
frequency of a circuit

Recall :

( t) →
Ht ) Ya :( ) Yasht )
"
X syst BIBO
=
→ t
-
t
Stability

Chengde
x
t
!%Ih(t
f s di
°

a is BIBO Stable if for bounded Ntl the output Ntl is also bounded
system , only ,

-
lxltllscx
"

for
"
it "
Cx
"
Bounded means that there is a constant such that all

Interconnected System
t → -

Cxs Hts Cx

Cx
if yltl bounded the
•

the is
Composed of is
often
System several Subsystems System
. .

MMM
•

parallel interconnect is BIBO Stable

4%7%7
"

xm→h Ntl
" →
normally we just have if is not bounded the
,

"
now we can have : L
System with htt ) as the impulse response is BIBO unstable
System
ex
-

hI
}
o hilt ) to
equivalent : ↳ all the time One
grows or

both can
Xlt ) Htt Xlt ) hpltl
→ Ht ) ↳
unbounded input be true

Cy
ex
halt )
hplt-hktltha.lt )
-

✓
My / %
"

''
hilt and tutti ace
independent systems
c,
•

Cascade interconnect

hilt ) halt Ntl xltlxth.lt#hzCtl

"

Xlt
=
→
-

i. -

Xlt # hilt ) hcltl •

when can we ensure that a
system
is BIBO Stable
?

lhltlltt
°
to Xlt ) hdtl Htt
"
if and if htt satisfies
fo CO
equivalent :
only
its
-

↳
hcltl-h.lt ) # half )
°
no need to check yltl foe ALL possible inputs Xltl

"
the Solution does not
Change even
if the Order Of h , lhz Changes
•

when Can we ensure that a

system
is BI Bo unstable ?

Htt
M

Xltlt
I
I
-

n M

I
-

it
has and Ntl d- d
if DE yltlt
-

LTI
system
- .
. .

. .
.

M I
M
-

I
dt
n
-

Derivative and and Mon di at dt

integral oppeaatoes
•

assume a fixed LTI interconnected with a differentiator

system
dy
"
Xlt ) htt Mdt at
§
Nts XLH # htt )

dyftl
°
equivalent to Xlt ) Mdt htt ) at
§
dxldf

•
this means : if have Xlt htt →
Ntl
what you
it
then dxltl anti a
:
foixlildt → htt) fo Hdt
similarly
:

at htt at

Stability Of
Systems

Char
•

modes to and
very important compute
.
ace Eero input Eero State response

it
tell if the
they also us
system
is stable or not

⇒
2 Ccitecias for Stability