MAHARASHTRA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY MUMBAI

SUBMISSION OF ANSWER SHEET FOR END-SEMS IN

Sociology

Submitted To: Prof. Shraddha Gaikwad

Submitted By: Pranav Patil
Enrolment Number: 2021065
Course: B.A. LL.B. (Hons)

Subject: Legal Methods

Q.1. How is Sociology related to other disciplines in Social Science?
Ans:-
1. Sociology
Sociology is the study of human social interactions and organisations. Sociology covers a wide
range of topics, including anything from crime to religion, the family to the state, racial and
social class differences to shared cultural ideals, and societal stability to fast change across
whole countries. The study of these different disciplines is brought together by sociology's
purpose of understanding how human action and awareness impact and are formed by surrounding
cultural and social systems.

2. Relation Between Sociology and Other fields

(a) Political Science
Political science is often known as 'government science' or 'polity or politics science.' It's a branch
of social science that studies the principles that govern the organisation and governance of human
societies. Its study focuses on the state's organisational growth and development, as well as the
initiatives that may be done to improve its effectiveness. Political science has a huge effect on
sociology since it uses political science to learn about the state's structure and activities. The
laws of the state have a big influence on society.

Political behaviour is also studied in sociology, but only in the context of a wider society. On the
one hand, political science analyses the rise and fall of various governments as well as their leaders;
on the other hand, sociology views government as a social institution and its leader as a social
phenomenon. Sociology is more interested in the characteristics of the leaders who contributed to
India's independence than in the traits that led to their ascent to positions of charismatic power.

Sociology relies on political science to comprehend various political events; it derives conclusions
from political science, and every change in the political system results in societal change. It mostly
uses political science to comprehend various changes in society, and the two are intertwined.
Political science, too, is influenced by sociology and is a component of it. It is important to
comprehend the whole in order to comprehend the component. Almost all political issues have a
sociological root, and political science uses sociology to solve these difficulties.
(b) Economics
Economics, like political science, is a specialised study since it focuses on the economic
components of society, such as a state's economy, money, demand, and industry. The
economy and society are inextricably linked, with certain areas of overlap. However, their interests
in these topics differ because sociology, as a general social science, examines all aspects of a
society, including the economy, in relation to the various social forces involved, whereas
economics studies the economy in detail, thoroughly analysing various aspects such as monetary
behaviour, capital, labour, and industry.

The two disciplines of economics and sociology are inextricably linked. Economics would be
deceptive and incomplete without a solid grasp of sociology, and sociology would be meaningless
without a full understanding of the interaction of economic issues. Economics is first and foremost
concerned with a person's material well-being. Economic well-being, however, is only one facet
of social well-being, as we all know. Without a solid understanding of social laws, economic
welfare cannot be researched.

(c) Anthropology
The two disciplines of anthropology and sociology are inextricably linked. Anthropology is the
study of man as a whole, with an emphasis on archaic and prehistoric communities. However,
anthropology has just begun to examine distinct urban civilization systems in modern complex
cultures. They research the community's social system, religion, and culture, among other things.
If they are studying the Andaman tribals.

For example, an anthropologist will extensively investigate the rituals, customs, way of life, and
other social structures. Although sociology is a broad social science, it is much more focused in
that it examines a single social system one step at a time, attempting to identify the fundamentals,
patterns, and common denominations in social systems..

(d) History
The primary goal of history is to investigate numerous historical events and try to link them
to current events and vice versa. However, social science is concerned with numerous facets of
history as a whole, such as wars and revolutions. Historians are interested in accurate descriptions
of events such as when a particle war occurred and who fought it, whereas social scientists look at
them as regular and recurring social phenomena and try to figure out why those wars and
revolutions occurred and what social processes are common to all of them, or studies the patterns
and principles that study them.

(e) Psychology
Psychology is the study of human behaviour that focuses on physiological characteristics of the
human body such as the nervous system, personality, and intellect. In general, psychology seeks
to centre around diverse personality types. Social psychology is a branch of psychology that
bridges the gap between psychology and society. Sociology is primarily concerned with how
individuals act in groups, and hence with how the cultural environment influences a person's
personality. Sociology, on the other hand, is less concerned with individuals and their
personal characteristics and more concerned with the social context in which they live. It
carefully examines social groupings, their structures, and the numerous processes that have an
impact on an individual.

All social interactions are psychological, and both are positive disciplines that study human
emotions and behaviour. Social psychology is a discipline of psychology that brings psychology
and society together. Sociology is more interested in the nature of the social groupings in which
the individual lives than it is in the unique individual or his personality. Sociology is concerned
with the social milieu in which the behaviour occurs, whereas psychology and social psychology
are concerned with the character and behaviour of individuals. The meeting point for the two
sciences is the underlying reality that both sociology and psychology deal with human beings,
and there is no certainty or accuracy about human emotions or behaviour. Both claim to be
sciences, but only in the narrowest meaning of the word. Both are fascinated with personality and
socialisation research.

To summarise, sociology is the general study of numerous components of society that deal with
society as a whole, as well as the examination of the link between different aspects of society and
the attempt to identify a correlation between specific areas of society and society as a whole.
Q.2. What is a Social Institution? Explain the role of 2 prominent social institutions.
Ans:-
1. Society
Societies are an abstract term, yet it is commonly acknowledged that a society is comprised of
certain norms, regulations, and traditions that sustain social order and stability. These conventions
and rules must be followed. They emerge gradually throughout time and are constantly vulnerable
to change based on the individuals who comprise the community. Social institutions exist to carry
out and uphold these rules.

According to H. E Barnes, social institutions are ‘the social structure and machinery through
which human society organizes, directs and executes the multifarious activities required to
society for human need.’ They are comprehensive conceptual frameworks that investigate and
control one area of societal life. For example, the family is a significant social institution. It exists
to socialise children and to perform activities that aid in the establishment of communal order.

Emory Bogardus has expanded the definition and stated, ‘ social institutions as a specific structure
organised to meet the particular needs of the people through well-established procedures.’

Concluding from the views of the two scholars stated above, Institutions are those systems of social
rules and customs that govern social action. They not only regulate social activity, but they also
stimulate social engagement and the development of new connections. Consider the family and
education. Institutions are frequently intertwined, and one must work in agreement with the other.

Human interaction and progress frequently result in the formation of new structures and
organisations. That is not to say that all social formations are institutions. Sociologists have
developed distinguishing characteristics that allow us to distinguish between what is and is not a
social institution.

2. Characteristics of a social institution

1. Social institutions are universal - Social institutions are ubiquitous. They exist in all the societies
and existed at all the stages of social development.
2. They vary from time to time and across cultures, in terms of complexity, specialization, scope,
formality and organization. But their basic nature and purpose are similar everywhere

3. Social institutions are resistant to change; they tend to persist.

4. United by common interest

5. Fulfil some social need and have rules and norms which are followed

Have procedures formulated based on customs & dogmas

The important aspect of institutional facts is that the functions imposed exist as a result of the
collective character of the institution. The imposition of a functional role and deontic qualities,
according to Searle, go hand in hand. As a result, in addition to being assigned a function, they are
endowed with deontic qualities, which are considered as powers. 'Collective intentionality' creates
and sustains this status-functions balance.

3. Social Institutes
Institutions are formed due to the secular and the repetitive forms of the social relationship among
the individuals. Institutions are formed due to the collective effort and activities of the people.
Hence institutions are social in nature.

Institutions are often classified into two categories

(a) Primary Institutions- marriage and religion or family

(b) Secondary Institutions -Examination and education

There are Five basic primary social institutions, namely Family, Religion, Education, Political
Economy and State.

There also exist secondary social institutions within each primary institution, for example, family
contains marriage, monogamy, polygamy, divorce among other as secondary institutions.

The two prominent social institutions are as follows:

1. Family
A family is a sociological term for a social group of two or more individuals who live together and
are connected by marriage, blood, or adoption. In this definition, a family consists not just of a
husband and wife, but also of two brothers living together or of a mother and her adopted
son. A kinship group is a network of families that are linked via blood, marriage, or adoption. The
culture determines which family relationships are considered significant. It can either be patrilineal
or matrilineal, in the former the kinship is considered from the maternal lineage while in the latter
it is from the maternal side.

Difference between Family and a Household - A family is always a household, but not every
home is a family. This means that any number of people living together in an apartment or a villa
or any type of dwelling unit can be said to be living in a household and they do not need to be a
family and can be friends or colleagues living together.

The family is the most important social institution.

1. the most fundamental/primary unit of society

2. one of the world's oldest social institutions

1.1 Types of family:

Nuclear family - This is also known as the conjugal family or procreational family. Nuclear
families are made up of married couples and their children. This is popular in industrial cultures,
but it is not the most frequent form of family in the world, despite the fact that it is becoming more
common with progressing development. They are two generational families.

Extended family – This was prevalent in the former agrarian societies but the number of
extended is increasingly decreasing in the present times. It consists of parents, children, and other
members who ate related by blood or marriage. Other members usually include parents’ siblings
and their families.

There are also other types of families such as Adopted family or Step family which can come under
this classification of social institution.

They can be further divided into the following:

Conjugal family - A conjugal family is one that is formed via marriage rather than through blood
links. Conjugal families are made up of parents and children in nuclear households.
Consanguine family - In the consanguine family the emphasis is on blood relationships, rather than
marital relations. The consanguine family normally formed an extended family, usually with two
or three generations living together.

There are also the following patterns:

Patrilocal system - The family lived near or with the husband’s family

Matrilocal system - The family lived near or with the wife’s family

However, there is a new norm in the society namely neolocal residence where the married couple
lives apart from either parent’s family or community.

A patriarchal family is the form of family in which the father, or the eldest male member, is the
formal head and source of authority. A matriarchal family is one in which the mother is the formal
head and dominant power in the family.

1.2 Function of a family

The primary unit for socialising children is the family. no civilization can exist without effective
socialisation of its youth. In most countries, the family is the primary unit through which
socialisation occurs. Parents, siblings, and other relatives, if the family is extended rather than
nuclear, all contribute to socialise children from the moment they are born.

(i) Procreation - Every society requires members to be replaced. Although reproduction can occur
outside of the marital union, only the family can properly raise and socialise the human young to
suit society's demands

(ii) Satisfaction of Sex needs- The modern family satisfies this instinct in greater degree than the
traditional family. In the traditional family the sexual act was combined with reproduction. The
fear of pregnancy, as a result of intercourse, prevented the couple to satisfy their sex urge. But in
the modern families the task of sexual satisfaction has been caused by the invention of
contraceptives and other methods of birth control. The present wife is in a better position to
satisfy sex instinct without any tear of conception.

(iii) Economic support - Second, the family is ideally a significant source of practical and
emotional support for its members. It supplies them with food, clothes, housing, and other
necessities, as well as love, comfort, emotional support, and other sorts of intangible assistance
that we all require.

(iv) The family gives its members a sense of social identity. Children are born into the
socioeconomic class, race & ethnicity, religion, and so on of their parents. As we've seen in
previous chapters, social identity is crucial to our prospects in life. Some children benefit from the
social identity they inherit from their parents throughout their lives, whilst others suffer several
challenges since the social class, race, and ethnicity into which they are born is at the bottom of
the social hierarchy.

Some eminent scholar views on family : Davis has characterised the main social functions of the
family into four divisions: Reproduction, Maintenance, placement and socialization of the young.
According to him, it also performs individual functions but they are corollary to its social
functions.

Lundberg enumerated the following basic functions of the family:

a. The regulation of sexual behaviour and reproduction

b. Care and raining of children.
c. Co-operation and division of labour
d. Primary group satisfactions

Ogburn and Minkoff have divided family functions into six categories:

a. Affection
b. Economic
c. Recreational
d. Protective
e. Religious
f. Educational

Sociologists use the phrase "family of orientation" to refer to the family in which you were
raised and socialised as a child. There is also the family of procreation, which you are a member
of. The family and society are inextricably linked since societies are made up of families. Parents
are not only responsible for parenting their children, but also for socialising them to comply to the
norms and standards of the society in which they live.

2. Education.
Education, particularly public education systems, is seen as an essential social institution since it
promotes social equality and a shared knowledge foundation among pupils.

Ward, a supporter of 'intellectual equality,' contended that the discrepancies between individuals
at the top and bottom of the social ladder were due to variations in access to education and
information rather than differences in intelligence. A society that gives equal access to education
for all will generate the maximum number of people who are exceptionally helpful. There was no
social institution termed education, and there were no institutional facilities called schools, in early
communities such as hunting and gathering and horticulture societies. Home socialisation gave
children everything they needed to know from their parents; youngsters just learned their parents'
trade. In ancient China and Greece, knowledgeable adults tutored young boys from upper-class
households.

In ancient India, there was a Gurukul system. young The males, mostly from the higher caste,
lived with and learnt from outstanding tutors. Education was a social elite privilege throughout
feudalism in Europe. Young males from the upper crust Those who didn't have anything better to
do went to school to learn the classics. Education is a universal notion. It's a rather novel
concept. The majority of them accomplished so only in the early twentieth century. The notion of
mass education has begun to be taken seriously by the nation-state. Today's concept Every kid has
the right to an education that allows them to read and write. Choices made on one's own are
commonly acknowledged.

2.1 Functions of Education:

(i) Cultural Communication

Schools have a vital role in transmitting society's cultural legacy from generation to
generation. On to the next one. First, they communicate the fundamental principles of their own
culture. The Moral Education system is a critical component of the process. The school
curriculum is an excellent predictor of what society expects of kids. For a new generation of
pupils, the school is built and equipped with Collective knowledge of society in the disciplines of
science, technology, philosophy, and art.

(ii) Social placement

Education is essential. Prepare pupils for a vital role in society because we have children. Life
success is mostly determined by academic accomplishment. As a result, as parents, we endeavour
to send our children to the best school available. Furthermore, the top schools should be promoted.
Student talent, academic growth, competitiveness, and dedication are all encouraged and
motivated to succeed. Many universities will also host career fairs. Organize a Career Week
and invite employers to visit to school for recruiting. Of Education's social positioning has also
grown in importance in recent years.

(iii) Social integration

In India, social integration, also known as national integration, is an essential purpose of education.
This quality is extremely crucial in a multifaceted society with thousands of individuals, such as
India. There are several religious and linguistic groupings, as well as castes. The school initially
provides a one-of-a-kind chance for pupils from diverse backgrounds to come together and learn.
At all stages of schooling, core social values like as nationalism, patriotism, equality, equal regard
for all religions, and other imbedded values are emphasised. According to Indian culture. The
ideology Core Curriculum, national anthem, and other national anthems of "Unification in
Diversity" underpin India's notion of national integration.

(iv) Socialization

Socialization starts at home and continues at school. There is a significant difference. as well
as House Children should double-check the regulations with their parents. This is the first
time I've been to school. We are subjected to impersonal rules imposed by instructors, schools,
and society as a whole. of They attend school alongside students of various nationalities. As a
child, as they progress in their schooling, they spend more and more time with their classmates
from outside the classroom. Homeland. In this way, students learn about a variety of values,
standards, and attitudes. In the past, social families were the primary mediators of socialisation.
Almost everything was taught to the children by their parents.
Q.3. What is Culture? Explain the components of Culture.
Ans:-
1. Culture
In Theodorson and theodorson 1969:95, published in 1871, Edward B. Taylor described culture as
a "complex totality" that comprised "knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, conventions, and
any other talents and habits acquired by man as a member of society."

Culture refers to what a group's members share in common. They share material possessions as
well as intangible non-material possessions like as ideals, values, and behavioural standards.
Furthermore, the clothing we wear, the language we use, the common sense of morality, shared
societal failings, how we communicate with one another, mannerisms, and oxymorons are all part
of society's cultural foundation.

It refers to a social group's whole way of life, including all they are, do, and have. It is a complex
system that includes common views, values, norms, practises, language, and technology among
social group members.

The taught patterns of behaving are sometimes referred to as culture. Culture's objects are not
organic or biological, and can only be gained via social interaction. Let's look at how individuals
in the following nations greet one another to demonstrate this point:

(a) India- When greeting someone, Indians wrap their hands together and bend down
slightly as a sign of respect. While doing so, they say 'Namaste' or 'Pranam.' Indians
have a long tradition of touching their elders' feet.
(b) Philippines- When greeting seniors politely, Filipinos bow, hold the elders' hands, and
press their knuckles on their forehead in a gesture known as Mano.

As people began to flourish and settle together, a need arose for humans to create intimate bonds
and norms in order to secure society progress and meet the basic necessities of social unity.
Cultures frequently stem from dietary habits and aid in determining how biological requirements
are met (e.g., Muslim and Hindu food habits, marriage relationships, etc.). It refers to a shared
legacy and knowledge passed down from generation to generation (seen in the formation of
countries and nationalities).
Culture affects non-material items as well, such as how jewellery is worn, how architectural
designs are created, and what sort of clothing is worn all of these factors are influenced by
culture. Culture aids in the formation of symbols, particularly within religions, as well as the
definition of such symbols in various ways for different individuals

for example a lotus carries different meaning to different religions, with it being a symbol
of the crucifix to St. Thomas Christians and it meaning a Goddess or God to northern India,
another example is a national flag of different countries

Culture is the inheritance of a social group. It is passed on from one generation to the next.
Scientific information, philosophical ideas, art forms, conventions, and etiquette are all passed
down down the generations. Madhubani painting, for example, is a popular Bihar art style that
dates back to the 8th century BCE. The skills, on the other hand, have been passed down to current
generations, who are carrying the art form forward.

Material objects such as tools, technology, clothes, jewellery, and architecture are all part of
culture. Kundan work in jewellery, for example, is still quite popular and conforms to modern
fashion trends. It is thought to have originated in the royal palaces of Rajasthan and Gujarat.

Culture has a symbolic value as well. A symbol is anything that has a meaning or value that we
assign to it. It has no inherent meaning, but it is imbued with a profound meaning that society has
developed and conveyed. The performance of a Lua, for example, is a representation of their land
and ancestry in Hawaiian culture, and it is done via music and dance.

2. Components of Culture
(a) beliefs

A belief encompasses a wide range of topics. It might be about religion, politics, or scientific
beliefs, among a thousand other topics. Christians, for example, believe in the resurrection of
Jesus, but Hindus believe in reincarnation and moksha. These opposing views have resulted in two
distinct civilizations that, while intertwined in certain areas, are still mainly distinct. There are
numerous beliefs held by different nations as well as faiths. Those in India, regardless of faith,
place a high value on family, whereas people in the west place a higher value on individualism
and self-importance. These beliefs, on the other hand, can shift. Indians today are more
individualistic than they have ever been, and this tendency is only expected to increase as more
people abandon traditional ideas in pursuit of their own self-worth.

Here are a few examples:

• In India, it’s considered to be a bad omen if a black cat crosses someone’s path. Also,
it is considered unlucky to go out or start something new right after someone sneezes.
However, it’s considered to be lucky if a person consumes ‘Dahi-Cheeni’ that is yoghourt
with sugar before starting something new. Adding the sum of 1 rupee to any gift amount is
considered to be auspicious.
• A common European or Western tradition where people toss salt over their shoulders is
considered lucky as it involves the idea of warding off evil.
• Many western countries don’t have 13 as a distinguished floor because the number 13 is
known to bring bad luck.

(b) Values
Values are common agreements among society members about what is acceptable and unpleasant
in social life. They are broad guidelines by which people determine what is good or evil, attractive
or repulsive. People are free to agree or disagree with specific aims or standards, therefore they
express general behaviour preferences. Values are frequently the key to understanding how
individuals behave in society.

Social institutions such as family, school, friends, religion, culture, and the media may all help to
shape values.

For example, the beliefs that my mother and I agreed on when we were both 19 years old are
diametrically opposed. Even if a woman's objectives were limited to marriage and family at the
time, it was desired. My ambitions, however, are no longer confined to marriage, as it is now
regarded desirable for women to have a great career and advance in their careers.

(c) Language
The most crucial aspect of symbolic culture is language. One of the most significant aspects of
culture is language. Language is a kind of communication that involves the use of organised
and auditory patterns with common meanings. Written words and random noises take on
substantial meanings in language. Every word and sound is a symbolic representation of
something. For example, there may be only one or two words for money in Tamil, but there are
more than five in English. Languages aid in determining the settings and situations under which it
grew up, as well as the influences it has encountered. Tamil and Malayalam are relatively similar,
yet they are considerably different due to the large impact of Syriac and Hebrew on the Malayali
people, which comes from Christian and Jewish groups. As a result, languages are frequently used
to represent the evolution of distinct cultures.

These five roles of language were recognised by James Helsin:

• Language enables for the accumulation of human experience.

• Language evokes a shared or communal history. Our memory would be severely

hampered if we didn't have language.

• Language creates a shared or communal future. There can be no agreement on time,

date, or location without language.

• Language enables for a common worldview, as well as complicated, collaborative, and

goal-oriented behaviour.

Language is a product of culture and in turn, culture is shaped by language.

The Hopi language, for example, has no terms for time, day, hour, minute, second, or late. They
believe that all kinds of life have their own schedules and that time is not set in stone. In English,
however, time is a linear idea.

(d) Norms
Norms are established standards of social behaviour which individuals in a group are expected to
follow. They are rules that prescribe what to do and what not to do.

Norms provide guidelines to patterns of behaviour and define them as appropriate or inappropriate
according to social situations. Norms can change according to the environment, situation, and
culture in which they are found, and people's behavior will also change accordingly

It is classified into three types namely, folkways, mores and laws.

For example, if there is a line, one should go to the back of the line instead of pushing or cutting
their way to the front. Also, one should say "please" when asking for something and say "thank
you" when someone does something for them.

(e) Technology
Technology refers to all material things as well as the accumulated knowledge about them.

It ranges from the most primitive tools of the caveman to the most refined modern inventions like
computers and space shuttles.

To illustrate the role of technology in culture through the changes in the methods of childbirth:

• During the Renaissance, class disparities in birthing were documented. Women in

15th-century Florence married as teenagers and had five to ten children, depending
on whether they lived through childbirth. Because childbirth was so perilous, a woman
would write her will as soon as she learned she was expecting. Extended nursing, which is
nature's way of spacing out children, is an age-old form of birth prevention.
• Medical professionals began to participate in birthing throughout the Renaissance, though
not without difficulty. Women as a group were shielded, their bodies buried beneath layers
of garments. Midwives did not want to give up their power or skill in the area because it
was unseemly for any man to participate in the intimate process of childbirth.
• In the twenty first century, childbirth has become highly sophisticated as trained
gynaecologists have taken over midwives with nuanced use of technology. Family
planning and birth control methods have also greatly progressed with scientific
advancements. Hence, technology has made childbirth safer and more equitable for
women.

Cultural values however are still changing and alterable. Therefore, culture is still steadily
changing and diversifying in an attempt to match ideal culture.
Q.4. Explain Herbert Spencer`s theory of Evolution.
Ans:-
1. Background : Herbert Spencer
Despite the fact that Comte invented the name sociology, he never paid much attention to the topic;
it was Herbert Spencer who defined and described the area of sociology. the fields of study that
are still relevant today Spencer's primary contributions to science may be divided into three
categories: organic analogies, evolutionary theory, and cosmology and social dwarfism.

Spencer's evolutionary theory, also known as universal evolutionary theory, contends that while
not every society goes through the same set phases of development as Comte predicted, mankind's
culture as a whole has followed a clear course of evolution. Essentially, there are two processes
involved in the hypothesis. Then there's the required.

From basic civilizations to various degrees of compound societies, there is a progression. Second,
there is a transition from a military to a commercial society. The size of social units grows
inexorably in tandem with the intricacy of their organisation. As a result, basic societies
become more varied and complicated as they increase in size.

2. Spencer’s theory
Spencer’s theory of evolution involves two processes, essentially:

(a) there is the necessary movement from simple societies to various levels of compound
societies.
(b) An increase in the size of social units invariably accompanies an increase in the complexity
of structure.

Thus, as simple societies grow in size, they become heterogeneous and complex. There is
change from military to industrial society Earlier militant societies were defined by being
structured for offensive and defensive warfare.

Although, Spencer was critical of warfare, he felt that in an earlier stage it was functional in
bringing societies together (for example, through military conquest) and in creating the larger
aggregates of people necessary for the development of industrial society.
However, with the emergence of industrial society, warfare ceases to be functional and serves to
impede further evolution. Industrial society is based on friendship, altruism, elaborate
specialization and recognition for achievements rather than the characteristics one is born with,
and voluntary cooperation among highly disciplined individuals.

Such a society is held together by voluntary contractual relations and, more importantly, by a
strong common morality. The government's role in an industrial society is restricted to focuses
only on what people ought not to do.

Modern industrial societies are less warlike than their militant predecessors. Although Spencer
sees a general evolution in the direction of industrial societies, he also recognizes that it is
possible that there will be periodic regressions to warfare and more militant societies.

3. Evolutionary Theory
Larger and more differentiated social structures, as well as rising function differentiation,
accompany the growing size of society. They deliver. Societies evolve via compounding, in
addition to their size expansion. thal is, by uniting a growing number of adjacent groupings. As a
result, Spencer speaks. The progression of simple to compound societies, doubly compound
societies, and trebly complex societies.

Evolutionary theory comes in at least four types:

(a) Theory of Unilinear Evolution.

Unilinear evolutionary theory proposes that man and society are going along certain levels of
evolution, leading to some final degree of perfection, based on the notion that human civilization
has experienced progressive and cumulative expansion. Comte believed that every civilization
would go through three stages before being inaugurated as a scientific-industrial society.
through advancement in all spheres of life The unilinear was traced by Lewis Henry Morgan.

(b) Universal Evolutionary Theory (Herbert)

This perspective follows the development of human communitics from simple to more complex
forms, with all the consequences that entails, particularly the increasing differentiation of
parts and the integration of structure. It is not concerned with fixed stages or a unilinear
sequence of development, and it does not assume that every society goes through the same stages,
as Spencer did. According to the universal evolutionary hypothesis, human civilization as a whole
has followed a distinct evolutionary path, with various implications and patterns in different
cultures.

(c) Cyclic Evolutionary Theory

According to this viewpoint, there is no such thing as a straight line of development, but there
are distinct stages or cycles that a civilization or a long-lasting culture may go through more
than once, if not repeatedly. The famous rise and tall theory of civilization expounded by Oswald
Spengler best illustrates the cyclical evolutionary perception rejecting all previous conception of
historical time is Splenger argued that society like an organism has maturity decline.

(d) Multilinear Evolutionary Theory

Contemporary evolutionists have abandoned grand theories of evolution that make broad
generalisations about the evolution of human civilization; instead, they focus on the processes and
outcomes of specific forms of change in a given culture. With the rejection of the unilinear
evolutionary paradigm on a large scale.

Multilinear evolution is a sociological theory from the twentieth century that explains how
civilizations and cultures evolve. It is made up of a number of contradictory hypotheses proposed
by various sociologists and anthropologists. This theory has supplanted the earlier 19th century
set of unilineal evolution ideas, in which evolutionists were primarily concerned with
drawing broad generalisations.

New ideas such as cultural relativism and multilinear evolution, which critique the generalisation
of culture and hypothetical phases of development, arose as a result of these circumstances.
Q.5. Elaborate on the origin, genises, mechanism and development of Caste in India.
Ans:-
1. Caste
The caste system is a strict system of classification based on inherited status, previous employment,
and social ties. The Hindu system has a conventional class structure, while many of its
characteristics may be found in other social systems. Caste is a hereditary, endogamous,
frequently localised group with a long history of association with a certain occupation and
position within the native caste system.

The caste system is one of the social systems in Hindu culture that is defined and related with
many institutions and has foundations of social and moral principles. People's perceptions of
caste, on the other hand, are rife with inconsistencies. Other analysts consider caste as primarily
a functional unit, despite the fact that there are multiple underlying causes for inequality and
gendered violence ingrained in the caste system's inception and operation.

2. Origins
There is no single viable explanation that can accurately explain the origins of caste, the oldest
system of stratification. Some students argue that caste was a pre-Aryan institution, a feature of
ancient kin group life in Bharat that the Aryans used to promote inferiority and superiority in their
interactions with the indigenous. Even today, when asked to describe the caste system, a Hindu
may begin by narrating the storey of Brahma, the four-headed, four-handed god worshipped as the
creator of the cosmos. According to an ancient scripture known as the Rigveda, the division
of Indian society was established on Brahma's miraculous manifestation of four divisions.

HERBERT RISLEY (1915) in his book “THE PEOPLE OF INDIA” racial differences and
endogamous marriages lead to the origin of caste system, The Aryans arrived in India in around
1500 BC. The Aryans disrespected the local cultures and beliefs. They start taking control and
began conquering over regions in north India and at the same time they pushed the local Indian
toward southwards or towards the jungles and mountains in north India.
The Aryans organized themselves in three groups:

• The first group was of the priests, and they were called Brahmanas.
• The second group they were called “Rajanya”, and they were a warrior, later they changed
its name to “Kshatriyas”

“Among the Aryans These two groups struggled politically for the leadership and in this struggle
the Brahmanas come as victorious.”

The third group were called “Vaisyas” and they are the “farmers” and “craftsmen”, After taking
control all over the parts of north India by Aryans local Indians were forced to serve as servants.

There were two school for the origins of the caste system in ancient and medieval India, which
focus on either ideological factors or on socio-economic factors:

• The first school focuses on the ideological factors which are claimed to drive the caste
system and holds that caste is rooted in the “religion” or in “four varnas.”
• the second school of thought focuses on “socio-economic factors” and claims that those
factors drive the caste system. It believes the economic, political, and material history
of India are root cause of caste system.

The ‘religious' interpretation is that the Brahmins descended from the Creator's mouth, the
Kshatriyas from his shoulders, the Vaishyas from his thighs, and the Shudras from his feet.

However, one may make a persuasive case that the class structure is a distortion of the modern
group system, which provides a useful division of labour in society.

Some writers, notably in the West, associate class structure with the first group system, which
categorises people into four groups:

• Brahmins: priests, scholars, teachers, astrologers, and custodians of learned tradition.

• Kshatriyas: rulers, administrators, and warriors.
• Vaishyas: Merchants, artisans, traders, farmers, moneylenders, and cattle-keepers.
• Shudras: workers and labourers
Mechanism and Development
The issue is that the group system just scratches the surface of the class hierarchy. Each system
has various non-secular and secular interpretations, and no one knows when or how either
system came into being. Many people believe that the caste system was established by Britishers,
however this is untrue because it existed much before then. However, it's reasonable to assume
that the group structure served as a helpful division of labour that aided in the development of
'guna,' or power.

A Brahmin is someone who has a knack for learning, whereas a Hindu is someone who has a skill
for governance or warfare. To put it another way, the group system was a manner of classifying
people based on their ability or quality, rather than a way of classifying teams based on
inherited status classifications. The group model failed to infer any gradation on the idea of
formality purity, despite the fact that the four teams were unevenly placed in the standing
hierarchy. People were expected to do the jobs for which they were competent since the teams
did not have inherited status.

Each stratum developed its own subculture throughout time; the Vaishyas accumulated wealth
and eventually joined the 'trivarnic civilization.' The Shudras were condemned to permanent
backwardness as a service category.

Those who defied persecution and lived the most free lives were exiled to woods and area units,
and are today classified among Bharat's tribes. The favoured castes, notably the Brahmins,
rewrote scriptures, developed the idea of contamination, and provided new philosophical
interpretations of sacred books in order to defend their superiority and protect the selfhood
of the countless untouchables and outcasts. Untouchables were seen to be the epitome of dirt,
whilst Brahmins were thought to be the epitome of cleanliness.

Physical contact between the camps was strictly prohibited. Even if the shadow of an untouchable
fell across them, Brahmins felt compelled to wash. As a result, some argue that the birth-based
class structure is a distortion of a group that supported 'guna,' or power.
A caste system is seen in many religions, including Hinduism. Other religions, such as Nepalese
Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Sikhism, practise caste inequality. The main
distinction is that the caste system is established in Hindu texts, whereas casteism was embraced
as a result of socialisation or religious conversions in other religions. In other words, in Hinduism,
the caste system is a religious institution, whereas in other religions, it is a social structure.

Despite the fact that the caste system divided people, it was still in place for a variety of reasons.
The class structure has worked as a vital uniting force throughout the lengthy history of
Indian civilisation; it has commanded varied culturally diverse teams in the aftermath of
external peril and recurrent carnage. In the lack of modern vocational education schools, it also
encouraged artisans and craftsmen to flourish in their fields, fostering power and economy in the
execution of traditional occupations. Caste also acted as an international logistical support and
insurance cooperative, and it linked the many caste groups in the area into a well-established
network of well-defined responsibilities and social interactions through the development of the
jajmani system.

changes in overall social view, India's caste structure is evolving. Despite the fact that the fortunes
of the lower castes have improved, India still has a long way to go in eliminating the caste system's
flaws from society. The Indian government has made substantial changes and has specifically
forbidden caste discrimination. However, the caste system continues to exist, and the only way to
eliminate it is for individuals to examine themselves and question the authority of shastras. Inter-
caste marriages and social ties can help all castes promote morality and peace.