Nutrition Research, Vol. 20, No. 4, pp.

5994508,200O
Copyright 0 2000 Elswier Science Inc.
Printed in the USA. All rights reserved
0271.5317/W&see front matter

PII:SO271-5317(00)00150-0

TRANS FATTY ACID PRODUCTION IN DEEP FAT FRYING OF FROZEN

FOODS WITH DIFFERENT OILS AND FRYING MODALITIES

Antonio Romero’ PhD, Carmen Cuestab PhD., Francisco J. S&nchez-Muniz”* Prof. PhD
Qepartamento de Nutrici6n y Bromatologia I (Nutrici6n). Facultad de Farmacia. Universidad
Complutense. E-28040 Madrid. Spain
%stituto de NutricGn y Bromatologia (CSIC-UCM). Facultad de Farmacia. Universidad
Complutense. E-28040 Madrid

ABSTRACT

Frying process has been considered to be a source of trans fatty acids. However,
most truns fatty acids found in foods would come from the oil used and not from the
process itself. To test this, the rruns fatty acid production was measured frying in
extra virgin olive oil (EVOO), high oleic sunflower oil (HOSO) and sunflower oil
(SO) various frozen foods 20 times with frequent replenishment (FR) or without
replenishment @JR) of the used oil with fresh oil during the frying. Further, the fat
extracted from potatoes fried in the EVOO, HOSO and SO from the frying 8 and 20
was also analyzed by gas liquid chromatography to compare it trans fatty acid profile
with that of the corresponding fryer oil. Z’rans fatty acids appear in lower amounts
than 5 mg/g oil or fat in both IX and NR. Elaidic acid was the most abundant tram
fatty acid in EVOO or in the fat extracted from EVOO fried potatoes while tram
linoleic isomers were more abundant in SO. HOSO was in between. Present data
suggest that frequent addition of fresh oil through the frying process minimizes the
fatty acid changes contributing to obtain fried foods with less amount of tram fatty
acids. The consumption of a large standard ratio (-140 g) of these fried potatoes
would implied the irrelevant amount of less than 0.13 g of tram fatty acids.
0 2000 Elsewa Saence Inc
Key Words: Deep fat frying, Frozen foods, Extra virgin olive oil, High oleic acid
sunflower oil, Sunflower oil, Trans fatty acids.

INTRODUCTION

Truns fatty acids, at least elaidic acid appear to have an adverse effect on serum lipoproteins
and apolipoproteins when fed at relatively high levels (1,2). In contrast, lower levels of tram fatty
acids did not appear to be deleterious (3). Moreover, animal experiments suggest that these
components present some physiological effects (4).

Corresponding Autor: Prof. Frau&co J. Stichez-Muniz. Departamento de Nutrici6n y Bromatologia I

(Nutrici6n). Facultad de Farmacia Universidad Complutense. E-28040 Madrid. Spain. Phone: 34-91-
3941828; 34-91-5490038; Fax: 34-91-3941732; 34-91-5495079; e-mail: f&an@eucmax.sim.ucm.es
600 A. ROMERO et al.

Frying has been suggested to be a source of tram polyunsaturated fatty acids (5). Pozo-Diez
(6) has shown that the percentage of elaidic acid increases during olive oil or in high oleic acid
sunflower oil potato frying.
In fact tram fatty acids and cyclic fatty acid monomers are present in the human diet as a
consequence of heat treatment of fat and oil. However, there is non consensus about if frying can be
considered or not an important source of trans fatty acids. In most unprocessed foods, the
proportion of tram fatty acids is very low to nonexistent but during partial hydrogenation of oil to
make margarines, shortenings, and frying oils, some of the cis fatty acids are converted to trans
isomers (7).
Commercial frying and baking oils contain significant amount of tram fatty acids; therefore
baked goods, fries snack foods (e.g. doughnuts, french fries), and fried fast-food items (e.g. fried
chicken, and fried fish) contain significant amounts of tram fatty acids (7, 8). In addition par fries
could be frozen and distributed to consumers or restaurant. As a consequence of these facts tried
foods should be considered an important part of the diet, because consumption of frozen foods has
greatly increased during the last decades. The choice of oil to use in frying is difficult as factors
such as stability, price and nutritive value must be considered. Oils with a high saturated fatty acid
content present unique stability in frying applications (9). However, these oils are least desirable from a
nutritional and human health stand-point (10, 11).
Throughout recent decades in Spain, use of the traditional olive oil has sharply declined in
favor of that of other oils for frying purposes and snack food preparation (12, 13). Several authors
(14-16) report that the profile of used frying oil can be improved or at least maintained by
replenishing it with fresh oil, as a certain blend of unaltered and altered oil in the fryer offers
optimum cooking properties. However, other authors (17) indicate that mixing fresh with used oils
accelerates alteration of the oils through a catalytic process.
On the other hand most of the studies on heated fats has been carried out on oil heated
without food fried in it, in the laboratory. The present study represents a real approach to what
happen in the trying oil when frozen foods are fried in it. Further, in this work it was considered the
turnover rate (oil added to replace the oil taken out of the fryer as part of the fried product) and time
required for oil equilibration, because they are essential considerations when conducting either oil
test or finished product evaluations.
The aim of this study was to establish the trans fatty acid production in an extra virgin olive
oil (EVOO), high oleic acid sunflower oil (HOSO) and sunflower oil (SO) during 20 discontinuous
deep-fat frying of frozen ‘foods performed with (FR) or without oil replenishment (NR), by
measuring the polar content and the tram fatty acid pattern from the fryer oil. Because during
frying exchange of fatty acids occurs (8,17), the fat extracted from the pre-fried frozen potatoes
fried in the EVOO was also analyzed by gas chromatography to compare its fatty acid profile with
that of fryer oil.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Samples. EVOO (Patrimonio Comunal Olivarero, Mora, Toledo, Spain), HOSO (Koipe, Andujar,
Jdn, Spain, and SO (Corporation Olivarera de1 Sur para el Desarrollo Oleicola, S.A., Vilches,
Jdn, Spain, and frozen prefiied potatoes (McCain Alimentaire S.A., Hames, France), croquettes,
tuna pastries, fish fingers, battered squid and breaded fish (Pescanova, Redondela, Galicia, Spain),
spring rolls (Oetker, Bielefeld, Germany), fritters (La Cocinera, Torrejon de Ardoz, Madrid, Spain),
and breaded ham and cheese (Findus-Nestle Espafia, S.A., Esplugues de Llobregat, Barcelona,
 TRANS FATTY ACIDS IN FRYING 601

Spain) were purchased at a local store. These frozen foods were selected to be fried in sunflower oil
because they are the most frequently used in deep-fat frying by a representative sample of
university students in the Madrid Autonomy Community (18). The sample frying sequence is listed
in column 1 in Table 1.

TABLE 1
Frying Sequence of Frozen Foods

Frying order Type of frozen food Batch time Food weight

(min) (g wet matter)
1,5,8,12,16,20 Frozen pre-fried potatoes 8 495
2 Fish fingers 415
3 Fritters 305
4,ll Tuna pastries 440
6,14,19 Croquettes 365
7,13 Breaded ham and cheese 335
9,17 Battered squid 400
lo,18 Breaded hake 400
15 Spring rolls 460

Fryingprocedures. Domestic deep-fat fryers with 3-L vessels were used for frying. The amounts of
frozen foods in the successive frying were 305 g to 495 g (Table 1). In total, 20 fryings were carried
out by employing two methods: null replenishment (NR) and frequent replenishment (FR). The NR
method was performed by avoiding replenishment of the bath oil, whereas the FR method was
carried out with replenishment of the bath oil with fresh oil after each frying. Two fryings were
carried out per day, one in the morning and the other in the afternoon. The 20 fryings took place
over ten consecutive days. For example, the first sample fried was pre-fried potatoes, the second
was fish fingers, while the ninth sample fried was battered squid, and so on. Time required to bring
the bath oil to 180°C before introduction of frozen foods was 12 min. Frozen foods were then fried
for 3 to 8 min (Table 1). Total frying time throughout the whole experiment can be estimated as 100
min. Oil loss throughout the frying process required the addition of 1.18 L of EVOO, 1.19 L of
HOSO and 1.14 L of SO throughout the 20 fryings carried out in the FR modality. Samples of
frying oils were packaged under nitrogen and stored at -20°C.

Lipid Extractions. Lipids from the pre-fried frozen potatoes were extracted four times with hexane
at a 1:50 (wt/vol) ratio in each extraction operation (16)

Fatty Acid Determination. Analysis of fatty acids was carried out by gas-liquid chromatography.
Samples of the oils and of the lipid extracts were saponified for 30 min at 60 “C with 40 mL/g 0.5 N
NaOH in methanol and then methylated with boron trifluoride-methanol complex to achieve
complete conversion to methyl esters (19). Tricosanoic acid (23:0) was used as internal standard.
The esters were extracted into hexane, freed of moisture over anhydrous sodium sulfate, and dried
under nitrogen gas. The fatty acid content of the oils was analyzed in a Hewlett-Packard 5890
Series II gas chromatograph (Palo Alto, CA), equipped with a 50 m, i.d. 0.22 mm, capillary column
(BPX 70) with 0.25 urn film thickness (SGE, Austin, TX). Three samples each of unused EVOO
and three samples of the same oil after being used in the eighth and twentieth fryings and their
corresponding lipid extracts from the pre-fried frozen potatoes were analyzed.
602 A. ROMERO et al.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Futty mid evolution in fryer oil. The major fatty acid in the unused EVOO and HOSO was oleic
acid (74.9 and 72.8 mg/lOO mg oil, respectively). Linoleic acid accounted by 4.81 and 13.2 mg /lOO
mg oil respectively. Oleic and linoleic acids in SO were 22.7 and 595 mg/lOO mg oil, respectively.
Elaidic acid was not detected in the three unused oils, but the tram isomers of linoleic acid appears
in total amounts of ~2 mg/g in HOSO or < 3 ms/g in SO. The fat extracted from the pre-fried
potatoes contained -4lmg/lOO mg fat of palmitic acid, 32-35 mg/lOO mg fat of oleic acid, -8.5
mg/lOO mg fat of linoleic acid and -4.3 mg/lOO mg fat of steak acid. It was also observed
negligible amounts of myristic acid and C18: 1~7 (both ~1 mg/lOO mg fat). In addition puns
isomers of linoleic acid (3.4-6.8 mg/g fat) and of oleic acid (O-2.0 mg/g fat) were detected. These
pre-fried potatoes seem to be elaborated with palm oil (8,22). The fatty acid composition of other
frozen foods used for frying were non analyzed.

TABLE 2
Trms fatty acid composition (mg/g oil or fat) in frying used extra virgin olive oil (EVOO), high
oleic sunflower oil (HOSO) and sunflower oil (SO), and in the fat extracted from frozen pre-fried
potatoes and after being fried in EVOO, HOSO or SO with frequent replenishment of unused of
fresh oil.

1 OIL FRIED POTATOES 1

Frying Unused 8 20 Raw 8 20
number
EVOO
Elaidic Nq Nq 2.38k0.5 2.01kO.11 0.87kO.12 2.35k0.34
acid
cis, trans Nq W Nq 3.33k0.38 0.48kO.07 0.66kO. 12
linoleic acid
truns, cis Nq Nq Nq 3.45kO.05 0.47kO.02 0.58kO.04
linoleic acid
HOSO
Elaidic Nq 0.88kO.14 1.65kO. 17 Nq Nq 1.35k0.32
acid
cis, tram 0.87+0.01 0.76kO. 10 1.ookO. 14 1.72M.14 0.8OkO.04 0.86M.07
linoleic acid
tram, cis 0.55+0.05 0.62kO.03 0.75&0.03 1.70+0.01 0.7kkO.02 0.82kO.02
linoleic acid
so
Elaidic Ns Nq l.OlkO.06 2.01kO.11 Nq 1.ookO.o7
acid
cis, trans 1.65kO.08 1.63M.04 1.65kO.02 3.33k0.37 1.70kO.05 1.76kO.005
linoleic acid
trans. cis 1.06.fO.03 1.12+0.01 1.22f0.02 3.45f0.05 1.27f0.05 1.38kO.03
linoleic acid

Nq: Non quantify or quantified at the level of traces (~0.1 mg/g)

 TRAM FAll-Y ACIDS IN FRYING 603

It is known that, for both linoleic and linolenic
can occur during deodorization process (4). Pozo-Diez
acid increases within the number of frying in olive oil
potato trying at 185 “C. However, present results
constituents of oils used in frying of foods.
acids, trans isomerization of a double bond
(6) has shown that the percentage of elaidic
or in high oleic acid sunflower oil used for
suggest that trans fatty acids are minor

TABLE 3
Trum Fatty acid composition (mg/g oil or fat) in frying used extra virgin olive oil (EVOO), high
oleic sunflower oil (HOSO) and sunflower oil (SO), and in the fat extracted from frozen pre-fried
potatoes after being fried in EVOO, HOSO or SO without replenishment of fresh oil.

OIL I FRIED POTATOES

Frying Unused 8 20 Raw 8 20
number
EVOO
Elaidic Ns W 3.08fo.07 2.01%). 11 1.05~.10 2.59io.31
Acid
cis, tram Ns Nq 0.46M.02 3.33ti.38 0.53&0.05 0.60?0.03
linoleic acid
Trans. cis Ns Nq 0.55M.03 3.45M.05 0.57M.04 0.68ti.04
linoleic acid
HOSO
Elaidic 5 0.79ti.05 2.37fl.09 Nq Nq 1.97M. 10
Acid
cis, tram 0.87&0.01 0.87fO. 18 1.00&0.07 1.72M.14 0.83&0.03 1.00~.03
linoleic acid
Tram, cis 0.55~.05 0.68M.06 0.86M.05 1.70~.01 0.73M.04 0.88-Lo.02
linoleic acid
so
Elaidic Ns Nq 1.52kO.29 2.01+0.11 Nq 1.58ti.04
Acid
cis.trans 1.65kO.08 1.6Oti.01 1.89M.17 3.33M.37 1.78M.03 1.82fo.02
linoleic acid
Trurqcis 1.06.M.03 1.14M.02 1.42ti.13 3.45M.05 1.36M.01 1.45f0.01
linoleic acid

Nq : Non quantify or quantified at the level of traces (< 0.1 mg/g)

Elaidic acid was detected in the FR modality at the 16* , 8*, and 16* frying in EVOO,
HOSO and SO, respectively while fruns isomers from linoleic acid were detected in HOSO and SO
but not in EVOO all throughout the experiment (Table 2). NR oils presented higher amount of tram
fatty acids than FR oils (Table 3). Various factors may account for this finding, e.g. the addition of
fresh oil after each use dilutes the concentration of alteration compounds formed during frying,
while the addition of unaltered fatty acids and antioxidant compounds from the fresh oil helps to
maintain the initial composition of the frying oil (16,20). However, the small amount of trans fatty
acids detected makes this effect, irrelevant
604 A. ROMERO et al.

Truns polyunsaturated fatty acids are present in the frying oils as a consequence of the heat
treatment (5, 21). For both linoleic and linolenic acids, truns isomerization of a double bond can
occur during frying of foods (4). However, present results obtained suggest that fruns fatty acids
are minor constituents of oils used in frying of foods.
In the present study, the pre-fried frozen potatoes fried in sunflower oil release 55-70% of
fat to the batch fryers (13). Thus, some of the truns fatty acids seem in the fryer oil should be
released from the frozen potatoes and other pre-fried frozen foods. Pozo-Diez et al. (21) found
during fi-yings performed with high oleic sunflower oil of pre-fried frozen potatoes, a release of fat
about 80% from the fried potatoes to the fryers.

Potato Fut content

Fat content of frozen pre-fried potatoes ranged 3,5-4,5 g/100 g wet matter. Due to the water-lipid
exchange taking place in frying (21-23), the percentage of fat in potatoes increased very much.
However, potatoes fried in HOSO contain significant lower fat (average) 17.4 g/100 g wet matter)
while that those fried in EVOO and SO accounted by 22.9 and 2 1.1 g/100 g wet matter,
respectively. No relevant differences were noted between the fat content in fried potatoes from NR
and FR modalities (data not shown). Many factors have been described to affect oil uptake. Frying
temperature and duration of the frying process, surface area of the food and product composition
(eg. moisture, fat, protein, pre-frying treatment, coating) have been shown to be major factors (23).
As far as we know no clear factors have influenced the lower fat uptake by potatoes when fried in
HOSO, because composition of frozen pre-fried potatoes (Tables 2 and 3) and change temperature
in the bath oil were rather similar for EVOO, HOSO and SO (data not shown).

Quality of the,fut extructedfrom fro,-en pre-friedpotatoes and after been fried in EVOO, HOSO and
SO oil with or without oil replenishment.

Cis, truns- and truns, cis-linoleic isomers were present in the fat extracted from fried potatoes of
NR and FR modalities in EVOO after the 8fi frying, but throughout all the experiment in those
potatoes fried in HOSO and SO. Data tended to be higher for these isomers in the NR modality
(Table 3). Grandgirard and Julliard (24) described amounts of truns isomers from the fried food
products. Moreiras et al. (25) have also reported truns 20: 2 A1’*‘4content in pre-frozen fried
potatoes and in the fried potatoes from burger. These authors also described amounts of elaidic acid
in frozen food such as croquettes, tuna pastries and fish fryers.
On the other hand, as previously discussed, in the present study an enrichment of truns fatty
acids in the bath oil was observed, with some of those geometric isomers coming from the frozen
foods fried Thus, the increase in truns fatty acid observed into the fried potatoes should be also
related to changes in the fryer oil.

Exchange between ,futty acids from ,frozen pre-fried potatoes and the oil used for fving, during
jiying ofj?ozen foods.
The small amount and most of the occasions no detection of truns fatty acids avoid us to evaluate
sometimes differences between the changes in the oil and those occurring in the fat extracted.
However, slightly but higher amount of truns fatty acids was found in the fried potatoes than in the
oils (Tables 2 and 3).
Because several frozen foods were fried in the same oil, and fatty acid composition was only
determined in oil and in pre-fried frozen potatoes before and after being frying with the three
different oils, the time course of truns fatty acid production can not accurately be determined.
However, taking into account the changes observed in oil and potatoes the following kinetic should
 TRAM FAl-fY ACIDS IN FRYING 605

be suggested: during frying of frozen potatoes. 1.- Tram fatty acids released from pre-fried frozen
potatoes and other frozen foods (if they were pre-fried in oils containing tram fatty acids or with
hydrogenated fats in their composition), 2. Some trans fatty acid are also formed by heating
contributing to increase the pool of these fatty acids in the fryer. 3.- Oil from the fryer exchanges
with water and fat from frozen foods. This fact increases food fat content and contributes to
increase their trans fatty acid content. 4.- Because of this process is repeated several times the
amount of trans isomers in the fryer oil and in the frozen foods increases.
Tram fatty acids, at least elaidic acid, have been suggested to have an adverse effect on
serum lipoproteins and apohpoproteins when fed at relatively high levels (1,2). In contrast, lower
levels of trans fatty acids did not appear to be deleterious in another experiment (3). Because
isomers of linoleic acid can be converted into isomers of arachidonic acid and incorporated into fat
tissues (26), these isomers seems to be more critical than elaidic acid. Fig 1 shows the percentage of
such isomers in the fat extracted from fried potatoes from the 20” frying. EVOO and potatoes fried
in this oil, presented lower percentage of trans-linoleic acid than HOSO and SO and their
corresponding fried potatoes in both FR and NR modalities. This data seems related to the higher
concentration of linoleic acid in HOSO and SO than EVOO.

FR-EVOO NR-EVO FR-HOSO NR-HOSO m-so NR-SO

1cl t-m1 ??c,t-18:2 El t,c-18:2 I

Fig 1. Elaidic acid and linolenic tram fatty acid isomer contribution to of total tram fatty acids
(mg/g fat) in the fat extracted from fried potatoes from the frying 20” in extra virgin olive oil
(EVOO), high oleic acid sunflower oil (HOSO) and sunflower oil (SO) during frying of frozen
foods with frequent replenishment (FR) or without replenishment (NR) of fresh oil.

After a simple test it was obtained that the standard helping of fried potatoes in a fast-food
restaurant weight -140 g. Table 4 shows the amount of trans fatty acids presents in this ration of
potatoes when frozen pre-fried and after frying. One hundred and forty g of fried potatoes from the
frying 20” in the three oils contain below 130 mg of tram fatty acids. These results clearly show
that at least in our experimental trying conditions EVOO is a very poor source of tram fatty acids,
and a relevant proportion of these fatty acid should come from the pre-fried frozen foods.
606 A. ROMERO et al.

European and North-American typical diet contains about 100 g of fat and a substantial
amount of tram fatty acids (27,28). As we have probed the amount of trans fatty acids in these
frozen potatoes after to be fried in EVOO, HOSO and SO is very low and thus, its consumption in
physiological amounts would implied negligible change, if any, in the total amount of trams fatty
acids ingested.

TABLE 4
Total tram fatty acid amount (mg) in a large standard ratio of potatoes (-140 g) when frozen pre-
fried and after being fried in extra virgin olive oil (EVOO), high oleic acid sunflower oil (HOSO)
and sunflower oil during frying of frozen foods with frequent replenishment (FR) or without
replenishment (NF) of fresh oil

Frozen pre-fried Frying 8 Frying 20

FR-EVOO 45.2 56.9 124.3
NR-EVOO 45.2 64.4 110.8
FR-HOSO 20.8 38.7 86.4
NR-HOSO 20.8 38.9 96.5
FR-SO 45.2 68.6 113.0
NR-so 45.2 71.28 129.0

ACKNO%VLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by the Spanish Comision Interministerial de Ciencia y Tecnologla
(CICYT) Project ALI-92-0289-C02-01. Thanks are due to the fellow-ship application to Antonio
Romero by the Consejerla de Educaci&n y Cultura of the Comunidad de Madrid (Spain).

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Accepted for publication September 22, 1999.