IFUGAO STATE UNIVERSITY

Lagawe Campus
Language Education Research/ EL 2221

I. Fundamentals of Language Education Research

II. Writing the Rationale/ Introduction
III. Writing the Literature Review
L IV. Methodology in Language Education Research
V. Conducting the Language Education Research
A VI. Writing and Presenting the Research Report
N
G I. FUNDAMENTALS OF LANGUAGE EDUCATION RESEARCH

U Learning Objectives:

A 1. describe the nature of research;

2. distinguish scientific research and common sense;
G 3. identify and distinguish the parts of research;
E 4. value the impo

Introduction:
This module presents topics on the paradigm of Language Research whose objectives
R
will be for students to be familiar with the parameters of language research through
E illustrations; for you to prepare a plan for a selected topic and eventually, acknowledge the
importance of a paradigm plan to the successful conduct of the study.
S
Module 1: Introduction: What is Research?
E
The word research is derived from the Middle French "recherche", which means "to go
A about seeking", the term itself being derived from the Old French term "recerchier" a
compound word from "re-" + "cerchier", or "sercher", meaning 'search'. The earliest
R recorded use of the term was in 1577.
C
Research is a process to discover new knowledge. In the Code
H of Federal Regulations (45 CFR 46.102(d)) pertaining to the
protection of human subjects research is defined as:
“A systematic investigation (i.e., the gathering
and analysis of information) designed to develop or
contribute to generalizable knowledge.” The National
Academy of Sciences states that the object of research is
to “extend human knowledge of the physical, biological,
or social world beyond what is already known.” Research

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is different than other forms of discovering knowledge (like reading a book) because it uses a
systematic process called the Scientific Method.

The Scientific Method consists of observing the world around you and creating
a hypothesis about relationships in the world. A hypothesis is an informed and educated
prediction or explanation about something. Part of the research process involves testing
the hypothesis, and then examining the results of these tests as they relate to both the
hypothesis and the world around you. When a researcher forms a hypothesis, this acts like a
map through the research study. It tells the researcher which factors are important to study
and how they might be related to each other or caused by a manipulation that the researcher
introduces (e.g. a program, treatment or change in the environment). With this map, the
researcher can interpret the information he/she collects and can make sound conclusions
about the results.

Research can be done with human beings, animals, plants, other organisms and
inorganic matter. When research is done with human beings and animals, it must follow
specific rules about the treatment of humans and animals that have been created by the U.S.
Federal Government. This ensures that humans and animals are treated with dignity and
respect, and that the research causes minimal harm.

No matter what topic is being studied, the value of the research depends on how well
it is designed and done. Therefore, one of the most important considerations in doing good
research is to follow the design or plan that is developed by an experienced researcher who is
called the Principal Investigator (PI). The PI is in charge of all aspects of the research and
creates what is called a protocol (the research plan) that all people doing the research must
follow. By doing so, the PI and the public can be sure that the results of the research are real
and useful to other scientists.

Module 1: Discussion Questions

1. How is a hypothesis like a road map?

2. Who is ultimately responsible for the design and conduct of a research study?

3. How does following the research protocol contribute to informing public health
practices?

1.1 WHAT MAKES A GOOD LANGUAGE RESEARCH?

Values of Research to Man

Research is of great value to man. Through research, the quality of man’s life has
improved from conventional to modern. It has made life richer and more meaningful.
Through research, people have found many ways to augment their income and alleviate
poverty. The following ae some of the values of research to man:

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 1. Research improves quality of life.
2. Research improves instruction and students’ achievements.
3. Research reduces the burden of work.
4. Research satisfies man’s needs.
5. Research improves the exportation of food products.
6. Research improves teacher’s competence.
7. Research responds to the country’s effort as economic recovery.
8. Research trains graduates to respond to the socioeconomic development of the society
L and to compete globally.

A Qualities of a Good researcher

N There are 10 qualities of a good researcher which stand for the acronym of RESEARCHER.
R stands for research-oriented; E, efficient; S, scientific; E, effective; A, active; R,
G resourceful; C, creative; H, honest;, E, economical; and R, religious. The explanations are as
U follows:

A 1. Research-oriented- A good student researcher must be research-oriented. The school

is his training ground where he starts to love and finds interest to conduct research.
G 2. Efficient- He must be a dreamer. He must be ambitious, but he must also be
E industrious in order to achieve his dreams. If his dream is to conduct experimental
research with return on investment, and if his ambition is to become rich someday, he
must be efficient and industrious in his research work in order to achieve his dreams.
3. Scientific- He must be systematic, methodological, logical, and precise in his decision
R
pertaining to his research and interpreting research results.
E 4. Effective- he must be successful in his experiment research so that its results are
useful. Ultimately, he must be able to realize a return on investment from the research
S outputs by commercializing them.
E 5. Active- He must be energetic and dynamic in conducting his research until its
completion.
A 6. Resourceful- he must be inventive and quick-witted in conducting his research with
the goal in mind of improving his quality of life from poor to rich.
R
7. Creative- he must be unique, original and innovative in his research to arrive at
C productive results that can augment income, alleviate poverty and improve quality of
life.
H 8. Honest- in research, the saying, “Honesty is the best policy” applies. A good
researcher must be trustworthy and declare valid research results.
9. Economical- he must make his research cost-effective. He must be thrifty and wise in
the use of materials, time, and money.
10. Religious- He must be a spiritually-oriented individual by implementing first in his
life the acronym of UNLAD, meaning Unahin Natin Lagi Ang Diyos in order to be
well guided excellently by the Almighty I his research efforts. A very spiritual

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 individual receives extraordinary blessings of good health, wisdom, knowledge, and
understanding, all necessary traits in fulfilling the task of research.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A RESEARCHER

1. Intellectual Curiosity- the researcher is inquisitive. He engages in reflective thinking

and investigates things, situations, and problems around him. He is interested in
acquiring knowledge about them especially the new and uncommon.
2. Prudence- it is said that intellectual curiosity ends when prudence begins. Once the
researcher has chosen his research problem wisely, his intellectual curiosity ends but
prudence begins. The researcher is prudence if he conducts his research project
L carefully, wisely, and practically at the right time and right place, effectively,
efficiently and economically. In other words, he does the righ thing at the right time
A
by using the 7Ms: (a) manpower; (b) money; (c)machinery; (d) materials; (e)
N methods; (f) moment; (g) marketing wisely, effectively, efficiently and economically.
3. Healthy Criticism- the researcher is always doubtful as to as the truthfulness of the
G results of his study.
U 4. Honesty- An intelligent researcher is honest in gathering data or facts in order to
arrive at honest and valid results because success or failure of the research study lies
A in his hand. If his research is on the acceptability, salability, and profitability of a
certain product, he must be honest in gathering his data and declare the honest results
G
of his study.
E 5. Creativity- An intelligent researcher is creative when he conducts research which is
new, unique, and original.
6. Inventiveness- An intelligent investigator must be inventive and innovative in his
R research. Not only should his research be the first of its kind, but the result should also
be patentable.
E 7. Productivity- An intelligent researcher must be productive and resourceful in
conducting research that has return on investment, applying the invest-harvest
S
principle.
E
1.2 CONCEPTS IN LANGUAGE EDUCATION RESEARCH
A
R NATURE OF LANGUAGE RESEARCH

C Language research, just like researches in other disciplines, is a complex process.

Undertaking this type of research requires consideration of many factors such as language
H
use, type of users, acquisition process, setting, research methodology, and related
disciplines.
Language use determines primarily whether the language is first, second, or foreign
to the speaker. A research on the acquisition of either one of these three uses of language
will greatly vary from one another. Within each use, there are many sub-functions of
language. For instance, a second language may be regarded as a medium of personal

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 enhancement, social prestige, professional growth, or political and economic alliance.
Each function can be a rich source of research.
The type of users takes into accounts the age and characteristics of the learners.
These are closely tied up with the language acquisition process. It is a common belief that
the young leaner acquires language faster than the adult. However, a strongly motivated
learner can acquire language also fast.
Language setting identifies the environment within which language is acquired. A
native speaker acquires it in a natural environment- at home, with family members, with
playmates; a second or foreign language learner acquires it in the classroom under the
supervision of a teacher.
L Research methodology is determined by the researcher’s philosophy, motivation for
conducting the research, and conditions under which the research is conducted. If a
A teacher-researcher believes that attitude very much influences acquisition of a foreign
N language (philosophy), and wants to find out if it affects his/ her students’ learning of the
language (motivation) required in their curriculum (conditions), he/ she might want to
G conduct a study on the students’ attitude towards the foreign language and its effect on
their learning of the language. A study like this will use tolls such as survey
U
questionnaire, and interview.
A Related disciplines pertain to areas that influence language study like education,
psychology, sociology, anthropology, and others. A language acquisition research may
G consider pedagogy (education), students’ motivation (psychology), the role of language in
E society (sociology), or the origin and development of the language (anthropology).

1. Answer the question: How different is language research from other kinds of
researches? Why is it a complex process?
R
E 1.3 IDENTIFYING A RESEARCH TOPIC

S
A. TOPIC SELECTION
E
1. Identifying a Research Topic
A Identifying a Topic. A research topic focuses the study to a defined, manageable size.
R It provides structure for the steps in the scientific method and is discusses in many
ways by identifying the research question, the research problem and the purpose of
C the research.
H
Main sources of topics. There are four main sources of topics: a) theory – an
organized body of concepts, generalizations and principles that can be
subjected to investigation. It provides conceptually rich topics and confirmation
of some aspects of the theory; b) personal experience; c) replication; d) library
immersion.

2. Narrowing Topics

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 Problems encountered with broad topics enlarging the scope of the review of the
literature beyond reason, complicating the organization of the review of the literature
itself, and creating studies that are too general, too difficult to carry out, and too
difficult to interpret. To help narrow the topics, it might help to talk to experts in the
field like professors in college or department or researchers known, or to read
secondary sources that provide overviews of the topics such as handbooks and
reviews of literature. There is a difference between narrowing quantitative from
qualitative studies. Quantitative studies tend to narrow the topic throughout the
L research process itself.

A 3. Making a Formal Statement of Quantitative and Qualitative Research Studies

N Quantitative research topic identifies the variables of interest and the
nature of the participants, and describes the specific relationship between the
G variables. Qualitative research topic emerges over the course of the study. It begins as
an initial statement that tends to be stated as a general issue or concern and becomes
U
focused as more is learned about the context, participants, and phenomena of interest.
A It is typically stated late in a written study.
4. Formulating Researchable and Non-researchable Topics
G Researchable topics can be investigated through the collection and analysis of data.
E They have theoretical or practical significance and have been conducted ethically.
They contribute to the educational processes and can be adequately researched given
the expertise, resources, and time constraints of the researcher. Non-researchable
topics address philosophical or ethical issues. They cannot be resolved through the
R
collection and analysis of data. They address “should” questions. Ultimately, these are
E matters of opinion.

S 1.4 PARTS OF A LANGUAGE RESEARCH PAPER

E I. Chapter 1 describes the problem and its setting and is subdivided into the following
A headings:

R a. Introduction. This provides general information about the topic chosen, its role or
importance in society and discusses the reason why the researcher became interested in the
C study. For example, if the study pertains to Social and Cultural Implications of Name-Calling
in the Philippines, it must include a background of the name-calling practices of Filipinos
H
where, when, and how they originated, and why was the writer interested in the phenomenon.

b. Setting of the Study. It specifically gives information regarding the location of the
study, which may include the country, the province, the city, or the institution
where the study was conducted.

Example:
This study was conducted in Centro Escolar University, Manila. CEU is a private institution
which just celebrated its first 100 years. The university houses 12 buildings that are used in
catering to the educational needs of an average of 15, 000 students per year. Considered as

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one of the most stable institutions in the country, CEU has pursued academic
excellence in its course offerings by continuously raising quality standards,
upgrading facilities, updating curricula, and developing a highly professional and dynamic
teaching force and university staff. Centro Escolar University was established on June
3, 1907 by Doña Carmen de Luna for the instruction and training of the youth in all
branches of the arts and sciences. With some benches, a single blackboard, and a few books,
the two educators steadfastly nurtured a dream of establishing a nationalistic center of
learning Filipino women. The first college, that of Pharmacy, opened in 1921. The colleges of
Liberal Arts, Education and Dentistry followed one after another, and three years later, the
College of Optometry was
established. Today it has a total of 10 schools/ colleges in Manila, Makati and Malolos
campuses
Example:

This study was conducted in Centro Escolar University, Manila. CEU is a private
institution which just celebrated its first 100 years. The university houses 12 buildings that
are used in catering to the educational needs of an average of 15, 000 students per year.
Considered as one of the most stable institutions in the country, CEU has pursued
academic excellence in its course offerings by continuously raising quality
standards, upgrading facilities, updating curricula, and developing a highly professional and
dynamic teaching force and university staff. Centro Escolar University was established
on June 3, 1907 by Doña Carmen de Luna for the instruction and training of the
youth in all branches of the arts and sciences. With some benches, a single blackboard, and a
few books, the two educators steadfastly nurtured a dream of establishing a nationalistic
center of learning Filipino women. The first college that of Pharmacy, opened in 1921. The
colleges of Liberal Arts, Education and Dentistry followed one after another, and three years
later, the College of Optometry was established. Today it has a total of 10 schools/ colleges in
Manila, Makati and Malolos campuses.

c. Theoretical/ Conceptual Framework.

It presents the theoretical basis of the study which may be an established learning,
principle of the theory. The conceptual framework shows the process followed in the conduct
of the research.

Examples: Theoretical Framework (A study on students’ oral communication needs

with the goal planning a course to address these needs may adopt Paul Nation’s (2000) Model
of Course Design Process.)

Paul Nation considers course design as a process consisting of sub-

process. This process is illustrated in Figure 1 showing a model course design which this
study adopted as paradigm.

The Figure consists of three outside circles and a subdivided inner circle. Both circles
make up the curriculum. The inner circle (subdivided into Content and Sequencing, Format
and Presentation, Monitoring and Assessing with Goals at the center) represents the syllabus.

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 The outer circles (Principles, Environment, Needs) represent the practical and theoretical
considerations that guide the process of course production. These considerations constitute
the sub-process of the design.

d. Statement of the Problem

It is usually stated in one broad statement followed by specific questions that relate to
the problem. Answers to the questions when put together provide answer to the general
problem. The following are general guidelines followed in formulating the statement of the
problem:

 Begin with a broad statement expressing the general concern of the study.
 Ask a series of three or more questions related to the general problem.
L  Arrange questions in logical order.
A  Avoid yes/ no questions.

N e. Assumptions of the Study.

G Some extraneous factors in the study are beyond the control of the researcher. He/
U she can only assume that his/ her study was conducted under required conditions. For
example, he/ she has to assume that the questionnaire were answered honestly and that the
A records provided by certain sources are true and accurate.

G Example: The study assumes that:

E 1. The students’ grades in Basic English are accurate representation of their English
language performance.

2. The English teachers faithfully follow the grading system guidelines prescribed by
R
the University in computing their students’ grades.
E
3. The population used in the study is reflective of the entire population taking basic
S English.

E f. Hypotheses.

A These are statements drawn regarding the outcome of the study before the conclusion
is reached. For example, the researcher might state that there is no significant difference in
R the perceptions of respondents regarding the social and cultural implications of their name-
C calling practices. The statement is usually given in the null or negative form.

H g. Significance of the Study.

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 The researcher must justify his/ her choice of problem by showing its practical
importance especially to the intended readers of the study. What benefit for example, will
society derive from a study on name-calling practices in the Philippines?

h. Scope/ Delimitation and Limitations of the Study.

Scope delimitation states what the study covers and fix its boundaries. Limitations
specify certain constraints in the study which are essential, but which the researcher has no
control of. For example, the researcher may state that his/ her study is concerned only with
the name-calling practices among Filipinos (scope) in a rural community (delimitation). It
will not include Filipinos in an urban community (limitation)

i. Definition of Terms.

It is necessary to clarify terms used in the study by defining them contextually or

L operationally. It may also include newly invented or coined words, technical terms, or terms
with special meaning. The following guidelines help in making the definition of terms clear:
A
N  Arrange words in alphabetical order.
 Underline words followed by period.
G  State definition in a complete sentence.
U  Document the sources of definitions in the endnotes.
2. Chapter 2 contains the review of related literature which divided into the following
A dub-sections:

G a. Local Literature. This includes books, magazines, newspapers, and journal articles
written by local authors.
E
b. Foreign Literature. This includes the same type of materials in the local literature but
written by foreign authors.
R
c. Local Studies. These are studies that refer to graduate and undergraduate theses or
E dissertations. Those written by local authors are classified as local literature; those by foreign
authors are foreign studies.
S
d. Foreign Studies. These are the same as local studies except that they are done by foreign
E researchers.
A 3. Chapter 3 explains the methods and procedure which contain the following:
R
a. Method of Research.
C
This specifies the research methodology of the study, explains how the method will be used
H and how it will be applied in the study. Most language researches use descriptive,
experimental, or correlational method. A description of a language proficiency of a particular
group is descriptive; testing the effectiveness of a teaching strategy in language is
experimental; showing the relationship of academic grades in English with board
examination ratings in correlational.

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 b. Subjects of the Study.

The subjects of the study refer to persons about whom the study refer to persons about whom
the research is conducted. In some cases, the subjects are at the same time the respondents.
For instance, a study on the reading proficiency of Grade 1 pupils may include their mothers
who will be asked regarding the subjects are the Grade 1 pupils, but the mothers serve as the
respondents of the study.

c. Sampling Technique.

This is important when the total population is big and the researcher decides to use only a
representative group for practical reasons. The common types sampling techniques are
random, purposive, and stratified. Using odd numbers in the list of students to choose the
respondents is a random sampling technique. Setting specific criteria such as academic
grades, age, nationality, etc. for selecting the respondents is purposive. Getting a proportional
number to represent specific groups like year level, regional classification, etc. is stratified
sampling.
L
Some studies include the total population, in which case no sampling is necessary. Deciding
A
on the size of the sample is commonly reached through the use of Slovin’s Formula. When
N big numbers are involved, it is best to consult a statistician for help.

G d. Procedure of Data Gathering.

U This explains the sources of data. If different instruments were used in collecting data, the
study should describe how they were utilized. For instance, a survey study using a
A
questionnaire should state whether it is an adapted or an original instrument. Either way, the
G researcher should describe how it was adapted or constructed and validated.

E e. Statistical Treatment of Data.

This enumerates the formulas used for interpreting data and explains why they are necessary.
It also includes the scale and verbal interpretation of scores. If professional help was sought
R in statistical processing of data, the name of the office or agency or person taking charge of it
E should be mentioned.

S 4. Chapter 4 presents, analyzes and interprets the data arranged in the same order as the
specific questions in the statement of the problem in Chapter 1. This is the part of the study
E where tables are often constructed to help clarify or simplify the presentation especially if the
data consist of a large number of statistical and numerical items.
A
A table includes a title, a number, a heading, a body, and if necessary, notes.
R
C 5. Chapter 5 gives the summary of findings, conclusions, and recommendations

H a. Summary of Findings.

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 Findings of the study are summarized according to the questions asked in the Statement of
the Problem. The findings may be headed by the same questions asked in the Statement or
topics pertinent to the findings. Where figures are given, only the highest or lowest figures
and their implications are repeated in the summary. Findings are stated using the past tense.

b. Conclusions.

These should evolve from the findings of the study. They state in general terms what are true
about certain phenomena investigated in the study. For instance, a study on comparing the
reading proficiencies of Grade 1 pupils in public and private schools showed that subjects
enrolled in public schools manifested lower reading proficiency than those in private schools.
From this finding, the researcher may conclude that pupils in public schools have lower
reading proficiency than those in private schools.

c. Recommendations.
L The researcher should make recommendations based on the conclusions drawn. In the above
conclusion, the researcher may recommend to the Department of Education some measures to
A
improve the reading proficiency of Grade 1 pupils in public schools such as a summer
N reading program prior to Grade 1. A cast recommendation is often directed future researchers
suggesting other topics related to the study for research.
G
U
Answer the following questions:
A
1. What are the basic parts of Chapter I? What is the significance of each part?
G 2. Why is a review of related literature and studies necessary in research?
3. What are the common methodologies in language research?
E 4. How are the three sections of Chapter 4 and of Chapter 5 connected to one another?

SUMMARY:
R  Research on language must be defined by four parameters: approaches, objectives,
research design, and data collection/ analysis.
E
 Language research requires consideration of many factors such as language use, type
S of users, acquisition process, setting, research methodology, and related disciplines.
 In identifying a research topic, one must consider quantitative and qualitative
E concepts.
A  The parts of a language research paper include:
 Chapter 1 (Introduction, Setting of the Study, Theoretical/ Conceptual
R Framework, Statement of the Problem, Assumptions of the Study,
Hypothesis, Significance of the Study, Scope/ Delimitation and Limitations of
C
the Study, and Definition of Terms);
H  Chapter 2 (Local Literature, Foreign Literature, Local Studies and Foreign
Studies);
 Chapter 3 (Method of Research, Subjects of the Study, Sampling Technique,
Procedure of Data Gathering, Statistical Treatment of Data);

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  Chapter 4 (Analysis and Interpretation of the Data); and
 Chapter 5 (Summary of Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations)

Research Activity:

II. WRITING THE RATIONALE/ INTRODUCTION

What is a rationale?

L A rationale is when you are asked to give the reasoning or justification for an action or a
choice you make.
A
There is a focus on the ‘why’ in a rationale: why you chose to do something, study or focus
N on something. It is a set of statements of purpose and significance and often addresses a gap
G or a need.

U How to write the rationale for your research

A The rationale for one’s research is the justification for undertaking a given study. It states the
reason(s) why a researcher chooses to focus on the topic in question, including what the
G significance is and what gaps the research intends to fill. In short, it is an explanation that
rationalizes the need for the study. The rationale is typically followed by a
E
hypothesis/research question(s) and the study objectives.

When is the rationale for research written?

R
The rationale of a study can be presented both before and after the research is conducted.
E
Before: The rationale is a crucial part of your research proposal, representing the plan of your
S work as formulated before you execute your study.
E After: Once the study is completed, the rationale is presented in a research paper or
dissertation to explain why you focused on the particular question. In this instance, you
A
would link the rationale of your research project to the study aims and outcomes.
R
Basis for writing the research rationale
C
The study rationale is predominantly based on preliminary data. A literature review will help
H you identify gaps in the current knowledge base and also ensure that you avoid duplicating
what has already been done. You can then formulate the justification for your study from the
existing literature on the subject and the perceived outcomes of the proposed study.

Steps to follow while writing the rationale of the study

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 1. In the first few lines of the rationale of the study provide the background of the topic in
such a way that it tingles the curiosity of the reader. Also, introduce the problem that has to
be discussed.

2. Briefly explain the problem that has to be addressed and what the research paper outcomes
are. The detailed synopsis of the problem and what the study would tackle.

3. Use bibliographic citations to strengthen the reasoning for conducting the research, also
highlight the intended audience which will scrutinize the research or use it for further studies.

4. The purpose of the work and how it will be utilized further.

5. Writing should be as concise as possible, it should be written in such a way that it avoids
pretentious writing and could be readily understood by the intended audience.

6. Avoid using specialized complex jargon or technical terms lingering around the problem.
Describe the problem thoroughly and keep the information specific.

7. In a few lines also discuss the impact of the intended research and its implications and
L impact in the real world.

A 8. Also, highlight the additional references and methodology utilized for the research. Do not
assimilate them too much in the writing. Focus on providing concise information and
N arguments foremost.
G The rationale of the study holds great importance as it sets the tone of the research and
U also intrigues a reader’s curiosity to dive into the work. It is necessary to formulate a robust
rationale for any dissertation to enhance dissertations’ impact factor.
A
Length of the research rationale
G
In a research proposal or research article, the rationale would not take up more than a
E few sentences. A thesis or dissertation would allow for a longer description, which could
even run into a couple of paragraphs. The length might even depend on the field of study or
nature of the experiment. For instance, a completely novel or unconventional approach might
R warrant a longer and more detailed justification.

E Basic elements of the research rationale

S Every research rationale should include some mention or discussion of the following:

E  An overview of your conclusions from your literature review

 Gaps in current knowledge
A
 Inconclusive or controversial findings from previous studies
R  The need to build on previous research (e.g. unanswered questions, the need to update
concepts in light of new findings and/or new technical advancements).
C
H Example of a research rationale

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 Note: This uses a fictional study.

Abc xyz is a newly identified micro algal species isolated from fish tanks. While Abc xyz algal
blooms have been seen as a threat to pisciculture, some studies have hinted at their unusually
high carotenoid content and unique carotenoid profile. Carotenoid profiling has been
carried out only in a handful of micro algal species from this genus, and the search for
microalgae rich in bioactive carotenoids has not yielded promising candidates so far. This
in-depth examination of the carotenoid profile of Abc xyz will help identify and quantify
novel and potentially useful carotenoids from an untapped aquaculture resources.

Language to signal rationale

because
in order to
as
so that
therefore
the reason this was done/chosen …
for the following reason(s) …
L
for two/three reasons …
A
Language for further justification - showing importance
N
This was important / significant because …
G
This meant that I could…
U This enabled me to …
… which enabled / allowed me to…
A … which pointed to / highlighted that / showed me that …
G
Final tip
E The key thing to remember about rationale writing is to stand back from the writing, look at it
in a big picture sense and ask yourself, ‘Have I explained why?’ If that is clearly articulated,
you have provided a rationale.
R In conclusion
It is important to describe the rationale of your research in order to put the significance and
E novelty of your specific research project into perspective. Once you have successfully
S articulated the reason(s) for your research, you will have convinced readers of the importance
of your work!
E
III. WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEW
A
R
What is a literature review?
C A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources that provides an overview of a particular
H topic. Literature reviews are a collection of the most relevant and significant publications

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 regarding that topic in order to provide a comprehensive look at what has been said on the
topic and by whom. The basic components of a literature review include:

 a description of the publication;

 a summary of the publication’s main points;
 a discussion of gaps in research;
 an evaluation of the publication’s contribution to the topic.

Importance of a Good Literature Review

A literature review may consist of simply a summary of key sources, but in the social
sciences, a literature review usually has an organizational pattern and combines both
summary and synthesis, often within specific conceptual categories. A summary is a recap of
the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling,
of that information in a way that informs how you are planning to investigate a research
problem. The analytical features of a literature review might:

L  Give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with old interpretations,
 Trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major debates,
A  Depending on the situation, evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most
N pertinent or relevant research, or
 Usually in the conclusion of a literature review, identify where gaps exist in how a
G problem has been researched to date.
U
LESSON 3.1 PURPOSE OF A LITERATURE REVIEW
A
The purpose of a literature review is to:
G
E  Place each work in the context of its contribution to understanding the research
problem being studied.
 Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration.
 Identify new ways to interpret prior research.
R
 Reveal any gaps that exist in the literature.
E  Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies.
 Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort.
S  Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research.
E  Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important].

A LESSON 3.2: ORGANIZING THE REVIEW

R
How do I create a literature review?
C The length and depth of your literature review depends on the length of your project. If you
are writing a 10-page argument paper, you may have room to include 5-6 sources to review,
H because you will also be establishing your argument as well, but there’s no hard equation for

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 how many or how much. Use your judgment and most importantly, consult your instructor
about expectations.

Ways to Organize Your Literature Review

1. Chronology of Events
If your review follows the chronological method, you could write about the materials
according to when they were published. This approach should only be followed if a clear path
of research building on previous research can be identified and that these trends follow a
clear chronological order of development. For example, a literature review that focuses on
continuing research about the emergence of German economic power after the fall of the
Soviet Union.

2. By Publication
L Order your sources by publication chronology, then, only if the order demonstrates a more
important trend. For instance, you could order a review of literature on environmental studies
A of brown fields if the progression revealed, for example, a change in the soil collection
N practices of the researchers who wrote and/or conducted the studies.

G 3. Thematic [“conceptual categories”]

Thematic reviews of literature are organized around a topic or issue, rather than the
U
progression of time. However, progression of time may still be an important factor in a
A thematic review. For example, a review of the Internet’s impact on American presidential
politics could focus on the development of online political satire. While the study focuses on
G one topic, the Internet’s impact on American presidential politics, it will still be organized
E chronologically reflecting technological developments in media. The only difference here
between a "chronological" and a "thematic" approach is what is emphasized the most: the
role of the Internet in presidential politics. Note however that more authentic thematic
reviews tend to break away from chronological order. A review organized in this manner
R
would shift between time periods within each section according to the point made.
E
4. Methodological
S A methodological approach focuses on the methods utilized by the researcher. For the
E Internet in American presidential politics project, one methodological approach would be to
look at cultural differences between the portrayal of American presidents on American,
A British, and French websites. Or the review might focus on the fundraising impact of the
Internet on a particular political party. A methodological scope will influence either the types
R
of documents in the review or the way in which these documents are discussed.
C
PARTS OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW
H
After gathering notes from the different sources reviewed, the researcher prepares the final
review. Most literature reviews consist of the following parts; introduction, body,
summary/synthesis, and conclusion.

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 In the introduction, you need to establish your research question, give a brief background on
the topic if you’re not writing chronologically, state the importance of your topic and why the
reader should care about it, and lastly discuss the scope of your literature review.

In the body of your literature review (which should be the longest part of your paper), you
are going to summarize, synthesize, and analyze each source. Analyze means to break
something down into parts (like you’ll do for each source) and synthesize means to bring
things together (how you’ll explain how different sources relate to one another). You’ll
evaluate each source’s strengths and weaknesses. Have any patterns in the research emerged?
Do studies support earlier studies, or contradict them? Are there influential studies that
always get mentioned? If so, be sure to read those!
Summary/ synthesis. The summary/ synthesis of the literature review ties together the major
L findings of the studies reviewed. It presents a general picture of what has been known or
thought of about the problem to date. It points out similar results, as well as conflicting
A findings.
N
It’s important when writing the body of your literature review that you use topic sentences
G and transitions so that your lit review has a logical flow.
U
Last is the conclusion section. Here is where you’ll summarize major findings, discuss the
A implications of the published research, and identify research gaps, or areas of future research.
You want to make sure that your literature review is exhaustive, meaning you’ve attempted to
G find all the published research on your topic—you don’t want to leave anything important
E out!

Common Mistakes to Avoid

R
These are the most common mistakes made in reviewing social science research literature.
E
Sources in your literature review do not clearly relate to the research problem;
S You do not take sufficient time to define and identify the most relevent sources to use
E in the literature review related to the research problem;
Relies exclusively on secondary analytical sources rather than including relevant
A primary research studies or data;
Uncritically accepts another researcher's findings and interpretations as valid, rather
R
than examining critically all aspects of the research design and analysis;
C Does not describe the search procedures that were used in identifying the literature to
review;
H Reports isolated statistical results rather than synthesizing them in chi-squared or
meta-analytic methods; and,
Only includes research that validates assumptions and does not consider contrary
findings and alternative interpretations found in the literature.

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 LESSON III: SYNTHESIZING THE RELATED LITERATURE

A. Putting the pieces together

Combining separate elements into a whole is the dictionary definition of synthesis. It
is a way to make connections among and between numerous and varied source materials. A
literature review is not an annotated bibliography, organized by title, author, or date of
publication. Rather, it is grouped by topic to create a whole view of the literature relevant to
your research question.

L
A
N
B. CREATING A SUMMARY TABLE
G https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nX2R9FzYhT0

U
Literature reviews can be organized sequentially or by topic, theme, method, results, theory,
A or argument. It’s important to develop categories that are meaningful and relevant to your
research question. Take detailed notes on each article and use a consistent format for
G capturing all the information each article provides. These notes and the summary table can
E be done manually, using note cards. However, given the amount of information you will be
recording, an electronic file created in a word processing or spreadsheet is more manageable.
Examples of fields you may want to capture in your notes include:

R
Authors’ names
E Article title
Publication year
S Main purpose of the article
E Methodology or research design
Participants
A Variables
Measurement
R
Results
C Conclusions
Other fields that will be useful when you begin to synthesize the sum total of your research:
H

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 LESSON IV: CITING AND REFERENCING

A citation is a reference to the source of information used in your research. Any time you
directly quote, paraphrase or summarize the essential elements of someone else's idea in your
work, an in-text citation should follow. An in-text citation is a brief notation within the text of
your paper or presentation which refers the reader to a fuller notation, or end-of-paper
citation, that provides all necessary details about that source of information.

What are citation styles?

Citation styles are the formal way that citation information is formatted. It dictates what
information is included, how it is ordered as well as punctuation and other formatting. There
are many different styles and each mandate order of appearance of information (such as
publication date, title, and page numbers following the author name etc), conventions of
punctuation, use of italics (and underlining for emphasis) that are particular to their style.

L How do I choose a citation style?

A There are many different ways of citing resources from your research. The citation style
N sometimes depends on the academic discipline involved and sometimes depends on the
publisher/ place of publishing. For example:
G
1. APA (American Psychological Association) is used by Education, Psychology, and some
U
Sciences
A 2. ACS (American Chemical Society) is often used in Chemistry and some of the physical
sciences
G 3. MLA (Modern Language Association) style is used by the Humanities
E 4. Chicago & Turabian (two styles very similar in formatting) are generally used by
Business, History, and the Fine Arts

Parenthetical Notes
R
In MLA and APA styles, in-text citations usually appear as parenthetical notes (sometimes
E called parenthetical documentation). They are called parenthetical notes because brief
information about the source, usually the author's name, year of publication, and page
S number, is enclosed in parentheses as follows:
E
MLA style: (Smith 263)
A
APA style: (Smith, 2013, p. 263)
R
C Parenthetical notes are inserted into the text of the paper at the end of a sentence or
paragraph:>
H

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 In MLA and APA styles, in-text citations are associated with end-of-paper citations that
provide full details about an information source.

Note: Different source types and situations require different information within the
parentheses. Refer to a style guide for the style you are using for details.

Note Numbers
In Chicago and CSE styles, in-text citations usually appear as superscript numerals, or note
numbers, as follows:

L End-of-Paper Citations
End-of-paper citations, as well as footnotes and endnotes, include full details about a source
A of information. Citations contain different pieces of identifying information about your
N source depending on what type of source it is. In academic research, your sources will most
commonly be articles from scholarly journals, and the citation for an article typically
G includes:
U
author(s)
A article title
publication information (journal title, date, volume, issue, pages, etc.)
G and, for online sources:
E DOI (digital object identifier).
URL of the information source itself
URL of the journal that published the article
R
There are many other types of sources you might use, including books, book chapters, films,
E song lyrics, musical scores, interviews, e-mails, blog entries, art works, lectures, websites and
more. To determine which details are required for a citation for a particular source type, find
S that source type within the style guide for the citation style you are using.
E
At the end of your research paper, full citations should be listed in order according to the
A citation style you are using:
R
In MLA style, this list is called a Works Cited page.
C In APA style, it is called a References page.

H
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 In CSE style, it is called a Cited References page.
And, in Chicago style, there may be both a Notes page and a Bibliography page.

MLA

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APA
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E

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