GreenBuilding For Energy Management, Conservation and Sustainability Report

UNDERGRADUATE FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT
Department of Mechanical Engineering

NED University of Engineering and Technology
Green Building for Energy Management, Conservation, and

Sustainability
Group Number: 11 Batch: 2017– 2021
Group Member Names:
Mustafa Ali ME-17204

Hasan Ahmed ME-17228
Syed Muhammad Rafay ME-17227
Sardar Saifullah Binyameen ME-17243
Approved by
…………………………………………………………………………………………
Dr. Mubashir Ali Siddiqui

Professor and Chairman
Project Advisor
© NED University of Engineering & Technology. All Rights Reserved – Sept 2021
Author’s Declaration
We declare that we are the sole authors of this project. It is the actual copy of the project
that was accepted by our advisor(s) including any necessary revisions. We also grant
NED University of Engineering and Technology permission to reproduce and distribute
electronic or paper copies of this project.
Signature Signature Signature Signature

and Date and Date and Date and Date
................................. ................................. ................................. .................................
Hasan Ahmed Mustafa Ali Syed Muhammad Sardar Saifullah

Rafay Binyameen
ME-17228 ME-17204 ME-17227 ME-17243
hasanmuffassir@ syedmustafaali99@ s.m.rafay99@ saifullah4268@

gmail.com yahoo.com gmail.com gmail.com
ii
Statement of Contributions
Statement of Contributions
Although the entire work was done by us together. Even if we divide the report work
then the contribution is as follows:
Chapter 1 by everyone
Chapter 2 by Mustafa Ali
Chapter 3 by Syed Muhammad Rafay
Chapter 4 by Hasan Ahmed
Chapter 5 by Sardar Saifullah Binyameen
iii
Executive Summary
1. Problem statement
Nowadays in the growing population, we need to conserve resources and maximize the
use of renewable to make the environment green. Similarly, a religious institution
which is called JAMIA ASHRAF UL MADARIS is facing the problems in terms of:
• freshwater availability and energy management.
• a huge cost that needs to be put in to buy freshwater.
• no system for reuse the greywater generated from ablution.
• Hefty amount to be paid for electricity units.
The above consequences can be tackled if we can adopt the Green Building concept.
2. Background information
Green building is a concept of modern buildings that have an overall positive impact
on the environment and working efficiently. World Green Building Council is
responsible for all the initiatives regarding the efficient use of water, energy, materials,
indoor air quality based on the pattern of modern architectural concepts.
With the help of these principles, we can safeguard the water resources, reduces waste
and increase reuse, encouraging health and wellbeing, and linking the communities.
3. Methodology used to solve the problem

To counter the water shortage the freshwater production system needs to be developed,
for that all the necessary estimation is done for the water requirement and the RO plant
has been designed and commissioned.
A great amount of greywater produced can be reused after treating with our designed
greywater filtration system. Moreover, to make the net electricity bill zero an on-grid
photovoltaic system has been designed using the net metering technique.
4. Major findings
Greywater recycling conserves annually 1,171,103 gallons of grey water that can be
utilized for gardening. Moreover, we observed a significant decrease in carbon
footprints because of utilizing solar energy and we can fulfill the UN sustainable
development goals.
iv
5. Conclusions
The problems mentioned above have been solved with the help of employing water
conservation techniques by recycling greywater, freshwater production system, and
generating on-site electricity with the use of PV systems. This results in a significant
amount of energy-saving and carbon footprint reduction.
v
Acknowledgments
Praise is due to Allah for His grace to complete this project. We would like to show
immense gratitude to our Project Advisor, Chairman & Professor of our project Dr.
Mubashir Ali Siddiqui for providing helpful information, guidance, practical advice,
insightful feedback on the project, and continuous support throughout. He followed our
progress throughout the session and gave us invaluable tips along the way.
We also wish to express our sincere thanks to the Mohtamim of Jamia Ashraf ul
Madaris Maulana Ismail for cooperation and providing all the necessary data to aid in
our project.
We are also grateful to Chairman Environmental Department Dr. Atif for assistance
regarding greywater testing and study regarding its treatment and Co-Chairman
Mechanical Department Dr. Shakaib for consistent support regarding the study of RO-
Plant.
We would also like to thank our parents for their constant support and prayers.
vi
Dedication
We would like to dedicate our Final year Project to our Parents, Teachers, Mohtamim,
and Staff of Jamia Ashraf ul Madaris.
vii
Table of Contents
Contents
Author’s Declaration...........................................................................................ii
Statement of Contributions ................................................................................iii
Executive Summary ........................................................................................... iv
Acknowledgments ............................................................................................. vi
Dedication .........................................................................................................vii
Table of Contents .............................................................................................viii
List of Figures ..................................................................................................xiii
List of Tables .................................................................................................... xv
List of Abbreviations ....................................................................................... xvi
List of Symbols ............................................................................................. xviii
United Nations Sustainable Development Goals .............................................. xx
Similarity Index Report ................................................................................... xxi
Chapter 1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 1
1.1 Background Information ........................................................................... 1
1.2 Significance and Motivation ..................................................................... 1
1.2.1 Significance of Green Building .................................................................... 2
1.2.2 Significance RO Plant ................................................................................... 2
1.2.3 Significance Water Conservation ................................................................. 2
1.2.4 Significance PV System................................................................................ 3
1.2.5 Significance Carbon Footprint ...................................................................... 3
1.3 Aims and Objectives ................................................................................. 3
1.4 Methodology ............................................................................................. 4
1.5 Report Outline ........................................................................................... 5
Chapter 2 Green Building ................................................................................... 6
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 6
2.2 Green Building Three Aspects .................................................................. 6
2.2.1 Aspects of The Technology .......................................................................... 6
2.2.2 Social Aspects ............................................................................................... 6
2.2.3 Economic Aspects......................................................................................... 7
2.3 Approach to Make the Buildings Green:................................................... 7
2.3.1 Taking an Intelligent Approach to Energy.................................................... 7
2.3.2 Safeguarding Water Resources ..................................................................... 8
2.3.3 Minimizing Waste and Maximizing Reuse................................................... 8
2.3.4 Promoting Health and Wellbeing.................................................................. 8
2.3.5 Keeping Our Environment Green ................................................................. 8
2.3.6 Connecting Communities and People ........................................................... 8
2.3.7 Taking into Account All Phases of a Building's Life Cycle ......................... 9
viii
2.4 Green Building Associations..................................................................... 9
2.4.1 Goals OF World Green Building Council: ................................................... 9
2.4.2 Green Building Council of Pakistan: .......................................................... 10
2.5 Green building Certifications and rating systems: .................................. 11
2.5.1 Standards:.................................................................................................... 11
2.5.2 Green codes................................................................................................. 12
2.5.3 Certifications of Products that are Green: ................................................... 13
2.5.4 Product Certifications with Only One Attribute ......................................... 17
2.5.5 Product Certifications with Multi-Attributes .............................................. 19
2.5.6 Rating systems ............................................................................................ 21
2.5.7 Relevant Codes and Standards .................................................................... 27
2.5.8 LEED for Every Project .............................................................................. 28
2.5.9 LEED Recertification.................................................................................. 30
2.6 Conclusion............................................................................................... 32
Chapter 3 Reverse Osmosis Plant ..................................................................... 33
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 33
3.1.1 Literature Study .................................................................................... 33
3.2 Working Principle ................................................................................... 35
3.2.1 Osmosis ....................................................................................................... 35
3.2.2 Reverse Osmosis ......................................................................................... 36
3.2.3 Working of RO Plant .................................................................................. 36
3.2.4 Osmotic Pressure ........................................................................................ 37
3.3 Components of RO Plant ........................................................................ 37
3.3.1 Feed Pump .................................................................................................. 37
3.3.2 Sand filter .................................................................................................... 38
3.3.3 Charcoal Filter ............................................................................................ 38
3.3.4 Cartridge filter:............................................................................................ 39
3.3.5 HP (High Pressure) Pump: .......................................................................... 39
3.3.6 Dosing Pump:.............................................................................................. 39
3.3.7 Membrane: .................................................................................................. 40
3.3.8 Storage tank: ............................................................................................... 40
3.4 Total Water Consumption of Jamia Ashraful Madaris ........................... 40
3.4.1 Water from KWSB Line (Measured by installing water meter) ................. 40
3.4.2 RO Plant Water Production (Measured by water meter) ............................ 42
3.4.3 Boring Water Consumption ........................................................................ 44
3.4.4 RO capacity................................................................................................. 45
3.4.5 Water from Tankers: ................................................................................... 46
3.5 Important Designing Parameters ............................................................. 46
ix
3.5.1 Feed water: .................................................................................................. 46
3.5.2 Permeate Water: .......................................................................................... 46
3.5.3 Salt Rejection: ............................................................................................. 47
3.5.4 Salt Passage:................................................................................................ 47
3.5.5 Recovery %: ................................................................................................ 47
3.5.6 Concentration Factor ................................................................................... 48
3.5.7 RO Concentrate:.......................................................................................... 48
3.6 Process Flow Diagram ............................................................................ 48
3.7 Detail of RO Plants at Jamia Ashraf: ...................................................... 49
3.8 Designing of 20,000 GPD RO Plant: ...................................................... 49
1. Salt Rejection: .......................................................................................... 49
2. Salt Passage: ............................................................................................ 49
3. Recovery %:............................................................................................. 50
4. Concentration Factor (CF):....................................................................... 50
5. TDS of Concentrate: ................................................................................ 50
6. Molecular Mass ....................................................................................... 50
7. Boring Concentration CF: ........................................................................ 51
8. Permeate Concentration CP:..................................................................... 51
9. Now, Osmotic Pressure ( ᴨ ) .................................................................... 51
10. For Flow Balance:.................................................................................... 52
11. For mass balance...................................................................................... 52
12. Calculation for Number of Cartridges ..................................................... 52
3.9 IMS Design Simulation for Membrane Selection ................................... 53
3.9.1 Analysis....................................................................................................... 53
3.9.2 Design ......................................................................................................... 54
3.9.3 Running Projection ..................................................................................... 54
3.9.4 Flow Diagram ............................................................................................. 55
3.9.5 Power Requirement ..................................................................................... 55
.............................................................................................................................. 55
3.9.6 Chemical Requirement................................................................................ 56
3.10 Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA) of RO Plant ................... 56
3.11 Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) of RO Plant ................................................ 57
3.12 SOPs for RO Plant: ............................................................................... 58
3.12.1 Routine/Daily Plant Startup ...................................................................... 58
3.12.2 Routine/Daily Plant Shutdown ................................................................. 58
3.13 Dos and Don’ts of RO Plant.................................................................. 58
x
3.13.1 Dos ............................................................................................................ 58
3.13.2 Don’ts........................................................................................................ 58
3.14 RO Conclusion ...................................................................................... 59
Chapter 4 WateraConservation ......................................................................... 60
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 60
4.1.1 Water Conservation Techniques: ................................................................ 61
4.2 Efficient Taps selection ........................................................................... 62
4.2.1 Taps Classifications: ................................................................................... 62
4.2.2 Specification of Taps .................................................................................. 64
4.2.3 Cost of Different Taps ................................................................................ 65
4.3 Grey water Reuse .................................................................................... 67
4.3.1 Literature study ........................................................................................... 67
4.3.2 Water quality testing ................................................................................... 75
4.3.3 Grey water quantity Estimation .................................................................. 81
4.3.4 Sieve and tank design.................................................................................. 86
4.4 Conclusion and results (achievements) ................................................... 89
Chapter 5 PhotozVoltaicaSystem ..................................................................... 90
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 90
5.2 Background ............................................................................................. 90
5.3 Working Principle ................................................................................... 92
5.4 Mathematical Modeling .......................................................................... 92
5.4.1 Impacts of Temperature and Insolation on PV System .............................. 96
5.5 PV System Types .................................................................................... 96
5.5.1 Off-Grid Solar PV System .......................................................................... 97
5.5.2 Grid-connected PV System ......................................................................... 97
5.5.3 Hybrid Solar PV Systems ........................................................................... 98
5.5.4 Directly Connected to the load ................................................................... 99
5.6 Designing of On-grid PV System (Net Metering) .................................. 99
5.6.1 Net metering................................................................................................ 99
5.6.2 Jamia Ashraf ul Madaris 64 KW PV System Design ............................... 100
5.7 PV Syst Report ...................................................................................... 103
5.8 Conclusion............................................................................................. 110
Chapter 6 Carbon Footprint ............................................................................ 111
6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 111
6.2 Concept of Carbon Footprint................................................................. 111
6.3 Quantity of Carbon Footprint Reduced........................................................ 113
6.3.1 Designing and installation of 64KW PV On-Grid system for Net metering
purposes ............................................................................................................. 113
xi
6.3.2 Recycling of Grey Water .......................................................................... 115
6.3.3 Using energy efficient fans ....................................................................... 117
6.3.4 Installing water efficient taps .................................................................... 118
6.4 Results and Conclusion ................................................................................ 119
Chapter 7 Conclusions .................................................................................... 120
7.1 Summary ............................................................................................... 120
7.1.1 Study of Green Building ........................................................................... 120
7.1.2 Designing and commissioning of a desalination plant ............................. 120
7.1.3 Comparative analysis of water efficient taps ............................................ 120
7.1.4 Designing and installation of a grey water recycling system ................... 120
7.1.5 Designing of an on-grid photo-voltaic system .......................................... 121
7.2 Recommendations for Future Work ...................................................... 121
References ................................................................................................... 124
xii
List of Figures
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1: Example of Green Building ........................................................................ 7
Figure 2.2: World Green Building Council Logo ......................................................... 9
Figure 2.3: Goals of World Green Building Council .................................................. 10
Figure 2.4: Green design concepts .............................................................................. 12
Figure 2.5: The Brock Environmental Centre ............................................................. 14
Figure 2.6: Energy star ................................................................................................ 17
Figure 2.7: Water sense ............................................................................................... 18
Figure 2.8: FSC ........................................................................................................... 18
Figure 2.9: SCS Global ............................................................................................... 19
Figure 2.10: Green Seal .............................................................................................. 19
Figure 2.11: Cradle to Cradle ...................................................................................... 19
Figure 2.12: Green Guard ........................................................................................... 20
Figure 2.13: Green Squared ........................................................................................ 46
Figure 2.14: BREEAM ............................................................................................... 21
Figure 2.15: LEED ...................................................................................................... 22
Figure 2.16: Green Globes ........................................................................................... 23
Figure 2.17: LBC logo ................................................................................................. 24
Figure 2.18: PHIUS ..................................................................................................... 25
Figure 2.19: SITES ...................................................................................................... 25
Figure 2.20: WELL logo .............................................................................................. 26
Figure 2.21: LEED Points on ARC Software .............................................................. 29
Figure 2.22: LEED Score card for existing buildings.................................................. 30
Figure 2.23:LEED Certification points ........................................................................ 31
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1: Osmosis process ........................................................................................ 14
Figure 3.2 : Reverse Osmosis process ......................................................................... 36
Figure 3.3: Feed water pump ....................................................................................... 37
Figure 3.4: Sand and charcoal filters ........................................................................... 38
Figure 3.5: Cartridge filter ........................................................................................... 39
Figure 3.6: HP Pump.................................................................................................... 39
Figure 3.7: Dosing Pump ............................................................................................. 39
Figure 3.9: RO membrane side .................................................................................... 40
Figure 3.8 : RO Membrane front ................................................................................. 40
Figure 3.10: Storage tanks ........................................................................................... 40
Figure 3.11: RO process flow diagram ........................................................................ 48
Figure 3.12: RO membrane analysis............................................................................ 53
Figure 3.13: RO membrane design .............................................................................. 54
Figure 3.14: Running Projection of IMS Software ...................................................... 54
Figure 3.15: RO membrane flow diagram on IMS Design .......................................... 55
Figure 3.16: Power requirement calculation ................................................................ 55
Figure 3.17: Chemical requirement determination via IMS design............................. 56
xiii
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1: Mechanical tap…………………………………………………………...62
Figure 4.2: HAWA Tap………………………………………………………………62
Figure 4.3: Local aerators…………………………………………………………….63
Figure 4.4: Clean wave aerators……………………………………………………... 63
Figure 4.5: Abshar Aerators…………………………………………………………. 63
Figure 4.6: CCTV Footage of Masjid e Ashraf……………………………………… 66
Figure 4.7: Avg. water consumption/ablution = 2.3 L (Experiment at NED)………. 66
Figure 4.14: Sand and charcoal filter …………………………………………… 75
Figure 4.15: Spectrophotometer……………………………………………………... 75
Figure 4.16: pH Meter……………………………………………………………….. 76
Figure 4.17: Apparatus for COD…………………………………………………….. 77
Figure 4.18: Chemical for COD……………………………………………………... 77
Figure 4.19: TDS of grey water………………………………………………………79
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1: One day every home will be able to meet at least some of its electric needs
using photovoltaics mounted on the roof ..................................................................... 91
Figure 5.2: Single-diode Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit of Solar Cell ........................ 93
Figure 5.3: Schematic of an Off-Grid Solar PV System.............................................. 97
Figure 5.4: Schematic of Grid connected Solar PV System ........................................ 98
Figure 5.5: Schematic of a Hybrid PV System ............................................................ 98
Figure 5. 6: Schematic of directly connected to the load ............................................. 99
Figure 5.7: During the day, the array's excess power is sold to the utility, whereas the
utility purchases the deficiency at night..................................................................... 100
Figure 5.8: Annual Energy demand of Jamia (year 2020) ......................................... 100
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1: Carbon foot print components ................................................................ 112
xiv
List of Tables
Table 1: ISO defined Green Product labels ................................................................ 15

Table 2: Green Product Certification .......................................................................... 16
Table 3: RO CAPACITY CALCULATION ............................................................... 45
Table 4: Water consumption for tankers ...................................................................... 46
Table 5: Specification of Taps ..................................................................................... 64
Table 6: Feasibility Analysis of Taps .......................................................................... 65
Table 7: Number of Worshippers (Students + Staff + Locals Residents) performing
ablution in a week. ....................................................................................................... 67
Table 8 Some properties of water ............................................................................... 70
Table 9: Results of Greywater Tests ............................................................................ 80
Table 10: No. of worshipper that performed ablution in Jamia Masjid Ashraf ........... 84
Table 11 Two weeks data of daily RO water production .......................................... 115
Table 12 Amount of carbon dioxide reduced annually by altering above sources .... 119
xv
List of Abbreviations
WGBC= World Green Building Council

CO2= carbon-di-oxide
GBC= Green Building Council
GB= Green Building
BREEAM= Building Research Establishment's Environmental Assessment Method
USGBC= United States Green Building Council
LEED= Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
GBI= Green Building Initiative
NAHB= National Association of Homebuilders
ANSI= The American National Standards Institute
ASTM= American Society for Testing Materials
ASHRAE= American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers.
ISO= International Standards Organization
IES= Illuminating Engineering Society
IgCC= International Green Construction Code
ICC= International Code Council
AIA= American Institute of Architects
NGBS= National Green Building Standard
IEQ= Indoor Environment Quality
EPA= Environmental Protection Agency
DOE= Department of Energy
FSC= Forest Stewardship Council
SCS= Scientific Certification Systems
C2CPII= Cradle to Cradle Products Innovation Institute
UL= Underwriter Laboratories
TCNA= Tile Council of North America
VOC= volatile organic compounds
BRE= Building Research Establishment
GBCI= Green Building Certification Institute
LBC= Living Building Challenge
ILFI= International Living Future Institute
PHIUS= Passive House Institute US
EPACT= Energy Policy Act
EISA= Energy Independence and Security Act
IPC= International Plumbing Code
IAMPO= International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials
FSRIA= Farm Security and Rural Investment Act
RCRA= Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
O&M= Operations and Maintenance
BD+C= Building Design and Construction
ID+C= Interior Design and Construction
RO= Reverse osmosis
Ppm= Parts Per million
TDS= Total dissolved solids
SWRO= Seawater Reverse Osmosis
xvi
UF= ultrafiltration
MF= microfiltration
DWTP= Drinking Water Treatment Plant
HP= High Pressure
S. S= Stainless Steel
PVC= polyvinyl chloride
KWSB= Karachi Water and Sewerage Board
GPWD = Gallons per working day
GPM= Gallons per Month
GPD= Gallons per Day
FMEA= Failure Modes and Effects Analysis
FTA= Fault Tree Analysis
SOP= Standard operating procedure
RWH= Rainwater harvesting
GW= Grey Water
USGS= United States Geological Survey
TSS= Total Suspended solids
COD= Chemical Oxygen Demand
WHO= World Health Organization
EDTA = Ethylenediamine tetra acetic acid
SAR= Sodium Adsorption Ratio
PCSIR= Pakistan Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
FAO= Food and Agriculture Organization
FOS= Factor of Safety
(NO3-) = Nitrate-Nitrogen
PV = Photo Voltaic
NASA = The National Aeronautics and Space Administration
MPP = Maximum Power Point
IMPP = Maximum Power Point current
STC = Standard Testing Condition
NOCT = Nominal Operating cell temperature
REC = Renewable Energy Credits
xvii
List of Symbols
Π = osmotic pressure (atm)

𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
C = molar concentration of solute ( )
𝒍𝒍
𝑳𝑳 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂
R = universal gas constant (0.08206 )
𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎.𝑲𝑲
T = absolute temperature (K)
r = radius of the tank (m)
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = Concentration of Permeate ( )
𝒍𝒍
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶= Concentration of Feedwater ( )
𝒍𝒍
CF = Concentration factor
𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
EC = Electrical conductivity ( )
𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄
𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹 = Electrical Conductivity of feed water ( )
𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄
𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝 = Electrical conductivity of Permeate ( )
𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄
M = Molecular mass (a.m.u)
ᴨ𝐹𝐹 = osmotic pressure of feedwater (atm)
ᴨ𝑝𝑝 = osmotic pressure of permeate (atm)
CC = Concentration of concentrate (ppm)
QF = flow rate of feedwater (GPD)
QP = flow rate of Permeate (GPD)
QC = flow rate of Concentrate (GPD)
n = total no of taps (units)
n1 = Number of Taps required in Masjid (units)
n2 = Number of Taps required in Jamia (units)
𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈
G = gallons of grey water of ablution ( )
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
P = payback period (days)
Ca = Calcium (ppm)
Mg = Magnesium (ppm)
CO3 = (ppm)
HCO3 = Bi carbonate (ppm)
Na = sodium (ppm)
V = volume of tank (ft3)
𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊
Q1 = Daily greywater quantity consumed in Jamia ( )
𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑
n = Average number of worshippers that performed the ablution a day ( )
𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍
q = Average quantity for one worshipper ( )
𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑
Q2 = Daily Consumption of ablution water ( )
Q = total daily average consumption of greywater in Jamia Masjid ( )
∑ = summation
ɸ = van 't Hoff index
𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤
E = Annual Energy ( )
𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚
h = Plank’s constant (6.62x10-27 erg-s)
xviii
𝒎𝒎
c = Velocity of light (3x108 )
𝒔𝒔
λ = Wavelength of light radiations (m)
Ipv = Output PV current (Amp)
Iph = Photocurrent (Amp)
Ip = Current through shunt/parallel resistance (Amp)
ID = Current through diode (Amp)
Io = Reverse saturation current through diode (Amp)
Vd = Voltage across diode (Volt)
Vpv = Output voltage of PV or voltage imposed on diode (Volt)
q = Electric Charge (Coulomb)
K = Boltzmann constant (1.38 × 10-23 J/K)
T = Cell temperature (K)
n= No. of PV cells connected in series
Vpv = Photovoltaic Voltage (Volt)
Voc = Open Circuit Voltage (Volt)
Rp = Parallel Resistance (ohm)
Rs = Series Resistance (ohm)
Tambient = Ambient Temperature (K)
PTDC = Temperature adjusted DC power (Watt)
Pmax = Maximum Power (Watt)
CT = Temperature Coefficient
ηm = Mismatched losses
ηD = Dirt losses
ηc = Inverter Efficiency
ηmod = Module Efficiency
D = Average Daily RO Production
xix
United Nations Sustainable Development Goals
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are the blueprint to achieve a better and
more sustainable future for all. They address the global challenges we face, including
poverty, inequality, climate change, environmental degradation, peace and justice.
There is a total of 17 SDGs as mentioned below. Check the appropriate SDGs related
to the project.
☐ No Poverty
☐ Zero Hunger
☐ Good Health and Well being
☐ Quality Education
☐ Gender Equality
☐ Clean Water and Sanitation
☐ Affordable and Clean Energy
☐ Decent Work and Economic Growth
☐ Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure
☐ Reduced Inequalities
☐ Sustainable Cities and Communities
☐ Responsible Consumption and Production
☐ Climate Action
☐ Life Below Water
☐ Life on Land
☐ Peace and Justice and Strong Institutions
☐ Partnerships to Achieve the Goals
xx
Similarity Index Report
Following students have compiled the final year report on the topic given below for
partial fulfillment of the requirement for Bachelor’s degree in Mechanical Engineering.
Project Title Green Building for Energy Management, Conservation,

and Sustainability
S. No. Student Name Seat Number Signature
1. Hasan Ahmed ME-17228
2. Syed Muhammad Rafay ME-17227
3. Mustafa Ali ME-17204
4. Sardar Saifullah Binyameen ME-17243
This is to certify that Plagiarism test was conducted on complete report, and overall
similarity index was found to be less than 20%, with maximum 5% from single source,
as required.
Signature and Date
..................................
Dr Mubashir Ali Siddiqui
xxi
xxii
xxiii
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Background Information

Green building is a concept of modern buildings that have an overall positive impact
on the environment and working efficiently. World Green Building Council is
responsible for all the initiatives regarding the efficient use of water, energy, materials,
indoor air quality based on the pattern of modern architectural concepts.
With the help of these principles, we can safeguard the water resources, reduces waste
and increase reuse, encouraging health and wellbeing, and linking the communities.
Jamia Ashraf-ul-Madaris was previously receiving water from 4 sources,
1)Boring water
2)RO water
3)Tankers
4)KWSB line.
As far as water conservation is concerned there is no such system of water conservation
employed to reuse the greywater so as a result all the greywater produced is wasted in
the sewage. The other fact that contributes to water wastage is the inefficient water taps.
Another important parameter that impacts water conservation is the awareness among
the people of the institution.
Currently, there is a hybrid system installed that is still insufficient to meet the energy
demands of the Jamia Ashraf ul Madaris or to generate the electricity in surplus for the
peak energy demands. Also, there is a culture of students keeping their hostel rooms
appliances turned on all the time that add up a significant amount of electricity wastage.
A hybrid system that consists of batteries to keep the backup for later use has a massive
maintenance cost that has to bear by the institution. In a nutshell, the overall
performance of the hybrid system has left us in a state of dilemma to either continue
with the hybrid system or not.
Most importantly current practices of water and energy waste are becoming a cause for
the increment of the carbon footprints that needs to be addressed also.
1.2 Significance and Motivation

In Pakistan, there are limited water reserves and the rate of energy demand is increasing
1
day by day. Energy Management is one of the solutions to meet the energy and water
requirements efficiently. At Jamia Ashraf ul Madaris, more than 1500 students, office
staff, and teachers perform different activities and duties. We analyzed that water and
electricity there was not being utilized efficiently. The daily expenses due to poor
utilization of water and electricity were resulting in a drastic increase in bills. After
doing some research and study regarding green building, its aspects, certifications,
applications, and the positive impact it creates on earth, we were enough motivated to
start this project and titled it Green Building for Energy Management, Conservation,
and Sustainability.
1.2.1 Significance of Green Building

The significance of studying green building and applying its applications to Jamia was
a good decision. Making a building green can make it economical, sustainable, and
reduce environmental impact. Green Building focuses on improving the performance
of a building by reducing the required energy to construct a building itself, increase
water consumption efficiency, and reduce carbon emissions, etc. It provides a healthy,
safe, and working lifestyle to the occupants of the building. Various standards, codes,
and rating systems are available to analyze and test a building's performance. Our area
of focus was to make a building green by increasing its performance in terms of water
and electricity.
1.2.2 Significance RO Plant

To meet the requirements of water in Karachi having a population of around 16 million
the water coming from KWSB (Karachi water and sewage board) is not enough. There
was a dire need for some alternative to meet the increasing needs of water at Jamia
Ashraf ul Madaris. Therefore, a reverse osmosis plant is required to filter and treat the
water to make it drinkable. The installation of the RO plant was necessary to provide
the students and staff with abundant and quality water.
1.2.3 Significance Water Conservation

Water conservation is the sunnah of Prophet Muhammad ‫ﷺ‬. Water is an essential
element of life on earth. Conservation of water means fulfilling the need for water with
minimum possible use it. We saw that less efficient taps were being used at Jamia and
2
there was abundant grey (ablution) water produced. So, there was a need to research
efficient taps in the market.
Moreover, abundant ablution water was tested if it can be of any use for us. We found
that the greywater was suitable for irrigation purposes. Therefore, freshwater will not
be required for plantations rather greywater will fulfill the daily needs. For that, a
greywater recycling system was required.
1.2.4 Significance PV System

As we all know that the global energy demand is increasing day by day and Pakistan
has limited nonrenewable energy reserves at hand. To meet the huge electricity demand,
Jamia Ashraf ul Madaris uses a Hybrid PV system and electricity from K.E. to meet the
needs which however the cost of batteries and maintenance is high. So, a battery-free
system was required also can a grid-tied PV system, to reduce the cost. Also, the units
we consume from the utility grid will be compensated by the PV system during the day
through net metering. We also analyzed that the fans currently in use are of greater
watts and low watt consumption fans were also available in the market. So, we
suggested reducing electricity consumption by replacing them.
1.2.5 Significance Carbon Footprint

In order to analyze the positive impact on the environment be above modification, we
used carbon footprint as a measuring parameter. Since the electricity we consume is
mostly produced by non-renewable energy sources, we calculated the amount of CO2
reduced when we conserve the energy in terms of water and electricity by using
different modifications and methodologies in already installed systems or by changing
them.
1.3 Aims and Objectives

Following are the main aims and objectives of the project:
1. Design a suitable RO plant according to water requirements at Jamia.
2. Conduct a comparative analysis of water-efficient taps and suggest suitable taps
for water management and conservation.
3. Design a suitable method/process to reuse grey (ablution) water in gardening and
flushing at Jamia and Masjid.
3
4. Design an On-grid PV system to fulfill the load requirements at Jamia.
5. Calculate carbon footprint reduced if the above activities are adopted.
1.4 Methodology
To counter the water shortage the freshwater production system needs to be
developed, for that all the necessary estimation is done for the water requirement and
the RO plant has been designed and commissioned. Before installing the RO, we first
need to measure the amount of water being consumed in Jamia Ashraf-ul- Madaris to
estimate our water demand. For this, we installed two flow meters, one at the KWSB
line and another's at the RO water line. The amount of boring water was estimated using
the flow rate of the pump and tanker water quantity was estimated by the number of
tankers. After finding the water demand, we coordinated in the designing and
commissioning of the 20,000 GPD RO plant.
To reuse the greywater, the first step required is to determine the quality of the
greywater, for this purpose we have to perform several water qualities tests. Some of
the tests we conducted at the Environmental lab of NED University of Engineering and
Technology and the remaining of the tests were done from a professional laboratory
known as PCSIR (Pakistan Council of Scientific and Industrial Research). After the
tests, the second step is to design a suitable and sufficient greywater treatment system
that can recycle the generated greywater from the ablution that can be used for non-
portable use like plantation and flushing. The greywater reuse system varies according
to the water quality so we have designed the system according to the water test results
so that water when in retention in the storage tanks does not create bacteria or germs.
Energy efficiency can be achieved in several ways. The solution we find best is to
design a suitable on-grid photovoltaic system to cater to the current electricity demand
and make the net electricity bill to zero as well as to reduce the conventionally produced
electricity. For such type of designing simulation has been done on photovoltaic
software. There is numerous software available but to name a few of them are PV Syst,
Solar Pro, PV case, and PV Design. For the simulation on software, we used PV Syst
the first step is the determination of the total load and total panel requirement for the
energy demand. Furthermore, for energy efficiency net metering is also proposed which
is described in the further chapters.
4
1.5 Report Outline
The report consists of _ pages. First it comprises of Author’s Declaration, statement of
contributions, Executive Summary, Acknowledgements, Dedication, Table of contents,
List of Figures, Tables, Abbreviations and Symbols. Them we have UN’s Sustainable
development goals and similarity index.
Chapter 1 Introduction is composed of 5 subsections having Background
Information, Significance & Motivation, Aims & Objectives, Methodology and Report
outline.
Chapter 2 Green building consists of multiple sections and subsections starting
with a brief Introduction, different Aspects, Approaches, Associations, Certifications,
Rating Systems of green building and Conclusion.
Chapter 3 Reverse Osmosis is comprised of Introduction, Working Principle,
Components of RO plant, calculation of total water consumption at Jamia, some
important designing parameters of an RO Plant, Process Flow diagram of an RO Plant,
Details of RO Plant installed at Jamia, designing of 20,000 GPD plant for Jamia, IMS
Design simulation for Membrane Designing, FMEA, FTA, Dos & Don’ts and SOPs of
RO plant at Jamia and finally the conclusion.
Chapter 4 Water conservation is a combination of various sections and
subsections. These sections include Introduction, water conservation techniques,
Efficient taps selection, Classification of Taps available, Specification of available taps,
costs of different taps. Other sections include grey water reuse, Literature study on grey
water reuse practices, water quality testing, grey water quantity estimation at Jamia,
Sieve and Tank designing for Jamia and at last conclusion and achievements.
Chapter 5 Photo Voltaic System consists of Introduction, background, working
principle and modification of PV system. Moreover, mathematical modeling Types of
PV systems Designing of a grid tied PV system for Jamia using manual calculation and
PV syst software.
Chapter 6 Carbon Footprint comprises of Introduction, Literature study,
quantity of CO2 reduced by adopting different aspects discussed in previous chapters
and results and conclusion.
5
Chapter 2
Green Building
2.1 Introduction
Green building is based on the pattern of the most recent architectural design, which
emphasizes based on connection across different structures as well as its effect on the
environment. Because nature is the wellspring of life, the interplay between humans
and nature must continue. As a result, the green building idea confirms that the structure
is planned in a way that is environmentally friendly, that accounts for energy savings,
different resources, and types of materials, as well as minimizing construction impact.
Green building has different definitions. For example, Kibert defines green construction
as “healthy buildings designed and developed utilizing ecologically-based principles in
a resource-efficient manner”(Kibert, 2016). The word "green" is referred to such
buildings which are extremely effective in terms of energy and comply with designated
certifications of the green building.
2.2 Green Building Three Aspects

Following are the aspects of green building
1. Aspects of technology and the environment.

2. Social considerations
3. Aspects of the economy
2.2.1 Aspects of The Technology

The features of the environment of green architecture are usually the main focus. It
focuses on efficient use of energy, as well as water, and lowering greenhouse gas
emissions(Golić et al., n.d.). Precast or prefabrication methods, for example, help to
improve building performance by minimizing the quantity to a large extent, building
and demolition waste (Jaillon et al., n.d.).
2.2.2 Social Aspects

Concerns about social criteria in green buildings have grown in recent decades. Because
construction operations constitute a social process, this is the case (Abowitz et al.,
6
2010). In the context of construction, social considerations consist of the living standard
and the future chances for professional development. Moreover, this involves giving a
secure and healthy working environment for everyone, such as building workers, users,
and controllers, which should be considered during the design phase (Oleiwi et al., n.d.).
2.2.3 Economic Aspects

Economists estimate that green construction can save up to 30% more energy than
traditional construction (The Economist. The Rise of the Green Building. Technology...
- Google Scholar, n.d.). Energy efficiency saves money while also adding value to a
building (Popescu et al., n.d.). As an outcome, the investment's payback period shortens
and its performance improves, especially from a life span standpoint. The construction
component (which includes materials and equipment) makes up the majority of
sustainable building costs (Ross et al., n.d.).
Figure 2.1: Example of Green Building (Selection of Green Building Materials, n.d.)
2.3 Approach to Make the Buildings Green:
2.3.1 Taking an Intelligent Approach to Energy

Reducing energy consumption throughout the life cycle of the building, innovating
good and refurbished structures more pleasant and cost-effective to operate, and
assisting facility occupants in being more and more energy saving.
Once the design has optimized inherent and natural efficiency, incorporating renewable
and low-carbon technology to satisfy the building's energy demands.
7
2.3.2 Safeguarding Water Resources
Discovering innovative ways to increase drinkable and waste water-use efficiency and
management, as well as inventive techniques to gather water for safer internal use, and
ultimately reducing water usage of the desired buildings.
Assessing the major influence of structures and their environment on the stormwater
and draining infrastructures, assuring in order not too overburdened them so they are
unable to perform their functions.
2.3.3 Minimizing Waste and Maximizing Reuse

Designing for disposal reutilization, while using lesser, better-quality materials and
producing fewer waste to compensate for a building's end of its lifecycle.
2.3.4 Promoting Health and Wellbeing

Introducing clean air, providing appropriate air quality via ventilation, and eliminating
products and materials that emit harmful or poisonous emissions are all things that
should be considered.
Using natural daylight and vistas to enhance building occupants' comfort and pleasure
of their surroundings while also lowering energy use.
2.3.5 Keeping Our Environment Green

Realizing that our urban area should maintain the environment by, for instance, fixing
and developing on polluted land or developing new green spaces, and ensuring that
diversified fauna and ground condition are preserved or promoted.
2.3.6 Connecting Communities and People

Creating various habitats that link and strengthen communities, determining what a
structure will contribute to its surroundings in terms of beneficial economic effects, and
including local communities in the design process.
Considering transportation and distance to services while designing, lowering the
ecological influence of personal transportation, and supporting ecologically friendly
solutions like walking or cycling.
8
2.3.7 Taking into Account All Phases of a Building's Life Cycle
Attempt to decrease the ecological impact over the duration of a building's life cycle,
its economic and social worth (according to the design point, construction,
management, and service, via renovating and eventually deconstructing).
2.4 Green Building Associations

There is an international “WORLD GREEN BUILDING COUNCIL” (WORLDGBC)
for green building associations, and individual countries are affiliated with that council.
Buildings & construction are accountable for approximately 39% of overall Carbon
dioxide emissions due to energy use. Buildings and construction are responsible for
39% of all CO2 emissions caused by energy use.
Mission:
The objective of a World Green Building Council (WORLD GBC) is to modify the
design & the construction industry in three pivotal areas: Changing climate response,
wellbeing, and resources, and circularity are all topics that need to be addressed. The
WGBC is indeed a joint network of U.N comprised of nearly seventy GBC’s from
across the globe.(How Can We Make Our Buildings Green? | World Green Building
Council, n.d.)
Figure 2.2: World Green Building Council Logo (World Green Building Council Annual
Report 2019/20 | World Green Building Council, n.d.)
2.4.1 Goals OF World Green Building Council:

The goals of a green building council are as under:
2.4.1.1 Action on Climate Change

To rid the environment of carbon emissions.
2.4.1.2 Health and Well-Being:

To establish an environment that produces environmentally friendly and robust
9
structures.
2.4.1.3 Resources and Circularity:
To create an environment that regenerates resources while also delivering social
economic benefits that boost people's economies and lifestyles (Our Mission | World
Green Building Council, n.d.)
Figure 2.3: Goals of World Green Building Council (Green Building: Improving the Lives of Billions
by Helping to Achieve the UN Sustainable Development Goals | World Green Building Council, n.d.)
2.4.2 Green Building Council of Pakistan:

Pakistan GBC is a type of non-profit institution dedicated to the country's development
and long-term viability. The Pakistan’s GBC is really a potential World Green Building
Council member and falls under its statute.
The Pakistan GBC's tasks include maintaining an eye on:
• Subsoil water levels.
• Water utilization and consumption.
• The impact of climate change.
• Deforestation.
• The CO2 footprint.
• The state of the air
• Mass transit.
• Agriculture.
• Alternative and renewable energy sources.
10
• Consumption and application of energy/fuel.
• Architecture and building design
• Life's patterns. Green building certification programs are available (Pakistan
Green Building Council | About Us, n.d.)
2.5 Green building Certifications and rating systems:

Buildings do have a broad range of environmental effects, both direct and indirect.
During creation, occupancy, restoration, reuse, and destruction, structures consume
more energy, materials, and resources, generate garbage, and emit highly unsafe air
emissions. Thus, the establishment of rules and standards, accreditation, and scoring
systems aimed at minimizing the environmental footprint of constructions via green
development has been prompted by these discoveries.
By the induction of (BREEAM), the first-ever green building accessing system, in
1990, then the drive toward green development accelerated. During the year 2000,
(USGBC) hopped on board, designing and distributing benchmarks to enhance building
sustainability influence through the LEED scoring system with new projects. After its
inception, LEED received popularity, expanded to include the tools for rating used with
both current structures and whole towns. Several others, like (GBI), were formed to
help the (NAHB) in implementing their GB regulations for domestic Structures.
2.5.1 Standards:
A standard contains such criteria that can be used to assess the project. Through
collaborative methods, bodies such as ANSI, ASTM, and ASHRAE establish common
standards regarding construction practices. The (ISO), who produces and maintains
benchmarks that frequently become law or serve as the foundation for industry norms,
assists in the administration of standards and protocols. "A documentation developed
by consensus and accepted by a recognized organization that allows for common and
repetitive use as norms, guidelines, or features for actions or their results," as per the
definition of the ISO.
The ANSI/ASHRAE/USGBC/IES Standard 189.1, Criteria which is for

Construction of the latest GB structures exception of the moderate Residential
properties, produced the required, code-enforceable basic requirements for the site,
designing, development, and management. This set of principles are comprehensive
11
and consist of all the details required for GB performance.
Figure 2.4: Green design concepts (Green Building Standards and Certification Systems | WBDG -
Whole Building Design Guide, n.d.)
2.5.2 Green codes

Codes related to the GB are still in the process of development and are usually accepted
in the US and all around the world, with the goal of raising the standard of building
designs to greater levels of sustainability and functionality. There are two primary types
of codes:
1. Codes that are based on prescriptions
2. Code that is optimized for performance.
A prescriptive approach to code compliance is a quick, definite, and conservative

technique. Materials that are needed and the equipment which are being used do follow
the required standards. Codes that are related to Performance are created with the goal
of achieving certain outcomes rather than simply completing the standards for particular
building elements. For example, outcome-based codes specify a targeted energy
demand parameter and also supply for the energy use calculation, reporting to make
sure that the final project performs at equality.
2.5.2.1 Differences between codes and building rating system:

There is some difference between codes & related to the building scoring systems which
is that the codes need to be followed. If green building regulations are widely embraced,
they have the potential to drastically alter the built environment. Always determine if
there exists a state-wide or municipal codes which is going to administer the path as
well as the scale of your current project before beginning it, whether it is new
12
construction or rehabilitation.
2.5.2.2 International green building construction codes

The (IgCC) is a systematic collection of rules for reducing the negative environmental
impacts of developments. It's a record that manufacturers, designers, and contractors
can use right away; however, what makes it distinctive of green construction is that it
was created to be administered by code officials and embraced by government entities
at all stages as a platform to push green building well beyond the sector of the market
that has been transformed by voluntary performance criteria.
The code was developed by the International Code Council (ICC) in collaboration with
ASTM International (ASTM) and the American Institute of Architects (AIA). The GB
Initiative (The GBI) and the U.S. GB Council (USGBC) have both stated their
appreciation for the Green Globes scoring method. The IgCC was created with the goal
of being consistent and integrated with the I-Codes series of codes and standards
developed by the International Code Council. It could be used to create high-
performance commercial buildings, structures, and subsystems, and to also modify and
expand existing structures, utilizing both traditional and unique construction methods.
Residential occupancies are subject to the ICC 700 Nationwide GB Standard (NGBS).
On the other hand, high-rise residential properties can adhere to either the IgCC or the
ICC 700 regulations. Under the IgCC, authorities can now select
ANSI/ASHRAE/USGBC IES Standard 189.1 as a regional compliance option.
ASHRAE Standard 189.1, Standard for High-Performance Green Buildings Except for
Low-Rise Housing Development, was developed by the American Society of Heating,
Refrigeration, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) in close cooperation with
the (IES) and the (USGBC).
2.5.3 Certifications of Products that are Green:

When a certification has been done it helps to verify that a certain product satisfies the
requirements of a standard. "Any activity associated with determining actively or
passively if relevant standards are met," according to ISO.
Such product certifications are used to specify and certify that a product has met a set
of standards and is environmentally friendly. Many product certifications and labeling
programs certify objects based on life-cycle requirements, leading to multi-attribute
13
programs. Energy usage, recycled content, and manufacturing, disposal, and use-related
air and water pollution are all aspects to consider. Others focus on a single characteristic
that has a direct impact on IEQ, such as water, energy, or chemical emissions.
When an independent third party conducts the testing procedures and awards the
certification, it is considered the most respected green product certification. They are
third-party in the sense that they are not affiliated with the product maker, contractor,
developer, or specifier. Green product certification programs and third-party labeling
can help you evaluate the qualities of green products by confirming that they meet
specific sector standards.
Many product certifications are also recognized by LEED as well as Green Globes, and
also NGBS, which are all significant green building grading systems.
Figure 2.5: The Brock Environmental Centre (Green Building Standards and
Certification Systems | WBDG - Whole Building Design Guide, n.d.)
When a certification has been done it helps to verify that a certain product satisfies the
requirements of a standard. "Any activity associated with determining actively or
passively if relevant standards are met," according to ISO.
Such product certifications are used to specify and certify that a product has met a set
of standards and is environmentally friendly. Many product certifications and labeling
programs certify objects based on life-cycle requirements, leading to multi-attribute
programs. Energy usage, recycled content, and manufacturing, disposal, and use-related
air and water pollution are all aspects to consider. Others focus on a single characteristic
that has a direct impact on IEQ, such as water, energy, or chemical emissions.
14
When an independent third party conducts the testing procedures and awards the
certification, it is considered the most respected green product certification. They are
third-party in the sense that they are not affiliated with the product maker, contractor,
developer, or specifier. Green product certification programs and third-party labeling
can help you evaluate the qualities of green products by confirming that they meet
specific sector standards.
Many product certifications are also recognized by LEED as well as Green Globes, and
also NGBS, which are all significant green building grading systems.
The ISO defines the many kinds of labeling requirements which can be used. The ISO-
defined labels are listed here, along with the claims they make. The most frequent
product certifications available in the Market are Type I as well as Type II labels,
however, Type III tags are now required in France that are becoming more popular in
Europe but also among U.S. manufacturers with an international focus.
2.5.3.1 Labels of the Green Products by the ISO
Table 1: Green Product labels by ISO (Green Building Standards and Certification Systems | WBDG -
Whole Building Design Guide, n.d.)
2.5.3.2 Certification Summary of the Green Products

The chart beneath, along with the extra information below it, includes a few of the most
extensively used and recognized green product certifications.
15
Table 2: Green Product Certifications (Green Building Standards and Certification
Systems | WBDG - Whole Building Design Guide, n.d.)
16
2.5.4 Product Certifications with Only One Attribute
2.5.4.1 Energy star

This certification is globally recognized and has a badge of
product certification run by the government regarding the
efficiency of energy items that was first launched in the year
1992 named as a voluntary labeling program. It's a joint effort
of the EPA with the Department of Energy in the United States. Figure 2.6: Energy star
(Green Building Standards
Devices, heating and cooling gear, illumination, consumer and Certification Systems
| WBDG - Whole Building
electronics, commercial tiling, and office equipment are among Design Guide, n.d.)
the Energy Star-certified items. Every two years, the Energy
Star criteria are upgraded and made more demanding.
17
2.5.4.2 Water sense
WaterSense is an (EPA) cooperation initiative which has an
aim for the security of the future regarding our nation's water
system by providing consumers with an easy option by using
the minimum amount of water through the efficiency of water
goods, new houses along with the services. The program, which Figure 2.7: Water
sense (Green Building
was established in the year 2006 with the vision for hydro- Standards and
Certification Systems |
efficient goods, will assist the consumers in making effective WBDG - Whole
Building Design
decisions with respect to water that will save money while Guide, n.d.)
keeping the quality high without sacrificing performance. WaterSense goods should be
at least 20% more economical without losing performance to obtain the designation.
Not simply "WaterSense Partner," but "WaterSense: Meets EPA Criteria" is the mark
to look for. The "partner" badge denotes that an organization or producer has agreed
with the Environmental Protection Agency to encourage water effectiveness, but this
will not evaluate the performance of a product.
2.5.4.3 Forest Stewardship Council (FSC)

This is indeed a 3rd party certification program that was
established in 1993 with the objective of promoting sustainable
forestry as well as confirming the forest products that result. The Figure 2.8: FSC
(Green Building
FSC supervises the norm, although accreditation is awarded by Standards and
Certification Systems
third organizations such as the Rainforest Alliance and Scientific | WBDG - Whole
Building Design
Certification Systems. There still are different standards for Guide, n.d.)
different forest products (FSC pure, FSC mixed, and FSC

recycled) in different locales. The FSC collection of evidence is a certification
requirement that monitors the passage of a wood material out from the forest to the end
consumer. The Forest Care Council (FSC) program takes a structured approach towards
forest stewardship, assuring excellent ecological and financial stewardship.
18
2.5.4.4 SCS Global Services
That's a 3rd party certification program that
certifies promises including recycled
material, compostable soluble compounds, Figure 2.9: SCS Global (Green Building
Standards and Certification Systems | WBDG -
and formaldehyde-free items. SCS Global Whole Building Design Guide, n.d.)
Services is a very well certification authority

that backs up its accreditation with clear and effective standards. Many items with this
accreditation fulfill the criteria of rating systems including LEED for indoor air quality,
recycled content, and FSC chain-of-custody.
2.5.5 Product Certifications with Multi-Attributes
2.5.5.1 Green seal

It is really a 3rd party certification & labeling process that
applies to a huge range of goods with sector specifications,
particularly construction consumables. From 1992, Green
Seal, an ISO 14024 Type I program, has already been Figure 2.10: Green Seal
(Green Building
accrediting object. Green Seal considers an item's impacts over Standards and
its whole life span when developing a criterion. Among the WBDG - Whole Building
Design Guide, n.d.)
construction products examined are paints, adhesives, lighting,
electrical chillers, windows, window films, and motion detectors. Cleaning solutions
for industrial and institutional use are addressed in several LEED grading systems,
including LEED for Existing Buildings under O&m.
2.5.5.2 The Cradle to Cradle Certified

This program, which is a third-party, multi-attribute
eco-label that examines an item's safety for people and
the environment, including its layout for later lifespans,
is administered by the Cradle-to-Cradle Goods
Development Institute. The project guides businesses on
how to adapt the Cradle-to-Cradle concept, which Figure 2.11: Cradle to Cradle
(Green Building Standards and
stresses the use of safe materials that can be Certification Systems | WBDG -
Whole Building Design Guide,
deconstructed and repurposed as technological nutrients n.d.)
or degraded as organic nutrients. In contrary to single-attribute eco-labels, this Cradle-
19
to-Cradle Accredited program assesses an item's entire engineering and fabrication
process. Materials and production techniques for each good are rated in 5 groups:
Materials wellness, material recovery, sustainable power use, water management, and
community engagement are all challenges that must be addressed.
2.5.5.3 Green Guard

It is a non-profit certification and labeling
organization that came into existence in the year of
2001. California Section 01350, specifically demands
pollutants to be 50 percent of the nation's higher limits,
Figure 2.12: Green Guard
is met by the GREENGUARD Children and Schools (Green Building Standards and
Certification Systems | WBDG -
accreditation. GREENGUARD authorizes a product Whole Building Design Guide,
n.d.)
against formaldehyde, total aldehydes, total volatile
organic compounds (VOCs), and one-tenth of the cutoff limit value (a regulatory
benchmark) for many other elements. The GREENGUARD Ecological Institute
accredits items that match strict formaldehyde, emissions, and chemical system testing.
2.5.5.4 Green Squared

TCNA developed accreditation that encompasses all
products used for flooring and is comprised of one
enterprise, one norm, and one mark. Green Squared is the
very first multi-attribute sustainable development
standard for tiles and flooring materials. It utilizes the
Figure 2.13: Green Squared
ANSI process' accountability as well as common (Green Building Standards and
understanding, and also third-party credentialing, to Whole Building Design Guide, n.d.)
examine, justify, and impart goods that have a large effect on the environment and
community. Green Squared looks at product qualities, manufacturing, edge
administration, reactive governance, and development to provide rules for goods
throughout their entire life cycle. Things that were independently confirmed to fulfill
the criteria of ANSI A138.1 are designated as Green Squared. The easily recognizable
Green Squared mark aids architects, producers, and end-users in making product
choices while guaranteeing that they meet the industry's broad range of sustainability
goals.
20
2.5.6 Rating systems
GB scoring or the certification methods shift the concentration away from the items and
towards the recent development. A grading system is a form of building certification
system that assigns a score or awards based on how well a structure meets certain
environmental goals and regulations. The terms "rating systems" including the
“certification systems" are often interchanged.
For quite a wide range of tasks, encompassing single-family homes, commercial
complexes, and entire communities, the GB evaluation points system is offered. Both
new housing and existing buildings have scoring systems, with new housing
concentrating on decisions made during the design and planning process as well as
activities taken throughout construction, and existing buildings focused on o&m all
across the facility's life cycle. One of the main motivations for the creation of
evaluations is the need to more accurately define, execute, and analyze green policies,
and also their outputs and implications.
2.5.6.1 GB rating system with multiple attributes

The most prevalent scoring system of building used in the private as well as the public
sectors in the United States are listed below. International programs are also offered as
a resource for people working on initiatives outside of the United States.
2.5.6.1.1 BREEAM
BREEAM was created in 1990 by the (BRE), a
world-renowned multidisciplinary building
research company. BREEAM, the world's
foremost environmental impact study technique
for buildings, is defined by building scientific
Figure 2.13: BREEAM (Green Building
research. BREEAM is the foundation for Standards and Certification Systems |
WBDG - Whole Building Design Guide,
several green building assessment schemes, n.d.)
including LEED and Green Globes. BREEAM is widely utilized in 80 countries

throughout the world, with over 2,250,000 projects completed and 565,000+ certificates
given. The objective of BREEAM is just to deliver viable strategies, promote a
comprehensive approach to the development which is based on sound research and
assesses what counts, and improve the sustainability impact of buildings. The nine
21
domains in which performance can be measured include Management, Healthcare &
Well-Being, Power, Mobility, Water, Minerals, Waste, Ground Use & Ecology, and
Pollution. Innovation is rewarded with excellent credits in some areas. Each category
is weighted to encourage projects to focus on the areas that have the largest
environmental impact, and fundamental requirements are set to ensure that essential
performance components across the guideline are satisfied in a consistent manner.
Offer digital resources to help with the grading and necessary preconditions. Working
groups select an Assessor who has received BRE training and certification to make sure
that it meets described is accurate and backed by evidence needed by the criterion. The
Assessor gives BRE an evaluation report with proper documents that describes how
they confirmed adherence with the BREEAM criteria. The analysis is subjected to a
quality assurance system, and if it succeeds, it is awarded a certificate.
For all BREEAM grading systems except In-Use, there are five BREEAM ratings:
1. Pass (1 Star),
2. Good (2 Stars),
3. Very Good (3 Stars),
4. Excellent (4 Stars) and
5. Outstanding (5 Stars).
On the BREEAM In-Use scale, Acceptable (1 Star) is the lowest approval rating,
while Pass (2 Stars) to Outstanding (6 Stars) has always been the highest. For new
construction, an interim permit can be given during the design phase, and for
restoration and fit-out, a final document can be awarded as once the task is done. On-
site examinations are necessary for certification.
2.5.6.1.2 Leadership in Energy and Environmental

design
Around 2000, the US Green Building Council devised a
rating scheme for design and construction stages that would
define sustainability initiatives in the US. LEED is being
used in North America including over 30 other countries,
with more than 6,300 major projects recognized and over
Figure 2.14: LEED (Green
21,000 structures registered. As of September 2010, Building Standards and
approximately 35 individual states, 380 towns and cities, and WBDG - Whole Building
Design Guide, n.d.)
22
58 counties have approved sustainability legislation, ordinances, or rules, the majority
of which directly reference LEED certification. On the BREEAM In-Use scale,
Acceptable (1 Star) is the lowest approval rating, while Pass (2 Stars) to Outstanding
(6 Stars) has always been the highest. For new construction, an interim permit can be
given during the design phase, and for restoration and fit-out, a final document can be
awarded once the task is done. On-site examinations are necessary for certification.
LEED is composed of credentials that accumulate points in seven categories:

1. Site Selection,
2. Water Efficiency,
3. Energy and Atmosphere,
4. Materials and Resources,
5. Indoor Environmental Quality,
6. Regional Priority, and
7. Innovation in Design.
In each of these domains, 100 credit points, with the lowest energy and water use
savings, waste collection, and tobacco smoke management being required.
The LEED rating process took place via LEED Online. To prove conformance with
LEED rules, working groups must collect documents and submit them to the LEED
Online website. The paperwork is reviewed by the Green Building Certification
Institute (GBCI), and if all parameters and a good amount of points are met, LEED
accreditation is granted. There are 4 levels of LEED certification: Certified, Silver,
Gold, and Platinum. There were no on-site checks needed, and certification was not
required.
2.5.6.1.3 Green Globes

In 2004, the Green Building Initiative (GBI)
introduced the concept to the US. It is now
mentioned in a number of federal, state, and local
laws. Figure 2.15: Green Globes (Green
Building Standards and Certification
Buildings are assessed on a range ranging from 1 to Systems | WBDG - Whole Building
Design Guide, n.d.)
23
one thousand points in seven categories:
1. energy,
2. indoor environment, site,
3. accessibility,
4. maintenance
Water, Resources, Pollutants, and Project/Environmental Management are just a few of
the topics covered.
Individuals can indicate that some credits may not be relevant to a project, which is a
feature unique to Green Globes. There are almost no qualifications. A Green Globes
rating requires an onsite examination of the property by a Green Globes Examiner. This
ensures that the self-reported assertions in the online documentation are accurate. Green
Globes could be used to evaluate fresh and innovative structures, whether they are
commercial or mixed.
The very first step forward towards a Green Globes accreditation is to complete a self-
reported e-assessment, which is needed at various intervals during the design and
construction. During the development documentation phase and after considerable
accomplishment, a Green Globes Examiner will visit sites to confirm the claims made
in the survey. A Green Globes accreditation of one to four globes can be obtained if
verification is completed.
2.5.6.1.4 Living Building Challenge

This performance-based strategy was first developed by
the Cascadia Green Building Council. In April 2011, the
International Living Future Institute amalgamated the
Cascadia Green Building Council and the Living
Building Challenge.
Figure 2.16: LBC logo (Green

The LBC has established stringent criteria, including net Building Standards and
zero energy, zero net water, on-site renewables, and Whole Building Design Guide,
n.d.)
hundred percent building waste recycling or diversion.
The environment, water, energy, materials, health, equity, and aesthetics are all
examined. Its tenets are all mandatory, making it the most demanding green building
certification approach currently accessible. An on-site audit must be conducted by a
24
member of the International Living Future Institute (ILFI).
Projects must join the living building community after completing the online
registration process, where they can discuss compliance and track their progress. An
on-site audit is conducted 12 months after the project is completed.
2.5.6.1.5 Passive House Institute US

This organization oversees a climate-specific
passively constructing guideline and accreditation
system that was developed with assistance from the
Department of Energy's Building America program
to address the complexity of the US climate.
Structures designed and made to the PHIUS+ 2015 Figure 2.17: PHIUS (Green Building
Standards and Certification Systems |
Passive Building Standard consume 86 % less energy WBDG - Whole Building Design
Guide, n.d.)
input & 46 percent less energy for cooling when
matched to code-compliant buildings (depending on climate zone and building type).
PHIUS+ 2015 is the first and only passive building comprehensive suite on climate-
specific comfort and performance standards, to achieve the most durable, resilient, and
energy-efficient structure for a certain region.
The PHIUS+2015 Passive Building Standard applies all across the world. South Korea
and Japan have projects that have been certified, while China and Israel have only
recently certified ones. The majority of certified passive building specialists are trained
at PHIUS, which is the top educational institute in North America. PHIUS is the leading
certifier of passive houses and structures, having completed 95 percent of all passive
construction.
However, the German Institute is active in the United States, having approved around
5% of all passive building construction to date.
2.5.6.1.6 Sites
Green Business Certification Inc. (GBCI) administers the
Sustainable Sites Initiative (SITES), a comprehensive
rating system that discovers sustainable landscapes,
Figure 2.18: SITES (Green
analyses their effectiveness, and enhances their value. Sites Building Standards and
featuring structures, such as national parks, business WBDG - Whole Building
Design Guide, n.d.)
25
campuses, streetscapes, and individual residences, are eligible for SITES certification.
SITES is used by landscape architects, designers, engineers, architects, builders,
policymakers, and others to ensure that land management and development follow
creative sustainable design principles. To protect and improve the benefits we obtain
from healthy functioning landscapes, land can be designed, constructed, expanded, and
managed. By assisting in the construction of ecologically resilient communities, SITES
helps the environment, landowners, regional and local communities, and economies.
2.5.6.1.7 Well:
A performance-based approach for assessing,
validating, and tracking components of the built
environment that affect people's health and well-
being is based on seven factors, or Concepts. The
Figure 2.19: WELL logo (Green Building
following are some of them: Standards and Certification Systems |
WBDG - Whole Building Design Guide,
1. Air n.d.)
2. Water
3. Nourishment
4. Light
5. Fitness,
6. Comfort
7. Mind.
WELL, is focused on a body of medical science that looks at the relationship between
both the buildings where people are spending more than 90% of their time as well as
the health and well-being of their residents. WELL, Certified spaces, and WELL Core
and Shell Compliant buildings can help create a constructed environment that is good
for occupants' nutrition, fitness, mood, sleep habits, and performance.
Each WELL element is designed to address issues that affect the health, comfort, or
education of residents. WEL is composed of over 100 features that are used in each
construction project. Several Well Features aimed towards promoting health are
supported by current government standards or other standards-setting groups. There are
two types of WELL characteristics: Preconditioning is required to establish a baseline.
WELL Certification, Compliance, and Optimizations are examples of optional
26
improvements that determine the amount of certification over baseline certification.
WELL's features apply to a wide range of real estate sectors, but WELL v1 is currently
focused on retail and office complexes. WELL has been subdivided into Project
Typologies, which take into account the particular set of considerations that each
building type or development phase brings. The three project typologies for WELL v1
are new and existing buildings, new and existing interiors, and core and shell.
2.5.7 Relevant Codes and Standards
2.5.7.1 Federal Mandates, Acts, And Executive Orders

• Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007
• Executive Order 13693, "Planning for Federal Sustainability in the Next
Decade"
• Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPACT)
2.5.7.2 International Code Council

• The IgCC is designed to be used as a regional and municipal building code for
new construction and large renovations. The IgCC is a comprehensive code that
includes enforcement techniques and recommendations for existing building
alterations, as well as energy, water, and commissioning criteria.
• Green Building Standard of the United States (ICC 700). Green building for
single-family and multi-family dwellings, residential renovations, and
preconstruction projects is outlined in the standard, which allows for the
implementation of locally appropriate best green practice.
2.5.7.3 ASHRAE Standards

• Standard for the Design of High-Performance Green Buildings
(ANSI/ASHRAE/USGBC/IES Standard 189.1) With the exception of low-rise
residential buildings, this standard specifies minimum standards for site, design,
construction, and operations in the needed, code-enforceable terms. The site,
water, energy efficiency, indoor air quality, and materials parts of this standard
are broad. ASHRAE, IES, and the USGBC collaborated to create it. As a
jurisdictional compliance path, the IgCC can use ASHRAE 189. 1.
27
• ASHRAE Standard 55, Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human
Occupancy
• ASHRAE Standard 62.1, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality
• ASHRAE Standard 90.1, Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise
Residential Buildings
2.5.7.4 Water-Related Legislation and Codes

• Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA) Section 438 (stormwater)
• Energy Policy Act of 1992
• Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPACT) Section 109 (process water)
• International Plumbing Code (IPC), (ICC)
• Uniform Plumbing Code 2006, (IAMPO)
2.5.7.5 Material-Related Legislation

• Farm Security and Rural Investment Act of 2002 (FSRIA)
• Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
2.5.7.6 Municipal Standards

Green construction standards have been enacted in many cities, states, and US
territories. The energy goals and criteria of every city, state, and US territory are listed,
with a focus on LEED, Green Globes, and carbon reduction objectives. Green
construction requirements for public buildings have been implemented in New York
City and California, for example (Green Building Standards and Certification Systems
| WBDG - Whole Building Design Guide, n.d.).
2.5.8 LEED for Every Project

LEED certification is accessible for any and all types of buildings and development
phases, including new construction, interior fit-outs, operations and maintenance, and
base and exterior construction.
2.5.8.1 Building Design and Construction

For substantial renovations or new construction. Brand-new construction, shell & core,
schools, retail, hospitality, cloud services, storage facilities & distribution centers, and
28
medical are all covered by BD+C.
2.5.8.2 Construction and Interior Design

Interior fit-out projects can be completed entirely. The interiors of commercial
buildings are featured. ID+C also includes retail and hospitality applications.
2.5.8.3 Building Management and Operations

Established structures that are being renovated or that do not require any new
construction.
O+M applications can be found in schools, retail, hospitality, data centers, and
warehouses and distribution centers.
Figure 2.20: LEED Points on ARC Software
2.5.8.4 Development of The Neighborhood

For new property development or rehabilitation projects with residential, non -
residential, or mixed-use components. Projects can be in any stage of development,
from conceptual planning to construction. Projects that have been planned and built.
2.5.8.5 Homes
For single-family houses, low-rise multi-family (one to three stories) / mid-rise multi-
family (four to six levels) (four to six stories).
Houses are included
29
• Multifamily Low-rise
• Multifamily Mid-rise
LEED certification is used in homes and residential structures with more than six
stories.
2.5.8.6 Communities and Cities

For entire cities plus sub-sections of cities. LEED for Cities initiatives can design and
manage their city's water, energy, waste, transportation, and overall experience.
2.5.9 LEED Recertification

LEED recertification is an important step in maintaining the value of your building.
Recertification enables you to safeguard your long-term investment while also
maintaining and upgrading your structure. Applies to all LEED-certified inhabited and
in-use projects, including BD+C and ID+C, regardless of the rating system or version
used at the time of certification.
Figure 2.21: LEED Score card for existing buildings(Checklist: LEED v4 for Building
Operations and Maintenance | U.S. Green Building Council, n.d.)
2.5.9.1 LEED Zero

All LEED projects that have been recognized under the BD+C or O+M rating systems,
as well as those that have applied for LEED O+M certification, are eligible. LEED Zero
certification is for projects that aim to be carbon and resource net-zero.
30
2.5.9.2 How Does LEED Work?
Projects pursuing LEED certification gain points for a variety of green building
approaches from a variety of groups, and based on the number of points earned, a
project earns one of four LEED certification levels (LEED Rating System | U.S. Green
Building Council, n.d.):
1. Certified
2. Silver
3. Gold
4. Platinum.
Figure 2.22:LEED Certification points
31
2.6 Conclusion
Summing up the impacts and the benefits of the green building we can say in a nutshell
that a building that is working on the principle of Green Building is 30% more efficient
than conventional building and providing financial benefits to the organization. These
benefits consist of water and energy savings, reduction in waste, enhanced indoor
environmental quality, increased employee pleasure/productivity, decreased employee
health costs, and low cost of operations and maintenance (Azeem et al., 2017). Energy
is considered as one of the biggest operating costs of a building that need to be
addressed. Buildings that are going green need to be certified under the Green Building
Certifications and achieve the points according to the rating system approved by World
Green Building Council. One of the most popular Green Building certifications among
others is the LEED Certification which serves as a benchmark criterion for green
building recognition. Recent developments are being made internationally and in
Pakistan as well for sustainable development and the Pakistan Green Building council
is playing its vital part in the cause. In the coming years, there will be a greater shift
towards sustainable development and energy management.
32
Chapter 3
RO Plant
3.1 Introduction
The reverse osmosis process is used to purify water, whether it be sea water or bore
water. In the purification, process water is first passed through a pretreatment process
which includes a sand filter, carbon filter, and cartridge filter and then it passes through
membranes.
3.1.1 Literature Study

Approximately 97.5 percent of the water on our planet is located in the oceans called
seawater. Only 2.5% of water is fresh and sweet and out of this 2.5% about 70% are
glaciers and only 30% is in the form of groundwater, lakes, rivers, and air moisture.
Therefore, in such circumstances, it has become really important to convert the salty
high TDS seawater to sweet water by the process of reverse osmosis.
The capacity of desalination has rapidly risen in the last decade due to the increase in
demands of water and also because of a significant reduction in desalination cost
resulting from significant technological advances, especially in the process of reverse
osmosis (Ghaffour et al., n.d.).
Reverse osmosis (RO) is the water purification process in which water having
suspended inorganic salts (minerals), solids, soluble and insoluble organics, aquatic
microorganisms, and also dissolved gases (which is collectively called source water
contaminants) is the force by high pressure through the semipermeable membrane.
Semipermeable is a membrane that selectively allows water to pass through it at a much
higher rate than the transfer rate of any constituents contained in the water
(Desalination Engineering Planning and Design by Nikolay... - Google Scholar, n.d.).
Reverse osmosis is driven by pressure which is now widely recognized and utilized as
the leading technology of the desalination process. Advancement in the RO technology
includes process and module design, advanced membrane material, and energy
recovery well that causes cost reduction which results in gaining interest in RO’s
commercial applications (Desalination & 2016, n.d.). The applications for RO are
varied and numerous and include desalination of brackish water or seawater for
drinking purposes, wastewater recovery, biomedical separations, food and beverage
33
processing, purification of home potable water, and industrial process water
(FilmTecTM Reverse Osmosis Membranes Technical Manual... - Google Scholar, n.d.).
The importance of RO in the water purification process can be depicted from the report
of the U.S. Geological Survey (Gleick, 1996) which told that 96.5% of Earth's water is
located in seas and oceans and 1.7% of Earth's water is located in the ice caps. About
0.8% is considered to be freshwater. The remaining percent is made up of brackish
water which is slightly salty found as surface water in estuaries and as groundwater in
salty porewater (P.H. Gleick, S.H. Schneider (Ed.), Water Resources... - Google
Scholar, n.d.).
Currently, the production of potable water has become a global concern; for many
communities, projected population growth and demands exceed conventional available
water resources. Over 1 billion people are without clean potable water and about 2.3
billion people (41% of the world population) live in areas with water shortages.
The salinity of feed water for desalination facilities ranges from about 1000 ppm TDS
to 60,000 ppm TDS, although feed waters are typically labeled as one of the two types:
brackish water or seawater. Most seawater sources contain 30,000 to 45,000 ppm TDS,
seawater reverse osmosis membranes are used to treat water within the TDS range of
10,000 to 60,000 ppm. Brackish water reverses osmosis membranes are used to treat
water sources (mostly groundwater/bore water sources) within a range of 1000 to
10,000 ppm TDS. The type of feed water can affect several design choices for a
treatment plant, including pretreatment steps, desalination method, product recovery,
and waste disposal method (M.C. Mickley, Membrane Concentrate Disposal:
Practices... - Google Scholar, n.d.).
Reverse Osmosis membranes are able to reject monovalent ions, like sodium and
chloride. Presently, seawater RO membranes have salt rejections greater than 99%
(Brehant et al., 2003; Reverter et al., n.d.; W.T. Bates, R. Cuozzo, Integrated Membrane
Systems... - Google Scholar, n.d.). Some membranes, if operated under standard test
conditions (32,000 ppm NaCl, 5500 KPa, 298 K, pH 8, 8% recovery), can achieve as
high as up to 99.7–99.8% salt rejection (Rana et al., 2015; Reverberi et al., n.d.).
Reliable pretreatment techniques are needed for the successful operation of SeaWater
Reverse Osmosis processes since the main issue is membrane fouling associated with
particulate matter/colloids, biological growth, and organic/inorganic compounds.
While traditional pretreatment processes like coagulation and granular media filtration
34
have been widely used for SWRO, there has been an enhanced tendency towards the
usage of ultrafiltration/microfiltration (UF/MF) instead of traditional treatment
techniques [32]. Membrane fouling is an unavoidable issue. It leads to higher operating
pressure, frequent chemical cleaning, flux decline, and shorter membrane life (Jiang et
al., n.d.)
3.2 Working Principle
3.2.1 Osmosis
It is a naturally occurring process in which the molecules of solvent pass through any
semipermeable membrane from the region of less concentration to the region of more
concentration in the solution (Johnston, 2016)
Domestically we can observe the example of osmosis when we keep the sugar solution
and water in the same container but separating them by a semipermeable membrane.
Since the sugar molecules are larger, it is not possible for them to pass through the
membrane but the water molecules being smaller in size pass through the membrane
until the establishment of equilibrium (Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia.
“Osmosis”.... - Google Scholar, n.d.)
Figure 3.1: Osmosis process (Osmosis with Example | Osmotic

Pressure Definition, n.d.)
35
3.2.2 Reverse Osmosis
Naturally, the molecules of solvent pass through the lower concentration region to high
concentration. But if we want to go against the nature than we have to force molecules
to move from higher concentration region to lower one, for this we need to use external
energy, this external energy is provided by pump, pump pressurizes the solvent in
reverse direction and overcomes the osmotic pressure, thus molecules move in reverse
direction.
Reverse Osmosis (RO) is the method of getting pure water from saline water. This
process is also called desalination. It is a technology of water that utilizes a semi
Figure 3.2 : Reverse Osmosis process (Puretec Industrial

Water | What Is Reverse Osmosis?, n.d.)
permeable membrane in order to remove molecules, ions, and larger particles from
drinking water. In reverse osmosis process, a pressure is applied to overcome osmotic
pressure, it is a colligative property that is driven by potential difference of chemical of
the solvent, a thermodynamic parameter (Ahuchaogu et al., 2018)
3.2.3 Working of RO Plant

1. The working of RO plant starts when the feed pump sucks the boring water from
the boring water tank and sends it to the pretreatment system.
2. The pretreatment system includes a sand filter to remove solid impurities.
3. Then water goes to a carbon filter which removes toxins and chlorine from feed
water.
4. Then water passes through a cartridge filter, meanwhile an anti-scalant chemical
is also pumped into the feedwater line with the help of a dosing pump.
36
5. After water is passed through the pretreatment system it goes into a high-
pressure pump, which increases the pressure of feed water to membrane design
pressure.
6. Finally, the water passes into the membrane where the process of reverse
osmosis takes place. From the membrane vessel the water is divided into two
streams one permeates (clean water) and other concentrate (reject water).
7. Concentrate is drained into sewerage lines and the permeate is collected in a
storage tank which can be used for our need
3.2.4 Osmotic Pressure

It is the pressure that is required to be applied to any pure solvent in order to stop it
from passing through a semipermeable membrane into the solution by osmosis. It is
denoted by π and can be calculated by the formula (Lachish, U. (1999). Osmosis
Reverse Osmosis and Osmotic... - Google Scholar, n.d.)
π=i*C*R*T
Where,
i = van’t Hoff index
C = molar concentration of solute
R = universal gas constant
T = absolute temperature
The application of the above formula can be seen in the coming pages.
3.3 Components of RO Plant

RO plant is composed of following components.
3.3.1 Feed Pump

The feed pump is used to pump the water from the main
source raw water and put it in the pre filtration system.
The first step of the pre-filtration is a sand filter. The
feed pump on our site is of 2.2 KW with a pressure of
40 psi, running at 2860 rpm Figure 3.3: Feed water pump
37
3.3.2 Sand filter
Sand filtration is the process in which the treatment of the
water takes place due to the ‘porous’ nature of a layer of
sand and gravel which traps the particles present in water.
Sand filtration is usually used in the treatment of
groundwater in order to remove dissolved manganese and
iron from the groundwater.
After a certain time period, the filter is saturated with
particles and has to be cleaned to prevent it from choking
up completely. Thus, sand filters are cleaned by the
Figure 3.4: Sand and charcoal
process of backwashing with water or air. The maximum filters
operating pressure of our sand filter installed at site is 150 psi but the operating pressure
at the site is 40 psi.
3.3.3 Charcoal Filter

It is prepared from organic material – mostly from wood – and burning it in the absence
of oxygen. This method is called pyrolysis. The wood is used to burn at high
temperatures. This results in a hard, porous material which is called charcoal.
Charcoal consists of a great amount of carbon that can be used for filtration.
Particularly, the most common applications in water treatment are:

• To remove chlorine and VOCs.
• To remove bad taste and smell.
• To remove pollutants.
• To remove turbidity.
The pressure of the carbon filter vessel at our site is 35 psi.
38
3.3.4 Cartridge filter:
Filtration through the cartridge filters is a widely used
technique in the elimination of contaminant compounds and
particulates contained in the water, they have their main
applications in Wastewater Treatment Plants (Advanced
treatments) and also in pretreatments in Drinking Water and
Desalination Water Treatment Plants (DWTP).
Micron Cartridge Filters have a series of filtrations with the

20 Micron, 10 Micron, 5 Micron, 1 Micron, 0.45 Micron &
0.2 Micron Cartridge. This is a consumable Cartridge and Figure 3.5: Cartridge filter
should be replaced after days of operation (usually between 4 to 8 weeks, depending on

the TDS of raw water). This is for the extra safety of permeate water as it passes through
a series of filtration and there exists some chances of slippages of particles, which can
be trapped through the Cartridges.
3.3.5 HP (High Pressure) Pump:

For the reverse osmosis process to take place, the feed
pressure of water needs to be increased. For this purpose,
a multistage vertical centrifugal high-pressure pump in
stainless steel construction is used. R.O system needs
operating pressure of about 14-16 kg/cm2. The HP pump
is fitted with S.S. discharge pipe work along with
Figure 3.6: HP Pump
necessary control valves. Necessary instruments like
Pressure Gauge, High-Pressure Switch, and recirculation valves are also provided for
safer operation of the system.
The HP pump at site is of 7.5 KW running at 2900 rpm having maximum pressure of
25bar (362 psi) with operating pressure of 150psi (10.34bar).
3.3.6 Dosing Pump:

The dosing pump at the site is used to inject the anti-scalant chemical
into the line before entering the membrane vessel
The maximum flow rate is 8 l/h, nominal flow rate is 5 l/h, maximum Figure 3.7: Dosing
Pump
pressure is 5 bar with a power of 32W.
39
3.3.7 Membrane:
Colloidal, Particulate, and some organic foulants present in water can be removed
successfully using microfiltration (MF) or ultrafiltration (UF) pretreatment. RO
membranes are typically capable of removing 90%–99% of contaminants like total
dissolved solids (TDSs) present in the water supply. The membranes are generally
manufactured in the form of flat sheets made up of thin composite membranes
consisting of an active polyamide layer.
The min and max operating temperature of the membrane at the site are -7 °C and 49
°C. The maximum operating pressure is 300psi (2.1 MPa).
Figure 3.9 : RO Membrane front Figure 3.8: RO membrane side
3.3.8 Storage tank:

Raw source water from boring is collected in fiber storage tank of
appropriate capacity. The tank is fitted with PVC pipe work & ball
valves. While treated water is collected in a cement tank.
The size of the storage tank at site is 1520 Gallons.
Figure 3.10: Storage tanks
3.4 Total Water Consumption of Jamia Ashraful Madaris

Jamia Ashraful Madaris was previously receiving water from 3 resources
1. KWSB Line
2. RO/Boring Water
3. Water Tankers
3.4.1 Water from KWSB Line (Measured by installing water meter)

Daily & Monthly Consumption of KWSB’s water
Given Data: On the basis of 2 week’s data (i.e., 21 Feb to 7 March 2021), First of all
40
calculating average consumption of water per working day.
▪ Working day refers the day during which KWSB’s line is active (i.e., water
flows through the line to Madrassa)
▪ Here Gallons refer to Imperial Gallons (1 m3 ≈ 222 Gallons)
Solution:
⮚ Week 1 (From 22 Feb to 28 Feb 2021)
No. of working days = 4
Therefore, Average consumption of water per working day is
9324+23088+12210+13542
=
4
= 14,541 GPWD (⸫GPWD = Gallons per working day)
⮚ Week 2 (From 1st March to 7 March 2021)

No. of working days = 3
Average consumption water (for week 2) per working day is
21090+23754+11322
=
3
= 18,722 GPWD
Now, for more appropriate Analysis, we can also find the mean of average consumption
of water per working day of individual week
Therefore, Mean of Average consumption of water is
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 1�𝑤𝑤.𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑� + 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 2 �𝑤𝑤.𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑�
=
2
14541+18722
=
2
= 16,631.5 GPWD
Hence, we concluded that KWSB’s water consumption per working day is “16,631.5
Gallons per working day”.
41
Now, Monthly Consumption of KWSB’s water is
= Average consumption per working day × No. of Working days in a week ×
Weeks in a month
= 16,631 × 3.5 × 4.2
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 1 (4)+𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 2 (3)

(Working days in week = = 3.5 days)
2
Monthly Consumption = 244,475.7 GPM (⸫GPM= Gallons per Month)

Daily Consumption of KWSB’s water is
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀ℎ𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
=
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁.𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ
244475.7
=
30
= 8,149.2 GPD (⸫ GPD= Gallons per Day)

Hence, we received approximately 8,149.2 Gallons per day from KWSB lines &
244,475.7 Gallons per month.
3.4.2 RO Plant Water Production (Measured by water meter)

In order to calculate the production of water by RO Plant we have data of month Feb
2021 to 21 March 2021.
First of all, we calculate average daily production on weekly basis (i.e. we have 5 weeks
data)
So, Average Production of water per day in a Week 1,2,3…6 as
Daily Production@ Week 1

(10878+3996)+(3330)+(3330+444)+(3552+1554)+(3774+1776+1554)+(888+888+222)+(2664)
=
7
= 5,550 GPD

(444)+(1776)+(0)+(0)+(1332+1110+2886)+(444+2442)+(0)
=
7
= 1,490.57 GPD
42
⮚ Week 3 (From 1 March to 7 March 2021)

(3330)+(444)+(2220)+(1776+2664)+(2886+2442)+(222+666)+(0)
=
7
= 2,378.57 GPD

(3774+2664)+(0)+(3774+2442)+(666+2220)+(3330+2220)+(3552)+(2442)
=
7
= 3,869.14 GPD

(1776)+(888)+(3552)+(3108)+(0)+(2220)+(0)
=
7
= 1,649.14 GPD
Therefore, Average daily production of RO Water is

𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 1 + 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 2 + 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 3+ 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 4 + 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 5
=
5
5550+1490.57+2378.57+3869.14+1649.14
=
5
= 2,987.48 GPD
Conclusion: On the basis of Five Weeks data of RO Plant, we conclude that the
Average Daily Production of RO Water is “2,987.48 Gallons per Day”.
Therefore, Average Monthly RO water production will be
= Average daily production × 30

= 2,987.48 × 30
= 89,624.4 GPM
43
OR
By Adding the daily production of RO water of 4 week (individually 28 days) and 2
days of 5th week values, we get Monthly RO water production is “95,681.96 GPM”.
3.4.3 Boring Water Consumption

First of all, we calculate the volume flow rate of boring water pump
Which is given as
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
= ………………….... (1)
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
Total Volume of 3 tanks of Madrassa = 3 × volume of individual tank………... (2)
Here,
Volume of individual tank = 𝜋𝜋r2 h …………………………………… (3)
In order to calculate the radius of tank, we measure the circumference of tank and height
of the tank (By wrapping the cord across circumference and measure its length)
Circumference of tank = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = 246 in = 6.2484 m

⇒ r = 0.99446 m
Height of tank = h = 73 in = 1.8542
Eq 3 ⇒ Volume of Tank = 𝜋𝜋 × (0.99446)2 × 1.8542

= 5.7608 m3
Eq 2 ⇒ Total Volume of 3 tanks = 3 × 5.7608
= 17.282 m3
Since, Time required to fill the 3 Tank = 40 min (Measured Experimentally)

17.282
Eq 1⇒ Volume flow rate of Pump =
40
= 0.432 m3/min ≈ 95 GPM (GPM=Gallons/min)
Hence, Total Volume of Boring Water flown in a specific day (22 Feb 2021) is
= Volume Flow rate of pump × Boring water Flowing time
e.g on 22 Feb 2021, Volume of Boring water Consumed =95 × 476 =45,220 Gallon.
44
3.4.4 RO capacity
Table 3: RO Capacity Calculation
Whereas,
Vol. of Boring water (Imperial Gallons) = Boring water flowing time*Volume flow
rate of boring water pump
Monthly Consumption of Boring Water will be

= Mean of daily average consumption of boring water × 30
= 25307 × 30
= 759,215 Gallons per month
45
3.4.5 Water from Tankers:
Table 4: Water consumption for tankers
S. No. Tanker Capacity Quantity of Tankers

1 2000 1
2 2400 14
3 3000 31
4 5000 2
Therefore,
Total quantity of water entered into Jamia Ashraf ul Madaris from tankers is given by
Tanker Water Quantity = ∑ (Tanker Capacity X Quantity of Tankers)
Tanker Water Quantity = [2000*1 + 2400*14 + 3000*31 + 5000*2]
Tanker Water Quantity = 2000 + 33,600 + 93,000 + 10,000
Tanker Water Quantity = 138,600 Gallons per month
Tanker Water Quantity = 4620 Gallons per day (Divided gallons per month by 30)
Water consumption from different sources ON DAILY BASIS are:

1) KWSB = 8149.2 GPD
2) RO = 2987.48 GPD
3) Boring = 25307 GPD
4) Tankers = 4620 GPD
Total Water Consumption of Jamia Ashraful Madaris is the summation of water from
KWSB Line, Boring water, RO Water and Tanker Water
Total Water Consumption = 8149.2 + 2987.48 + 25307 + 4620
Total Water Consumption = 41,063 GPD
3.5 Important Designing Parameters

Following are the core designing parameters of an RO process
3.5.1 Feed water:

The water which is being fed to the RO plant for treatment
3.5.2 Permeate Water:

Permeate is a term for the product water by the reverse osmosis unit. The word
46
permeate is also referred to as the "product" and it describes the portion of the reverse
osmosis’ feed water stream water which has been passed through the RO membrane
Permeate = Feedwater ̶ Concentrate
3.5.3 Salt Rejection:

Percent rejection is the observance of the permeate TDS. Since Reverse osmosis
systems are used to remove the dissolved salts, measuring of salt (ion) rejection is a
feasible and direct way to monitor the performance. Salt rejection is the percent of the
feedwater TDS value that has been removed in the product (permeate) water (Howe et
al., 2012)
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
Salt Rejection = 1 −
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
3.5.4 Salt Passage:

The salt passage is defined as the quantity of salt (in percentage) which passes through
the RO membrane into the permeate (product) stream. Salt passage is the function of
concentration gradient (i.e: concentration of salt in the brine vs. the permeate), velocity,
and temperature,
Salt Passage = 1 - Salt Rejections × 1/100
3.5.5 Recovery %:
Recovery is the % of how much water is recovered after reverse osmosis treatment. In
other words, percentage recovery is defined as a ratio of permeate (product) flow rate
divided by feed (raw water) flow rate x 100%. The percentage recovery has inversely
proportional relation to permeate flow rate and percentage rejection given other
parameters such as operating pressure, feed water’s TDS value, and feed water’s
temperature stay the same. (Howe et al., 2012)
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟

Recovery =( ) × 100
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
47
3.5.6 Concentration Factor
The concentration factor is the degree that the RO feed water dissolved solids are
concentrated in the brine represented by “CF”.
1
CF =
1−𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 %
3.5.7 RO Concentrate:
RO concentrate has elevated concentrations of contaminants that are removed by the
treatment of brackish water for potable water use. Contaminants include metals, salts,
and nutrients typically at concentration level that exceeds water quality standards.
3.6 Process Flow Diagram

The Process Flow Diagram was drawn using e-draw max software.
Figure 3.11: RO process flow diagram
48
3.7 Detail of RO Plants at Jamia Ashraf:
At Jamia Ashraf there is one 10,000 GPD plant and another newly installed 20,000
GPD Plant, we did the design calculation of 20,000 GPD plant.
Well water from bore was taken as source water. Water property tests were done in the
testing lab of Environmental Engineering department of NED University.
Specifications of source water at inlet are as follows:

source water inlet properties
TDS = 3290 ≈ 3300 ppm, EC = 6.54 mS/cm, pH = 7.7, Temperature =25°C
Permeate Water at Outlet Properties

RO Water as permeate is taken.
TDS should be ˂ 100ppm, Assuming TDS = 50 ppm, EC = 0.99 mS/cm (EC is 60% of
TDS)
3.8 Designing of 20,000 GPD RO Plant:
1. Salt Rejection:
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
Salt Rejection = 1 −
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
50
=1−
3300
= 0.98 ≈ 98%
OR
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹 −𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑃𝑃
Salt Rejection = ×100
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹
6.54−0.099
= × 100
6.54
= 0.984 × 100
= 98.4 %
2. Salt Passage:
Salt Passage = 1 - Salt Rejections × 1/100
= 1 – 0.984
= 0.0151 ≈ 1.51 %
49
3. Recovery %:
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
Recovery = × 100
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
20,000
= × 100
27769.7
= 72.02 %
4. Concentration Factor (CF):
1
CF =
1−𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 %
1
=
1−0.71644
= 3.5266
5. TDS of Concentrate:
TDS of Concentrate = 3300 × 3.5266

= 11637.78 ppm
Osmotic Pressure:
Conversion Factor = (ppm → Molarity)
ppm = mg/l =10-3 gm/l or 0.001 gm/l
Where,
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 (𝑚𝑚)
n=
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 ( 𝑀𝑀 )
6. Molecular Mass
M (for NaCl as salt) = 23 + 35.5 = 58.8 a.m.u
Dividing b/s by ‘L’

𝑛𝑛 𝑚𝑚 1
= ×
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝑀
𝑛𝑛 1
= 0.001 ×
𝐿𝐿 58.5
= 1.7094 × 10-5 g/l (For NaCl only)
50
7. Boring Concentration CF:
CF = TDS (mole/l) = 3300 × 1.7094 × 10-5

= 0.0564 mole/l or Molarity
8. Permeate Concentration CP:
Cp = TDS = 50 × 1.7094 × 10-5

= 8.547 × 10-4 mole/l or Molarity
Gas Constant:
𝐿𝐿 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
i. R = 0.08206
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚.𝐾𝐾
Absolute Temperature:
ii. T = 25°C +273 = 298 K
van 't Hoff index:
iii. ɸ or i = 2 for NaCl
9. Now, Osmotic Pressure ( ᴨ )
ᴨ = iCRT or ɸCRT
ᴨ𝐹𝐹 = 2 × 0.0564 × 0.08206 ×298
ᴨ𝐹𝐹 = 2.71 atm
ᴨ𝑝𝑝 = 2 × 8.547 × 10-4 × 0.08206 × 298
ᴨ𝑝𝑝 = 0.04105 atm
ᴨ𝐹𝐹 ----------- osmotic pressure of feedwater
ᴨ𝑃𝑃 ----------- osmotic pressure of Permeate
51
10. For Flow Balance:
QF = QP + QC
27769.7 GPD = 20,000 GPD + QC
QC = 7769.7 GPD
QF---------- flow rate of feedwater
QP---------- flow rate of Permeate
QC---------- flow rate of Concentrate
11. For mass balance
CF = CP . QP + CC . QC
3300 x 27769.7 = 50 x 20,000 + CC x 7769.7
91640010 = 1000000+ CC x 7769.7
CC = 11665.83 ppm
CF---------- Concentration of feedwater

CP---------- Concentration of Permeate
CC---------- Concentration of concentrate
Assume Mass Balance (An Accurate Method)
11637.78−11665.83
% Error = x 100
11665.83
% Error = 0.24%
12. Calculation for Number of Cartridges
Feed Flow = 4.38 m3/h or 125661.362 GPD

125661.360
=
24 𝑥𝑥 60
= 87.2 gpm
52
For Design Flow:
4 gpm/10’’ of cartridge length, but length of cartridges will buy is 40” which means
16gpm/40” of cartridge length
Therefore,
No. of Cartridges = Feed flow/ Design Flow
No. of Cartridges = 87.2 gpm / 16 gpm
No. of Cartridges = 5.45 ≈ 6
For Maximum Flow:

5 gpm/10” of cartridge length which 20gpm/40” of cartridge length
Therefore,
No. of Cartridges = Feed flow/ Design Flow
No. of Cartridges = 87.2 gpm / 20 gpm
No. of Cartridges = 4.36 ≈ 5
Hence, take larger of the two values, therefore

No. of cartridges = 6
3.9 IMS Design Simulation for Membrane Selection
3.9.1 Analysis
Figure 3.12: RO membrane analysis
53
3.9.2 Design
Figure 3.15: RO membrane design
3.9.3 Running Projection
Figure 3.18: Running Projection of IMS Software
54
3.9.4 Flow Diagram
Figure 3.21: RO membrane flow diagram on IMS Design
3.9.5 Power Requirement
Figure 3.24: Power requirement calculation
55
3.9.6 Chemical Requirement
Figure 3.27: Chemical requirement determination via IMS design
3.10 Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA) of RO Plant
NOTE: See Excel Sheet on next page.
56
3.11 Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) of RO Plant
57
3.12 SOPs for RO Plant:
3.12.1 Routine/Daily Plant Startup

1. Check all valves
2. Check chemical level in tank
3. Backwash plant for 20 minutes
4. Rinse the plant for 20 minutes
5. Start the feed pump and then the High-Pressure pump (HP at 250 psi)
6. Record the pressure readings of Multimedia (in & out), cartridge filter (exit),
membrane pressure
7. Record flow rate (in GPM) of permeate and concentrate.
3.12.2 Routine/Daily Plant Shutdown

1. Shut off the dosing pumps.
2. Rinse the plant with permeate water for 20 minutes and flush.
3. If the shutdown is greater than 24 hours, introduce disinfect chemicals to
prevent any biological growth. For Example, ROCclean 66, ROCclean 67,
ROCclean 68, ROCclean 69 can be used as disinfectants.
3.13 Dos and Don’ts of RO Plant
3.13.1 Dos
1. Change the cartridge filters Every week.
2. Monitor the system and keep a log daily.
3. Run the system, as much as possible, on a continuous basis.
4. Adjust the system recovery to recommended value.
3.13.2 Don’ts
1. Permit chlorine in the feed water.
2. Shut down the system for extended periods.
3. Close the throttle valve completely.
4. Operate the system with insufficient feed flow.
58
3.14 RO Conclusion
The total water consumption in Jamia Ashraf-ul-Madaris as measured by us is 41,063

GPD, out of which 8149 GPD was provided by KWSB line, and a previously installed
RO plant was providing 2987 GPD of water. This means that in order to be self-
sufficient in sweet water, and to eliminate the use of Tankers and boring saline water,
we need to install an RO Plant of production capacity (41,063 minus (8149+2987)) of
30,000 GPD.
The management decided to minimize (not eliminate) the use of tankers and boring
water by installing an RO Plant of 20,000 GPD. We assisted in the commissioning of
RO plant, conducted FMEA of entire plant, FTA of membrane of fouling and also wrote
the SOPs of maintenance and operation of Reverse Osmosis Plant.
59
Chapter 4
WateraConservation
4.1 Introduction
Life on earth depends on water. Every person on earth needs water to survive. Water
conservation is our responsibility. Conservation of water is the exercise of using water
efficiently to stop unnecessary water wastage. Fresh water is not only a limited
resource but it is expensive, and critical for the environment therefore it is important
to conserve it. Water conservation refers to the management, storage, and development
of both ground and surface water resources, as well as the prevention of
contamination. Sustainable water resources are essential for socioeconomic
development, however in today’s society water is often misused and wasted.
According to the results of Census-2017, population of Pakistan is 207.680 million
(Final Results (Census-2017) | Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, n.d.) Water is in higher
demand as a result of increasing industrialization and population pressures, resulting
in an increase in the severity and number of local and regional conflicts over its usage
and supply (Kahlown et al., n.d.)
Domestic water demand and supply varies significantly throughout Pakistani cities,
depending on housing types, climatic change, location, and social determinants. The
number of people in the family, the number of water-using appliances, the size of the
house, and also the household income all influence residential water consumption
(Lyman, 1992; Renzetti, 2002) Demand of drinking water is increasing at a faster rate
while there are limited options for new development of water resources. Pakistan's
municipal infrastructure is in bad shape. Low tax collection and underfunding by the
government have harmed municipal governments' ability to finance, create, and
maintain infrastructure over the years (Catalogue & 2005, n.d.) Pakistan is ranked 80th
out of 122 countries in terms of water quality (Azizullah et al., n.d.)
During the ablution process, taps are frequently left running, wasting the majority of
the clean water (Suratkon et al., 2014) It is estimated that about half of the tap water
travels straight down the drain without being contaminated (Mamun et al., n.d.)
The amount that was used for the performance of ablution and prayer by the Holy
Prophet Muhammad ‫ ﷺ‬is one full palm. According to Islamic historical sources,
Prophet Muhammad ‫ ﷺ‬used to perform ablution with one ‘‘Mudd" of water [Hadith
from Bukhari and Muslim], which is roughly equivalent to 0.544 L of water. Some
60
tests yielded somewhat higher results, but the correct amount is less than 1 Liter in
any case (Mamun et al., n.d.)
We can estimate the amount of water used at home with some simple online
calculators:
1. https://www.home-water-works.org/calculator
2. http://www.csgnetwork.com/waterusagecalc.html
4.1.1 Water Conservation Techniques:

If you are not conserving water yourself, you will never be able to persuade others to
do so. Self-awareness, on the other hand, is critical. Installing aerators on faucets,
turning off taps when brushing your teeth or lathering up, using a low-flow
showerhead, using WaterSense rated appliances, planting native plants in your yard,
and so on are all ways to save water.
1. By use of Technology and Advancement
i. Install Infrared sensor-based faucets.
ii. Install aerator-based faucets.
iii. Install mechanical push faucets.
2. Recycle and reuse of the consumed(grey) water.
3. Greywater is the water from your bathroom sinks, tubs, showers, and washing
machines that has been gently utilized. Reusing greywater has a number of
advantages, including saving water and money on your water bill. It also keeps
it out of the sewer or septic system, lowering the risk of it polluting local water
bodies.
4. Harvest water from Natural resources more efficiently
a. Rain Water:
Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is the most common and sustainable approach, and it
may be utilized in both commercial and residential buildings for both potable and non-
potable applications. This would relieve demand on processed supply water, allowing
for more environmentally friendly living.
b. River Water:
Water harvesting is the process of collecting rainstorm-generated water runoff from a
specific region, usually a catchment, in order to provide water for crop irrigation,
human use, and animal consumption. The water collected can be used right once for
61
irrigation, or it can be stored in subterranean reservoirs or aboveground ponds for later
use. Water harvesting is an old activity that has helped many communities live in arid
and semiarid locations where alternative freshwater sources (such as lakes, rivers, and
aquifers) are inaccessible or scarce.
4.2 Efficient Taps selection

A tap is a type of valve for everyday use to control water supply in sinks, bathtubs etc.
“Tap” is a term used in British English where as “Faucet” is used in US. Taps may
differ in appearance, durability, shape, opening mechanism, size, water flowrate, and
price.
4.2.1 Taps Classifications:

Following are the classifications of taps available:
4.2.1.1 Masjid Cock (lever type Local Mechanical Tap)

These are lever type mechanical taps made of brass and steel. In
order to allow the water to flow through the taps, the lever at the
side needs to be lifted. To let the water keep flowing you have to
keep lifting the lever. One advantage is that tremendous amount
of water will be saved. However, human confort will be
sacrificed as one hand will constantly be used to lift the lever.
This type of tap is a very low cost solution. Figure 4.2: Mechanical tap
4.2.1.2 Hawa Taps (Lever type Indian Tap)

These taps are made from a composite plastic compound is
itself recycled and is entirely recyclable. They save 25% water
and can reach up to 70% according to the company. Their
disadvantage is that their spare parts are not available.
Moreover, these taps are not sold in Pakistan and they need to
Figure 4.5: HAWA Tap
be imported from India via UAE.
62
4.2.1.3 Local Aerators
These aerators can be installed in already placed taps via threaded joint.
They can save water up to 50%.
Figure 4.8:
Local aerators
4.2.1.4 Clean wave water aerators
These aerators can also be installed in already
placed taps via threaded joints. They are theft
proof with antitheft lock system. They have anti-
rust coating to help them work in saline
conditions.
Their major disadvantage is that they are
expensive as each piece costs 2700/= Figure 4.11: Clean wave aerators
4.2.1.5 Abshar Aerators

Abshar company is based in Lahore. They offer aerators that
can save water up to 80%. They cost 1200/= per piece and
discounts available depending on order.
These aerators once installed cannot be detected from outside
hence preventing theft.
Figure 4.14: Abshar
Aerators
63
4.2.2 Specification of Taps
Table 5: Specification of Taps
Price (PKR)
S.no. Taps Pictures Efficiency
per Piece
Masjid Cock
(lever type
1. Local 350/= 25%
Mechanical
Tap)
Hawa Taps
2. (Lever type 450/= 25%
Indian Tap)
3. Local Aerators 1000/= 50%
Clean Wave
4. 2700/= 90%
Tech. (Aerator)
Abshar
5. 1200/= 80%
(Aerator)
NOTE: Efficiency of Masjid cock, Hawa taps, and Abshar aerators were test however
Clean Wave and local aerators were copied from company specifications.
64
4.2.2.1 Data Collected from Jamia and Masjid
Number of Taps required in Masjid = n1 = 55
Number of Taps required in Jamia = n2 = 140
Total Number of Taps = n = n1 + n2 = 195
Gallons of Grey water produced daily in Ablution only = G = 4278 gallons/day
Tanker cost/gallons = T = Rs. 1/gallon
4.2.3 Cost of Different Taps
Table 6: Feasibility Analysis of Taps
S.no. Type Cost Total Tap Water Cost of Paybac

of Tap per Cost Effici saved water k
piece (PKR) ency (gallons) saved per period
(X) C=n. (E) S=E.G day (Days)
X (PKR/day) P=
W=S.T C/W
Masjid
1. 350/= 68250 25% 1069.5 1069.5 64
cock
Hawa
2. 450/= 87750 25% 1069.5 1069.5 82.04
Taps
Local
3. Aerato 1000/= 195000 50% 2139 2139 91
rs
Clean
4. Wave 2700/= 526500 90% 3850 3850 136
Tech.
5. Abshar 1200/= 234000 80% 3422 3422 68
4.2.3.1 Calculation for Abshar Aerator:

As an Example, calculation of feasibility analysis of Abshar is shown below:
Cost per Tap = X = 1200
Total cost of taps = C = n . X = 195 x 1200 = 234000
Water saved per day = S = E . G = 0.8 x 4278 gallons of GW = 3422 gallons
Cost of water saved per day = W = S .T = water saved per day x Tanker cost/gallons
= 3422 gallons x Rs. 1 = PKR 3422.
Payback Period = P = C/W = Total cost of taps / Cost of water saved per day =
234000/3422 = 68 days
65
4.2.3.2 Result:
We recommend to use Masjid cock as its payback time is minimum i.e., 64 days. The
grey water produced is 3209 gallons/day that will be used in plantation purposes.
Figure 4.17: CCTV Footage of Masjid e Ashraff
Figure 4.18: Avg. water

consumption/ablution = 2.3 L (Experiment at
NED).
Total GW Produced (Jamia + Masjid) = 3994+2787 GPD = 6781 GPD
66
Table 7: Number of Worshippers (Students + Staff + Locals Residents) performing ablution in a week.
Prayer times Total

Day/Date
Fajr Zuhr Asr Maghrib Isha (Particular day)
Mon./5-4 28 130 153 152 119 582
Tue./6-4 16 141 131 119 110 517
Wed./7-4 31 99 118 106 92 446
Thu. /8-4 21 124 106 131 95 477
Fri./9-4 21 423 130 153 121 848 (N)
Sat./10-4 24 163 140 128 105 560
Sun./11-4 42 192 155 158 150 697
⅀ Total (Particular Week) 4127
4.3 Grey water Reuse

Grey water can be reused for various purposes. In the following study, we will discuss
more about water, its types, properties, and how can we treat waste water by using
different techniques.
4.3.1 Literature study
4.3.1.1 Definition of water

It is an odorless, tasteless, very slightly compressible liquid oxide of hydrogen with
the chemical formula H2O that falls from the sky as rain, creates streams, lakes, and
oceans, and is a major component of all living matter.
a. It has a bluish appearance in thick layers, freezes at 0°C, and boils at
100°C.
b. It has a high specific heat and a maximum density of 4° C.
c. It is feebly ionized to hydrogen and hydroxyl ions.
d. It is a good solvent and a poor conductor of electricity(Water |
Definition of Water by Merriam-Webster, n.d.)
67
4.3.1.2 Types of water
The water consumption can be classified by specific types according to various uses,
such as the following:
1. Drinking and Household Needs
2. Recreation
3. Industry and Commerce
4. Waste Water
5. Agriculture
6. Thermoelectricity/Energy (Other Uses and Types of Water | Healthy Water |
CDC, n.d.)
1. Drinking and Household Needs

Our homes have some of the most critical uses for water. There are two ways that
water enters our dwellings. It is either distributed by a city/county water department
(KWSB), a private enterprise (tanker), or people supply their own water (RO plant),
which is usually from a well (boring). Water provided to homes is referred to as
"public-supplied deliveries," while water supplied by individuals is referred to as "self-
supplied," and is virtually often obtained from a bore well (KWSB – Karachi Water &
Sewerage Board, n.d.)
2. Recreation
People use the country's resources, such as rivers, lakes, and coastal seas, for a variety
of recreational activities. Swimming, boating, surfing, water rafting, and fishing are
some of the water-based recreational activities (Recreational Waters | US EPA, n.d.)
3. Industry and Commerce
Manufacturing and other businesses use water to cool equipment or create products
during the manufacturing process. Industrial water is used for cooling, fabricating,
washing, processing, diluting, or transporting a product, according to the United States
Geological Survey (USGS). Water is also used in petroleum refineries, smelting
facilities, and chemical, paper, and food manufacturing businesses. Water is utilized
extensively in the production of chemicals, food, and paper (Industrial Water | Other
Uses of Water | Healthy Water | CDC, n.d.)
4. Waste Water
As a by-product of industrial or commercial activity, industrial water and wastewater
68
are produced. Whether it's the food we eat or the products we buy, water is required
at every stage of manufacturing in a variety of sectors. The wastewater generated must
be properly monitored and treated.
5. Agriculture
Agricultural water is utilized to grow fresh crops, produce, and keep cattle alive.
Agricultural water allows us to grow fruits and vegetables as well as raise cattle, which
is an important element of our food. Irrigation, pesticide and fertilizer treatments, crop
cooling (e.g., light irrigation), and frost control all consume agricultural water
(Agricultural Water | Other Uses of Water | Healthy Water | CDC, n.d.)
6. Thermoelectricity/Energy
Water is utilized in the process of generating electricity in thermoelectric power plants
using steam-driven turbine generators. The cooling system has been synchronized
with thermoelectric-power withdrawals since 2000. Once-through cooling refers to
cooling systems that circulate water through heat exchangers before returning it to the
source. Recirculating cooling refers to cooling systems that circulate water via heat
exchangers, cool it with towers or ponds, and then circulate it again. Water
withdrawals for a recirculating system might be utilized later to replenish water lost
due to evaporation, blowdown, leakage, or drift. Thermoelectric-power withdrawals
were recorded with the fuel type before to 2000 (nuclear, geothermal, and fossil-fuel).
For thermoelectric power cooling water sources, saline and fresh water from both
surface-water and groundwater sources can be employed. Treated wastewater is a
valuable source of water for thermoelectric power plants, particularly in areas where
additional water is required for plant operations (Kohli & Frenken, 2011).
4.3.1.3 Water properties

Water is essential for the survival of all living things. Many of its physical and
chemical characteristics are unusual. For water in its three phases: vapor, liquid, and
ice, at least nine different types of ice have been observed. The liquid phase is the most
crucial when it comes to biological processes.
69
Table 8 Some properties of water (Eisenberg, D., Kauzmann, W., & Kauzmann, W. (2005).... - Google
Scholar, n.d.)
S.no. Property Water

1. Formula H2O
2. Molecular weight (g mol–1) 18
3. Density (kg L–1) 0.998
4. Boiling point (K) 373
5. Molecular volume (nm3) 0.0299
6. Volume of fusion (nm3) 0.0027
7. Liquid density maximum (K) 277
8. Specific heat (JK–1 g–1) or (JK–1mol–1) 4.18 or 75.2
9. Heat of vaporization (kJ g–1) or (kJ mol–1) 2.3 or 41.4
10. Surface tension (mN m–1) 72.8
11. Viscosity (µPa s) 1002
12. Dielectric constant 78.6
13. Dipole moment (Cm × 1030)a 6.01
4.3.1.4 Grey water treatment techniques
4.3.1.4.1 Green Technology

A layer of vegetation that is planted on top of a waterproofing system put on a level
or slightly sloped roof or vertical wall.
Following are the types of green technology:
4.3.1.4.1.1 Green Roof

This is a Natural Treatment Process which uses different plants like Papyrus, Canna,
Typha etc. on roofs of a building planted on different beds. When grey water flows
into them, they adsorb excessive nutrients, viruses, bacteria, metals etc. that are
harmful for humans.
70
Figure 4.8: Green Roof Technology (Xu et al., n.d.)
4.3.1.4.1.2 Living Wall
Figure 4.9: Green Roof and living wall (Pradhan et al., n.d.)
71
4.3.1.4.2 Sand Filtration
Sand filters, which use different layers of sand and gravels to purify water, are used
as a phase in the water treatment process.
Figure 4.10: Sand and gravel filtration (Kiemde et al., 2018)
i. The first treatment procedure entails particle retention by the filter material as
well as cleaning processes caused by biological activity in the biofilm on the
sand or gravel.
ii. Reed plants may also be used to avoid clogging.
4.3.1.4.2 Types of sand filtration

a. Vertical system
When the greywater outflow is 90 cm above the ground, this device is used.
The sand and gravel must be stacked in the following order:
i. 20 cm gravel dispersion layer (8–20 mm grain size).
ii. A filter layer of at least 600 mm of sand (0–4 mm) is required.
iii. 20 cm gravel drainage layer (8–20 mm grain size).
72
Figure 4.11: Vertical Sand Filter (Keraita et al., 2008)
b. Horizontal system
i. In this situation, the water is flowing horizontally through vertical gravel and
stone layers rather than vertically through the filter.
ii. Slope of 2% per length is given
iii. Sand is not used in this case but evenly sized gravels
Construction:
1. The gravel and stones have to be arranged in vertical layers:
2. Distribution layer of 0.2 m of stones (50 - 100 mm of grain size) and 0.1 m of
3. coarse gravel of 10 - 30 mm grain size.
4. Filter media comprising uniformly sized washed Gravel (6–10 mm).
5. Drainage layer consisting of 0.1 m coarse gravel and 0.2 m stones
73
Figure 4.12: Horizontal Sand Filter (Huhn, L. (2015). Greywater Treatment in Sand and... -
Google Scholar, n.d.)
4.3.1.4.3 Charcoal Filtration

Carbon filters are good at reducing unpleasant tastes, smells, and other particles in
water because they are extremely porous and have a huge surface area.
4.3.1.4.4 Combination of Sand, Charcoal and Gravel

This combination serves as a complete purification of grey water.
Figure 4.13: Charcoal filtration setup (Siong et al.,

n.d.)
i. Gravel: Large debris, such as twigs, leaves, and bugs, are

caught in the gravel layer.
ii. Sand: It traps tiny particles like dirt and grit, making the
74
water appear clean.
iii. Charcoal: It eliminates microorganisms as well as certain
pollutants.
Figure 4.194: Sand and charcoal filter (Khayan et al., n.d.)
4.3.2 Water quality testing

Spectrophotometer is used to measure following
parameters in water sample:
1. COD
2. Phosphate
3. Sulphate
4. Nitrate
Figure 4.20: Spectrophotometer
5. TSS
75
4.3.2.1 Water Test Procedures:
Following tests were conducted to measure the quality of grey water
4.3.2.1.1 pH:
Water has a pH range of 0 to 14. Water with a pH of 7.0 is considered neutral,
while water with a pH of less than 7.0 is acidic and water with a pH of more
than 7.0 is basic. Most plants thrive in a slightly acidic environment, with a
pH range of 5 to 7. A pH meter was used to determine the pH of grey water.
Figure 4.23:
pH Meter
4.3.2.1.2 Phosphorus (P)
Phosphorus levels in groundwater and unpolluted surface waters are typically quite
low, less than 1 ppm. Higher amounts usually indicate contamination from manure or
fertilizer runoff. Deficits in other nutrients may occur at levels higher than 5 ppm.
Procedure:
1. Prepare a combining reagent of 50 ml solution for 8 ml sample
2. To prepare combining reagent add 25ml of H2SO4, 2.5ml of Antimony
Potassium Titrate, 7.5ml of Ammonium Molybdate, and 15ml of Ascorbic
Acid.
3. Add 8ml grey water sample and wait for 10 minutes
4. Take reading from spectrophotometer
4.3.2.1.3 TSS (Total suspended solids):

TSS refers to particles in the water column that are greater than 2 microns in diameter.
A dissolved solid is defined as any particle less than 2 microns. Suspended solids are
mostly made up of inorganic components, however algae and bacteria can also
contribute to total solids concentrations.
4.3.2.1.4 Nitrate-Nitrogen (NO3-)

Nitrogen is an important plant nutrient found in water, and it can help with irrigation.
Surface waterways and human consumption are more concerned about nitrate-
nitrogen in water.
Wastewater discharged into surface waters or streams from nurseries or greenhouses
76
should be less than 10 parts per million. For most crops, however, a range of 50 to 150
ppm is suitable for fertigation.
Procedure:
1. Add Aluminum foil pillow packet in 10 ml grey water sample.
2. stir the solution till the powder is mixed.
3. Take reading from spectrophotometer.
4.3.2.1.5 COD (chemical oxygen demand):

COD is a metric for the quantity of oxygen that can be
consumed during reactions in a given solution. It's a
proportion between the mass of oxygen utilised and
the volume of the solution. Parts per million (ppm) or
milligrammes per litre (mg/L) are the SI units. The
COD test can effectively determine the amount of
Figure 4.26: Apparatus for COD
organics in water.
Procedure:
1. Add 2ml sample of grey water in a 0-1500 mg/l vial containing
a mixture of K2Cr2O7+H2SO4.
2. Place the vial in a preheated COD reactor for 120 minutes at
150oC.
3. After reaction allow the vial to cool in ambient air till it reaches
room temperature.
4. Take readings from spectrophotometer.
Figure 4.27:
Chemical for
COD
4.3.2.1.6 Calcium and Magnesium (Hardness):
Water hardness refers to the amount of dissolved calcium and magnesium in the water.
In hard water, there are a lot of dissolved minerals, mostly calcium and magnesium.
Hard water, on the other hand, has some advantages. Humans require minerals to live
a healthy life, and the World Health Organization (WHO) indicates that drinking water
may be a source of calcium and magnesium in the diet, and that it may be particularly
significant for those who are low in these elements.
77
Procedure:
Calculation of Calcium
1. Take 25ml grey water sample.
2. Add 1ml Calcium buffer solution.
3. Add Calcium indicator (small amount).
4. Pink color will appear.
5. Titrate with EDTA (Ethylenediamine tetra acetic acid)
6. Titrate till the pink color changes from pink to purple and then to blue shade.
7. Calculate the value by using below formula:
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑥𝑥 0.01 𝑥𝑥 40 𝑥𝑥 1000

Amount of Calcium (ppm) =
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
7 𝑥𝑥 0.01 𝑥𝑥 40 𝑥𝑥 1000
=
25
= 112 ppm
Calculation of Hardness
1. Take 25ml grey water sample.
2. Add 1ml Hardness buffer solution.
3. Add Hardness indicator (small amount).
4. Pink color will appear.
5. Titrate with EDTA (Ethylenediamine tetra acetic acid)
6. Titrate till the pink color changes from pink to purple and then to blue shade.
7. Calculate the value by using below formula:
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑥𝑥 0.01 𝑥𝑥 100 𝑥𝑥 1000

Amount of Hardness (ppm) =
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
6.298 𝑥𝑥 0.01 𝑥𝑥 100 𝑥𝑥 1000
=
25
= 251.92 ppm
Calculation of Magnesium
Magnesium (ppm) = (Hardness – Calcium) x 0.243
= (251.92 - 112) x 0.243
= 34.00056 ppm
78
4.3.2.1.7 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
TDS (Total Dissolved Solids) is a measurement of all
dissolved compounds in water. TDS and water conductivity
are highly connected, and a conversion factor of around 640 is
frequently used to forecast TDS from known conductivity,
which is easier to measure. TDS levels more than 2,000 ppm
are highly likely to cause plant development difficulties. High
TDS waters, like conductivity difficulties, would require
sophisticated treatment or dilution before being used for Figure 4.30: TDS of grey
water
irrigation.
4.3.2.1.8 Electrical Conductivity (EC or Soluble Salts)

Rooting function and growth media may be harmed by high conductivity levels in
water, resulting in nutrient and water uptake imbalances. Typical clean water has a
conductivity of 0 to 0.6 mmhos/cm. The conductivity of fertigation solutions varies
depending on the amount of salt and fertiliser used, although it usually falls between
1.5 and 2.5 mmhos/cm. Raw water before fertiliser inputs must be less than 1
mmhos/cm for plugs and less than 1.5 mmhos/cm for other growing situations to avoid
salt concerns. Many plants will suffer severe growth consequences if the raw water
conductivity exceeds 3 mmhos/cm.
4.3.2.1.9 Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR)

SAR is a method for determining the relative concentrations of sodium, magnesium,
and calcium in irrigation water, as well as a valuable indicator of the water's propensity
to harm soil permeability and structure. Plants are generally considered to be quite
safe if the SAR value is less than 2.0, especially if the sodium concentration is less
than 50 ppm.
4.3.2.1.10 Carbonate and Bicarbonate

Bicarbonate and carbonate in water can be easily determined by titrating a known
volume of water against standard H2SO4 using methyl orange and phenolphthalein
indicators, respectively. When a drop of phenolphthalein is dropped in water, the pink
color formed will indicate the presence of carbonates. In good quality water, usually
79
pink color will not appear, as carbonates are not present (Bhawan & Park, 2015)
4.3.2.2 Water Test Results

Some of the tests were conducted in the NEDUET Environmental Engineering
Laboratory and some in PCSIR Complex. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization)
standards were taken as standard.
The results are as follows:
Table 9: Results of Greywater Tests
Name of Tests Results Standard Values
pH 7.5 6.5 – 8.4
Phosphate (ppm) 0.04 0-2
Total Suspended Solids (TSS) (ppm) 7 < 50
Nitrate (ppm) 1.4 0 - 10
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) (ppm) 32 < 75
Calcium (Ca) (ppm) 112 0 – 400
Magnesium (Mg) (ppm) 34 < 100
Carbonate (CO3) (ppm) Not detected 0–3
Bicarbonate (HCO3) (ppm) 219 0 – 610
Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) 0.8 0–3
Sodium (Na) (ppm) 40 0 - 920
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) (ppm) 380 < 450
Electrical Conductivity (EC) (mS/cm) 0.78 <3
80
4.3.3 Grey water quantity Estimation
Following is the total greywater consumption of Jamia Ashraf ul Madaris, Karachi,
Pakistan.
4.3.3.1 Jamia (Dar ul Kutub)

Total Number of Students in Jamia = 1,200
(Resident/Hosteller Students = 900, Day Scholar Students = 300)
Total Number of Staff in Jamia = 244
(Resident Staff members = 12, Non-Resident Staff members = 232)
The Grey water consists of Ablution Water, Dish wash (Hostel canteen) and Laundry
(Cloth washing) etc.
A. Consumption of Greywater by performing ABLUTION

Since, Hosteller and resident Staff members perform wudu five times in a day in Jamia
and Nonresident students & faculty members perform wudu only two times in a
particular day.
Also, according to terms and conditions, only 40% of the people (Students and staff
members (both resident and nonresident) perform Wudu in Jamia.
According to experimental results performed by ourselves also from research study
that anyone individually performs wudu consuming 3-liter water.
Therefore, Daily Consumption of ablution water will be

= [{(No. of resident (students + staff) × No. of times of performing wudu) +
(No. of nonresident (students + staff) × No. of times of performing wudu)} × Water
consumed by individual × percent people performing wudu in Jamia]
= [{(900 + 12) × 5 + (300 + 232) × 2} × 3 × 40%]
= 6,748.8 liters/day ≈1,484.5 GPD (GPD= Imperial Gallons per day)
Daily Consumption of Ablution water in Jamia = 6,748.8 liters ≈ 1,484.5 GPD
B. Consumption of Greywater by DISH WASH

Since, Resident Students and Staff enjoy meals 3 times in a day while nonresidents
serve only one time (Lunch).
81
According to research studies, in order to wash a single plate 0.7 liters of water is
consumed.
So, daily consumption of grey water by Dish wash will be
= [{(No. of resident (students + staff) × No. of times serving meal) + (No. of
nonresident (students + staff) × No. of times serving meal)} × Water consumed per
dish wash]
= [{(900+12) × 3) + ((300+232) × 1)} × 0.7]
= 2,287.6 liters/day
Daily Dish wash consumption of water in Jamia = 2,287.6 liters ≈ 503.2 GPD
C. Consumption of Greywater by Laundry (Clothes Washing)

According to ground reality, only Hosteller Students and resident staff members wash
their clothes in Jamia, such that individuals wash their clothes after one day's break.
(i.e., 50% resident students wash their clothes on a particular day while the rest of 50%
washes the next adjacent day).
Also, according to research studies, in order to wash an individual's clothes 20 liters

of water is consumed.
So, daily consumption of water by Laundry will be
= Total number of resident (Students + Staff) × Percent person wash their

clothes in particular day × water consumed per suit
= (900+12) × 50% × 20
= 9,120 liters/day
Daily consumption of water for Laundry in Jamia = 9,120 liters ≈ 2006.12 GPD
Hence, Total Consumption of greywater in Jamia on daily basis will be
= Daily consumption of (ablution water + Dish wash + laundry)
= 6,784.8 + 2,287.6 + 9,120
= 18,156.4 liters/day
Hence, Total Consumption of greywater in Jamia in one day = 18,156.4 liters ≈
82
3,993.8 GPD ≈ 641.1872 Cubic foot/day.
Greywater Tank Sizing (For Jamia)
On the basis of daily consumption of Greywater from Jamia, we will design two
storage grey water tanks and parabolic sieve for recycling purposes. Then later on we
will use recycled water for gardening and in flesh tanks regularly.
So, we will size tank such that it can store daily consumption of grey water, the
parameter volume of individual tank will be
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽
Volume of Tank =
2
641.1872
=
2
= 320.6 Cubic foot

Hence, the dimension of individual tank will be 320.6 ft3 (1996.96 ≈ 2,000 GPD)
So, we can store 4,000 GPD greywater from Jamia on a daily basis for reuse purposes.
4.3.3.2 Jamia Masjid Ashraf

Counting the worshippers who perform the ablution in each of five prayers times for
one week (i.e., counting the worshippers using CCTV cameras) and determining the
water quantity consumed by one worshipper during the ablution were used to
determine the daily greywater produced from Jamia Masjid Ashraf in Johar Karachi.
Daily greywater consumption in Jamia Masjid (during holidays of Jamia’s Students)
will be
Q1 = n × q …………………………………… (1)
Where,
Q1 = Daily greywater quantity consumed in Jamia (Liter/day)
n = Average number of worshippers that performed the ablution a day
(persons/day)
q = Average quantity for one worshipper (Liter/person)
In order to find the daily quantity of greywater consumption (Q1), first we find the
average number of worshipers that perform the ablution a day (n) by using the data of
the number of people counted five times a day for one week as below.
83
Table 10: No. of worshipper that performed ablution in Jamia Masjid Ashraf
Day/Date Prayer times Total
(Particular day)
Fajr Duhr Asr Maghrib Isha’a
Mon./5-4 28 130 153 152 119 582
Tue./6-4 16 141 131 119 110 517
Wed./7-4 31 99 118 106 92 446
Thu. /8-4 21 124 106 131 95 477
Fri./9-4 21 423 130 153 121 848 (N)
Sat./10-4 24 163 140 128 105 560
Sun./11-4 42 192 155 158 150 697
⅀ total (Particular Week) 4127
Average worshippers’ number that performed the ablution (n)

⅀ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 (𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊) 4127
n= = = 589.57 ≈ 590 persons/day
7 7
So, average number of worshippers that perform the Wudu on a daily basis is 590
persons.
But, using FOS we consider the number of worshippers performing wudu in a day
approximately equal to the number of people performing wudu on Friday (let say N).
i.e., Average worshippers’ number that performed the ablution (n= N) = 848
persons/day.
And FOS calculated as
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 (𝑁𝑁)
FOS =
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝑛𝑛′ )
848
=
590
FOS = 1.43
Hence, we concluded that under consideration of FOS, Average No. of worshippers

that performed ablution on daily basis in Jamia Masjid are (n) 848 persons.
And now for “q” Average quantity for one worshipper (Liter/person)
According to experimental results performed by ourselves also from research study

that anyone individual performs ablution consuming 3-liter water.
i.e., q = Average quantity for one worshipper (Liter/person) = 3 Liter/person.
84
So, daily greywater consumption in Jamia Masjid (Q1) will be
Eq.1 → Q1 (Liter/day) = n (persons/day) × q (persons/day)
Q1 (Liter/day) = 848(persons/day) × 3(Liter/person)
Q1 (Liter/day) = 2544 Liter/day = 559.6 GPD ≈ 560 GPD
Hence, daily grey water consumption in Masjid e Ashraf (during holidays of Jamia’s
Students and staff) is 2544 Liter/day or 560 Gallons per day.
Also, 60% of the Jamia Students and Staff members performed ablution in Masjid,
above counted daily average No. of worshippers that performed ablution during the
period of holidays in Jamia, so rest of holidays 60% students and staff members
perform ablution in Masjid.
Therefore, Daily Consumption of ablution water (by Jamia Students and Staffs in
Masjid during working period) (Q 2) will be
Q2 = [{(No. of resident (students + staff) × No. of times of performing
wudu) + (No. of nonresident (students + staff) × No. of times of
performing wudu)} × Water consumed by individual × percent people
performing wudu in Jamia]
Q2 = [{(900 +12) × 5 + (300 + 232) × 2} × 3 × 60%]
Q2 = 10123.2 liters/day = 2,226.7 GPD ≈ 2,227GPD (GPD= Imperil
Gallons per day)
So, daily consumption of ablution water (by Jamia Students and Staffs in Masjid
during working period) is 10123.2 liters/day = 2,226.7 GPD ≈ 2,227GPD
Now, total daily average consumption of greywater in Jamia Masjid (Q) will be
Q (liter/day) = Q1 (liter/day) + Q2 (liter/day)
Q (liter/day) = 2544 + 10123.2 or
Q (GPD) = 560 + 2,227
Q (liter/day) = 12,667.2 liter/day or
Q (GPD) = 2,787 GPD
Hence, Total daily average consumption of greywater in Jamia Masjid is 12,667.2
85
liter/day ≈ 2,787 GPD or 447.33 cubic feet.
Greywater Tank Sizing (For Masjid):

On the basis total daily average consumption of greywater in Jamia Masjid, we will
design a storage grey water tank and parabolic sieve for recycling purposes. Then later
on we will use recycled water for gardening/irrigation purposes.
So, we will size tank such that it can store daily consumption of grey water, the
parameter/volume of individual tank will be
Volume of Tank = total volume of daily average consumption of grey water in Jamia
Masjid
Volume of Tank = 447.33 cubic feet.

Hence, the dimension of tank will be 447.33 Cubic feet (2,787 GPD)
So, we can store 2,787 GPD grey water from Jamia Masjid Ashraf on a daily basis for
reuse purposes.
4.3.4 Sieve and tank design

Recommended Parabolic Sieve Design
1. Using parabolic sieve/screen can filter the solid particles
2. Parabolic design of sieve allows that the waste solid don’t block the entire
sieve. The pressure applied by water on sieve also reduces.
3. As a result, water flow doesn’t find hindrances and can easily be passed
4. Sieve can be cleaned easily and all the waste can be extracted from the bottom
side of the sieve end.
5. The side-hill screen aids in successful liquid stripping, allowing solids removal
of particles in the 0.002–0.006-inch (50–155 micron) range, and preventing
screen blinding or plugging.
GW Tank Specifications
1. Volume of each tank = 300ft3 or 1870 gallons.
2. Number of tanks = 4 (2 in Masjid & 2 in Jamia).
3. Total Volume = 7480 gal
86
Figure 4-20: 3-D design of Sieve on Solidworks-2021
Figure 4-21: Sectioned view of sieve on Solidworks-2021
87
Figure 4-22: Grey water reuse system 2-D diagram
Figure 4-22: 3-D design of grey water storage and delivery system (Orthographic view)
88
Figure 4-23 Isometric view of grey water storage and delivery system.
4.4 Conclusion and results (achievements)

After a thorough study and experimentation, we conclude that;
1. By Using water efficient Masjid Cock, we will be able to conserve

390367.5 gallons of water annually and save Rupees 4 lac. Hence,
we will get 3208.5 gallons/day of (recyclable) grey water for
gardening.
2. After a comparative analysis we found that Masjid cock has the
minimum payback period that is 64 days.
3. The efficiency of these taps is 25%
4. After testing of grey water produced at Jamia Ashraf ul Madaris, we
conclude that the ablution water produced there can be used in
plantation purposes. The results of sample of grey water of Jamia lie
under the limits set by the world health organization and FAO
standards.
5. We will get 3208.5 gallons/day of (recyclable) grey water for
gardening
6. Annually 1,171,103 gallons of grey water will be conserved and
Rupees 1,171,103/= will be saved
89
Chapter 5
PhotozVoltaicaSystem
5.1 Introduction
The global energy demand is constantly increasing. Previously, nonrenewable energy
sources such as coal, oil, and gas were used to meet the majority of energy demand.
However, in recent years, they have been disappearing at a quicker rate. As a result,
scientists and researchers are attempting to identify other methods to meet the essential
energy demand. Solar, wind, biomass, and other renewable energy sources are
economical and pollution-free options for supplying green energy to a variety of loads.
Solar and wind power are two of the most important renewable energy sources in the
world. Solar energy, on the other hand, is the most popular renewable energy source
due to its widespread availability and potential for a wide range of power uses. Using
solar energy during peak load hours reduces the need for on-site generators. As a
result, the focus of current research has shifted to grid-connected solar photovoltaic
systems. For grid-tied PV systems, synchronization with utilities and power quality
issues such as voltage/current harmonics, reactive power remittance, voltage
fluctuating, and voltage regulations are key concerns (Oliveira et al., 2016; Ray et al.,
2017; Singh et al., 2017; Verma et al., n.d.).
5.2 Background
Edmund Becquerel, a French physicist, first recognized the photovoltaic effect, the
physical process that converts light to energy, in 1839. When in a poor conducting
solution one of two identical electrodes was irradiated, Becquerel noticed a voltage.
In the 1870s, the PV effect was initially investigated in solids such as selenium. In the
1880s, selenium photovoltaic cells were developed that converted light to electricity
at a rate of 1% to 2% efficiency. Selenium changes light in the visible part of the sun's
spectrum, which is why it was swiftly adopted for photometric (light-measuring)
devices by the then-emerging field of photography. Even in cameras today, selenium
is employed in light-sensitive cells to adjust shutter speed to match illumination.
Selenium cells have never been practical as energy converters due to their expensive
cost compared to the small quantity of power they produce (at 1 percent efficiency).
In the meantime, research into the physics of PV phenomena has progressed. Quantum
mechanics created the theoretical groundwork for our current understanding of PV in
90
the 1920s and 1930s. In the 1940s and early 1950s, a method for generating highly
pure crystalline silicon (known as the Czochralski method) was invented, which
marked a significant advancement in solar-cell technology. A silicon photovoltaic cell
with a 4 percent efficiency was developed at Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1954.
Bell Labs quickly improved this to 6% and then 11% efficiency, ushering in an
altogether new era of power generation.
Figure 5.4: One day every home will be able to meet at least some of its electric needs using
photovoltaics mounted on the roof
In the 1950s, a few commercial systems for silicon PV cells were tried. The majority
of the cells were for areas that were geographically separated from electric utility lines.
However, an unanticipated surge in PV technology came from an unexpected source.
The US Vanguard space satellite's radio was powered by a modest (less than one-watt)
array of cells in 1958. The cells performed so well that space experts believed PV may
be a viable power source for a variety of missions in orbit. Since then, the development
of solar cell technology has been a part of NASA's space mission. Aside from the
space programme, the transistor industry made a significant contribution to solar-cell
technology. Transistors and PV cells are built of comparable materials, and many of
the same basic principles govern their operation.
Photovoltaic systems nowadays can convert 1 kw of solar energy falling on 1 m2 into
91
around 100 watts of power. Most domestic items like a stereo, a television, a lamp or
an electric typewriter can be powered by 100 watts. In reality, conventional solar cells
covering a normal home's sun-facing roof space may provide about 8500 kwh of
power per year, which is about the average household's yearly electricity use. A PV
power source for a contemporary 200-ton electric-arc steel furnace, which requires
50,000 kilowatts of electricity, would require roughly 1 km2 of land (Hersch &
Zweibel, 1982)
5.3 Working Principle

A solar cell is just a p-n junction diode that absorbs light energy (photons) and
produces charge carriers. Breaking the covalent bond requires a substantial quantity
of energy. The working principle of a solar cell consists of two steps: the first is the
creation of electron-hole pairs by absorbing solar energy, and the second is charge
separation utilizing a voltage gradient inside the cell. Precisely working principle of
solar PV includes absorption of light, production of charges, and transit of free ions
(“Comprehensive Approach to Modeling and Simulation of Photovoltaic Arrays,”
n.d.).
The amount of energy absorbed from solar radiation is given as
E = hc/λ …………………………. (1)
Where, E = Energy absorbed in electron-volt (ev),

h = Planks constant (6.62 × 10-27 erg-sec),
c = Velocity of light (3 × 108 m/s), and
λ = Wavelength of light radiations
5.4 Mathematical Modeling

In the literature, there are a variety of solar cell equivalent circuit models. In most
simulations, two-diode and single-diode models are taken into consideration. Because
of its simplicity and precision, the single-diode model is more prevalent. Thevenin's
or Norton's equivalent is commonly used to illustrate the equivalent circuit of a solar
cell (Bellia et al., 2014). Although the ideal diode model has no resistance in series or
parallel, it is difficult to eliminate these resistances since they affect the PV module's
efficiency (Ding et al., n.d.; Lun et al., n.d.). Thevenin's equivalent circuit of a solar
92
cell of single diode as shown in figure 5.2, which includes a photon current source, an
anti-parallel diode, and resistances (series and parallel resistances).
Figure 5.5: Single-diode Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit of Solar Cell
Apply Kirchhoff’s current law at node A.
Ipv = Iph − ID − Ip ………………………………... (2)

Where,
Ipv = Output PV current
Iph = Photocurrent
Ip = Current through shunt/parallel resistance
ID = Current through diode
Now, the theory of semiconductors in non-ideal conditions gives current via a
diode as
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞
ID = IO [exp ( ) – 1] ………………………...... (3)
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Where,
Io = Reverse saturation current through diode
Vd = Voltage across diode
Also,
Vd = Vpv + Ipv Rs …………….…………………... (4)
When photo voltaic are wired in series, they all carry the same current, and at any
given current their voltages add.
Overall module voltage will be
93
Vpv = n(Vd - Ipv R)
Therefore Eq (3) becomes

𝑞𝑞 ( 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 )
ID = IO [exp ( ) – 1] ……………. (5)
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
Where,
Vpv = Output voltage of PV or voltage imposed on diode
q = Electric Charge
K = Boltzmann constant (1.38 × 10-23 J/K)
A = Ideality factor which depends on PV cell construction
T = Cell temperature
n= No of PV cells connected in series
The output current for a practical circuit with both resistances is represented by
Equation (7).
Since, from Eq (2)
Ipv = Iph - ID-Ip
𝑞𝑞 ( 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 ) ( 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 )
Ipv = Iph - IO [exp ( ) – 1] - ( ) …. (6)
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
Iterative approaches can be used to solve the above nonlinear and intrinsic equation.
In the characterizing equation of a solar cell, there are a total of five factors that are
affected directly or indirectly by sun irradiation and ambient temperature.
Only a few experimental data points, such as open circuit voltage, short circuit current,
voltage at MPP, current at MPP, and maximum power under Standard Test Conditions
(STC), are usually provided by manufacturers.
Typically, the practical system's operating circumstances differ from the STC.
As a result, in the creation of a PV array, the calculations of these five parameters
mentioned are crucial (Ding et al., n.d.).
At short circuit conditions, the slope becomes nearly zero when I-V characteristics are
taken into account. Parallel resistance (Rp) is supposed to have an infinite value.
Equation (6) last term becomes 0 in this case, and photocurrent (Iph) is assumed to be
94
a short circuit current (Isc).
𝑞𝑞 ( 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 )
Ipv = Isc − IO [exp ( ) – 1] ………... (7)
The researchers' assumptions are used to determine the parameters (Ishaque et al.,
n.d.; Rahim et al., n.d.).
When circuit is open, Ipv = 0 and Vpv becomes the open circuit voltage (Voc).
Equation (7) becomes,

𝑞𝑞 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
0 = Isc − IO [exp ( ) – 1]
𝑞𝑞
Therefore, factor becomes equal to
Isc 1 𝑞𝑞
ln ( + 1) × = …………………………... (8)
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
Isc
Now, putting equation (8) in (7) and substituting k = , we get
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝑘𝑘+1 1
Ipv= Isc [1- ( 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 ) - ) ………………... (9)
𝑘𝑘 ×𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑘𝑘
Commonly, the value of k is larger because the Isc >> Io, so ignoring some terms of
equation (9) for simplifications (Ding et al., n.d.). Considering STP conditions for
calculation of reference value. So, Equation (9) can be modified as
k,ref 1
Ipv, ref = Isc, ref [ 1− ( 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝, 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 + 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝, 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ) + ] …... (8)
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉, 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑘𝑘
All of the quantities in the preceding equation are given as STP reference values. All
additional parameters at STP are used to derive the k,ref coefficient.
IMPP,ref 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉,𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
k,ref = ( ) ………………. (9)
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼,𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉,𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟−𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑣𝑣,𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟+𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ,𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
95
5.4.1 Impacts of Temperature and Insolation on PV System
Environmental elements such as temperature, irradiance, pressure, humidity, wind,
etc. greatly influence the PV properties. A solar PV system's output is influenced by
irradiance and temperature, respectively (Chouder et al., n.d.). Increased solar
intensity or energy loss in the photovoltaic process causes the solar cell temperature
to rise. When temperature rises, the output of the PV system Voc reduces and Ipv of
the system increases. Therefore, temperature and irradiance must be taken into
consideration in PV modeling. The term NOCT, which stands for nominal operating
cell temperature, is used to account for cell temperature. When the ambient
temperature is 20°C, solar irradiance is 0.8KW/m2, and wind speed is 1 m/s, the
NOCT is the cell temperature in a module (Rheinland et al., n.d.).
The following expression can be used to account for different ambient conditions
(Masters, 2013).
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁−20
Tcell = Tamb + ( ) × 𝑆𝑆
0.8
Where, S is Solar insolation/irradiance

Temperature adjusted power is given by (Masters, 2013)
PT, DC = Pmax (1 - CT (Tcell - 25))
5.5 PV System Types

Clean, eco-friendly, and reliable, photovoltaic technology can create electricity.
Photovoltaic (PV) systems are made up of photovoltaic (PV) cells, which are devices
that convert sunlight directly into electric power. From "photo" meaning light and
"volt" meaning electricity, derives the name photovoltaic. It is therefore a process “to
produce electricity directly from sunshine" with photovoltaic. It's common to refer to
photovoltaic as PV. Different configurations of PV system are given below.
96
5.5.1 Off-Grid Solar PV System
When there is no grid in a remote place or when the utility power prices are exorbitant,
such a solar system may be used. Here, the solar panels act like a utility business,
supplying electricity to one's home or any other energy-dependent system that relies
on solar power. These systems demand more care and maintenance, but they can
provide a great sense of freedom, as one is no longer at risk of a utility grid power
outage while using an off-grid system. This type of system does not use the main grid
at all, as the solar energy is generated and consumed at the same location. Simple
schematic of an off-grid solar PV system is shown in Figure 5-3.
Figure 5.6: Schematic of an Off-Grid Solar PV System
5.5.2 Grid-connected PV System

It's also known as a utility interactive system or an on-grid system. On-grid is used
only when the utility grid is up and running. For working of such kind of PV system,
it must also be plugged into a power source (grid). When the system is overproducing
power, it can transmit the excess power back to the utility grid, so it can be saved for
later use. Moreover, it's one of the easiest to build and install, but there's a risk that it
won't work when the power goes off. The grid-connected PV system is shown in figure
5-4 in simplified schematic form.
97
Figure 5.7: Schematic of Grid connected Solar PV System
5.5.3 Hybrid Solar PV Systems

When the utility grid goes down or we are not linked to the grid, this technique allows
us to store solar electric power in batteries. They can even send extra power to the
utility system for later use. Grid-interactive systems supply electric power to counter
the grid's electricity whenever it shines. To illustrate the interactive solar PV system,
see Figure 5-5 (Al Dulaimi, N. H., & Alkhalidi, D. A. (2017). Design... - Google
Scholar, n.d.).
Figure 5.8: Schematic of a Hybrid PV System
98
5.5.4 Directly Connected to the load
Using a DC motor, the electrical energy produced by the PV panels is used to power
any device/component, such as a pump for water delivery, in this system, as shown
below.
Figure 5. 9: Schematic of directly connected to the load
5.6 Designing of On-grid PV System (Net Metering)
5.6.1 Net metering

The electricity policy of net-metering allows utility consumers to offset their
electricity usage with solar power generated by their own PV systems (Mitscher et al.,
n.d.). In net-metering energy meter spin and record both directions and quantity of
energy flow. When a customer draws electricity from the utility grid, i.e., consumes
more energy than they produce, it will begin to spin backward, and it will continue to
do so until the customer stops consuming power (Darghouth et al., n.d.; energy &
2013, n.d.). Customers are invoiced at the end of each month only for net electricity
consumption. Grid-connected systems are the only ones that can use net metering, and
the main benefit is that excess energy can be sold back to the utility at retail price
(Assessments & 2013, n.d.; Burns et al., n.d.). Producers that produce more energy
than they consume are rewarded with renewable energy credits (REC), which are
applied to the customer's account for the next billing cycle if the balance is positive.
Depending on the utility policy, a surplus at the end of the year can be paid to the
customer at the avoidance cost rate/retail cost rate, or the total REC collected can be
transferred and used as compensation for a possible negative balance in subsequent
years, or the total collected REC can be given back to the utility (Journal & 2003,
n.d.).
99
As demonstrated in figure. 1, the ac output of a grid-connected PV system is supplied
to house’s main electrical distribution panel, from where it can either give power to
the house or deliver power back to the grid. This arrangement, in which a single
electric meter runs in both directions, is called net metering.
Figure 5.10: During the day, the array's excess power is sold to the utility, whereas the utility
purchases the deficiency at night (Hassan et al., n.d.).
5.6.2 Jamia Ashraf ul Madaris 64 KW PV System Design
Figure 5.11: Annual Energy demand of Jamia (year 2020)
The annual Energy demand i.e., from January 2020 to December 2020 from Electricity
bill is:
E = 7173+3951+9788+0+10311+566+12065+10225+21063+21508+17146+12876
kWh/year
E = 126,672 kWh/year
100
The AC power required will be calculated by using:
Energy (kWh/year) = Pac (kW) x h/day@1-sun x 365 days/year
𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬
Pac =
𝐡𝐡/𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝@𝟏𝟏−𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝐱𝐱 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
For Karachi, hours of peak sun (h/day@1-sun) are 5.4 hrs. (Naqvi et al., 2022).
126,672
Pac =
5.4 x 365
Pac = 64.267 kW
Operating Cell temperature is calculated by:

𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁−20
Tcell = Tamb + ( )xS
0.8
From the Specification Chart of Solar Panel S = 1 KW/m2 and NOCT = 43℃
(ElECTRiCAl DATA | STC* CS6K 260P 265P 270P 275P, n.d.) and selecting the
value of Tamb =25℃ (Alvi et al., n.d.).
43−20
Tcell = 25 + ( )x1
0.8
Tcell = 53.75 ℃
Temperature de-rating efficiency will be calculated by:

Taking, Temperature coefficient = CT = 0.41%/℃ (ElECTRiCAl DATA | STC* CS6K
260P 265P 270P 275P, n.d.).
ηTD = 1 – CT (Tcell – 25)

ηTD = 1 – 0.0041 (53.75 – 25)
ηTD = 0.882
Assuming Efficiency due to,

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝜂𝜂𝑚𝑚 = 98%,
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝜂𝜂𝐷𝐷 = 99%, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 𝜂𝜂𝑐𝑐 = 95%
Therefore, overall/total efficiency is
101
ηTot = ηTD x ηm x ηD x ηc
ηTot = 0.882x 0.98 x 0.99 x 0.95
ηTot = 0.813
Now, DC power at STC is

𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷
PDC, STC =
𝛈𝛈𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓
64.267
PDC, STC =
0.813
PDC, STC = 79 KW or 79,000 W

Since,
PDC, STC = 1 kW/m2 x A x ηmod
From Specification Chart of 260Watt Canadian Solar Panel, ηmod = 16.16%

(ElECTRiCAl DATA | STC* CS6K 260P 265P 270P 275P, n.d.).
So, estimated area required will be
𝐏𝐏𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃,𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒 79000
A= = = 488.8 m2 (584.5 sq. yards)
𝛈𝛈𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦 ×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏/𝐦𝐦𝟐𝟐 0.1616×1
Therefore,
Number of panels required will be
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃,𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
Number of panels =
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
If Canadian solar panel of 260 Watt are selected, then
79000
Numbers of Panels = = 303.8 ≈ 304 panels
260
For net-metering for Jamia Asharaf ul Madaris, 304 panels of 260Watt can fulfill
the 126,672Kwh/year annual energy demand. If the roof area of 488.8 𝑚𝑚2 is
available.
102
5.7 PV Syst Report
PVSYST V6.81 05/09/21 Page 1/7
Grid-Connected System: Simulation parameters

Project : Green Building
Geographical Site Jamia Ashraf ul Madaris Country Pakistan
Situation Latitude 24.91° N Longitude 67.14° E
Time defined as Legal Time Time zone UT+5 Altitude 31 m
Albedo 0.20
Meteo data: Jamia Ashraf ul Madaris Meteonorm 7.2 (1981-1990) - Synthetic
Simulation variant : New simulation variant

Simulation date 05/09/21 19h58
Simulation for the 10th year of operation
Simulation parameters System type Sheds on ground

Collector Plane Orientation Tilt 25° Azimuth 0°
Sheds configuration Nb. of sheds 27 Identical arrays
Sheds spacing 5.00 m Collector width 2.02 m
Shading limit angle Limit profile angle 15.1° Ground cov. Ratio (GCR) 40.5 %
Models used Transposition Perez Diffuse Perez, Meteonorm

Horizon Free Horizon
Near Shadings Linear shadings
User's needs : Unlimited load (grid)
PV Array Characteristics
PV module Si-poly Model CS6K - 260P
Original PVsyst database Manufacturer Canadian Solar Inc.
Number of PV modules In series 23 modules In parallel 12 strings
Total number of PV modules Nb. modules 276 Unit Nom. Power 260 Wp
Array global power Nominal (STC) 71.8 kWp At operating cond. 64.4 kWp (50°C)
Array operating characteristics (50°C) U mpp 625 V I mpp 103 A
Total area Module area 452 m² Cell area 403 m²
Inverter Model CSI-66KTL-GS

Original PVsyst database Manufacturer Canadian Solar Inc.
Characteristics Operating Voltage 200-850 V Unit Nom. Power 66.0 kWac
Inverter pack Nb. of inverters 1 units Total Power 66 kWac
Pnom ratio 1.09
PV Array loss factors

Array Soiling Losses Loss Fraction 2.0 %
Thermal Loss factor Uc (const) 20.0 W/m²K Uv (wind) 0.0 W/m²K / m/s
Wiring Ohmic Loss Global array res. 102 mOhm Loss Fraction 1.5 % at STC
Module Quality Loss Loss Fraction -0.5 %
Module Mismatch Losses Loss Fraction 1.0 % at MPP
Strings Mismatch loss Loss Fraction 0.10 %
Module average degradation Year no 10 Loss factor 0.4 %/year
Mismatch due to degradation Imp RMS dispersion 0.4 %/year Vmp RMS dispersion 0.4 %/year
Incidence effect (IAM): User defined profile
10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90°
0.998 0.998 0.995 0.992 0.986 0.970 0.917 0.763 0.000
Spectral Correction FirstSolar model. Precipitable water estimated from relative humidity
Coefficient Set C0 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5
Polycrystalline Si 0.8409 -0.027539 -0.0079224 0.1357 0.038024 -0.0021218
103
PVSYST V6.81 05/09/21 Page 2/7
Grid-Connected System: Simulation parameters
Auxiliaries loss constant (fans) 0W ... from Power thresh. 0.0 kW
104
105
PVSYST V6.81 05/09/21 Page 4/7
Grid-Connected System: Main results

Main system parameters System type Sheds on ground

PV Field Orientation tilt 25° azimuth 0°
PV modules Model CS6K - 260P Pnom 260 Wp
PV Array Nb. of modules 276 Pnom total 71.8 kWp
Inverter Model CSI-66KTL-GS Pnom 66.0 kW ac
User's needs Unlimited load (grid)
Main simulation results

System Production Produced Energy 109.7 MWh/year Specific prod. 1529 kWh/kWp/year
Performance Ratio PR 76.70 %
Normalized productions (per installed kWp): Nominal power 71.8 kWp Performance Ratio PR
7 1.0
Lc : Collection Loss (PV-array losses) 1.2 kWh/kWp/day PR : Performance Ratio (Yf / Yr) : 0.767
0.9
Ls : System Loss (inverter, ...) 0.07 kWh/kWp/day
6
Yf : P roduce d usefu l energy (inverter output) 4 .19 kW h /kWp/d ay
0.8
[kWh/kWp/day]
5
0.7
Performance Ratio PR
0.6
4
Energy
0.5
3
0.4
Normalized
2 0.3
0.2
1
0.1
0 0.0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
New simulation variant

Balances and main results
GlobHor DiffHor T_Amb GlobInc GlobEff EArray E_Grid PR

kWh/m² kWh/m² °C kWh/m² kWh/m² MWh MWh
January 126.4 42.2 19.52 169.5 161.9 9.81 9.65 0.793

February 126.1 57.8 22.31 151.7 144.2 8.65 8.51 0.781
March 164.2 80.0 26.41 180.9 171.4 10.07 9.91 0.763
April 183.3 85.3 28.97 185.8 176.0 10.17 9.99 0.749
May 191.8 94.0 30.82 178.7 168.5 9.81 9.65 0.752
June 181.2 100.4 31.09 165.4 155.7 9.13 8.98 0.757
July 147.9 98.1 30.31 136.9 128.4 7.64 7.51 0.764
August 147.5 96.0 29.10 143.7 135.1 8.02 7.88 0.765
September 168.3 79.8 28.91 179.0 169.5 9.94 9.78 0.761
October 159.6 62.9 29.06 189.3 180.1 10.44 10.27 0.756
November 124.4 48.5 24.85 161.4 153.7 9.13 8.98 0.776
December 112.1 46.0 20.92 151.2 144.0 8.77 8.62 0.795
Year 1832.9 891.0 26.88 1993.7 1888.5 111.56 109.74 0.767
106
PVSYST V6.81 05/09/21 Page 5/7
Grid-Connected System: Special graphs


Daily Input/Output diagram
400
Values from 01/01 to 31/12
350
300
Energy injected into grid [kWh/day]
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Global incident in coll. plane [kWh/m².day]
System Output Power Distribution
3000
Values from 01/01 to 31/12
2500
Energy injected into grid [kWh / Bin]
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Power injected into grid [kW]
107
PVSYST V6.81 05/09/21 Page 6/7
Grid-Connected System: Loss diagram


Loss diagram over the whole year
1833 kWh/m² Horizontal global irradiation

+8.8% Global incident in coll. plane
-0.04% Global incident below threshold

-1.41% Near Shadings: irradiance loss
-1.97% IAM factor on global
-2.00% Soiling loss factor
1889 kWh/m² * 452 m² coll. Effective irradiation on collectors

efficiency at STC = 15.90% PV conversion
135.6 MWh Array nominal energy (at STC effic.)

-3.80% Module Degradation Loss ( for year #10)
-0.47% PV loss due to irradiance level
-12.01% PV loss due to temperature
+0.45% Spectral correction
+0.48% Module quality loss
-2.24% Mismatch loss, modules and strings

(including 1.1% for degradation dispersion
-1.05% Ohmic wiring loss
111.6 MWh Array virtual energy at MPP
-1.63% Inverter Loss during operation (efficiency)

0.00% Inverter Loss over nominal inv. power
0.00% Inverter Loss due to max. input current
0.00% Inverter Loss over nominal inv. voltage
-0.01% Inverter Loss due to power threshold
0.00% Inverter Loss due to voltage threshold
109.7 MWh Available Energy at Inverter Output
0.00% Auxiliaries (fans, other)

109.7 MWh Energy injected into grid
108
PVSYST V6.81 05/09/21 Page 7/7
Grid-Connected System: P50 - P90 evaluation


Evaluation of the Production probability forecast

The probability distribution of the system production forecast for different years is mainly dependent
on the meteo data used for the simulation, and depends on the following choices:
Meteo data source Meteonorm 7.2 (1981-1990)
Meteo data Kind Not defined Year 1995
Specified Deviation Year deviation from aver. 3%
Year-to-year variability Variance 0.5 %
The probability distribution variance is also depending on some system parameters uncertainties
Specified Deviation PV module modelling/parameters 1.0 %
Inverter efficiency uncertainty 0.5 %
Soiling and mismatch uncertainties 1.0 %
Degradation uncertainty 1.0 %
Global variability (meteo + system) Variance 1.9 % (quadratic sum)
Annual production probability Variability 2.1 MWh

P50 109.7 MWh
P90 107.1 MWh
P95 106.4 MWh
Probability distribution
0.50
0.45
P50 = 109739 kWh
0.40 E_Grid simul = 109739 kWh
0.35
0.30
Probability
0.25
0.20
P90 = 107107 kWh
0.15
0.10 P95 = 106366 kWh
0.05
0.00
102000 104000 106000 108000 110000 112000 114000 116000
E_Grid system production kWh
109
5.8 Conclusion
We found the annual electricity demand of Jamia Ashraful Madaris using K.E bills is
126,672 kWh/yr. To meet this demand, we designed an on-grid photo voltaic system
of 64 kW. The no of panels required are 304 each of 260W of Canadian Solar
occupying an area of 488.8m2 according to manual calculation. By using software
PVsyst. v6.81, the number of modules required are 276 each of 260W Canadian Solar
occupying an is of 452m2.
The difference in the values of both approaches is due to the assumptions taken.
110
Chapter 6
Carbon Footprint
6.1 Introduction
Worldwide warming is a truth that has evolved from a single scientific concern into a
whole range of political, economic, social, technological, environmental, and
ecological issues on a global scale (Michaels & Knappenberger, 1996). It becomes one
of humanity's most difficult issues. Global warming and a series of other issues have
piqued the international community's interest. A series of international conventions
have been signed, including the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (1992), the Kyoto Protocol (1997), the Bali Roadmap (2007), and the
Copenhagen Agreement (2009), all of which reflect the government's determination
and efforts in response to global warming. Countries have made pledges to emission
reductions and action plans based on a consensus. As a result, novel concepts such as
low-carbon economy, low-carbon city, low-carbon life, carbon trade, carbon tax, and
measures to minimize carbon emissions have become an essential global development
strategy (Gao et al., n.d.).
Global warming is exacerbated by the massive amount of carbon emissions produced
by human activity (Solomon et al., 2007). CO2 and other pollutants, such as particulate
matter (PM), are released when carbon-based fossil fuels are burned, contributing to
climate change (Grieshop et al., n.d.). Fossil fuels, such as oil, coal, and natural gas,
are the primary source of energy for enterprises and homes around the world. About
3/4 of carbon dioxide emissions, 1/5 of methane emissions, and a significant amount
of nitrous oxide emissions are attributed to the energy industry (Science & 2012, n.d.).
As a result, researchers, governments, and organizations are all working to identify a
low-carbon development route that will preserve the world from the effects of global
warming and its consequences in all aspects (Gao et al., n.d.).
6.2 Concept of Carbon Footprint

The term "carbon footprint" comes from the term "ecological footprint," which refers
to a measurement of human demand on the Earth's ecosystems. The "Carbon footprint"
is a measurement of the influence of human activities on the environment in terms of
111
greenhouse gas emissions, expressed in tons of carbon
dioxide. In addition, a carbon footprint is a
measurement of the quantity of carbon dioxide
released into the atmosphere as a result of the
combustion of fossil fuels. It is the quantity of CO2
emitted by a corporate organization, either directly or
indirectly, as a result of its daily operations. It could
also refer to the fossil represented in a product or
commodity that is about to hit the market. A 'Carbon
Footprint' is the total quantity of CO2 and other
greenhouse gases emitted by a process or product over
its entire life cycle. It is measured in grammes of CO2 Figure 6.1: Carbon foot print
components (What Is My Carbon
equivalent per kilowatt hour of generation Footprint and What Do I Do About
It? – The Spot, n.d.)
(gCO2eq/kWh), which takes into account the impacts
of other greenhouse gases on global warming (Wiedmann et al., n.d.).
The methodology for calculating the carbon footprint should be left out of the
definition. It is simply necessary that the approach meets the definition's conditions
satisfactorily (Ruževičius et al., n.d.).
According to estimates, energy accounts for over half of our carbon footprint, with
lighting accounting for 17%. We rely on electricity to meet a number of our daily
needs. Electricity can be generated using coal, gas, or nuclear power facilities, as well
as renewable energy sources such as geothermal, hydro, solar, and wind. The amount
of electricity utilized and its source are directly tied to a household's or individual's
carbon footprint. The grammes of CO2 equivalent created when 1 kwh of power is
generated from various sources is shown in Table 11. The majority of power is
generated by fossil-fuel-burning facilities, and if transmission and distribution losses
are factored in, each kwh of electricity consumed by a family is expected to emit 830
g of CO2 equivalents into the atmosphere (Green Productivity: The Carbon Footprint and
LED Lighting Technology, n.d.).
112
Table 11: Sources producing carbon dioxide (Green Productivity: The Carbon
Footprint and LED Lighting Technology, n.d.)
S.no. Source Grams of CO2 Produced

1. Coal 955
2. Oil 893
3. Natural Gas 650
4. Nuclear Energy 60
5. Hydropower 15
6. Solar Energy 40
6.3 Quantity of Carbon Footprint Reduced

The amount of CO2 reduced by different efficient practices are mentioned below:
6.3.1 Designing and installation of 64KW PV On-Grid system for Net metering
purposes
Since 319 more solar panels are added in order to fulfill the requirement for net
metering, before installation the amount of energy we buy from KE grid (as from
electricity bill the unit consumption for one year) is E.
i.e., The annual Energy demand from January 2020 to December 2020 from electricity
bill is
E=7173+3951+9788+0+10311+566+12065+10225+21063+21508+17146+12876
E = 126672 kWh/Year
So, 126672 kWh/Year energy produced by new PV system
Now, the amount of CO2 Produced while producing the E = 126672 kWh/Year by
fossil fuel burning plant
Since, 830g of CO2 is produced while production of 1kWh energy from fossil fuel
burning power plant.
i.e., 1 kWh = 830g of CO2

So,
126672 kWh/Year = 830 × 126672 g of CO2 per year
126672 kWh/Year = 105,137.76 kg of CO2 per year ≈ 105,138 kg of CO2 /year
113
Hence, 105,138 kg of CO2 produced while production of particular amount of energy
which we buy from grid on yearly basis.
Now, when Solar PV is installed (i.e., net metering) the Carbon foot print produced
while meeting our requirements (i.e., E = 126672 kWh/Year) is calculated as,
Since, 40g of CO2 is produced while production of 1kWh energy from Solar PV
system.
i.e. 1 kWh (through Solar PV) = 40g of CO2
So,
126672 kWh/Year = 40 × 126672 g of CO2 per year
126672 kWh/Year = 5,066.88 kg of CO2 per year ≈ 5,067 kg of CO2 /year
Hence, 5,067 kg of CO2 produced while production of particular amount of energy via
solar PV system on yearly basis.
So, by using PV system (i.e., net metering) the amount of CO2 (Carbon foot print)
reduced in a year will be
= Production of CO2 through coal power plant - Production of CO2 through

Solar PV system
= 105,138 – 5,067
= 100,071 kg of CO2 per year
Hence, while net metering the amount of CO2 reduced will be 100,071 kg in a year
114
6.3.2 Recycling of Grey Water
The average daily production of RO plant’s treated water is calculated on the basis of
measured water volume by water flow meter
Table 12 Two weeks data of daily RO water production
S.no. Days Water Flow meter Water Flow meter

reading/volume of RO reading/volume of RO
water produced per day water produced per day
in m3 for week 1 in m3 for week 2
1. Monday 56 55
2. Tuesday 55 56
3. Wednesday 53 44
4. Thursday 55 56
5. Friday 52 54
6. Saturday 42 53
7. Sunday 0 48
⅀week 1 = 313 ⅀week 2 = 366
So, average daily RO water production for particular week will be

For Week 1 (let “D1” is the average daily RO water production)
⅀week 1 = 313
D1 = = 44.714 m3
7
For Week 2 (let “D2” is the average daily RO water production)

⅀week 2 = 366
D2 = = 52.285 m3
7
Now, average daily usage of RO water is

𝐷𝐷1+𝐷𝐷2
D=
2
44.714+52.285
D= = 48.5 m3
2
Hence, Average daily production of RO water (i.e., Jamia and its relevant institute
consumes) is 48.5 m3 or 10,668.5 GPD (Imperial gallons)
Now, the electricity consumed (E) in kwh by RO plant for the production of 10,668.5
GPD is calculated as
115
E = Power of Pumps of RO plant × RO operating hours in a day……... (1)
The configuration of Pumps power is
HP Pump = 7.5 KW, Feed Pump = 2.2 KW and Dosing Pump = 0.032 KW
And working hours of RO (operating hours) = 9 hrs.
So,
Eq (1) → E = (7.5 +2.2+0.032) kW × 9h
E = 87.588 kWh
Hence, Energy consumed per day by RO Plant is 87.588 kWh
Now, the carbon foot print produced by utilizing 87.588 kwh energy for producing
10,668.5 GPD RO water will be
= 87.588 kWh × 830 g of CO2
= 72.968 kg of CO2/day
(Since, 830g of CO2 produced for 1 kWh production of energy from fossil fuel)
By recycling of grey water, we conserve 3000 GPD, so new requirement of RO water
will be
10,668.5 ̶ 3,000 = 7,668.5 GPD
So, amount of CO2 produced after recycling of grey water can be calculated as
Since, 10,668.5 GPD is produced in 9hours so 7,668.5 GPD will be produced in “t”
hours
So,
t : 7,668.5 = 9 : 10,668.5
9
t= × 7,668.5
10,668.5
t = 6.469 hrs. ≈ 6.47 hrs. per day

Now, Energy consumed per day (after recycling) will be
E’ = (7.5 + 2.2 + 0.032) KW × 6.47 hrs.
E’ = 62.966 KWh
And amount of CO2 produces on daily basis will be
= 62.966 × 830 g
=52261.78 g or 52.262 kg of CO2
Hence, after recycling of grey water the amount of CO2 produced will be 52.262 kg in
a particular day
116
So, the carbon foot print reduction in a day because of grey water recycling will be
= Amount of CO2 produced (Before recycling – after recycling)
= 72.698 – 52.262
= 20.463 kg of CO2 is reduced per day
So, on yearly basis the amount of CO2 reduced after recycling of grey water will be
= 20.463 kg of CO2 × 365
= 7,459 kg of CO2 per year
Hence, after installation of grey water system and reusing of grey water 7,459 kg of
CO2 will be reduced.
6.3.3 Using energy efficient fans

Since, In Jamia 600 fans of 120 Watt are there in which 300 fans are in operation for
24hours (i.e., when students attend their classes the classrooms fans (300 fans) are in
operation while hostel fans (300 fans) are not in operation and when students go to
their resident places, they operate hostel fans and on the same time classes fans are
shutoff)
So, energy consumed in KWh in a day by the 300 working fans of 120 Watt is
120
= 300 × × 24
1000
= 864 KWh in day
Now, Carbon foot print produced by 300 working fans of 120Watt consuming
864KWh energy per day is,
= 864 × 830 g of CO2 = 717.12 kg of CO2 in a day
(Since, 830g of CO2 produced for 1 kwh production of energy from fossil fuel)
When the existing fans of 120 Watt are replaced by 30Watt fans, the amount of CO2
reduced will be
First, we calculate the amount of energy consumed by new fans of 30 Watt, 300 fans
are in operation for 24 hours in a day
Energy consumed in kwh in a day by the 300 working fans of 30 Watt is
117
30
= 300 × × 24
1000
= 216 kwh in day
Now, Carbon foot print produced by 300 working fans of 30Watt consuming 216KWh
energy per day will be
= 216 × 830 g of CO2 = 179.28 kg of CO2 /day
(Since, 830g of CO2 produced for 1 kwh production of energy from fossil fuel)
So, Amount of CO2 reduced in a day while using energy efficient fans will be
= 717.12 − 179.28 = 537.92 kg of CO2 reduced per year
= 537.92 × 365 = 196,340.8 kg of CO2 reduced per year
Hence, by the changing the current fans of 120 Watt to energy efficient fans of 30
Watt, the amount of 196,340.8 kg of CO2 will be reduced in a year.
6.3.4 Installing water efficient taps

Since, from table 6 (Feasibility analysis of taps) by using recommended Masjid cock
type taps having 25% efficiency, the amount of water conserved is 1069.5 GPD and
the amount of CO2 reduction is calculated as,
First, we calculate the energy conserved while using Masjid cock types taps
Since,
The amount of 10,668.5 GPD in 9hours so conserved time (t’) for production 1,069.5
GPD will be
t’ : 1069.5 = 9 : 10,668.5
9
t’ = × 1,069.5
10,668.5
t = 0.902235 hrs. in a day
Now, Energy conserved in a day (after installation of water efficient taps) will be
E” = (7.5 +2.2+0.032) KW × 0.92235 hrs
E” = 8.7805 kwh
And amount of CO2 reduces on daily basis will be
= 8.7805 × 830 g of CO2
118
= 7.287 kg of CO2
On yearly basis amount of CO2 reduces will be
= 7.287 × 365 = 2,660 kg of CO2 reduced per year
Hence, by using water efficient taps (Masjid cock type taps) the amount of 2,660 kg
of CO2 reduced in a year.
6.4 Results and Conclusion

Following table consists of the sources and the amount of carbon foot print reduction
due to the use of these sources.
We can see from the table that there is huge amount of reduction in the carbon foot
prints that sums up to 306530.8 kg of CO2 reduced annually which is actually
beneficial for our environment and to make it sustainable.
Table 13 Amount of carbon dioxide reduced annually by altering above sources
Amount of CO2 reduced

S.no. Source
annually (Kg)
On Grid Solar PV System
1. 100,071
(Net metering)
2. Recycling grey water 7,459
3. Using energy efficient fans 196,340.8
4. Installing water efficient taps 2,660
119
Chapter 7
Conclusions
7.1 Summary
Greywater recycling conserve annually 1,171,103 gallons of grey water that can be
utilized for gardening. Moreover, we observed significant decrease in carbon foot
prints because of utilizing solar energy and we are able to fulfill the UN sustainable
development goals.
The problems mentioned above have been solved with the help of employing water
conservation technique by recycling of grey water, fresh water production system and
generating on site electricity with the use of PV systems. This results in significant
amount of energy saving and carbon foot print reduction.
7.1.1 Study of Green Building

1. Research on different aspects and certifications of Green Building
2. LEED score evaluated to be 46 using ARC
7.1.2 Designing and commissioning of a desalination plant

1. Production of 20,000 GPD water at cheaper rate and fulfill sweet water
demands
7.1.3 Comparative analysis of water efficient taps

1. Conserve water by 25% and have a payback period of 64 days
2. 390367.5 gallons/year of water conserved
3. Saving 5010 kWh/year
4. 4158.3 kgCO2/year reduced
7.1.4 Designing and installation of a grey water recycling system

1. 44.24% Grey Water Recovered to be used in gardening
2. Reduced production load on RO, saving 8828.664 kWh/year
120
7.1.5 Designing of an on-grid photo-voltaic system
1. 64kW on-grid PV system that will be feeding electricity into existing 70kW
system for zero net-units
7.2 Recommendations for Future Work

Following are the recommendations or Suggestions for minimizing total load
consumptions of Ashraf-ul-Madaris.
To convert Hybrid solar PV system to On-Grid PV system. The reason for shifting
towards the on-grid system is that there will be no cost of maintenance of batteries and
it will be more economical in terms of service.
Figure7.1: On-grid PV system
Install wind catchers at Minar of Masjid. This allows the fresh air to pass directly to
the ground and basement floor. So, the air circulation can be done naturally without
any mechanical means.
Figure7.2: Wind catcher system schematic
121
Replacement of 120watt fans with 30watt fans. This replacement will help in the
reduction of the electricity bills and hence contributing towards reduction in the carbon
foot prints.
Figure7.3: Energy saving fan
Blackout all the hostel rooms during academic hours. This initiative is going to help
the institution in the long run with the reduction in overall energy load and on the other
side increasing the useful life of the appliances.
Figure7. 4: Blackout initiative
122
Installation of a water tower to eliminate the pump usage to individual buildings.
Furthermore, for this type of water tower a reliable structure with sufficient re-
enforcement must be enforced for the safe working of the water tower.
Figure7.5: Water tower
Introduce the IOT system to monitor and manage the water and the electricity. IOT
systems tends to decrease the human effort and ensures to provide you the data with
the ease of your mobile phone.
Figure 7.6: Internet of things (IOT)
123
References
A. Brehant, V. Bonnelye, M. Perez, Assessment of ultrafiltration as a pretreatment of

reverse osmosis membranes for surface seawater desalination. Water Science and
Technology: Water Supply, 3 (5–6) (2003), pp. 437-445
Abowitz DA, Toole TM. Mixed method research: fundamental issues of design,
validity, and reliability in construction research. J Construct Eng Manage 2009;136
(1):108–16.
Agricultural Water https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/other/agricultural/index.html
Ahuchaogu, A. A., Chukwu, O. J., Obike, A. I., Igara, C. E., Nnorom, I. C., &
Echeme, J. B. O. (2018). Reverse osmosis technology, its applications and nano-
enabled membrane. International Journal of Advanced Research in Chemical Science,
5(2), 20-26.
Al Dulaimi, N. H., & Alkhalidi, D. A. (2017). Design of an Off-Grid Solar PV
System for a Rural Shelter. School of Natural Resources Engineering and
Management, Amman, Jordan.
Al Mamun A, Muyibi SA, Razak A, Asilah N (2014) Treatment of used ablution
water from IIUM masjid for reuse. Adv Environ Biol 8(3):558–564 (special 2014)
Alvi, J. Z., Feng, Y., Wang, Q., Imran, M., Khan, L. A., & Pei, G. (2020). Effect of
Phase Change Material Storage on the Dynamic Performance of a Direct Vapor
Generation Solar Organic Rankine Cycle System. Energies, 13(22), 5904.
Arnette, A. N. (2013). Integrating rooftop solar into a multi-source energy planning
optimization model. Applied energy, 111, 456-467.
Available from: http://www.membranes.com/docs/papers/01_ims.pdf
Azeem, S., Naeem, M. A., Waheed, A., & Thaheem, M. J. (2017). Examining barriers
and measures to promote the adoption of green building practices in Pakistan. Smart
and Sustainable Built Environment.
Azizullah, A., Khattak, M. N. K., Richter, P., & Häder, D. P. (2011). Water pollution
in Pakistan and its impact on public health—a review. Environment
international, 37(2), 479-497.
Bellia, H., Youcef, R., & Fatima, M. (2014). A detailed modeling of photovoltaic
module using MATLAB. NRIAG Journal of Astronomy and Geophysics, 3(1), 53-61.
Bhawan, V., & Park, S. K. (2015). Council of Science & Technology, UP
124
Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Osmosis". Encyclopedia Britannica, 25
Sep. 2019, https://www.britannica.com/science/osmosis. Accessed 26 June 2021.
Burns, J. E., & Kang, J. S. (2012). Comparative economic analysis of supporting
policies for residential solar PV in the United States: Solar Renewable Energy Credit
(SREC) potential. Energy Policy, 44, 217-225.6
Checklist: LEED v4 for Building Operations and Maintenance
https://www.usgbc.org/resources/checklist-leed-v4-building-operations-and-
maintenance
Chouder, A., Silvestre, S., Sadaoui, N., and Rahmani, L. (2012). Modeling and
simulation of a grid connected PV system based on the evaluation of main PV module
parameters. Simulat. Modell. Pract. Theory 20, 46–58.
Darghouth, N. R., Barbose, G., & Wiser, R. (2011). The impact of rate design and net
metering on the bill savings from distributed PV for residential customers in
California. Energy Policy, 39(9), 5243-5253.
de Oliveira, F. M., da Silva, S. A. O., Durand, F. R., Sampaio, L. P., Bacon, V. D., &
Campanhol, L. B. (2016). Grid-tied photovoltaic system based on PSO MPPT
technique with active power line conditioning. IET Power Electronics, 9(6), 1180-
1191.
Ding, K., Bian, X., Liu, H., and Peng, T. (2012). A MATLAB-simulink-based PV
module model and its application under conditions of non-uniform irradiance. IEEE
Trans. Energy Convers. 27, 864–872.
Eisenberg, D., Kauzmann, W., & Kauzmann, W. (2005). The structure and properties
of water. Oxford University Press on Demand.
ElECTRiCAl DATA | STC* CS6K 260P 265P 270P 275P Placa Solar Canadian Solar
https://s3.us-east-
2.amazonaws.com/legacy.portalsolar.com.br/Content/EditorImages/files/Placa%20Sol
ar%20Canadian%20Solar%20-%20Modelo%20CS6P-265P%20-%20265Watts.pdf
F. Reverberi, A. Gorenflo, Three-year operational experience of a spiral-wound
SWRO system with a high fouling potential feed water, Desalination, 203 (2007), pp.
100-106
Final Results (Census-2017) | Pakistan Bureau of Statistics
https://www.pbs.gov.pk/content/final-results-census-2017
Gao, T., Liu, Q., & Wang, J. (2014). A comparative study of carbon footprint and
125
assessment standards. International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies, 9(3), 237-
243.
Ghaffour, N., Missimer, T. M., & Amy, G. L. (2013). Technical review and
evaluation of the economics of water desalination: current and future challenges for
better water supply sustainability. Desalination, 309, 197-207
Gilbert, M. M. (2004). Renewable and efficient electric power systems. John Wiley &
Sons.
Gleick, P. H., & Schneider, S. (1996). Encyclopedia of climate and weather. Water
Resources, 2, 817-823.
Golić K, Kosorić V, Furundžić AK. General model of solar water heating system
integration in residential building refurbishment—Potential energy savings and
environmental impact. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2011;15 (3):1533–44.
Green Building Standards and Certification Systems
https://www.wbdg.org/resources/green-building-standards-and-certification-systems
Green Building: Improving the Lives of Billions by Helping to Achieve the UN
Sustainable Development Goals https://www.worldgbc.org/news-media/green-
building-improving-lives-billions-helping-achieve-un-sustainable-development-goals
Green Productivity: The Carbon Footprint and LED Lighting
Technologhttps://www.apo-tokyo.org/publications/wp-
content/uploads/sites/5/2012_Sep-Oct_p4-5.pdf
Grieshop, A. P., Marshall, J. D., & Kandlikar, M. (2011). Health and climate benefits
of cookstove replacement options. Energy Policy, 39(12), 7530-7542.
Hassan, A. S., Cipcigan, L., & Jenkins, N. (2017). Optimal battery storage operation
for PV systems with tariff incentives. Applied Energy, 203, 422-441.
Herrmann, W., and Wiesner, W. (1996). “Current-voltage translation procedure for
PV generators in the German 1000 roofs-programme,” in proceedings of the
EUROSUN conference, Freiburg.
Hersch, P., & Zweibel, K. (1982). Basic photovoltaic principles and methods (No.
SERI/SP-290-1448). Solar Energy Research Inst., Golden, CO (USA).
How Can We Make Our Buildings Green https://www.worldgbc.org/how-can-we-
make-our-buildings-green
Howe, K., Hand, D. W., Crittenden, J. C., Trussell, R. R., & Tchobanoglous, G.
(2012). Principles of water treatment. John Wiley & Sons.
126
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/water
Huhn, L. (2015). Greywater Treatment in Sand and Gravel Filters. Hamburg: WECF.
Industrial Water | Other Uses of Water
https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/other/industrial/index.html
Ishaque, K., Salam, Z., Taheri, H., and Syafaruddin. (2011). Modelling and simulation
of photovoltaic (PV) system during partial shading based on a two-diode model.
Simulat. Model. Pract. Theory 19, 1613–1626.
J.A. Reverter, S. Talo, J. Alday, Las Palmas III – the success story of brine staging
Desalination, 138 (2001), pp. 207-21
Jaillon L, Poon CS, Chiang Y H. Quantifying the waste reduction potential of using
prefabrication in building construction in Hong Kong. Waste Manage
2009;29(1):309–20.
Jiang, S., Li, Y., & Ladewig, B. P. (2017). A review of reverse osmosis membrane
fouling and control strategies. Science of the Total Environment, 595, 567-58
Johnston, F. J. (2016). Osmotic pressure.
Kahlown, M. A., & Majeed, A. (2003). Water-resources situation in Pakistan:
challenges and future strategies. Water Resources in the South: present scenario and
future prospects, 20, 33-45.
Keraita, B., Drechsel, P., Konradsen, F., & Vreugdenhil, R. C. (2008). Potential of
simple filters to improve microbial quality of irrigation water used in urban vegetable
farming in Ghana. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A, 43(7), 749-
755.
Khan, M. Z. A. (2012). Climate change: Cause & effect. Journal of Environment and
Earth Science, 2(4), 48-53.
Khayan, K., Heru Husodo, A., Astuti, I., Sudarmadji, S., & Sugandawaty Djohan, T.
(2019). Rainwater as a source of drinking water: health impacts and rainwater
treatment. Journal of environmental and public health, 2019.
Kibert CJ. Sustainable construction: green building design and delivery. Hoboken,
NJ: John Wiley and Sons, Inc; 2008.
Kiemde, M. S., Kaluli, J. W., Mburu, N., & Gahi, N. (2018). Low Cost Filtration of
Domestic Wastewater for Irrigation Purpose.
Kohli, A., & Frenken, K. (2011). Cooling water for energy generation and its impact
on national-level water statistics. Food and Agriculture Organisation, AQUASTAT
127
Programme.
KWSB – Karachi Water & Sewerage Board https://www.kwsb.gos.pk/
Lachish, U. (1999). Osmosis reverse osmosis and osmotic pressure what they are.
LEED Rating System https://www.usgbc.org/leed
Lun, S., Wang, S., Yang, G., and Guo, T. (2015). A new explicit double-diode
modelling method based on lambert W-function for photovoltaic arrays. Solar Energy.
116, 69–82.
Lyman R.A., 1992, Peak and off-peak residential water demand, Water Resources
Research 28, no. 9: 2159-67.
M.C. Mickley, Membrane Concentrate Disposal: Practices and Regulation
Michaels, P. J., & Knappenberger, P. C. (1996). The United Nations
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the scientific “consensus” on global
warming. Energy & Environment, 7(4), 333-348.
Mitscher, M., & Rüther, R. (2012). Economic performance and policies for grid-
connected residential solar photovoltaic systems in Brazil. Energy Policy, 49, 688-
694.
Naqvi, A. A., Ahmed, A., Jamal, M., Majeed, A., Khizar, A., & Shaheer, B.
Performance Evaluation of Hybrid PVT Air Collector. A Comparative Approach.
Osmosis with Example https://chemistrypage.in/osmosis-and-osmotic-pressure-with-
example/
Other Uses and Types of Water https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/other/index.html
Our Mission | World Green Building Council https://www.worldgbc.org/our-mission
Pakistan Green Building Council | https://pakistangbc.org/aboutus.php
Parmesano, H. S. (2003). Standby service to distributed generation projects: The
wrong tool for subsidies. The Electricity Journal, 16(8), 85-92.
Popescu D, Bienert S, Schützenhofer C, Boazu R. Impact of energy efficiency
measures on the economic value of buildings. Appl Energy 2012;89 (1):454–63.
Poullikkas, A. (2013). A comparative assessment of net metering and feed in tariff
schemes for residential PV systems. Sustainable Energy Technologies and
Assessments, 3, 1-8.
Pradhan, S., Al-Ghamdi, S. G., & Mackey, H. R. (2019). Greywater recycling in
buildings using living walls and green roofs: A review of the applicability and
challenges. Science of The Total Environment, 652, 330-344.
128
Puretec Industrial Water |https://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/what-is-reverse-
osmosis
Qays Oleiwi, M., Ali, A., Utaberta, N., & Surat, M. (2015). The Application of
Principles of Green Building in Traditional Housing in Iraq. In Applied Mechanics
and Materials (Vol. 747, pp. 7-11). Trans Tech Publications Ltd.
Rahim, N. A., Ping, H. W., & Selvaraj, J. (2013). Photovoltaic module modeling
using Simulink/Matlab. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 17, 537-546.
Rahman SM, Khondaker AN. Mitigation measures to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions and enhance carbon capture and storage in Saudi Arabia. Renew Sustain
Energy Rev 2012;16(5):2446–60.
Rana, T. M. D., Qtaishat, M. R., & Singh, G. RECENT ADVANCES IN
MEMBRANE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN SEAWATER
DESALINATION–WITH TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT IN THE MIDDLE
EAST AND SINGAPORE.
Ray, S., Gupta, N., & Gupta, R. A. (2017). A comprehensive review on cascaded H-
bridge inverter-based large-scale grid-connected photovoltaic. IETE Technical
review, 34(5), 463-477.
Recreational Waters | US EPA https://www.epa.gov/report-environment/recreational-
waters
Renzetti, S. (2002). Commercial and industrial water demands. In The Economics of
Water Demands (pp. 35-49). Springer, Boston, MA.
Ross B, López- Alcalá M, Small IIIAA. Modelling the private financial returns from
green building investments. J Green Build 2007;2(1):97–105.
Ruževičius, J., & Dapkus, M. (2018). Methodologies for calculating the carbon
footprint of small organizations. Calitatea, 19(167), 112-117.
Selection of Green Building Materials https://theconstructor.org/building/selection-
of-green-building-materials/7010/
Singh, B., Jain, C., Goel, S., Gogia, R., & Subramaniam, U. (2017). A sustainable
solar photovoltaic energy system interfaced with grid-tied voltage source converter
for power quality improvement. Electric Power Components and Systems, 45(2), 171-
183.
Siong, Y. K., Idris, J., & Atabaki, M. (2013). Performance of activated carbon in
water filters. Water Resources, 1-19.
129
Solomon, S., Manning, M., Marquis, M., & Qin, D. (2007). Climate change 2007-the
physical science basis: Working group I contribution to the fourth assessment report
of the IPCC (Vol. 4). Cambridge university press.
Solutions, D. W. (2020). Filmtec Reverse Osmosis Membranes Technical
Manual. Dupont Water Solutions: Edina, MN, USA.
Suratkon A, Chee MC, Ab Rahman TST (2014) SmartWUDHU: recycling ablution
water for sustainable living in Malaysia. J Sustain Dev 7(6):150–157.
doi:10.5539/jsd.v7n6p150
The economist. The rise of the green building. Technology Quarterly: Q4; 2004.
U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Mickley & Associates
(2001)
Valavala, R., Sohn, J. S., Han, J. H., Her, N. G., & Yoon, Y. M. (2011). Pretreatment
in reverse osmosis seawater desalination: a short review. Environmental Engineering
Research, 16(4), 205-212
Verma, A. K., Singh, B., & Kaushika, S. C. (2013). A standalone solar photovoltaic
power generation using cuk converter and single phase inverter. Journal of The
Institution of Engineers (India): Series B, 94(1), 1-12.
Villalva, M. G., Gazoli, J. R., & Ruppert Filho, E. (2009). Comprehensive approach
to modeling and simulation of photovoltaic arrays. IEEE Transactions on power
electronics, 24(5), 1198-1208.
Voutchkov, N. (2012). Desalination engineering: planning and design. McGraw Hill
Professional.
W.T. Bates, R. Cuozzo, Integrated membrane systems Hydranautics (2000)
Wenten, I. G. (2016). Reverse osmosis applications: prospect and challenges.
Desalination, 391, 112-125
What Is My Carbon Footprint and What Do I Do About It?
https://thespot.ljbinc.com/2018/05/01/what-is-my-carbon-footprint-and-what-do-i-do-
about-it/
Wiedmann, T., & Minx, J. (2008). A definition of ‘carbon footprint’. Ecological
economics research trends, 1, 1-11.
World Green Building Council Annual Report https://worldgbc.org/news-
media/annual-report-2020
Xu, L., Yang, S., Zhang, Y., Jin, Z., Huang, X., Bei, K., ... & Zheng, X. (2020). A
130
hydroponic green roof system for rainwater collection and greywater treatment.
Journal of Cleaner Production, 261, 121132.
Zaidi, S.A. 2005. Issues in Pakistan's economy. Karachi: Oxford University Press
131

GreenBuilding For Energy Management, Conservation and Sustainability Report

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

GreenBuilding For Energy Management, Conservation and Sustainability Report

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

UNDERGRADUATE FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Green Building for Energy Management, Conservation, and

Group Number: 11 Batch: 2017– 2021

Group Member Names:

Mustafa Ali ME-17204

Dr. Mubashir Ali Siddiqui

Signature Signature Signature Signature

................................. ................................. ................................. .................................

Hasan Ahmed Mustafa Ali Syed Muhammad Sardar Saifullah

ME-17228 ME-17204 ME-17227 ME-17243

hasanmuffassir@ syedmustafaali99@ s.m.rafay99@ saifullah4268@

3. Methodology used to solve the problem

Table 1: ISO defined Green Product labels ................................................................ 15

WGBC= World Green Building Council

Π = osmotic pressure (atm)

Project Title Green Building for Energy Management, Conservation,

S. No. Student Name Seat Number Signature

1. Hasan Ahmed ME-17228

2. Syed Muhammad Rafay ME-17227

3. Mustafa Ali ME-17204

4. Sardar Saifullah Binyameen ME-17243

Signature and Date

Dr Mubashir Ali Siddiqui

1.1 Background Information

1.2 Significance and Motivation

1.2.1 Significance of Green Building

1.2.2 Significance RO Plant

1.2.3 Significance Water Conservation

1.2.4 Significance PV System

1.2.5 Significance Carbon Footprint

1.3 Aims and Objectives

2.2 Green Building Three Aspects

1. Aspects of technology and the environment.

2.2.1 Aspects of The Technology

2.2.2 Social Aspects

2.2.3 Economic Aspects

2.3 Approach to Make the Buildings Green:

2.3.1 Taking an Intelligent Approach to Energy

2.3.3 Minimizing Waste and Maximizing Reuse

2.3.4 Promoting Health and Wellbeing

2.3.5 Keeping Our Environment Green

2.3.6 Connecting Communities and People

2.4 Green Building Associations

2.4.1 Goals OF World Green Building Council:

2.4.1.1 Action on Climate Change

2.4.1.2 Health and Well-Being:

2.4.2 Green Building Council of Pakistan:

2.5 Green building Certifications and rating systems:

The ANSI/ASHRAE/USGBC/IES Standard 189.1, Criteria which is for

2.5.2 Green codes

A prescriptive approach to code compliance is a quick, definite, and conservative

2.5.2.1 Differences between codes and building rating system:

2.5.2.2 International green building construction codes

2.5.3 Certifications of Products that are Green:

2.5.3.1 Labels of the Green Products by the ISO

2.5.3.2 Certification Summary of the Green Products

2.5.4.1 Energy star

2.5.4.3 Forest Stewardship Council (FSC)

different forest products (FSC pure, FSC mixed, and FSC

Services is a very well certification authority

2.5.5 Product Certifications with Multi-Attributes

2.5.5.1 Green seal