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also be possible to increase the burning temperature in the upper part of the burning zone by increasing
the excess air. However, almost all trials ended with melding of the kiln charge. Melding of the kiln charge
means that the particles, which are normally loose, stick together where they have direct contact. The
melding of the kiln charge is caused by sintering which occurs at the surfaces between particles with
direct contact. Surface sintering between particles takes place in addition to sintering of individual
particles above the calcination temperature. Melding of the kiln charge makes it impossible to operate the
kiln. Until today this phenomenon has not been adequately researched and it can only be assumed that -
if the temperature is increased above the temperature required for complete calcination - the long
retention time in the burning zone of PFR lime kilns causes melding of the kiln charge. As the properties
of the raw materials vary in a wide range, in some rare cases melding of the kiln charge can also occur at
otherwise normal operating conditions.
The PFR lime kiln is ideally suitable for the production of high reactive lime. Only in extremely rare cases,
where surface sintering between individual particles of the kiln charge does not occur, this type of kiln can
also be used to produce low reactive, hard burned lime. It must be assumed that the potential of surface
sintering between individual particles depends on one or more material properties and higher process
temperatures certainly intensify this problem. Taking all these facts and experience into consideration, it
becomes clear that a uniform heat distribution over the cross section of the kiln shafts and an appropriate
temperature profile are preconditions for producing good lime quality in a PFR lime kiln.
Due to the fact that the cooling air is not used for combustion in this kiln process the concentration of CO 2
in the kiln off-gases is between 20% and 23% and the concentration of oxygen is between 7% and 11%.
These values are not suitable for the soda ash and the sugar industry, which need higher concentration of
CO2 in the off-gases to be used in their downstream processes.
As calcium oxide is ideally suitable to absorb sulphur dioxide all lime kilns with low off-gas temperatures
absorb almost all the sulphur dioxide from the fuel combustion. Due to the high thermal efficiency, the
PFR lime kiln operates with the lowest off-gas temperatures of all lime kiln types. As a result almost all
the sulphur contained in the fuel is transferred to the product and a small part to the bag house filter dust.
For the production of low sulphur lime which is needed for the steel industry not only the sulphur content
in the raw material but also the sulphur content in the fuel must be taken into account. Integrated iron and
steel works operate their own lime kilns in captive plants. These lime kilns are often fired with coke oven
gas, converter gas or mixed gas and these gases contain almost no sulphur. If coal is used as fuel, the
sulphur intake can be reduced by adding natural gas.
Although the PFR lime kiln is currently the most important and most established lime kiln type, it is still
important to continue with research work in order to extend its application possibilities.

The following list is a summary of the topics which still need to be researched in more detail:
 more flexibility regarding the product reactivity
 higher concentration of CO2 and lower concentration of O2 in the kiln off-gases
 production of low sulphur lime with high sulphur fuel

5.3 HPS lime kilns

5.3.1 History

In the late 1970-ies a high temperature sintering shaft kiln for the production of basic and non-basic
refractory products was developed. Based on this design and in response to market requirements the
HPS kiln (High Performance Shaft kiln) for the calcination and partial sintering of limestone and dolomite
was developed. In this development the main features of the sintering kiln and the experience gained in
many years of operating practice were incorporated.
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5.3.2 Operating principle

Due to the counter-current flow of the kiln charge and the combustion gases the HPS kiln is perfectly
suitable for the production of hard burnt, low reactive lime. The radially arranged and horizontally
adjustable liquid cooled burners, which are positioned at the lower end of the burning zone, enable a
uniform heat distribution over the cross section of the kiln shaft. Releasing energy from the fuel
combustion at the lower end of the burning zone, where the kiln charge is already completely calcined,
allows very high burning temperatures which are required to partially sinter the product in order to reduce
its reactivity.
The raw material to be calcined is charged at the top of the kiln. It is then preheated by the combustion
gases in counter-current before reaching the burning zone. In the burning zone the material is calcined
and - depending on the product specification - more or less sintered by means of fuel introduced together
with primary combustion air through the radially arranged burners. Cooling air is introduced at the
discharge of the kiln to cool the product in a counter-current manner. The heated cooling air travels
upwards to the burning zone and is used there as secondary combustion air. The exhaust gases are
directed from the top of the kiln to a dust cleaning system.
The differently coloured lines in the temperature profile (right part of figure 11) show the flow of the
material (dotted blue line), and the air as well as the gas temperatures (red line) along the kiln profile.
As with the PFR kiln, the kiln charge consists of crushed and screened limestone or dolomite. The grain
sizes are typically 40 to 80 mm or smaller. The kiln shafts are also completely filled with the material to be
processed but the kiln charge passes the lime kiln at a higher speed - typically two meters per hour.

Figure 11: Operating principle and temperature profile of the HPS lime kiln
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5.3.3 Limitations of the HPS kiln

The main application of the HPS lime kiln is the production of low reactive, hard burnt lime. According
to section 5.2.3 a PFR lime kiln is generally not suitable for the production of hard burnt lime and vice
versa a HPS lime kiln is not the ideal kiln for the production of high reactive, soft burnt lime.
Releasing the combustion energy at the lower end of the burning zone - where the kiln charge is already
completely calcined - leads to high burning temperatures. This is ideal for the production of low reactive
lime. Reducing the heat input would certainly lower the burning temperatures and this would increase the
reactivity of the product, but at the same time the heat distribution over the cross section of the kiln shaft
becomes more challenging. As a result the product in the centre of the kiln shaft would not be completely
calcined anymore.
The soda ash and the sugar industries require a reactive lime, a high concentration of CO 2 and a low
concentration of O2 in the kiln off-gases. Up to date the HPS kiln is usually operated with excess air
factors higher than 1.15 resulting in CO2 and O2 concentrations which are not suitable for the soda ash
industry.
The following list summarises the topics which should be investigated:
 increasing the HPS kiln’s thermal efficiency
 more flexibility regarding reactivity
 reducing the excess air to achieve a higher concentration of CO 2 in the kiln off-gases

6. Research and development in lime shaft kiln design

Research and development in lime shaft kiln design have a long history and many different economical
and technical aspects have to be considered.

6.1 Requirements related to the calcining process

In order to achieve a uniform product quality the retention time of each particle in the different kiln
zones, particularly in the burning zone, must be the same. The geometry of the kiln shafts as well as the
design of the discharge mechanism must be balanced to guarantee an equal retention time for all
particles.

Figure 12 shows an acrylic glass model to examine the material movement inside the shafts of a circular
PFR kiln. At the lower end of the kiln model flat discharge tables are moved bidirectionally to extract the
material from the kiln shaft. Two white coloured material layers are used to visualise the downwards
travelling speed of the particles. The third picture from the left in Figure 12 shows the white layers at the
end of the burning zone. The white layers there are still almost horizontal which means the retention time
of each particle in the preheating and burning zone is almost the same.