Example In the production of a drug having a molecular weight of 192, the exit stream from

the reactor flows at a rate of 10.5 L/min. The drug concentration is 41.2% (in
water), and the specific gravity of the solution is 1.024. Calculate the concentration
of the drug (in kg/L) in the exit stream, and the flow rate of the drug in kg mol/min.
Solution Take 1 kg of the exit solution as a basis because the mass fraction of the drug in
the product is specified in the problem statement
density of solution = (sp.gr.)(density of reference)
𝑔𝐻 𝑂 𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢.
Density od solution = 1.024 × 1.000 1𝑐𝑚32𝐻 𝑂= 1.024 𝑐𝑚3 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢.
2

0.412 𝐾𝑔 𝑑𝑟𝑢𝑔 1.024 𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢. 1 𝐾𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢. 103 𝑐𝑚3 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢. 𝐾𝑔 𝑑𝑟𝑢𝑔

Concentarion of drug =
1.000 𝐾𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢.
× 𝑐𝑚3 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢. × 103 𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢. × 1 𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢. = 0.422 𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢.

To get the flow rate, take a different basis, namely 1 minute. Basis: 1 min = 10.5 L of solution

Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami 40

Example
Gas mixture 10.0% H2, 40.0% CH4,
30.0% CO, and 20.0% CO2, what
is the average molecular weight of
the gas?
Basis: 100 kg mol or lb mol of gas

Other Method for Solution

Average molecular weight = 0.2 * 44 + 0.3 * 28 + 0.4 * 16.04 + 0.1 * 2.02 = 23.8 kg/kgmol

41
Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami
Example
A liquefied mixture has the following composition: (Butane) n-C4H10 50% (MW=58),
(Pentane) n-C5H12 30% (MW=72), and (hexane) n-C6H14 20% (MW=86). For this mixture,
calculate:
(a) mole fraction of each component. (b) Average molecular weight of the mixture.

Solution Basis: 100 kg

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒈

Average molecular weight = = = 𝟔𝟔
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝟏. 𝟓𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍

42
Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami
Example
A medium-grade bituminous coal analyzes as follows:
The residuum is C and H, and the mole ratio in the
residuum is H/C = 9.
Calculate the weight (mass) fraction composition of the
coal with the ash and the moisture omitted (Ash – and
Moisture– free).
Solution
Take as a basis 100 kg of coal because then percent = kilograms. Basis: 100 kg of coal

The sum of the S + N + O + ash + water is 2 + 1 + 6 + 11 + 3 = 23 kg

We need to determine the individual kg of C and of H in the 77 kg total residuum.
To determine the kilograms of C and H, you have to select a new basis.

Basis: 100 kg mol (Because the H/C ratio is given in terms of moles, not weight)

43
Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami
 H: (77kg) (0.43) = 33.15kg
C: (77kg) (0.57) = 43.85kg

Finally, we can prepare at able summarizing the

results on the basis of 1kg of the coal ash free and
water-free.

44
Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami
Choosing a Basis
A basis is a reference chosen by you for the calculations you plan to make in any particular
problem, and a proper choice of basis frequently makes the problem much easier to solve.
The basis may be a period of time such as hours, or a given mass of material, such as 5
kg of CO2, or some other convenient quantity.

For liquids and solids in which a mass (weight) analysis applies, a convenient basis is
often 1 or 100 lb or kg; similarly, 1 or 100 moles is often a good choice for a gas.

45
Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami
 Temperature
Temperature is a measure of the energy (mostly kinetic) of the molecules in a system.
This definition tells us about the amount of energy.
Other scientists prefer to say that Temperature is a property of the state of thermal
equilibrium of the system with respect to other systems because temperature tells us about
the capability of a system to transfer energy (as heat).

46
Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami
 Four types of temperature:
Two based on a relative scale, Degrees Fahrenheit (°F) and Celsius (°C), and two based on
an absolute scale, degree Rankine (°R) and Kelvin (K).
Temperature Conversion
The following relationships may be used to convert a temperature expressed in one defined
scale unit to its equivalent in another:

47
Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami
Example: Temperature Conversion
Consider the interval from 20 ⁰F to 80 ⁰F
Calculate the equivalent temperatures in ⁰C and the interval between them

48
Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami
 Part Two, Chapter 4

Material Balances (How Much Base Do We Need?)

Material balances are the application of the Law of Conservation of Mass, which states
that mass can neither be created nor destroyed.

(lbm sulfur/day)in = (lbm sulfur/day)out

Chemical engineers write mass balances to account for what happens to each of the
chemicals participating in a chemical process.
In this topics we present the following information:-
1. Methods for organizing known information about process variables.
2. Setting up material balance equations.
3. Solving these equations for unknown variables.

49
Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami
To apply the material balance, you need to define the system and the quantities of interest

A system is a region of space defined by a real or imaginary closed envelope (system

boundary)

where
Accumulation is the change in quantity of material inside the system
Input is the material that enters the system by crossing system boundary
Output is the material that exits the system by crossing system boundary
Generation is the material that is produced by chemical reaction within the system
Consumption is the material that is used up by chemical reaction within the system
50
Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami
Process Classification
1. Batch process. The feed is charged (fed) into a vessel at the beginning of the process
and the vessel contents are removed sometime later. No mass crosses the system
boundaries between the time the feed is charged and the time the product is removed.
Example: Rapidly add reactants to a tank and remove the products and unconsumed
reactants sometime later when the system has come to equilibrium.
2. Continuous process. The inputs and outputs flow continuously throughout the duration
of the process.
Example: Pump a mixture of liquids into a distillation column at a constant rate and steadily
withdraw product streams from the top and bottom of the column.
3. Semibatch process. Any process that is neither batch nor continuous.
Example: Allow the contents of a pressurized gas container to escape to the atmosphere;
slowly blend several liquids in a tank from which nothing is being withdrawn.
51
Processes can operate either under Steady State or in a transient mode (Unsteady State)
A steady-state system is one whose properties do not change with time.
Every time we take a snapshot of the process, all the variables have the same values as
they did when measured the first time.
A transient system is one whose properties change with time.
There are two types of material balances, that is:
1. Differential balances, balances that indicate what is happening in a system at an
instant in time. Each term of the balance equation is a (rate of input, rate of generation,
etc.) and has units of the balanced quantity unit divided by a time unit (people/yr, g
SO2/s, barrels/day). This is the type of balance usually applied to a continuous
process.
2. Integral balances, balances that describe what happens between two instants of time.
Each term of the equation is an of the balanced quantity and has the corresponding unit
(people, g SO2, barrels). This type of balance is usually applied to a batch process, with
the two instants of time being the moment after the input takes place and the moment
before the product is withdrawn
52
Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami
Mass Balance on Steady-State Processes
• To obtain maximum benefit from the flowchart in material balance calculations, one must
write the Values and Units of all known stream variables at the locations of the streams
on the chart.
• Specify algebraic symbols to unknown stream variables and write these variable names
and their associated units on the chart.
The following notation is used.
m (mass), 𝒎 (mass flow rate),
n (moles), 𝒏 (mole flow rate),
V (volume), 𝑽 (volumetric flow rate),
𝒙 (component fractions (mass or mole) in liquid streams), and
y (component fractions in gas streams).

Single-unit processes where there are no reactions (consumption = generation = 0), and
when processes are continuous and under Steady State (accumulation = 0).
The procedure will form the foundation for more complex problems involving multiple units
and processes with reactions 53
Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami
For a stream to be fully specified, the flow rate and the composition of each component
should be known.
 If any of these items are not given, then it will be considered as unknown.
 If the stream composition is unknown or if some of the component masses are known,
represent the component masses directly and use a lower case letter for each chemical.
 If the stream composition is known from fractional compositions, represent the component
masses directly and label them.
 If the stream composition is partially known with fractional compositions and the total is
known, represent the component masses indirectly and use lowercase x, y, and z for each
fractional composition.

54

Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami

 Stream Specification
A material stream is fully specified if we can express the mass flow rates of each component
in the stream. The following stream is fully specified since the mass flow rate of components
in the stream are known.
Stream F contains 30 kg/min of O2 and 70 kg/min of CH4.
The total mass in F is 100 kg/min:

100 kg/s of a mixture containing O2, N2, and CH4 is fed to a process.
The stream contains 20% O2 by mass. The mass flow rate of component i in the stream,
mi = F × xi.

The stream compositions are partially known

Note that the fractional compositions in a specific
stream must add to 1.
Thus, we can write two alternatives:

55
Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami
 Example
An amount of 100 kg/h of a mixture of 50% Benzene
and 50% Toluene is separated in a distillation column.
The distillate contains 90% Benzene and the bottom
stream composition is 95% Toluene (compositions are
in weight percent). Draw and label the process
flowchart, and specify vapor and liquid streams.
Solution
Known quantities:
Inlet and exit stream
compositions are
known.

Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami 56

Example Material Balances on a Continuous Distillation Process
One thousand kilograms per hour of a mixture of benzene (B) and toluene (T) containing
50% benzene by mass is separated by distillation into two fractions. The mass flow rate of
benzene in the top stream is 450 kg B/h and that of toluene in the bottom stream is 475 kg
T/h. The operation is at steady state. Write balances on benzene and toluene to calculate the
unknown component flow rates in the output streams.

Total mass balance: F = 𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 Distillation

57
Integral Balances on Batch Processes
N2 + 3H2  2NH3 in batch reactor At time t0 = 0 there are n0 mole of NH3 in the reactor
And at a later time tf the reaction terminates and the contents of the reactor, which include
nf mole of NH3 are withdrawn.
The quantity of ammonia that builds up (accumulates) in the reactor between t0 and tf is
simply nf – n0, the final amount minus the initial amount. The same reasoning may be
applied to any substance participating in a batch process to obtain

Equating these two expressions for the accumulation yields

This equation is identical to Equation for continuous steady-state processes, except that in
this case the input and output terms denote the initial and final amounts of the balanced
substance rather than flow rates of the balanced substance in continuous feed and product
streams. The words “initial” and “final” may be left out for brevity, as long as you don’t lose
sight of what “input” and “output” mean in the context of batch processes. 58
 Example Two methanol–water mixtures are contained in separate flasks. The first mixture
contains 40.0 wt% methanol, and the second contains 70.0 wt% methanol. If 200 g
of the first mixture is combined with 150 g of the second, what are the mass and
composition of the product?

Mixer

𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒈 × 𝟎. 𝟒 𝒈 𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑶𝑯 + 𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝒈 × 𝟎. 𝟕 𝒈 𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑶𝑯

= 𝟑𝟓𝟎 𝒈 × 𝒙 𝒈 𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑶𝑯

We now know everything about the product, including the mass fraction of water (what is it?).
A water balance serves only to check the solution.

59
Dr.Firas Salim Mohammed Al-Ghulami