EB-40 Final

Naeem Ahmed
Study of Dynamics of Upper High Salinity Water

Mass in the Arabian Sea
SERVICES FOR SCIENCE AND EDUCATION

UNITED KINGDOM
Naeem Ahmed
Study of Dynamics of Upper High Salinity Water Mass in

the Arabian Sea
Credits and acknowledgements borrowed from other sources and reproduced with
permission in this book appear on appropriate pages within text.
Copyright © 2020, Society for Science and Education (United Kingdom)

Society for Science and Education – United Kingdom (SSE-UK) applies the Creative
Commons Attribution (CC BY) license to this book. Under the CC BY license, authors retain
ownership of the copyright for their article, but authors allow anyone to download, reuse,
reprint, modify, distribute, the published content by SSE-UK, so long as the original
authors and source are cited.
DOI: 10.14738/eb.40.2020
Published by:
Services for Science and Education
Stockport, Cheshaire, SK4 2BT
United Kingdom
AVOVAL
This is to be declared that this thesis includes original research work performed by
me. The general facilities including NASEER data were provided by the kind
permission of Dr. M. M. Rabbani, Director General National Institute of
Oceanography, Karachi, Pakistan. Dr. John M. Morrison (University of North
Carolina) and Dr. Karl Banse (University of Washington) are being acknowledged for
critical and constructive comments on the manuscript. Dr. Shaukat H. Khan of
National Institute of Oceanography, Karachi, is also acknowledged for his excellent
review of the manuscript.
The entire thesis is composed by me
NAEEM AHMED
Senior Research Officer
National Institute of Oceanography
ST 47, Block 1 Clifton
Karachi-75600, Pakistan
Contents
I Summary…………………………………………………. viii
II ……………………………………………………… xiv
III List of Figures……………………………………………. xxii
IV List of Tables …………………………………………… xxxiv
V List of Appendixes…………………………….………… xxxv
Chapter – 1
1.0 Introduction …………………………………………….. 1
Chapter - 2
2.0 The background…………………………………………. 15
2.1 WATER MASSES………………………………………… 15
2.2 THE AIR - SEA INTERACTION SYSTEM………..…… 21
2.2.1 The Earth's climate system………………………… 22
2.2.2 The ocean as the flywheel for the Earth's climate
system………………………………………………23
2.2.3 Air-sea interaction processes and sea surface
temperature……………………………………….. 29
2.2.4 Sea Surface Temperature (SST) and the concept
of mixed layer …………………………………….. 35
2.3 NORTH INDIAN OCEAN AND THE MONSOONS……. 38
i
2.3.1 Hydrography/Meteorology of the Arabian Sea…… 44
2.4 WATER MASSES IN THE UPPER 1000 m OF THE
INDIAN OCEAN ………………………………………… 46
2.4.1 Shallow Water Masses……………………………... 48
2.4.1.1Arabian Sea High Salinity Water (ASHSW)…. 48
2.4.1.2 Arabian Sea Water (ASW)……………………. 48
2.4.1.3Bay of Bengal, Waters ( BBW)………………. 49
2.4.1.4Persian Gulf Water (PGW)…………………… 50
2.4.2 Intermediate Water Masses………………………… 50
2.4.2.1Indian Central Water (ICW)………………….. 50
2.4.2.2Banda Sea Water or Australian Mediterranean
Water…………………………………………… 51
2.4.2.3Indian Equatorial Water (IEW)…………………. 52
2.4.2.4North Indian Intermediate Water (NIIW)………. 52
2.4.2.5Red Sea Water (RSW)…………………………. 52
2.5 OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY……………54
Chapter - 3
3.0 Research Data and Analytical methods ……………….. 55
3.1 COLLECTION OF RESEARCH DATA………………… 56
3.1.1 North Arabian Sea Environment and Ecosystem
ii
Research (NASEER) Programme Data…………. 56
3.1.2 Argo Floats Data…………………………………… 61
3.2 ANALYTICAL METHODS ……………………………. 64
3.2.1 Potential Temperature () and Potential
Density () 64
3.2.2 Determination of Salinity Maximum……………… 64
3.2.3 Construction of Temperature - Salinity (T-S) plots.. 65
3.2.4 Identification of Mixed Layer Depth…………….... 65
3.2.5 Estimation of Heat Budget………………………… 66
3.2.5.1 Radiative Heat Fluxes……………………… 67
3.2.5.1.1Shortwave Flux (Qi )………………... 67
3.2.5.1.1.1Equation of Time………………….. 69
3.2.5.1.2Longwave Flux (Qb)…………………. 70
3.2.5.2 Turbulent Heat Fluxes………………………71
3.2.5.2.1Latent Heat Flux (Qe)…………………71
3.2.5.2.2Sensible Heat Flux (Qs)…………….....72
3.2.5.3 Freshwater heat fluxes……………………...72
3.2.5.3.1Moisture heat fluxes (Evaporation)…. 73
3.2.5.3.2Surface Buoyancy Flux……………… 73
3.2.5.4 Momentum Fluxes…………………………. 74
iii
3.2.5.4.1Wind Stress ( )……………………….
74
3.2.5.5 Net Effective Radiation (R)………………... 75
3.2.5.6 Total Heat Loss…………………………….. 75
3.2.5.7 Net Heat Gain of Ocean…………………… 76
Chapter – 4
4.0 Results…………………………………………………… 77
4.1 IDENTIFICATION OF WATER MASSES IN THE
ARABIAN SEA………………………………………….. 77
4.1.1 Argo float 2900097 ……………………………… 77
4.1.2 Argo float 2900098………………………………… 82
4.1.3 Argo float 2900134………………………………… 86
4.1.4 Argo float 2900135………………………………… 90
4.1.5 Argo float 2900394………………………………… 94
4.1.6 Argo float 2900397………………………………… 98
4.2 HYDROLOGY OF THE NORTH ARABIAN SEA HIGH
SALINITY WATER MASS (UPPER SALINITY MAXIMUM)
BASED ON NASEER DATA.……………………………. 103
4.2.1 Core Depth of North Arabian Sea High Salinity Water
mass (NASHSW) ………………………………….. 103
iv
4.2.2 Salinity of North Arabian Sea High Salinity Water mass
(NASHSW) Core Layer ……………………… 107
4.2.3 Potential Density anomaly of North Arabian Sea High
Salinity Water mass (NASHSW) core layer …….. 110
4.2.4 Oxygen of North Arabian Sea High Salinity Water mass
(NASHSW) core layer …………………………… 113
4.3 DYNAMICS OF THE NORTH ARABIAN SEA HIGH
SALINITY WATER (NASHSW) MASS ………………… 116
4.3.1 Atmospheric Pressure ………………………………116
4.3.2 Air Temperature over Sea Surface………………… 119
4.3.3 Sea Surface Temperature…………………………... 122
4.3.4 Wind Condition……………………………………. 125
4.3.5 Heat Budget of the Arabian Sea…………………… 129
4.3.5.1 Radiative Heat Fluxes……………………… 129
4.3.5.1.1 Short-wave Flux (Qi )……………. 129
4.3.5.1.2 Long-wave Flux (Qb)……………. 137
4.3.5.2 Turbulent Heat Fluxes…………………….. 143
4.3.5.2.1 Latent Heat Flux (Qe)……………… 143
4.3.5.2.2 Sensible Heat Flux (Qs)…………… 149
4.3.5.3 Moisture Fluxes…………………………… 156
4.3.5.3.1 Evaporation (E)……………………. 156
v
4.3.5.4 Net Effective Radiation (R)……………….. 161
4.3.5.5 Net Heat Gain (Q)………………………… 163
4.3.5.6 Momentum Fluxes………………………… 166
4.3.5.7 Buoyancy of seawater……………………… 169
4.4 DISTRIBUTION OF MIXED LAYER DEPTHS AND THE
FORMATION OF WATER MASS ……………………. 180
4.5 DYNAMICS OF UPPER SALINITY MAXIMUM
FORMATION ……………………………………………. 184
Chapter – 5
5.0 Simulation of Model…………………………………….. 209
5.1 MODEL EQUATIONS…………………………………… 209
5.2 RESULTS OF SIMULATION……………………………. 212
Chapter – 6
6.0 Discussion……………………………………………….. 216
6.1 NORTH ARABIAN SEA HIGH SALINITY WATER
(NASHSW) MASS (THE UPPER MOST
SALINITY MAXIMUM)……………………………......... 216
6.2 ROLE OF SEA SURFACE METEOROLOGY IN THE WATER
MASS FORMATION ………………..…………………… 219
6.3 DISTRIBUTION OF MIXED LAYER DEPTHS AND
THE FORMATION OF WATER MASS ……………….. 225
vi
6.4 ROLE OF SURFACE FLUXES IN THE WATER MASS
FORMATION ……………………………………………. 227
6.4.1 Heat Fluxes…………………….…………………… 227
6.4.2 Buoyancy of Seawater ………….…………………… 229
6.5 DYNAMICS OF UPPER SALINITY MAXIMUM ……… 231
6.6 PRESENCE OF SUB-SURFACE SALINITY MINIMUM
AND ITS IMPACT ON THE FORMATION OF
“NASHSW” MASS ……………………………………….. 241
6.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS …………………………..…… 242
Chapter – 7
7.0 Conclusions……………………………………………… 245
References……………………………………………………….. 253
vii
I Summary
The water masses of specific characteristics are formed in different
regions of the oceans by the processes occurring at the surface of the
oceans due to the ocean-atmosphere interactions at specific locations and
sink from the surface to subsurface depths. The water mass distribution is
controlled by temperature and salinity. The Arabian Sea is an active region
of air-sea interaction processes and plays a major role in driving the
monsoon system. The semi-annual reversal in wind stresses associated
with the monsoon, water mass intrusions from marginal seas and other
oceans, geographical features give the upper waters of the Arabian Sea a
unique thermohaline structure and circulation. In the Arabian Sea due to
air – sea interaction processes, water mass forms at the surface and sinks
to just below the mixed layer depth.
At different location of Arabian Sea high salinity water masses are
formed. Rochford (1964) reported a water mass and termed it as ‘D’;
Wyrtki (1971) reported this water mass as Arabian Sea water (ASW)
mass, Kumar and Prasad (1997) reported an other high salinity water mass
as the Arabian Sea High Salinity Water (ASHSW) mass, and Banse (1984)
viii
announced the presence of a water mass in the northern Arabian Sea and
called it as the North Arabian Sea High Salinity Water (NASHSW) mass
due to its formation in the northern Arabian Sea. Whereas, Morrison
(1997) referred NASHSW as a denser fraction of Arabian Sea Water
(ASW).
In view of the above, the present study has been planned with the prime
objective of understanding the dynamical processes that govern the
formation of upper salinity maximum in the north Arabian Sea by
analysing original data collected under the North Arabian Sea
Environment and Ecosystem Research (NASEER) Programme (1992 –
1995) and Argo floats launched in the Arabian Sea under the pilot
programme of the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS).
For the identification of water masses T – S diagrammes were prepared
using CTD data of NASEER and Argo floats. Heat budget of the Arabian
Sea was computed using the algorithm for the standard bulk parameters at
the 25 hours times series stations of NASEER cruises. The results inferred
were validated with the simulation of one-dimensional turbulent model of
Mellor and Durbin (1975) that was further modified by Miller (1976).
ix
The NASEER and Argo data analysis performed in this study confirmed
that there are three high salinity water masses in the northern Arabian Sea
that have been categorized as Arabian Sea Water (ASW)/ North Arabian
Sea High Salinity Water (NASHSW), Persian Gulf Water (PGW) and Red
Sea Water (RSW) present in the upper 1000 meters of the Arabian Sea.
The analysis of the data in the present study showed that in the northern
Arabian Sea, just underneath the mixed layer depth, there is a salinity
maximum. The shallowest high salinity maximum in the Arabian Sea is
formed by subduction and sinks to just below mixed layer depth, during
the northeast monsoon and spreads as a salinity maximum (~36.6) with a
potential density anomaly (σ) 25 kg m-3. The Analysis of the data indicate
that the potential density anomaly () of the core layer is ~ 24 kg m–3
during December 1994, whereas, in January 1992, March 1993 and May
1994, the potential density anomaly () is centered ~ 25 kg m–3 with
salinity ranging from 36.5 to 36.8. The oxygen data showed that during
NE monsoon core layer of NASHSW is highly oxygenated (~ 4 ml/l),
whereas during pre SW monsoon, oxygen level reduces to ~ 2 - 3 ml/l at
subsurface due to mixing processes and consumption by marine animals.
x
The heat budget of the Arabian Sea which includes short-wave flux Qi,
long-wave flux Qb, latent heat fluxes Qe and sensible heat fluxes Qs was
computed using meteorological data. The January short-wave flux Qi as
the day time averages at the time series stations decrease from east to west
which is similar even in December data. Whereas, during March, solar
radiation increased from south to north, however in the May data it is
inversed and showing increase from northeast to southwest. The long-
wave flux Qb showed that except in January 1992, the long-wave radiation
decreased from south to north. While, in January it decreased from east to
west.
The latent heat fluxes Qe during the recording period of January and
August, decreased from south to north, whereas for March, it increased to
northeast in the orientation of Murray ridge. However in the December it
decreased to east. The sensible heat fluxes Qs in January are high on the
southern stations and low in the northern stations. However, the fluxes
computed for the December data showed the reverse pattern of decrease to
south. During the January cruise, minimum evaporation was in the early
morning and maximum after 1100 hours. The maximum evaporation was
observed in the winter of 1992 and pre summer 1993. The buoyancy
remained negative in all the cruises except during December in which
xi
northern part occupied with the positive buoyancy indicated the density
gain due to cool dry winds.
The mean of net heat gain over the northern Arabian Sea during winter
were negative, whereas positive net heat gain were found in other cruises.
The negative values indicate that the heat was lost to the atmosphere
during winter.
The results of the study with the consideration of atmospheric parameters
showed that the upper salinity maximum is intermittently formed due to
prevailing meteorological conditions causing evaporation in the Northern
area of the Arabian Sea. The distribution of temperature, depth, salinity,
density and dissolved oxygen of upper salinity maximum the core layer
indicated its formation during NE monsoon at the continental shelf of
Indus and Makran, Pakistan. The density anomaly of core layer of the
upper salinity maximum depicted that from January to May it decreases
from northeast in the Gulf of Oman (25 kg m–3 ) to southeast (24.8 kg m–3 )
along the Murray Ridge in the Indus basin.
The simulation of the mixed layer numerical model revealed that the
simulated mixed layer depth is in close relationship with the observed
xii
data; however, results are shallower than the observed. The correct
combination of surface fluxes, surface properties and surface water mass
formation is very difficult to obtain under the surface forcing
parameterization based on prescribed oceanic and atmospheric data.
In spite of some constraints in availability of ideal data which required
extensive coverage of CTD data synchronized with meteorological data, it
is concluded that in the northern Arabian Sea there is only one subsurface
salinity maximum which exits just underneath subsurface salinity
minimum near the mixed layers. At all the sampling stations of NASEER
or Argo profiling sites in the northern Arabian Sea, it was 25 kg m-3
density water which is described as North Arabian Sea High Salinity
Water (NASHSW) by Banse (1990). Since a water mass of 24 kg m-3
density could not be found in the sub-surfaces of northern Arabian Sea, so
it can be inferred that the conclusion drawn by the Morrison (1997, 2003)
that 25 kg m-3 water is a denser part of the ASW appears to be correct.
xiii
III List of Figures
Figure 1.1 The domain of the North Indian Ocean that is divided
into two semi-enclosed tropical basins, the Arabian
Sea and the Bay of Bengal …. …………….. 4
Figure 1.2 North Arabian Sea and its physiographic
features………………………………………………. 5
Figure 1.3 Presence of upper salinity maximum in the Arabian
Sea, graph plotted from NASEER data …………….. 6
Figure 1.4 Water masses in the Arabian Sea………….………… 10
Figure 2.1 Atmospheric circulation as a result of oceanic
processes ……………... …………………………… 17
Figure 2.2 Warm and cold air masses forming fronts. …………. 18
Figure 2.3 The heat balance of the earth. ………………………. 24
Figure 2.4 Absorption of solar radiation at different depths in
the ocean. …………………………………………… 26
Figure 2.5 Schematic of the dominant forcing functions and
energy containing motions in the surface ocean
mixing layer. …………….………….……………… 32
xxii
Figure 2.6 The variation with northern latitude of the mean
annual values for heat budget in the northern
hemisphere…………………………………………... 33
Figure 2.7 Section through atmosphere, from polar region to the
equator showing the general circulation……………. 34
Figure 2.8 A schematic of various processes active for the
development of SW and NE monsoon
pattern………….………….………….……………… 40
Figure 2.9 Wind direction and location of high pressure during
winter monsoon on the Asia…………………………. 41
Figure 2.10 Wind direction and location of low pressure during
summer monsoon on the Asia………………………. 42
Figure 2.11 Wind direction and ocean temperature over the
Arabian Sea……………….…………………………. 43
Figure 2.12 Temperature-Salinity diagram of Indian Ocean water
masses. ………….………….………….…………….. 47
Figure 3.1 Location map of the sampling stations occupied in
every cruise under NASEER program. The stations
marked with circles are the 24 hours time-series
stations …………. …………………………….......... 60
xxiii
Figure 4.1 Locations of the data profiles of the Argo float
2900097. ……………………………………………. 79
Figure 4.2 T-S plots of the Argo float 2900097 recorded data on
potential density slanting lines………………………. 80
Figure 4.3 Time series profiles of Argo float 2900097. a.
Potential temperature, b. salinity, c. Sigma-
theta.………………………….. 81
2900098.………………………................................. 83
theta.…………………………………………………. 85
2900134.……………………………………………... 87
theta.………………………......................................... 89
xxiv
2900135…………………………………...…………. 91
potential density slanting lines…………………...... 92
theta.………………………......................................... 93
2900394……………………………………………… 95
potential density slanting lines.……………………… 96
theta.……….........................................………............ 97
2900397……………………………………………… 99
Figure 4.18 Distribution of the NASHSW core depth (m) in a,
January, b, March.…………………………………… 105
xxv
Figure 4.19 Distribution of the NASHSW core depth (m) in
(above) - May, and (below) -December……………... 106
Figure 4.20 Distribution of the NASHSW core salinity in
(above)-January, (below) -March.…………………… 108
Figure 4.21 Distribution of the NASHSW core salinity in (above)
- May, and (below) -December……………………… 109
Figure 4.22 Distribution of the NASHSW core  anomaly in
(above)-January, (below) -March.…………………… 111
Figure 4.23 Distribution of the NASHSW core  anomaly in
(above)- May, and (below) -December……………… 112
Figure 4.24a Distribution of the NASHSW core dissolved oxygen
during a, January 1992, and b, March 1993 ………… 114
Figure 4.24b Distribution of the NASHSW core dissolved oxygen
during a, May 1994, and b, December 1994………… 115
Figure 4.25A Time-series plots of atmospheric pressure at
sampling stations in the north Arabian Sea………….. 117
Figure 4.25B Time-series plots of atmospheric pressure at
Figure 4.26A Time-series plots of air temperature (oC) at sampling
stations in the north Arabian Sea…………………….. 120
Figure 4.26B Time-series plots of air temperature (oC) at sampling
xxvi
stations in the north Arabian Sea…………………….. 121
Figure 4.27A Time-series plots of sea surface temperature (oC) at
Figure 4.27B Time-series plots of sea surface temperature (oC) at
Figure 4.28 Wind roses for the data recorded at time series
sampling stations in the north Arabian Sea under
NASEER a, January 1992, and b, August
1992.............................................................................. 127
Figure 4.29 Wind roses for the data recorded at time series
sampling stations in the north Arabian Sea under
NASEER a, March 1993 and b, December
1994……..………………………................................ 128
Figure 4.30 Mean variation of heat fluxes (W m-2) computed for
the data collected of the time series stations ……….. 131
Figure 4.31A Time-series plots of incoming solar radiations……… 132
Figure 4.31B Time-series plots of incoming solar radiations……… 133
Figure 4.32A Mean variation of incoming solar heat fluxes (W m-2)
computed for the data collected of the time series
stations ……………………………………………… 135
Figure 4.32B Mean variation of incoming solar heat fluxes (W m-2)
xxvii
stations ……………………………………………… 136
Figure 4.33A Time-series plots of outgoing longwave radiations…. 138
Figure 4.33B Time-series plots of outgoing longwave radiations…. 139
Figure 4.34A Mean variation of long wave outgoing heat fluxes (W
m-2) computed for the data collected of the time
series stations………………………………………… 140
Figure 4.34B Mean variation of long wave outgoing heat fluxes (W
m-2) computed for the data collected of the time
series stations………………………………………… 141
Figure 4.35A Time-series plots of latent heat……………………… 145
Figure 4.35B Time-series plots of latent heat……………………… 146
Figure 4.36A Mean values for the latent heat fluxes (W m-2)
stations………………………………………………. 147
Figure 4.36B Mean values for the latent heat fluxes (W m-2)
stations………………………………………………. 148
Figure 4.37A Time-series plots of sensible heat…………………… 151
Figure 4.37B Time-series plots of sensible heat…………………… 152
xxviii
Figure 4.38A Mean values for the sensible heat fluxes (W m-2)
computed for the data collected at the time series
stations ……………………………………………… 153
Figure 4.38B Mean values for the sensible heat fluxes (W m-2)
stations ……………………………………………… 154
Figure 4.39A Time-series plots of evaporation…………………….. 158
Figure 4.39B Time-series plots of evaporation…………………….. 159
Figure 4.40 Mean values for the moisture fluxes (cm month-1)
stations………………………………………………. 160
Figure 4.41 Variation of net effective radiation (W m-2) computed
for the data collected of the time series stations…….. 162
Figure 4.42 Variation of Net Heat Gain (W m-2) computed from
the data collected at the time series stations…………. 165
Figure 4.43 Time-series plots of east components of momentum
fluxes. …………………………….............................. 167
Figure 4.44 Time-series plots of north components of momentum
fluxes. …………………………….............................. 168
Figure 4.45A Buoyancy computed for the time series stations (10 x
10-6 kg/m2 sec-1) over the sea surface of the north
xxix
Arabian Sea …………………………………………. 170
Figure 4.45B Buoyancy computed for the time series stations (10 x
10-6 kg/m2 sec-1) over the sea surface of the north
Arabian Sea …………………………………………. 171
Figure 4.46A Mean values computed for the thermal buoyancy (10
x10-6 kg m-2 sec-1) over the sea surface of the north 172
Arabian Sea…………………………………………..
Figure 4.46B Mean values computed for the thermal buoyancy (10 173
x10-6 kg m-2 sec-1) over the sea surface of the north
Arabian Sea………………………………………….. 176
Figure 4.47A Mean values computed for the haline buoyancy
fluxes (10 x10-6 kg/m2 sec-1) over the sea surface of
the north Arabian Sea………………………………... 175
Figure 4.47B Mean values computed for the haline buoyancy
the north Arabian Sea………………………………... 176
Figure 4.48A Mean absolute values computed for the thermal to
haline ratio over the sea surface of the north Arabian
Sea…………………………………………………… 178
Figure 4.48B Mean absolute values computed for the thermal to
xxx
Sea…………………………………………………… 179
Figure 4.49A Variation of mixed layer depths (m) computed for the
data collected at the time series stations. above,
January 1992, below, March 1993…………………... 182
Figure 4.49B Variation of mixed layer depths (m) computed for the
data collected at the time series stations during
December 1994……………………………………… 183
Figure 4.50 Location of NASEER January 1992 stations (left)
and T-S plot (right)………………………………….. 185
Figure 4.51 Profiles of NASEER January 1992 stations as shown
in figure 4.50………………………………………… 186
Figure 4.52 Location of NASEER January stations (left) and
meridional T-S plot (right)….......... ……………….. 187
Figure 4.53 Profiles of NASEER January stations as shown in
figure 4.52 ………………………………………… 189
Figure 4.54 Location of NASEER March stations (left) and zonal
T-S plot (right)…..………………………………….. 191
Figure 4.55 Zonal Profiles of NASEER March stations as shown
in figure 4.54…..……………………….......... ……... 192
Figure 4.56 Location of NASEER March stations and meridional
T-S plot ……………………………………..……... 194
xxxi
Figure 4.57 Meridional Profiles of NASEER March stations as
shown in figure 4.56.………….…………………….. 195
Figure 4.58 Location of NASEER May stations and meridional
T-S plot ……………………………………..……... 196
Figure 4.59 Meridional Profiles of NASEER May stations……… 197
Potential temperature, b. salinity, c. Sigma-theta…… 199
Figure 4.61 Sigma- profile with contours of Argo float
2900397……………………………………………… 200
Figure 4.62 Potential Density Profiles with contours for the Argo
float 2900134 ………………………………………. 202
Figure 4.63 Potential Density Profiles with contours for the Argo
float 2900135..…………………..........……………. 204
Figure 4.64 Potential Density Profile with contours for the Argo
float 2900097 ………………………………………... 206
Figure 4.65 Potential Density Profile with contours for the Argo
float 2900098……………………..........…………….. 207
Figure 5.1 Time series plot of the simulated and observed
mixed layer (a) depth, (b) temperature and (c)
salinity. ……………………………............................ 215
Figure 6.1 Profiles of temperature (oC), salinity, sigma-theta and
xxxii
T-S plot for the data collected six hourly at station 27
during January 1992 cruise under NASEER
programme…………………..................................... 218
Figure 6.2 Mean variation of momentum fluxes computed for
the data collected of the time series stations indicated
at the positions shown in figure 3.1………………….. 224
Figure 6.3a Scatter plot of potential temperature and salinity
values of the NASHSW core deduced from the
NASEER data at the positions shown in figure 3.1…. 233
Figure 6.3b Scatter plots of oxygen and  of the NASHSW core
layer deduced from the NASEER data at the
positions shown in figure 3.1………………………... 234
xxxiii
IV List of Tables
Table 3.1 Summery of the NASEER cruises and instruments
used. ………………………..………………………... 59
Table 3.2 Argo floats used in this study………………………... 63
Table 4.1 Water masses in the upper 1000 m of the Arabian Sea
as derived from Argo data. ………………………...... 102
Table 4.2 Average Radiative heat fluxes computed from
NASEER data. ………………………........................ 142
Table 4.3 Average Turbulent heat fluxes computed from
NASEER data. ………………………........................ 155
Table 4.4 Mean of Net Effective and Net Heat Gain Fluxes
computed from NASEER data………………………. 164
Table 5.1 Initial values and constants used for mixed layer
simulation at station 27 of NASEER Programme…... 214
Table 6.1 NASHSW mass core layer parameters as observed in
NASEER data………………………………………... 235
xxxiv
V List of Appendices
(Published Papers)
Appendix A The Study of Formation of Upper Salinity Maxima
in the Northern Arabian Sea and Its Distribution.
Pakistan Journal of Marine Science 14(1): 1-12.
(2005)……………………………………………… 265
Appendix B Diurnal variation of the Radiative Heat Fluxes over
the sea surface of the Northern Arabian Sea.
Pakistan Journal of Oceanography, 1(1) 41-50.
(2005)……………………………………………… 270
Appendix C Mixed layer depths in northern Arabian Sea.
Pakistan Journal of Oceanography, 1(1) 89 - 96.
(2005)……………………………………………… 291
Appendix D Diurnal fluctuation of the heat fluxes over the
northern Arabian Sea, Journal of Basic and Applied
Sciences, 2(2) 105 - 117. (2006)…………………... 301
xxxv
Chapter – 1
1.0 Introduction
The water masses a term being used in oceanographic literature has been
borrowed from meteorology. The water masses of specific characteristics
are formed in different regions of the oceans by the processes occurring at
the surface of the oceans, and ocean-atmosphere interactions at specific
locations and sink from the surface to subsurface depths. They move from
the region of formation and spread out to different oceans, and deep
mixing eventually pulls them up through the thermocline over large areas
of the ocean. It is this upward mixing that drives the deep circulation.
The water mass distribution is controlled by density gradients. The two
key parameters governing these differences are temperature and salinity
and are routinely used to characterize it. The salinity maximum and
minimum are used in a temperature - salinity (T – S) graph to distinguish a
water mass in a certain area of the ocean. This method of water mass
identification was introduced first time by Helland and Hansen (1916). A
salinity maximum or minimum is defined as that point on a T-S curve
1
which has a salinity greater than or less than the value obtained by the
mixing of the water above and below it on the curve (Stewart, 2003).
The Northern Indian Ocean (NIO) is a unique environment (Fig. 1.1)
having very special dynamics and thermodynamics due to its small size
and geographical location being without a connection with the more
northern seas (Joseph, 2005). The near-surface circulation of the North
Indian Ocean (NIO) is driven by the seasonally reversing winds associated
with the monsoons (Stewart, 2003). The North Indian Ocean (NIO) in turn
provides the moisture and energy to drive the monsoon system in the
Arabian Sea.
The Arabian Sea (Fig. 1.2) is an active region of air-sea interaction
processes and plays a major role in driving the monsoon system. The
semi-annual reversal in wind stresses associated with the monsoon, water
mass intrusions from marginal seas and other oceans, geographical effects
(being blocked by the landmass) and therefore no subtropical convergence
or deep water formation, give the upper waters of the Arabian Sea a
unique thermohaline structure and circulation (Wyrtki, 1971; Morrison
and Olson, 1992; You and Tomczak, 1993; Morrison, 1997). It has been
recognized that in the Arabian Sea due to air – sea interaction processes,
2
water mass forms at the surface and sinks to just below the mixed layer
depth. This water mass is identified and recognized (Rochford, 1964;
Wyrtki, 1971; Banse, 1990; Morrison and Olson, 1992; You and
Tomczak, 1993; Kumar and Prasad, l996; Morrison 1997) by its upper
most salinity maxima in the T – S graph (Fig. 1.3).
3
Figure 1.1 The domain of the North Indian Ocean (NIO) that is divided into
two semi-enclosed tropical basins, the Arabian Sea and the Bay of
Bengal
4
5
Figure 1.2 North Arabian Sea and its physiographic features
Figure 1.3 Presence of upper salinity maximum in the
Arabian Sea, graph plotted from NASEER data
6
The dynamics of water masses of the Arabian Sea cannot be studied
separately until the oceanic processes of the Indian Ocean that
encompasses the Arabian Sea are fully understood. The ocean and the
atmosphere are coupled together to create the monsoon system. A brief
overview of this system is presented in section 2.3. The basins of the
North Indian Ocean are influenced by the intrusion of warm and highly
saline water masses from the Persian Gulf, Red Sea and low salinity water
mass from the Bay of Bengal (Prasad and Ikeda, 2002).
The heat budget of the ocean is a delicate balance between various
concurrent processes of the air-sea interaction, namely heat exchange at
the surface, turbulent mixing, and horizontal and vertical advections. The
water properties, such as temperature and salinity, are formed by the heat
exchange through the relative contribution of heat and freshwater fluxes
only when the water is at the surface or in the mixed layer. The fresh water
fluxes are defined in the oceanographic literature as the resultant of
evaporation when precipitation and/or river input are subtracted (E – P –
R). The basic parameters that govern the formation and transportation of
water masses are the heating, cooling, rain, sublimation or evaporation
through the surface buoyancy fluxes (density fluxes) that in turn is
controlled by the air sea coupling.
7
Many studies have been carried out in the recent past in the central
Arabian Sea to identify and quantify the processes that contribute to the
annual evolution of upper salinity maximum in the Arabian Sea
(Rochford, 1964; Wyrtki, 1971; You and Tomczak, 1993 and Morrison
1997). These studies agreed on the presence of three high salinity maxima
in the upper 1000 meters (Fig. 1.4). The shallowest high salinity maximum
water mass is formed by subduction and enters the upper thermocline, has
been termed as Arabian Sea Water (ASW) (Morrison, 1997; Schott &
Fischer, 2000). It is formed in the northern Arabian Sea during the
northeast monsoon and spreads as a salinity maximum (~36.6) with a σ
24 kg m-3 just underneath the surface-mixed layer (Morrison, 1997; Schott
and Fischer, 2000, Prasad and Ikeda 2002 and Naeem et al 2005).
Another near-surface salty water mass in the north of northern Arabian
Sea, which is clearly distinct from Arabian Sea Water, is Persian Gulf
Water (PGW). After spilling out from the Strait of Hormuz, it spreads in
the Arabian Sea at a depth of about 250–300 m with core σ 26.6 kg m-3
(Rockford, 1964; Wyrtki, 1971; Morrison, 1997; Schott and Fischer, 2000
and Ali et al 2003). The influence of Persian Gulf Water (PGW) does not
extend very far beyond the northern Arabian Sea (Morrison 1997, Prasad
and Ikeda 2002). The warm and saline Red Sea Water (RSW) with a core
8
density of σ 27.1 – 27.3 kg m-3, spreads from the north west of Arabian
Sea, out of the Gulf of Aden below 600 m from the surface.
9
10
Figure 1.4 Water masses in the Arabian Sea (From Morrison, 1997)
There are generally different opinions about the formation and behavior of
the upper most salinity maximum. Rochford (1964) reported the presence
of a high salinity water mass in the Arabian Sea and termed as Water mass
‘D’; Wyrtki (1971) reported this water mass with σ 25 kg m-3 as Arabian
Sea water (ASW) mass due to its formation in the Arabian Sea; Kumar
and Prasad (1997) also confirmed about the presence of this water mass
with σ 22 - 24 kg m-3 and reported it as the Arabian Sea High Salinity
Water (ASHSW) mass. However, according to Banse (1984) the water
mass that has the characteristic density centered around 25 kg m-3 is a
different water mass than the Arabian Sea High Salinity Water (ASHSW)
that has σ 24 kg m-3. He suggests that the water mass that has a σ 25 kg
m-3 could be called the North Arabian Sea High Salinity Water
(NASHSW) mass due to its formation in the northern Arabian Sea.
Whereas, Morrison (1997) suggested that it might be appropriate, to think
of Arabian Sea High Salinity Water (ASHSW) as a relatively denser
fraction of Arabian Sea Water (ASW). Naeem et al (2005) also considered
this water mass different than the Arabian Sea High Salinity Water
(ASHSW).
The complexity of the upper high salinity water mass distribution and
physiography of the northern Arabian Sea (Fig. 1.2) makes it extremely
11
interesting to study the behavior, formation and spreading of water mass
that is originating from the area. In view of the above, the present study
has been planned with the prime objective of understanding the dynamical
processes that govern the formation of upper salinity maximum in the
north Arabia Sea by analysing actual data collected under the North
Arabian Sea Environment and Ecosystem Research (NASEER)
Programme (1992 – 1995) and Argo floats launched in the Arabian Sea
since year 2000. The North Arabian Sea Environment and Ecosystem
Research (NASEER) Programme was a Pak - US cooperative programme
which was initiated by National institute of Oceanography Pakistan with
the financial assistance from office of Naval Research (US-ONR) under
the Grant N00014-86-86-G-0230. Its primary goal was to understand the
processes involved in the interaction between the physics, chemistry and
biology of the water off Pakistan during inter, intra and post monsoonal
periods. The main features of the programme were to investigate the
influence of the monsoons on the major physical forces prevailing in the
area and to study how these influenced the biology there.
The Argo is a pilot program of the Global Ocean Observing System
(GOOS) consisting of a global array of 3,000 free-drifting profiling floats
that measure the temperature and salinity of the upper 1000 m of the
12
ocean. This has allowed, for the first time, continuous monitoring of the
temperature, salinity, and velocity of the upper ocean, with all the data
being relayed and made publicly available within hours after collection.
Argo deployment began in 2000 and has developed two separate data
streams: real time and delayed mode. Real time data delivery and quality
control system delivers the data to users via two data centers within 24
hours. The data used in the present study are in delayed mode quality
control system (DMQC) that has been made freely available by the
International Argo Project (http://www.argo.ucsd.edu,
http://argo.jcommops.org ).
The results inferred from the above study were validated with the
simulation of mixed layer model. Hereinafter, the term NASHSW shall be
used for the description of upper salinity maximum in the Arabian Sea.
The research work undertaken in the present study has been compiled and
presented in this thesis under seven chapters (including this introduction).
A brief overview of the ocean-atmosphere coupling system (with
emphasis on the Arabian Sea) as well as the background information for
the present study has been described in chapter 2. Chapter 3 explains
about the research data and analytical methods used in this study. The
13
findings of the study have been summarised in chapter 4. The result of the
one-dimensional model simulated for the mixed layer parameters are
presented in chapter 5. The interpretation of the results of the actual data
and the results of the simulation of the model are discussed in chapter 6.
Chapter 7 provides concluding remarks. References have been compiled
as a separate chapter and Appendices are placed at the end of all the
chapters which represent the copies of the papers based on present study
and published during the course.
14
Chapter - 2
2.0 The background

2.1 WATER MASSES
As mentioned earlier the term of water masses in oceanography is
borrowed from meteorology. Vilheim Bjerknes, a Norwegian
meteorologist, first described the cold air masses that form in the polar
regions and move equator-ward, where they collide with warm air masses
at places (Fig. 2.1 and 2.2) and he called them fronts, just as masses of
troops collide at fronts in war (Friedman, 1989). In a similar way, water
masses are formed in different regions of the ocean, which are often
separated by fronts.
Tomczak (1999) defined water mass as a body of water with a common
formation history, having its origin in a physical region of the ocean.
Similar to the air masses in the atmosphere, water masses are physical
entities with a measurable volume and occupy a finite volume in the
ocean. In the region of formation, the water masses exclusively occupy a
15
particular part of the ocean but elsewhere the oceanic area is shared by
various water masses with which they mix. The total volume of water
mass is given by the sum of all its elements regardless of their location.
16
Figure 2.1 Atmospheric circulation as a result of oceanic
processes (From Patriarachi lecture notes 2006)
17
18
Figure 2.2 Warm and cold air masses forming fronts (From Brown et al, 1989)
Apart from the above scientific description, the very first reference of
water mass is found in the Holy Qur’an which explains about the existence
of two distinct types of waters bodies flowing together. It is very clearly
mentioned in the Holy Qur’an that “and He it is who has caused the two
seas to flow, this palatable and sweet, and that salt and bitter, and between
them He has placed a barrier and insurmountable partition” (Alfurquan;
54).
Water masses which sink to subsurface after there formation at the surface
spread from one accounts to the other. The deep circulation is mostly
density driven. The wind cools the surface and evaporates water, which
determines where deep convection occurs. And, it produces turbulence in
the deep ocean which mixes cold water upward (Stewart, 2003).
The fluxes of heat ( incoming short-wave, outgoing long-wave radiation,
sensible and latent heat fluxes) carried by the deep circulation influence
Earth’s heat budget and climate. The oceans carry about half the heat from
the tropics to mid latitudes required to maintain Earth’s temperature. At
mid and low latitudes, the density, even in winter, is sufficiently low to the
extent that the surface water cannot sink more than a few hundred meters
into the ocean. The only exception are some seas, such as the
19
Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea and Persian Gulf where evaporation is so
large that the salinity of the water is sufficiently great for the water to sink
to the bottom of these seas (Tomczak, 1999).
The water properties of water mass, such as temperature and salinity, are
formed only when the water is at the surface or in the mixed layer.
Heating, cooling, rain, sublimation or evaporation all contribute in the
formation of these water properties. Once the water sinks below the mixed
layer, the change in temperature and salinity can occur only by mixing
with adjacent water masses. Hence, water from a particular region exhibits
specific temperature associated with a particular salinity, with negligible
changes even if the water moves through the deep ocean. Thus
temperature and salinity are not independent variables but are conservative
properties because there are no sources or sinks of heat and salt in the
interior of the ocean. Other properties, such as oxygen are non-
conservative. For example, oxygen content may change slowly due to
oxidation of organic material and respiration by animals.
As stated, the basic parameters that govern the formation and
transportation of water masses are the heating, cooling, rain, sublimation
or evaporation that in turn are controlled by the air-sea coupling.
20
2.2 THE AIR - SEA INTERACTION SYSTEM
The interaction of ocean with the atmosphere plays a significant role in
determining the Earth's climate and weather. Since it is the radiation from
the Sun, heating the Earth, that drives motion in both of these fluids. The
understanding of climate and weather, and how they evolve, requires an
understanding of how energy is transported within, and exchanged
between the ocean and the atmosphere.
An essential aspect of the oceanic role in climate is the water mass
formation process. Through convection (driven by surface heat loss)
and/or subduction, properties (potential vorticity, temperature, salinity,
etc.) acquired at the ocean surface are transferred to subsurface and deep
layers. Isolated from the interfacial fluxes, these properties are preserved
below the surface and by advection, can influence conditions in the remote
regions, establishing tele-connections and eventually feeding back upon
the atmosphere. Long term changes in the atmospheric circulation and in
the associated heat and moisture advection, which are forced through
interaction with the ocean, modify the fluxes at the air - sea interface,
leading to the formation of water masses with anomalous properties. The
21
following sections provide a description of these topics; much of what
follows is based on Peixoto and Oort (1992) and Houghton et al. (1995).
2.2.1 The Earth's climate system
Weather can be defined as the state of the atmosphere at a given location.
It is characterized by short-lasting meteorological events with a typical
time scale of a few days. The state of the atmosphere is determined by
state of parameters such as density, temperature, pressure, moisture, etc.
The atmosphere is an open thermodynamical system that exchanges matter
and energy with its environment at its boundary. The oceans, the land
surface, the biosphere, and the cryosphere (sea and land-ice) are open
thermodynamical systems, and among these systems complex interactions
are taking place which constitute the environment of the atmosphere. Any
change in the state of any of these systems can induce fluctuation in the
adjacent components. All these interlinked component systems form the
Earth's climate system with the atmosphere as the central component in
which we live.
22
2.2.2 The ocean as the flywheel for the Earth's climate
system
The major energy source and sink of the climate system are the solar and
the terrestrial radiations respectively. The energy from the Sun is received
in the form of radiation, with nearly all energy in between 0.2 and 4 µm.
Some solar radiation is either absorbed or scattered by the atmospheric
gases, water vapour, particles, and clouds, the remaining is either absorbed
or reflected by the Earth's surface (Fig. 2.3).
The amount of solar radiation reflected or scattered into space without any
change in wavelength is defined as the albedo of the surface. The albedo
varies in space and time as well as for different surface types. The albedo
of the ocean is significantly smaller than that of land. The mean global
albedo is 30%. The remaining 70% of the incoming solar radiation must
be absorbed. Of this remaining flux, about three-quarters (about half of
the total incoming flux) penetrates the atmosphere and is absorbed by the
Earth's surface. The remainder (i.e. 16% of the total incoming flux) is
absorbed directly by the atmosphere. Both the atmosphere and the surface
re-radiate this absorbed energy as long-wave radiation.
23
24
Figure 2.3 The heat balance of the earth (From Stewart, 2003)
The ability of the Earth's surface to absorb the solar radiation differs
profoundly on land and at sea. On land, most of the energy is absorbed
close to the surface (a few centimeters). The near surface warms up
rapidly, leading to increase of outgoing terrestrial radiation (long wave).
At sea, the solar radiation penetrates much deeper, with 20% reaching a
depth of 10 m or more (Fig. 2.4). Turbulent diffusion in the sea can
transport heat from surface to sub-surface layers. So the sea is heated to a
much greater depth and the surface warms up much more slowly. The
ocean also has a large thermal inertia and it can store heat for a long
period, from several months to several years. This implies that more
energy is stored in the top layer of the ocean and less is lost to space in the
form of long-wave radiation. This absorptive capacity of the ocean plays
an important part in the dynamics of the Earth's climate system. In effect,
ocean acts as a huge climatic flywheel, damping down fluctuations in
other parts of the climate of the globe.
25
Figure 2.4. Penetration of solar radiation at different depth in the
ocean (From Brown et al, 1989)
26
Because the atmosphere and the oceans transport energy from one place to
another, this motion is an integral part of the Earth's radiation balance. On
a global scale the most important feature is that, while most solar energy is
absorbed at low latitudes, a large amount of energy is radiated toward
space at high latitudes. This loss is balanced by energy transport from
lower latitudes. This provides the energy to fuel the engine that drives the
global atmospheric and oceanic circulation throughout the year. Peixoto
and Oort (1992) demonstrated that both atmosphere and ocean transport
about the same amount of energy pole-ward.
The oceanic heat transport varies from one ocean to the other. In the
northern hemisphere, the Atlantic Ocean carries more heat north-ward
than the Pacific Ocean. In the southern hemisphere, the Pacific Ocean
transports roughly twice as much energy south-ward than the Indian
Ocean, as compared to the Atlantic which has a small negative effect,
carrying energy north-ward across the Equator. One of the interesting
feature of the Indian ocean is that the meridional heat transport in the
northern basin is negative (toward the equator) in contrast to the other
oceans. This is because the Indian Ocean, unlike the other oceans, is
blocked by the land masses of the Asian continent to the north around 25o
27
N. These unique features of the Indian Ocean have far reaching impact on
the climate of the surrounding regions.
The role of the oceans in the meridional heat transport process cannot be
thought as independent of the atmosphere. There is continual exchange of
energy in the form of heat, momentum (as winds stir up waves), and
moisture (in the form of evaporation and precipitation). This energy flux is
particularly large in the vicinity of the major currents, and the regions
where cold polar air moves to lower latitudes over warmer water. These
regions are the breeding grounds of many of the storm systems that are a
feature of the mid-latitude weather.
In view of the above description, it is clear that the ocean plays a
regulating role, in the earth's weather and climate system through its
interaction with the atmosphere. Understanding of this air-sea interaction
process at global as well as regional scales is fundamentally important for
understanding and predicting the weather and climate of the Earth.
28
2.2.3 Air-sea interaction processes and sea surface
temperature (SST)
The interface between the ocean and the atmosphere is dynamic. Matter
and energy are continually being transferred in both directions and the
exchange takes place through freshwater flux in the form of evaporation
from ocean to atmosphere and of precipitation from atmosphere to ocean.
Energy can be exchanged between the two systems in the form of fluxes
of momentum, radiation, and heat. The characteristics of these energy
fluxes are as follows.
1. Momentum (kinetic energy): The atmosphere supplies energy to the
upper layers of ocean by transferring momentum through wind stress. This
momentum exchange creates ocean waves and currents, which are mainly
responsible for the transport of heat and momentum in the ocean (Fig.
2.5). In contrast, the ocean plays a very sluggish role in momentum
transfer to the atmosphere.
2. Radiation:
(a) Solar short-wave radiation enters the ocean and forms the main energy
source for the ocean.
29
(b) long-wave radiation is exchanged between the ocean and the
atmosphere in both directions. However, net long-wave radiation is from
the ocean to the atmosphere (Fig. 2.6).
3. Turbulent heat exchanges: There are two ways for energy to be
exchanged in the form of turbulent heat fluxes;
(a) The sensible heat flux (conduction process) can be exchanged in either
of the directions depending on the difference between sea surface
temperature (SST) and the temperature of the overlying atmosphere. If the
difference is positive, heat flows to the atmosphere.
(b) Latent heat flux: In the process of evaporation heat is carried by the
water molecules in latent form from the ocean surface to the atmosphere.
(This depends on sea surface temperature (SST), wind speed, and the
moisture content of the atmosphere.) The net result is the cooling of the
ocean surface (Fig. 2.6).
These flux exchanges are the mediators of the coupling processes, which
drive many physical processes (in space and time scales) inside both the
systems. These fluxes are directly as well as indirectly related to sea
30
surface temperature (SST), which is thus an important indicator of these
coupled processes, and hence many investigators put forth their efforts to
understand the links between the sea surface temperature (SST) and the
various air-sea interaction processes (Fig. 2.7). While SST plays a highly
significant role in controlling the climate and weather of the tropical
regions, its effect at higher latitudes cannot be ignored (Fig. 2.7). The most
frequent mid-latitude (frontal) disturbances are mostly driven by sensible
heating (temperature difference between the sea surface and the overlying
atmosphere).
31
Figure 2.5 Schematic of the dominant forcing functions and energy-
containing motions in the surface ocean mixing layer.
(From Thorpe, 1985)
32
Figure 2.6: The variation with northern latitude of the mean annual
values (per unit area) for heat budget, in the northern
Hemisphere (From Brown et al 1989)
33
34
Figure 2.7. Section through the atmosphere, from the Polar region to the Equator showing the general
circulation (From Brown et al 1989)

2.2.4 Sea Surface Temperature (SST) and the concept of
mixed layer.
Numerous factors affect sea surface temperature (SST). The local air-sea
fluxes have a direct and strong control over the sea surface temperature
(SST). Besides local air-sea fluxes, SSTs are also controlled by internal
processes occurring in the ocean. These processes include horizontal and
vertical advection, (upwelling and downwelling), and vertical diffusion.
Horizontal diffusion of heat is much slower in the ocean than atmosphere.
How these processes work together in the ocean is presented schematically
in figure 2.5.
The surface mixed layer is a quasi-homogeneous layer (also known as
oceanic boundary layer), the site of active air-sea exchange formed in the
top layers of the ocean owing to quasi-balance among the various forcing
fluxes. Forcing from winds, heating and cooling, rainfall and evaporation
(buoyancy forces), have a profound influence on the distribution of mass,
energy, and momentum on the ocean. Although the effects from wind and
buoyancy forcing are ultimately felt throughout the ocean, the most
immediate impact is in the surface mixed layer. The mixed layer is
warmed by solar (short-wave) radiation and cooled by (long-wave)
radiation emitted from the surface and by latent heat loss due to
35
evaporation. The mixed layer tends to be cooled by sensible heat loss
because the surface air is generally cooler than the ocean surface.
Evaporation and precipitation change the mixed-layer salinity. The
changes in salinity and temperature define the surface buoyancy. As the
surface loses buoyancy, it becomes denser than the sub-surface waters,
causing convective overturning and mixing. Wind forcing can also cause
surface overturning and mixing, as well as localized overturning at the
base of the mixed layer through shear-flow instability. This wind and
buoyancy generated turbulence generally causes the surface water to be
well-mixed and leads to vertically uniform temperature, salinity, and
density profiles. Furthermore, turbulence can entrain deeper water into the
surface mixed layer, causing the surface temperature and salinity to
change resulting into thickening of well-mixed, vertically uniform water.
Wind forcing can also set up oceanic currents and cause changes in the
mixed-layer temperature and salinity through horizontal and vertical
advection.
Salinity does affect the thermal structure by affecting the density field,
however density is a strong function of temperature. Furthermore, the
salinity of the upper ocean usually varies very slowly in space and time.
Therefore, in most cases, salinity does not have much control over the
36
thermal field. The recent study by Durand et al. (2004) has shown that the
sea surface temperature (SST) of the eastern Arabian Sea increase by 1.1
o
C during November - March, whereas the atmospheric fluxes cooled the
surface by 0.3 oC over the same period.
Another important issue related to mixed layer processes study is the
impact of chlorophyll concentration on the thermodynamics of the upper
ocean through the vertical attenuation of solar irradiance. When
chlorophyll concentration increases, the solar irradiance is trapped within
a thinner upper layer. This stabilizes the mixed layer by reducing the
vertical mixing due to convection and wind mixing, and it increases the
sea surface temperature (SST). In reverse, chlorophyll is affected by the
local thermodynamics.
37
2.3 NORTH INDIAN OCEAN AND THE MONSOONS
The portion of the Indian Ocean that lies north of 10o S is a small tropical
basin, closed by the land masses of south-Asian countries in the north
around 25oN and has no connection to the more northern seas (Fig. 1.3).
This unique size and geographical location has significant consequences
for the climate of the surrounding regions. The differential heating
between the North Indian Ocean and the surrounding land masses with the
seasonal movement of the sun causes a north-south pressure gradient (Fig.
2.8a and b). This pressure gradient drives the seasonally reversing
(monsoon) winds over the North Indian Ocean. The monsoon winds
generally blow from the northeast (Fig. 2.9) during November - February
(the Northeast (NE) or winter monsoon), and the south-west (Fig. 2.10)
during May - September (the Southwest (SW) monsoon or summer
monsoon). The winds are weaker in March - April and October being the
months of transition. The winds are stronger during summer than winter.
Since the Southwest (SW) monsoon winds blow from the ocean to the
land, they are loaded with moisture and this causes heavy precipitation in
the coastal regions. Rainfall during the Southwest (SW) monsoon is the
major source of freshwater in the coastal region of the North Indian
Ocean. The Northeast (NE) monsoon winds blow from land to the ocean;
hence they are basically dry and do not cause significant rainfall. Not only
38
does this seasonal cycle affect weather patterns on land, it also affects the
Arabian Sea itself. Because the Arabian Sea is landlocked in the north, it
is largely cut off from large-scale ocean circulation patterns, allowing
local winds to play a significant role in ocean temperatures. Cool waters
are most prominent near the Arabian Peninsula (Fig. 2.11) during the
summer monsoon. During the summer monsoon, strong, steady winds
push water on the sea surface towards land. In response to the intensified
winds causing surface water movement, cooler waters rise up from the
ocean depths. Although temperature variations still exist during the winter
monsoon, the temperature gradient is not as extreme.
39
Figure 2.8: A schematic of various processes active for the
development of SW and NE monsoon pattern (From
Patriarachi , 2006)
40
41
Figure 2.9: wind direction (arrows) and location of high pressure during winter monsoon on the Asia
(From Patriarachi , 2006)

42
Figure 2.10: wind direction (arrows) and location of low pressure during summer monsoon on the Asia
(From Patriarachi, 2006)

43
Figure 2.11: wind direction (arrows) and ocean temperatures (colors) over the Arabian Sea (From
NASA, 2007)
2.3.1 Hydrography/Meteorology of the Arabian Sea
The Arabian Sea is an active region of the air-sea interaction process and
is recognized as an important driver of the monsoon system over the
Indian subcontinent (Nuzhdin 1982). Pronounced summer cooling prevails
in the Arabian Sea (Wyrtki et al. 1971), and show an increase in SST with
the advance of the summer. The amplitude of the cooling varies from
region to region. Off the coast of Somalia, it has been found to be as high
as 10 oC or more between May and July, while off the eastern coast of the
Arabian Sea along the coast of India, it is about 2-3 oC. There exists a
region of minimum cooling around 70o E, separating the regions of
cooling in the eastern and western Arabian Sea. Like other tropical oceans,
a major portion of the Arabian Sea undergoes winter cooling. Thus, the
Arabian Sea exhibits a unique bimodal variation in the annual evolution of
surface layer temperature and heat storage (Colborn 1976).
Düing and Leetma (1980) computed preliminary heat budget for the upper
ocean layer in the Arabian Sea during the SW monsoon (April - August)
in order to assess the importance of possible feedbacks between the ocean
and the atmosphere. They suggested that the net radiation gain minus the
heat loss through evaporation and sensible heat was positive in the
44
Arabian Sea. The net heat gain at the surface is more than offset by the
large southward heat flux across the equator and the intense upwelling off
Somalia and Arabia. During the rest of the year, the heating of the Arabian
Sea balances the summer cooling. There must therefore be a mean
transport of heat southward across the equator to balance the heat gain in
the Arabian Sea on a yearly average (Düing and Leetma 1980).
They also suggested various possible mechanisms such as winter cooling
in the northern Arabian Sea and southward flow at intermediate depths
under the Somali Current for exporting heat out of the Arabian Sea. As
indicated earlier, upwelling and advection of cold water appear to be
responsible for the surface cooling during summer in the northern Arabian
Sea (Düing and Leetma 1980; Sastry and Ramesh Babu 1984), whereas in
the eastern Arabian Sea, the entrainment of cold waters into the surface
layers and the subsequent turbulent mixing play a dominant role (Sastry
and Ramesh Babu 1984).
45
2.4 WATER MASSES IN THE UPPER 1000 m OF THE
INDIAN OCEAN
The water masses found in the upper 1000 meters of the Indian Ocean and
their characteristics have been discussed in detail by Morrison (1997) and
Schott et al (2000). Schott et al (2000) described that water masses in the
Indian Ocean can be classified in three groups: (1) water masses that are
generated within the open Indian Ocean by subduction, (2) water masses
that are mixing products of other water masses, and (3) water masses that
enter from outside. These water masses summarized by them are
reproduced in figure 2.12. The water masses are generally grouped in the
following three classes according to their depth of occurrence:
1. Shallow water masses (less then 500 m depth).
2. Intermediate water masses (between 500 – 1500 m depth)
3. Deep water masses (more than 1500 m depth)
Since the present study is based on the water mass that is characterized as
shallow water mass the background information for shallow water masses
has been discussed which will help in understanding the water masses
behavior in the Arabian Sea.
46
Fig. 2.12 Temperature-Salinity diagram of Indian Ocean water masses
taken from Levitus and Boyer (1994a,b; reproduced from
Schott and McCreary, 2001)
47
2.4.1 Shallow Water Masses
2.4.1.1 Arabian Sea High Salinity Water (ASHSW)
During the Indian Ocean Joint Global Ocean Flux Study (JGOFS)
programme, observations collected during February-March 1995 suggest
the presence of a relatively cool, high salinity water mass which has been
termed by Kumar and Prasad (l996, 1999) as Arabian Sea High Salinity
Water (ASHSW) that has been formed due to the action of the Northeast
(NE) monsoon winds and reduced insulation. The mode of formation of
this water mass is similar to that for the Arabian Sea Water (ASW), and
the main distinction is that its density tends to be lower than the 25 kg m-3
value that is often used to characterize the Arabian Sea Water (ASW)
salinity maximum. Kumar and Li (1996) suggest a characteristic
temperature, salinity, and σθ for Arabian Sea High Salinity Water
(ASHSW) mass of 26.345 °C, 36.387, and 24.082 kg m-3, respectively.
2.4.1.2 Arabian Sea Water (ASW)
Arabian Sea Water is formed in the northern Arabian Sea during the
northeast monsoon and spreads as a salinity maximum just underneath the
surface mixed layer (Morrison, 1997; Schott & Fischer, 2000). This
48
relatively dense water (σθ 25 kg m-3 ) can then be capped by lower density
surface waters advected into the region or arising from heating during the
Inter-monsoons and the Southwest (SW) monsoon. A major cause of the
Arabian Sea Water (ASW) salinity maximum is the advection of low
salinity water from the Oman upwelling region in the Ras al Hadd Jet
during the Southwest (SW) monsoon. This upwelled water sinks beneath
the warm surface waters and lie above the Arabian Sea Water (ASW),
thereby contributing to the salinity maximum that is associated with the
Arabian Sea Water (Morrison, 1997).
2.4.1.3 Bay of Bengal, Waters ( BBW)
In the northern Bay of Bengal, waters of very low salinities are generated
through the combined effects of large river discharge and excess
precipitation and called Bay of Bengal Water (BBW). These low salinity
waters spread around India/Sri Lanka and are identified in the eastern
Arabian Sea (Stramma, Fischer, & Schott, 1996).
49
2.4.1.4 Persian Gulf Water (PGW)
The salty near-surface water mass, found in the Arabian Sea clearly
distinct from the Arabian Sea Water (ASW), is Persian Gulf Water
(PGW). It spreads with a core σθ 26.6 kg m-3, corresponding to a depth of
about 250–300 m. Persian Gulf Water enters into the Arabian Sea firstly,
as a narrow subsurface jet of Persian Gulf Water (PGW) which flows to
the south as a western boundary undercurrent under the upwelling zone
where it spreads eastward into the central basin (Morrison, 1997 and Ali et
al, 2003) and secondly, the Persian Gulf Water (PGW) spreads to the east
in the northern extremes of the Arabian Sea and down the coast of India
during NE monsoon and advects to the west into the central basin during
SW monsoon (Morrison, 1997 and Ali et al, 2003). The Persian Gulf
Water (PGW) is present throughout the entire Arabian Sea, identified by
its core salinity maximum, but it rapidly looses its identity further to the
south.
2.4.2 Intermediate Water Masses
2.4.2.1 Indian Central Water (ICW)
Indian Central Water (ICW) is formed in the subtropics of the southern
hemisphere. In the Northern Hemisphere, it is referred to as North Indian
50
Central Water (NICW), an aged type of ICW (You, 1997). He suggests a
transition path of ICW: subduction in the South Indian Ocean at ~ 40 - 45
o
S, advection with the subtropical gyre, and exit to the northern Indian
Ocean as part of the western boundary currents. The northward spreading
of ICW into the equatorial and northern Indian Ocean is through the
Somali Current centered at 300-400 m with σθ of ~26.7 during the SW
Monsoon and due to the Equatorial Counter Current during the NE
Monsoon (You, 1997).
2.4.2.2 Banda Sea Water or Australian Mediterranean

Water (AAMW)
The water masses entering through the passages in the Indonesian
peninsula originate mostly from the thermocline in the North Pacific.
Initially they are marked by a salinity maximum, but become transformed
by strong vertical mixing as they flow over the various sills of the
Indonesian passages (Schott and McCreary, 2004), and so assume new
characteristics, showing a relative salinity minimum in the Indian Ocean
environment (Fig. 2.12).
51
2.4.2.3 Indian Equatorial Water (IEW)
The equatorial regime has its own specific thermocline water-mass, Indian
Equatorial Water (IEW), which is marked by small vertical salinity
differences. It is a mixing product of Indonesian Throughflow water
coming from the east and Indian Ocean waters from the north and south
(You & Tomczak, 1993).
2.4.2.4 North Indian Intermediate Water (NIIW)
Kumar and Li (1996) suggest that evaporation in the Arabian Sea, Red
Sea, and Persian Gulf contributes to the formation of North Indian
Intermediate Water (NIIW). This is a high salinity water mass with a
characteristic σθ of ~27.1 kg m-3 that is not very different from Wyrtki’s
RSW (Morrison, 1997).
2.4.2.5 Red Sea Water (RSW)
The northern marginal sea, the Red Sea injects water mass into the Indian
Ocean that is identifiable over long distance by its high salinity. The
52
salinity maxima arising from Red Sea (RSW) water is centered at 27.2 kg
m-3 σθ (Wyrtki, 1971). A seasonal cycle of the outflow from the Red Sea
through the Gulf of Aden and into the Indian Ocean with a winter
maximum has been documented (Murray and Johns, 1997). Its preferred
spreading route into the Indian Ocean is through the passage between
Scotra Island and the African continent (Schott and Fischer, 2000) with a
second branch of this undercurrent going around Scotra (Schott and
Fischer, 2000). This water mass has been observed as far south as the
Mozambique Channel (Beal et al., 2000).
Morrison (1997) has summarized the presence of water masses in the
Arabian Sea based on the data collected in JGOFS in figure which is
reproduced as figure 1.4.
53
2.5 OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The objectives of the research work undertaken in the present study has
been to understand the dynamics of the formation of upper most high
salinity water mass in the Northern Arabian Sea which is the shallowest of
the three high salinity water masses. The diversified opinions regarding
upper salinity maximum have already been mentioned earlier (Rochford,
1964; Wyrtki, 1971; Banse, 1984; Kumar and Prasad, 1996 and Morrison,
1997). Water mass identification in Arabian Sea is very complex as
compared to other oceanic regions, therefore it is important to delineate
Arabian Sea Water (ASW), Arabian Sea High Salinity Water (ASHSW)
and North Arabian Sea High Salinity Water (NASHSW) masses based on
their individual hydrodynamic characteristics.
The air - sea interactive processes involved in the formation and spreading
dynamics of upper Salinity water mass originating in the Arabian Sea has
been validated through the use of numerical model simulation of the
mixed layer depth and discussed.
54
Chapter - 3
3.0 Research Data and

Analytical methods
All the hydro-meteorological data used in the present research work were
collected under the following two different oceanographic research
programmes:
1 The North Arabian Sea Environment and Ecosystem Research
Programme (NASEER, 1992 – 1995)
2 The Argo floats launched in the Arabian Sea under the pilot
programme of the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS).
The data analysis and interpretation was carried out with the help of
different analytical methods. The results obtained were validated by
simulating the mixed layer numerical model. The details regarding
data collection and analysis are explained below.
55
3.1 COLLECTION OF RESEARCH DATA
3.1.1 North Arabian Sea Environment and Ecosystem

Research (NASEER) Programme Data
The oceanographic data (seawater temperature, salinity) and
meteorological data (atmospheric pressure, air temperature, humidity,
wind condition) available in the archives of the National Oceanographic
Data Center (NODC) of the National Institute of Oceanography, Pakistan
were used for the present study. These data were collected under the North
Arabian Sea Environment and Ecosystem Research (NASEER)
programme undertaken by the National Institute of Oceanography (NIO),
Pakistan during 1992 – 1995 covering a pre-selected cruise track of 3150
km (Fig. 3.1) in the northern Arabian Sea. The primary goal of the
NASEER was to understand the processes involved in the interaction
between the physics, chemistry and biology of the waters off Pakistan
during inter, intra and post monsoonal periods. The main features were to
investigate the influences of monsoons on the major physical forces of the
area and to try to study how these influence the biology of the northern
Arabian Sea.
Under the NASEER programme five cruises were undertaken which are
summarised in Table - 3.1 along with the instrument used to collect the
56
oceanographic data. Salinity and seawater temperature data were collected
on board M/V Aghyar-S with Sea Bird's SBE 26 CTD profiler during the
first cruise from 9-23 January 1992; whereas during the last three cruises
(13-22, March 1993 on board M/V Mangan, 10-21 May 1994 and 18-28
December 1994 onboard S/V Behr Paima) Sea Bird's SBE 9/11 plus CTD
profiler was used. General Oceanic Rosette sampler equipped with 11
bottles with protected and unprotected reversing thermometers was used
for the water collection to calibrate the CTD sensors. Along the cruise
tracks, data was collected from 25 locations using CTD during the down-
cast with a sampling frequency of 8Hz and lowering speed of about 1m s-1.
Sampling bottles were triggered during the up-cast at selected depths for
collection of water samples and for CTD data error check as well as
chemical and biological analyses (Ali et al, 2003, 2005, and Naeem et al,
2005a,b).
The SBE 26 CTD has accuracies of +0.01 oC and +0.003 for temperature
and salinity, respectively. The salinity values are provided as
dimensionless and the potential density anomaly of sea water as sigma-
theta (kg m–3). The dissolved oxygen (DO) values were recorded by the
DO sensor installed on CTD. The quality control of the data was
performed and processed using JGOFS techniques and methodology.
57
The ship board meteorological data recorded by Aandereaa Automatic
Weather Station (AWS), at an interval of one hour in the last two cruises
(13-22, March 1993 on board M/V Mangan, and 18-28 December 1994
onboard S/V Behr Paima) was used to compute estimates of the heat
budget. The meteorological data using the ship’s conventional
meteorological instruments was recorded in the first two cruises (9-23
January 1992 and 10-24 August 1992 onboard M/V Aghyar–S). The
recording interval in the first two cruises was set to three hours to
synchronize with World Weather Watch (WWW) timings. The time series
data of standard meteorological parameters consisting of dry and wet air
temperature, wind speed with direction, atmospheric pressure were used
for the computation of heat and buoyancy fluxes which were collected
from the five 24 hour stations (Fig. 3.1).
58
Table 3.1. Summery of the NASEER cruises and instruments used
Cruise Date Instruments used Season
1 Jan. 9-23, 1992 SBE26 CTD, Shipboard Winter

meteorological instruments,
Multi-rosette water sampler.
Niskin water bottles.
2 Aug.10-24, 1992 Shipboard meteorological Summer

instruments, Niskin water
bottles
3 Mar.13-22, 1993 SBE9/11 plus CTD, Spring

Automatic weather station,
4 May 10-21, 1994 SBE9/11 plus CTD, Spring

5 Dec. 18-28, 994 SBE9/11 plus CTD, Winter

59
26N
IRAN PAKISTAN
62
25N
60
15
24N 4
57 18 12
53 21
23N 8
50
49
24
22N 46
60
45
42 27
21N 37 30
33
20N
59E 60E 61E 62E 63E 64E 65E 66E 67E 68E
Figure 3.1 Location map of the sampling stations occupied in every cruise under NASEER
program. The stations marked with circles are the 24 hours time-series stations
3.1.2 Argo Floats Data
High-frequency time-series data of sub-surface waters obtained by some
the Argo floats launched in the Arabian Sea has been used in this study.
Argo is a pilot program of the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS)
for recording the temperature and salinity of the upper 2000 m of the
ocean. Argo deployment began in 2000 and has developed two separate
data streams: real time and delayed mode. These data used in the present
study were collected and made freely available by the International Argo
Project and the national programs that contribute to it.
(http://www.argo.ucsd.edu, http://argo.jcommops.org).
The Argo floats are designed to sample the high quality temperature and
salinity profiles during their ascent phase and stop sampling 3–4 meters
below the sea surface (Joseph and Freeland, 2005). The data files
providing the information of less than 10 m depth below the sea surface
were used in this study (Table 3.2). The data were downloaded in delayed
mode in January 2006 from the Ifremer web site
http://www.ifremer.fr/coriolis/cdc/default.htm where these data are stored
by their unique WMO numbers. The acquired data in most cases have
been subjected only to a cursory quality check, as prescribed by the Argo
61
data management manual. Apart from this all profiles were visually
checked for presence of erroneous data.
62
Table 3.2 Argo floats used in this study
S. No. Argo WMO number
1 2900097
2 2900098
3 2900134
4 2900135
5 2900397
6 2900394
63
3.2 ANALYTICAL METHODS
3.2.1 Potential Temperature (θ) and Potential Density (σθ)
Potential temperature θ is the temperature of a parcel of water at the sea
surface after it has been raised adiabatically from some depth in the ocean,
whereas, Potential density σθ is the density of a parcel of water it would
have if it were raised adiabatically to the surface without change in
salinity. θ and σθ are especially useful because they are conservative
thermodynamic properties. Potential temperature and potential density is
computed by using the MATLAB subroutine developed by Phil Morgan
who used UNESCO (1983) algorithms for computation of fundamental
properties of seawater.
3.2.2 Determination of Salinity Maximum
The variation of salinity from one place to the other in the oceans can be
used to determine the source of the water masses. This method is called
the core method. A core is a layer of water with extreme value (in the
mathematical sense) of salinity (Stewart, 2003). In the present study a
salinity maximum on a salinity profile was taken at a point where an
increase of salinity > 0.03 occurred between two successive sampling
depths.
64
3.2.3 Construction of Temperature - Salinity (T-S) plots
Plots of salinity as a function of potential temperature, called T-S plots,
are used in this study to delineate water masses and their distribution. The
water from a particular region has a particular temperature associated with
a particular salinity, and the relationship changes little as the water moves
through the deep ocean. Thus potential temperature and salinity are not
independent variables. Each point in the T-S plot is a water type.
3.2.4 Identification of Mixed Layer Depth
The thickness of surface homogeneous layer as widely known as mixed
layer depths were delineated by using the 1 oC difference at a depth
between surface and sub-surface temperature.
65
3.2.5 Estimation of Heat Budget
The net heat flux through the sea surface is combination of a number of
components, the radiative fluxes, comprising short-wave radiation, Qi and
long-wave radiation, Qb and the turbulent heat fluxes comprising the Qs
the sensible and Qe the latent heat fluxes (Joseph et al, 1992; Naeem et al,
2005). Numerically it can be written as:
Qnet = Qi + Qb + Qs + Qe …..(3.1)
The shortwave flux (Qi) is the incoming solar radiation that reaches the
sea surface and penetrates the ocean, heating the ocean down to about 100
to 200 meters, depending on the transparency of the water. The long-wave
flux (Qb) is the net flux of long-wave radiation at the sea surface due to the
radiation beamed out by the ocean according to the blackbody law, less
the ‘back radiation’ from the atmospheric cloud and water vapor layer.
The sensible heat flux (Qs) is the flux of heat through the sea surface due
to turbulent exchange. It depends on the wind speed and the air-sea
temperature difference and so. On the average, sensible heat is transferred
from the ocean to atmosphere. The latent heat flux (Qe) is the flux of heat
carried by evaporated water. The water vapor leaving the ocean eventually
66
condenses in to water droplets forming clouds, releasing its latent heat of
vaporization in the atmosphere. The latent heat flux depends on the wind-
speed and relative humidity. High winds and dry air evaporate much more
water than weak winds and moist air.
3.2.5.1 Radiative Heat Fluxes
3.2.5.1.1 Shortwave Flux (Qi )
The short-wave fluxes are computed by using equation (3.2) as mentioned
in Lumb (1964), Payne (1972), Reed (1977) and Joseph et al (1992).
Qi = 1353 × sin(φ (0.61 + 0.02) × (1 − 0.62C

…....(3.2)
+ 0.0019φn ) × 0.04)
where φ is the Solar altitude, φn is the Solar altitude at noon which are
computed using algorithms (3.3 & 3.4) which were used by Watt (1978),
and C is the Cloud cover.
1
φ=
{
sin sin( N ) sin(δ ) + cos( oN ) cos(δ ) cos(h)
o
}
…(3.3)
1
φn = …………..(3.4)
 cos(δ ) cos(h) 
sin − 
 cos(φ ) 
67
where oN is the Latitudinal location, δ is the Solar declination and h is the
hour angle. The declination angle of the sun with respect to equator affects
the length of the day, the optical path length of the sunlight, hence the
irradiance. An approximate formula for locations in northern hemisphere,
the declination of the sun is calculated by using equation (3.5) which has
been used by Duffie and Beckman (1991).
 2π (284 + d ) 
δ = 23.45 × sin   ........(3.5)
 265
where d is the day of the year.
68
3.2.5.1.1.1 Equation of Time
As the earth moves around the sun, solar time changes slightly with
respect to local standard time. This is mainly related to the conservation of
angular momentum as the earth moves around the sun. This time
difference is called the equation of time and can be an important factor
when one is at sea, navigating by the sun or stars. It is also important in
determining the position of the sun for solar energy calculations. An
approximate formula for the equation of time (Eqt) in minutes is given by
Watts (1978).
Solar time has been calculated using the longitude correction and the
equation of time as defined in equation 3.6.
E qt Long local _ Long SM

Tsol = Tlocal + + ….(3.6)
60 15
The values obtained using the above equation are expressed in hours.
Since equations use sine and cosine functions it is conceptually easier to
calculate using the hour angle (ω) instead of time. The relationship
between hour angle and time is
π (12 − Tsol )
h= …………………………..(3.7)
12
69
sin[π (d + 7)]
E qt = −14.2 if 1< d < 106
111
sin[π (d − 106)]
Eqt = 4.0 if 107< d < 166
56
sin[π (d − 166)]
Eqt = −6.5 if 167<d < 246
80
sin[π (d − 247)]
Eqt = −16.4 if 247< d < 365
113
3.2.5.1.2 Long-wave Flux (Qb)
The outgoing Long-wave radiations were estimated by using algorithm of
3.8 described by Wyrtki, (1966).
Qb = εσTs4 0.39 − 0.05 [ ]

q s (1
….(3.8)
− 0.53C 2
) + 4εσT s
3
(Ts − Ta )
Where ε is the sea water emissivity which is taken as 0.96, σ is the
Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67x 10-8 ), Ta and Ts are the temperatures of
air and sea surface respectively (oK) and qs is the specific humidity of sea.
70
3.2.5.2 Turbulent Heat Fluxes
3.2.5.2.1 Latent Heat Flux (Qe)
The standard bulk formula as mentioned in equation 3.9 is used for latent
heat flux computation.
Qe = ρ a LCe (qs − qa )U …(3.9)
Where qa is the specific humidity of air, C e = C s = 1 + 0.05U ,

1000
if 0<U<20 m s-1 as used by Friehe and Schmitt (1976) and L = (2502 -

e
2.38 t) is the latent heat of evaporation. q a = 0.622 × ,
P
es
qa = 0.622 × . In these “e” is the vapor pressure, “es” is the
P
saturation vapor pressure and “P” is the observed atmospheric pressure in
 7.5T 
 
 237.3 + T 
mbar, whereas, es = 6.11×10 and “T” is the sea water
temperature in oC. The vapour pressure “e” can be computed by using the
observed values of T and ρa and using calculated values of es which is
e = 0.461e s Tρ a .
71
3.2.5.2.2 Sensible Heat Flux (Qs)
The standard bulk formula (Friehe and Schmitt, 1976) which is used for
sensible heat fluxes computation is given in equation 3.10.
Qs = ρ a C p C s (Ts − Ta )U ………………..(3.10)
Where Cp is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure and taken as
4000 J kg-1 , Cs is coefficient, U is the wind velocity (m s-1) and ρa is the
air density (kg m-3).
3.2.5.3 Freshwater Heat Fluxes
The freshwater flux across the air-sea interface is defined as the
differences of evaporation and precipitation including river run off
(Prasad, 1997). Numerically this statement can be described as:
Qf = E − P + R …………………………..(3.11)
where E is the moisture heat fluxes, P is the precipitation and R is the river
runoff.
72
3.2.5.3.1 Moisture Heat Fluxes (Evaporation)
The evaporation is computed by using equation (3.9) and dividing it with
latent heat of evaporation.
E = ρ a Ce (qs − qa )U ……….(3.12)
3.2.5.3.2 Surface Buoyancy Flux
Buoyancy flux Fe is the combined effect of fluxes of heat and the water at
the surface of the ocean and defined as the weight per unit volume (-ρg).
The buoyancy fluxes are computed by using the equation 3.13 which is
also used by Prasad et al (1998).
Fe = − ρ w (αFT − βFs ) …………(3.13)
where
1 ∂ρ
α =−
ρ w ∂T
1 ∂ρ
β =
ρ w ∂S
In these equations α is the thermal expansion coefficient of the sea water
at the surface of the ocean and taken as −0.00025 οC-1 and β is the haline
contraction coefficient and taken as 0.75 Whereas,
73
Qnet
FT =
ρ wC P
S ( E − P)
Fs =
1− S
FT and Fs the fluxes due to heat and salt, s is salinity in 10-3 , E is
evaporation and P is the precipitation.
The salt flux which due to the loss of freshwater from the sea surface is
obtained by noting that a freshwater flow from the sea surface at a rate of
“E-P” must be supplied by a slightly larger flow of salt water below the
sea surface equal to (E-P)/(1-S) (Prasad, 1997). Salt is left behind by this
flow at a rate equal to (E-P)S/(1-S) and is carried by turbulence and
diffusion back into the ocean interior (Prasad, 1997). Absolute ratio
between thermal and haline buoyancy is computed as under:
αFT
β FS
3.2.5.4 Momentum Fluxes
3.2.5.4.1 Wind Stress (τ )
The horizontal force of the wind on the sea surface or the vertical transfer
of horizontal momentum is called the wind stress. Thus momentum is
74
transferred from the atmosphere to the ocean by wind stress (Stewart,
2003). Wind stress τ is calculated by using equation 3.14.
τ = ρ wCDU 2 ……….(3.14)
where CD is the Drag’s coefficient and taken as 1.52 x 10-3 whereas, U is
the wind velocity. U is resolved in eastward and northward components to
compute the τx and τy in N m-2 by using following equations:
τ x = ρC d u u and τ y = ρC d v v
3.2.5.5 Net Effective Radiation (R)
Net effective radiation over the sea surface was computed by the
algorithm mentioned in equation 3.15 (Ramesh Kumar & Sastry, 1990):
R = Qi – Qb …………………….(3.15)
3.2.5.6 Total Heat Loss
The total heat loss from the sea surface to the atmosphere is computed
from the equation 3.16 as quoted by Ramesh Kumar and Gangadhara Rao
(1989).
75
THL= Qe+Qs ……………………..(3.16)
3.2.5.7 Net Heat Gain of Ocean
The Net Heat Gain by the sea surface is the resultant of the Effective
radiation ( R ) of the sea surface and Total Heat Loss ( Qloss ) and
computed by using the equation 3.17.
NGO = R - (Qe + Qs) ………..(3.17)
76
Chapter – 4
4.0 Results
4.1 IDENTIFICATION OF WATER MASSES IN THE
ARABIAN SEA
Data generated through Argo floats launched in the Arabian Sea were used
to identify the water masses in the Arabian Sea. The reason to use the
Argo data is its extensive coverage. The results of individual floats used
for the identification are presented in the subsequent paragraphs.
4.1.1 Argo float 2900097
The Argo float 2900097 deployed in the northwestern location of the
Arabian Sea recorded the data from January 2003 to March 2004. During
its recording period of fifteen months, the float moved northwest to
southeast covering the area between 22 – 20 oN and 62 – 68 oE (Figure
4.1). The T-S plot of the data shown in the figure 4.2 indicates that there
are three distinctive high salinity maxima in the upper one kilometer depth
of the Arabian Sea that could be characterized as three water masses. The
upper most water mass due to its complex nature is hereinafter referred as
77
North Arabian Sea High Salinity Water (NASHSW) with the
characteristic density of 25 kg m-3. The next distinguished high salinity
water mass is the Persian Gulf Water mass (PGW) with characteristic
density of 26.5 kg m-3, and the last of the water masses is called the Red
Sea Water mass (RSW) which spreads out from Red Sea with a
characteristic density of 27.2 kg m-3. Time series variation of potential
temperature, salinity and potential density anomaly plotted in figure 4.3
depicted the seasonal impact. The spreading of PGW at a depth of 300 m
to 400 m is clearly visible in the salinity profiles.
78
Figure 4.1 Locations of each data profile of the Argo float 2900097.
“o” indicates location of first profile
79
Figure 4.2 T-S plots of the data recorded by Argo float 2900097.
Recorded data on potential density slanting lines.
NASHSW; North Arabian Sea High Salinity Water, PGW;
Persian Gulf Water and RSW; Red Sea Water
80
a
81
c
Figure 4.3 Time series profiles of Argo float 2900097; a. Potential temperature, b. salinity, c. Sigma-theta
4.1.2 Argo float 2900098
The Argo float 2900098 was also launched at the same time in the close
proximity of float 2900097 (Figure 4.4), however, this moved in a
comparatively smaller area (20 – 23.5 oN and 62 – 64.5 oE). The T-S plots
(Figure 4.5) of this float show the similar pattern of water masses found
with the data of Argo float 2900097. This plot clearly depicted the
presence of three water masses in the upper 1000 meters depth of the
Arabian Sea as already described. The similarity of the potential
temperature, salinity and sigma-theta profiles plotted in the figures 4.6a, b
and c with the 2900097 is also very prominent in the profiles.
82
83
Figure 4.5 T-S plots of the data recorded by Argo float 2900098 on
potential density slanting lines. NASHSW; North Arabian
Sea High Salinity Water, PGW; Persian Gulf Water and
RSW; Red Sea Water
84
85
a
4.1.3 Argo float 2900134
Argo float 2900134 was launched in the northern Arabian Sea and
remained in the Oman Basin for almost 42 months due to the Murray
Ridge barrier (Figure 4.7). The T-S plots of the data recorded through this
float (Figure 4.8) show distinct difference from the data received through
the floats deployed in the Arabian Sea. Although three water masses are
distinguishable, but the signature of PGW is strong and NASHSW is
weak. In the Gulf of Oman, prominence of PGW is due to proximity of
Persian Gulf. The presence of NASHSW is not as prominent as it had been
captured by the floats launched in the Arabian Sea. The time series
profiles of temperature, salinity and sigma-theta (Figure 4.9 a, b and c)
depicted seasonal variation in the depths of mixed layers and Persian Gulf
Water mass. The profiles depicted that during winter season, salinity of
the surface layer increased, whereas, during summer decreased due to the
less evaporation in the recording area.
86
87
RSW; Red Sea Water
88
a
89
c
4.1.4 Argo float 2900135
The Argo float 2900135 was also launched in the northern Arabian Sea
(Oman Basin) but comparatively with less coverage (Figure 4.10). The T-
S plots of the float (Figure 4.11) show the combined features of the Gulf
of Oman and the Arabian Sea. The NASHSW is not yet as prominent as it
has been in the Arabian Sea. The PGW is very prominent is the T-S plot
while RSW is also found in the deeper depths. The time series profiles
(Figures 4.12 a, b and c) of potential temperature, salinity and sigma-theta
show similar seasonal variation in the depths of mixed layers and PGW as
shown by the earlier stated floats.
90
91
RSW; Red Sea Water
92
c
93
4.1.5 Argo float 2900394
The Argo float 2900394 was launched near the mouth of Gulf of Aden.
During its course of recording it moved in between the axis of Findleter
and Ras al Hadd jets (Figure 4.13). The T-S plots of the data of this float
(Figure 4.14) show the combined features of the Gulf of Aden and the
Arabian Sea. In the Gulf of Aden upwelling phenomenon is very
prominent not only in the T-S plots but also in the profiles (Figures 4.15a,
b and c) of potential temperature, salinity and sigma-theta. During its free
float movement when it was in the Gulf of Aden, only one water mass
(RSW) is found, whereas, when it moved in the Arabian Sea we observed
the similar signatures of the three water masses. The NASHSW is
prominent in the T – S plot (Figure 4.14) when this float moved in the
Arabian Sea.
94
95
RSW; Red Sea Water
96
a
97
c
4.1.6 Argo float 2900397
The Argo float 2900397 was launched offshore Indus Deltaic area of
Pakistan, however due to shallow waters deployed float could not record
the data for prolonged period. The data was recorded for less than two
months only and then either it was picked up by fisher men or it might
have trapped some where and couldn’t transmit its data. During its course
of recording it remained in the deployed area (Figure 4.16). The T-S plots
of the float (Figure 4.17) show only one water mass (NASHSW) which is
very prominent due to the presence of this float in the NASHSW
formation zone.
98
99
Sea High Salinity Water
100
To sum up the Argo data it is found that three high salinity water masses
viz; NASHSW, PGW, and RSW are present in the upper 1000 meters of
the Arabian Sea, Gulf of Oman and Gulf of Aden. The characteristics of
theses water masses are presented in the table 4.1.
101
Table 4.1. Water masses in the upper 1000 m of the Arabian Sea as
derived from Argo data
Water Salinity Temperature σθ

mass (oC) kg m-3
NASHSW 36.5 – 36.65 23.5 - 25 24.8 – 25.1
PGW 36.2 – 36.5 16 - 18 26.5
RSW 35.6 11.5 - 12 27.2
102
4.2 HYDROLOGY OF THE NORTH ARABIAN SEA
HIGH SALINITY WATER MASS (UPPER
SALINITY MAXIMUM) BASED ON NASEER
DATA
To understand the dynamical processes that govern the formation of upper
salinity maximum in the Arabia Sea, the data collected under the North
Arabian Sea Environment and Ecosystem Research (NASEER; 1992 –
1995) Programme was used. This programme was conducted by the
National institute of Oceanography Pakistan under joint Pak _US
cooperative programme in the Arabian Sea. The findings of the analysis
are presented in the subsequent paragraphs.
4.2.1 Core Depth of North Arabian Sea High Salinity

Water mass (NASHSW)
In January 1992, the North Arabian Sea High Salinity Water (NASHSW)
mass core layer has been found to be shallow (<30 m) along the
continental shelf of Pakistan. In the northeastern part of the Murray ridge
the depth of the NASHSW core is more than 40 m (Figure 4.18). During
March 1993 data, NASHSW core subducted southwesterly in the
alignment of Murray ridge (Figure 4.18), which further deepened in May
1994 (Figure 4.19). In December 1994, the core layer was deeper towards
103
Indus Basin as compared the Oman basin which depicted the pattern of
sinking from Oman basin to Indus basin (Figure 4.19).
104
Pakistan
January 1992
Oman
Pakistan
March 1993
Oman
Figure 4.18 Distribution of the NASHSW core depth (m)
105
Pakistan
December 1994
Oman
Pakistan
May 1994
Oman
Figure 4.19 Distribution of the NASHSW core depth (m)
106
4.2.2 Salinity of North Arabian Sea High Salinity Water
mass (NASHSW) Core Layer
The salinity map of the North Arabian Sea High Salinity Water
(NASHSW) mass core layer during January 1992 (Figure 4.20) indicated
the formation of water mass at the shallow depth off Indus Delta where
salinities are >36.8. The data collected during March 1993 indicated the
pattern of dilution of salinity of the core layer. In the north salinity is
>36.6, whereas, in the south it is <36.6 (Figure 4.20). However during
May 1994, the presence of two pools with low salinity (<36.5) near Gulf
of Oman and off Indus Delta are observed (Figure 4.21). During
December (Figure 4.21), low salinity water (<36.5) was observed along
the Pakistan coast.
107
Pakistan
January 1992
Oman
Pakistan
March 1993
Oman
Figure 4.20 Distribution of the NASHSW core salinity
108
Pakistan
May 1994
Oman
Pakistan
December 1994
Oman
Figure 4.21 Distribution of the NASHSW core salinity
109
4.2.3 Potential Density anomaly of North Arabian Sea High
Salinity Water mass (NASHSW) Core Layer
The potential density anomaly of the North Arabian Sea High Salinity
Water (NASHSW) mass core layer computed as sigma-theta (kg m–3) was
used to draw the surface map (Figure 4.22) that depicted that except in
December 1994, potential density anomaly decreased from northwest in
the Oman Basin (25 kg m–3 ) to southeast (24.8 kg m–3 ) along the Murray
Ridge in the Indus Basin (Figures 4.22 - 4.23). However in December
1994, the maximum potential density anomaly (~ 24.3 kg m–3 ) of the core
layer was in the central region of northern Arabian Sea (Figure 4.23). It is
further seen that during January 1992, March 1993 and May 1994,
potential density anomaly of the core layer centered around 25 kg m–3 ,
while during December 1994, it was less than 25 kg m–3 .
110
Pakistan
January 1992
Oman
Pakistan
March 1993
Oman
Figure 4.22 Distribution of the NASHSW core σθ anomaly
111
Pakistan
May 1994
Oman
Pakistan
December 1994
Oman
Figure 4.23 Distribution of the NASHSW core σθ anomaly
112
4.2.4 Oxygen of North Arabian Sea High Salinity Water
mass (NASHSW) Core Layer
The dissolved oxygen in the core layer of the North Arabian Sea High
Salinity Water (NASHSW) mass as presented in figure 4.24 indicated that
during the NE monsoon (January, 1992 and December, 1994) core layer is
well aerated (3.94-4.57 ml/l) with the level of oxygen increased from
northeast to southwest in the northern Arabian Sea; while during March
1993 (Figure 4.24a(b)) it was minimum (2.28 ml/l) on the southeast of the
Northern Arabian Sea. It has been observed that generally, dissolved
oxygen level in the core layer of the North Arabian Sea High Salinity
Water (NASHSW) mass in the northern Arabian Sea decreases from
January to May (Figure 4.24a and b).
113
Pakistan
Oman
Pakistan
Oman
Figure 4.24a Distribution of the NASHSW core dissolved oxygen during a,
January 1992, and b, March 1993
114
Pakistan
Oman
Pakistan
Oman
Figure 4.24b Distribution of the NASHSW core dissolved oxygen during a,
May 1994, and b, December 1994
115
4.3 DYNAMICS OF THE NORTH ARABIAN SEA
HIGH SALINITY WATER (NASHSW) MASS
4.3.1 Atmospheric Pressure
During the NE monsoon (January and December), the atmospheric
pressure over sea surface in the northern Arabian sea was observed to be
high (1014 mb – 1021 mb Fig. 4.25a & d), while during SW monsoon
(August), it was low (995 mb – 999 mb Fig. 4.16b), which is in
confirmatory with the established and known general pattern of
atmospheric pressure in the area. The pre-SW monsoon (March – May)
season is known as transition period in which the atmospheric pressure
over the sea surface fluctuates (Fig. 4.25c). The graphical presentation
showed that there was diurnal variation with two maxima and minima in
the recording period of 24 hours. The minima were observed at 0500 and
1700 hours while the maxima were observed at 1100 and 2300 hours.
116
Figure. 4.25A Time-series plots of atmospheric pressure at sampling
stations in the north Arabian Sea
117
Figure. 4.25B Time-series plots of atmospheric pressure at sampling
stations in the north Arabian Sea.
118
.3.2 Air Temperature over Sea Surface
The time series data collected during January 1992 show that during this
period air temperature over the northern Arabian Sea remained between 21
o
C to 26 oC (Fig. 4.26a), however the data recorded in December 1994
(Fig. 4.26d) showed large variation (20 – 34.5 oC). During summer and
pre summer period (Fig. 4.26b & 4.26c) variation of air temperature is
between 23 – 32 oC. The analysis of data depicted that air temperature
progressively increases with the rising of sun and reaches at maximum
around 1400 hours then starts declining (Figures 4.26a - 4.26d). The mean
air temperature during January 1992 was 23 oC and during December was
24.62 oC, whereas during March 1994 and August 1992 it was 24.84 oC
and 27 oC respectively.
119
Figure. 4.26A Time-series plots of air temperature (oC) at sampling stations in
the north Arabian Sea. a, January 1992, b, August 1992
120
Figure. 4.26B Time-series plots of air temperature (oC) at sampling stations in the
north Arabian Sea. a, March 1993 and b, December 1994
121
4.3.3 Sea Surface Temperature
The sea surface temperature showed variation between 21 oC to 26 oC
during winter and pre summer seasons, while in summer it remained
between 27 oC and 30 oC (Figures 4.27a – 4.27d). The mean sea surface
temperature recorded during winters of 1992 and 1994 was 23.54 and
23.98 oC respectively, which further increased to 25.53 oC during pre
summer (May 1994) and 28 oC during summer seasons (August 1992).
122
Figure. 4.27A Time-series plots of sea surface temperature (oC) at sampling stations
in the north Arabian Sea a, January 1992, b, August 1992
123
b December
124
Figure. 4.27B Time-series plots of sea surface temperature (oC) at sampling stations
in the north Arabian Sea a, March 1993 and b, December 1994

4.3.4 Wind Condition
The general wind condition during the cruises of NASEER have been
plotted as wind rose in figures 4.28 & 4.29 which shows that during
winters (January 1992 and December 1994) the wind was mostly
northeasterly, whereas, during summer monsoon (August 1992) it was
opposite to winter direction (southwesterly). However, during pre summer
monsoon (May 1994), it was variable. Furthermore, occasionally, the wind
velocities in all the seasons crossed the limit of 11 m sec-1.
The wind rose presentation (Figure 4.28 a) depicted that during the
January 1992, more then 55% of the time wind was blowing from
northeast with varying speed, Similar wind pattern with varying wind
direction from east to northeast was observed in the data recorded during
December 1994 but with slower velocities (Figure 4.29 b).
The wind condition during August 1992 (Figure 4.28 b) showed that at all
the time series stations, wind was blowing predominantly from southwest
direction while wind speed remained within the limit of 11 m sec-1 except
at station 57 where 6% of recorded wind velocity was greater than 11 m
sec-1.
125
The wind condition during the recording period of March 1993 at all the
time series stations was remained between northwest and northeast (Figure
4.29 b) which is the indication of transition period from northeast to
southwest monsoon. Occasionally, the wind velocities in all the seasons
crossed the limit of 11 m sec-1.
126
a
Figure. 4.28 Wind roses for the data recorded at time series sampling stations in the
north Arabian Sea under NASEER. a, January 1992, b, August 1992
127
a
Figure. 4.29 Wind roses for the data recorded at time series sampling stations in the
north Arabian Sea under NASEER. a, March 1993, b, December 1994.
128
4.3.5 Heat Budget of the Arabian Sea
Heat budget of the Arabian Sea comprising of the radiative, and turbulent
heat fluxes was computed from meteorological data collected at the time
series stations already shown in figure 3.1.The average of the heat fluxes
computed for the NASEER cruises is plotted in figure 4.30.
4.3.5.1 Radiative Heat Fluxes
4.3.5.1.1 Shortwave Flux (Qi )
The time series shortwave fluxes calculated by using the equation 3.2
mentioned in chapter 3 are shown in figures 4.31a - 4.31d. The results
show that in the northern Arabian Sea during winter, maximum radiations
remained between 15 - 25 W m-2 (Figures 4.31a & 4.31d). Whereas,
during summer, radiations varied between 25 - 37 W m-2 (Figure 4.31b).
During the transition period of post-winter, radiations were maximum
(Figure 4.31c). Maximum radiations were recorded near solar zenith,
whereas, before sunrise and after sunset they were minimum (almost
Zero). The day time averages are given in Table 4.2. The mean incoming
solar radiation computed for the month of December and March are 146
and 241 W m-2 respectively (Figure 4.30a, 4.30b). These findings are in
conformity with the results of Sultan and Ahmed (1992) even if they used
129
meteorological data recorded from shallow water stations in their
computation.
130
200
175
150
150
a b
125
-2
-2
100
100
75
Heat Fluxes (W m )
50
Heat Fluxes (W m )
50
25
0
8 27 33 45 57
0
27 33 45 57 -25
300 200
250
a
c 150 bd
200
100
-2
-2
150
100 50
131
50
Heat Fluxes (W m )
Heat Fluxes (W m )
0
8 27 33 45 57
0
8 27 33 45 57
-50
-50
-100
-100
qi qb qe qs
Fig. 4.30 Mean variation of heat fluxes (W m-2) computed for the data collected of the time series stations indicated at the
positions shown in figure 3.1. a, January 1992, b, August 1992, c, March 1993 and d, December 1994
Figure. 4.31A Time-series plots of incoming solar radiations for sampling stations in
the north Arabian Sea. a, January 1992, b, August 1992
132
Figure. 4.31B Time-series plots of incoming solar radiations for sampling stations in
the north Arabian Sea. a, March 1993 and b, December 1994
133
The day time averages of the incoming short wave solar radiation at the
time series data depicts that during the January short-wave solar radiation
decreases from east to west which is similar even during December
(Figures 4.32a & 4.32d). Whereas, during March, solar radiation increases
from south to north (Figure 4.32b), however in the May data it is reversed
showing increase from northeast to southwest (Figure 4.32c).
134
Figure. 4.32A Mean variation of incoming solar heat fluxes (W
m-2) computed for the data collected from the time
series stations. a, January 1992, b, August 1992
135
Figure. 4.32B Mean variation of incoming solar heat fluxes (W
m-2) computed for the data collected from the
time series stations. a, March 1993 and b,
December 1994
136
4.3.5.1.2 Long-wave Flux (Qb)
The results of the computed long wave fluxes plotted in figures 4.33a -
4.33d show that generally these fluxes are maximum during night times
and minimum at mid day. However maximum fluxes of long wave
radiation never crossed the 200 W m-2 value. The average radiation during
winter recording periods (January 1992 and December 1994) was 161 and
159 Wm-2 respectively and during pre-summer was 168 Wm-2. The
average radiation during summer season was recorded as 136 Wm-2. The
24 hours averages are given in Table 4.2.
The computed mean of the time series results of the long-wave flux Qb
(Figure 4.34) shows that except in January 1992, the long-wave radiation
increased from north to south. Whereas, during January 1992, it decreased
from east to west (Figure 4.34a – 4.34d). The averages of the time-series
station for January and August 1992, March 1993 and December 1994
period were 161,136, 168 and 148 W m-2 respectively (Figures 4.30a-
4.30d), which are almost double the values reported by Sultan & Ahmed
(1993) for the northern Arabian Sea. The difference in the values is due to
the difference in the choice of parameters.
137
Figure. 4.33A Time-series plots of outgoing long-wave radiations for sampling stations
in the north Arabian Sea. a, January 1992, b, August 1992
138
Figure. 4.33B Time-series plots of outgoing long-wave radiations for sampling stations
in the north Arabian Sea. a, March 1993 and b, December 1994
139
Fig. 4.34A Mean variation of long wave outgoing heat fluxes
(W m-2) computed for the data collected of the time
series stations. a, January 1992; b, August 1992
140
Fig. 4.34B Mean variation of long-wave outgoing heat fluxes
(W m-2) computed for the data collected of the
time series stations. a, March 1993; and b,
December 1994
141
Table 4.2. Average Radiative heat fluxes computed from NASEER
data
Recording Period Qi Qb
Wm-2 Wm-2
January 1992 66 161
August 1992 88 136
March 1993 241 168
December 1994 156 157
142
4.3.5.2 Turbulent Heat Fluxes
4.3.5.2.1 Latent Heat Flux (Qe)
The results of the computed latent heat fluxes as plotted in figures 4.35a -
4.35d show that during January 1992, a clear pattern of diurnal variation
with two high and two low was observed in the latent heat fluxes. At
stations 27 and 33, two high peaks of latent heat fluxes were observed
around 1100 and 2300 hours and two low around 0500 and 1700 hours
respectively. However, at station 57 two high and two low do exist but
with the phase shift of 90o (Fig. 4.35a). The maximum variation of latent
heat fluxes was observed at station 33, whereas, the minimum variation at
the station 45. During December 1994, latent heat fluxes are relatively
small with out any pattern.
During August 1992, small latent heat fluxes which remained under 40
Wm-2 were observed at all time series stations except station 27 where
occasionally it reached the mark of 100 Wm-2 (Fig. 4.35b). The data
recorded during post winter season of 1993 (Fig. 4.35c), show visible
diurnal variation pattern. The 24 hours average latent heat fluxes in the
January 1992 and December 1994 are 62 and 109 Wm-2 respectively.
143
During March 1993, the average latent heat was 102 Wm-2 and during
August 1992, 25 Wm-2 has been recorded (Table 4.3) and plotted in figure
4.30.
The surfaces maps plotted for the mean latent heat fluxes computed at the
time series station (Figure 4.36a-4.36d) depict that during the recording
period of January and August 1992, latent heat fluxes decreased from
south to north (Figure 4.36a & 4.36b), whereas during March 1993,
increased to northeast along the orientation of Murray ridge (Figure
4.36c). However during December 1994, latent heat fluxes decreased from
west to east (Figure 4.36d).
144
Figure. 4.35A Time-series plots of latent heat for sampling stations in the north
Arabian Sea. a, January 1992, b, August 1992
145
Figure. 4.35B Time-series plots of latent heat for sampling stations in the north
Arabian Sea. a March 1993 and b, December 1994
146
Figure 4.36A Mean values for the latent heat fluxes (W m-2) computed
for the data collected of the time series stations. a, January
1992, b, August 1992
147
Figure 4.36B Mean values for the latent heat fluxes (W m-2) computed for
the data collected of the time series stations. a, March 1993
and d, December 1994
148
4.3.5.2.2 Sensible Heat Flux (Qs)
The computed sensible heat fluxes are presented in figures 4.37a - 4.37d.
A diurnal pattern with two high (1700 hrs and 0500 hours) and two low
values (at 2000 hours and 1100 hours) of fluxes was observed in the data
recorded from deep water time series stations (station 27, 33 and 57)
during January 1992 (Fig. 4.37a). The extreme negative values emerged in
the data of December 1994 (Figure 4.37d) with the exception of station 8
where positive fluxes were computed in contrast to the computed values of
August 1992 (Figure 4.37b). The average sensible heat fluxes during
January 1992 was 76 Wm-2, while during December 1994, average value
was -20 Wm-2. Similarly the average sensible heat during August 1992
was 71 Wm-2 and during May 1994 was 22 Wm-2 (Table 4.3). The
averages of the cruises are plotted in figure 4.30.
The surfaces plotted for the mean of sensible heat fluxes at the time series
station (Figure 4.38a - 4.38d) depict that during January 1992, at the time
series stations, higher of sensible heat fluxes were on the southeastern
stations and lower in the northwestern stations showing diagonal decrease
to north. A similar pattern is observed for the data of December 1994.
However, the sensible heat fluxes computed for August 1992 show
149
increasing pattern from northeast to southwest in the axis of Findlater Jet.
Whereas, during March 1993, low values of sensible heat fluxes are
computed in the north and high in the south (Figure 4.38d).
150
Figure. 4.37A Time-series plots of sensible heat for sampling stations in the north Arabian
Sea. a, January 1992, b, August 1992
151
Figure. 4.37B Time-series plots of sensible heat for sampling stations in the north Arabian
Sea. a, March 1993 and b, December 1994
152
Figure. 4.38A Mean values for the sensible heat fluxes (W m-2)
stations. a, January 1992, b, August 1992
153
Figure. 4.38B Mean values for the sensible heat fluxes (W m-2) computed
for the data collected at the time series stations.a, March
1993 and b, December 1994
154
Table 4.3. Average Turbulent heat fluxes computed
from NASEER data
Recording Period Qs Qe
Wm-2 Wm-2
January 1992 81 51
August 1992 70 57
March 1993 22 15
December 1994 -3 -11
155
4.3.5.3 Moisture Fluxes
4.3.5.3.1 Evaporation (E)
For computation of moisture fluxes, precipitation has been considered as
zero because precipitation did not occur during the cruises of NASEER
The evaporation referred moisture fluxes computed from the data recorded
during the cruises and presented in (Fig. 4.39a - 4.39d) indicated the
similar diurnal pattern as observed for the data of latent heat fluxes (Fig.
4.35a-4.35d). During the January 1992 cruise, minimum evaporation was
computed in the early morning and maximum after 1100 hours (Fig.
4.39a). A similarity was observed in the computed data for the August
1992 and March 1993 cruises with lower evaporation rates (Fig. 4.39b &
4.39c). However, during the December 1994, minimum was observed
after sunrise and maximum near to sun set. The maximum evaporation is
observed in the winter of 1992 and pre summer 1993. During the winter of
1994 the hourly evaporation rates remained below 60 cm/month whereas
in the data collected in summer 1992 occasionally evaporation reached the
level of 100 cm/month.
The surface for the mean evaporation at the time series (Figure 4.40a –
4.40d) depict that the evaporation during January and August 1992
156
increased from north to south (Figure 4.40a & 4.40b) showing more
evaporation was in the central Arabian Sea. Whereas, during March 1993
cruise, evaporation increased from southwest to northeast (Figure 4.40c).
During the December 1994, lower values are in the southeast and higher in
the rest of the area (Figure 4.40d).
157
Figure. 4.39A Time-series plots of evaporation at sampling stations in the north Arabian
Sea. a, January 1992, b, August 1992
158
Figure. 4.39B Time-series plots of evaporation at sampling stations in the north Arabian
Sea. a, March 1993 and b, December 1994
159
26N 26N
IRAN PAKISTAN IRAN PAKISTAN
25N 25N
24N a 24N
b
43 17
23N 23N
19
22N 22N
29 14
59 45
21N 21N
127
20N 20N
59E 60E 61E 62E 63E 64E 65E 66E 67E 68E 59E 60E 61E 62E 63E 64E 65E 66E 67E 68E
26N 26N
25N 25N
24N
c 24N d
128 32
23N 23N
120 23
22N
160
22N
85
19
21N 21N
81 36
20N 20N
Figure. 4.40 Mean values for the moisture fluxes (cm month-1) computed for the data collected of the time series
stations indicated at the positions shown in figure 3.1. a, January 1992, b, August 1992, c, March
1993 and d, December 1994

4.3.5.4 Net Effective Radiation (R)
The mean effective radiation at the sea surface during January 1992,
August 1992, March 1993 and December 1994 were -95, -48, 73 and -0.7
Wm-2 respectively. The high values during March 1993 may be the result
of the lesser effect of cloudiness over the region. The mean of net heat
gain over the northern Arabian Sea (Table 6.1) during 1992 was -223 W
m-2 in January and -176 W m-2 in August, whereas positive values were
obtained during 1993, and 1994, which were 35 and 13 W m-2
respectively. The negative values indicate that the heat was lost to the
atmosphere in the year of 1992 while in 1993 and 1994 northern Arabian
Sea received more heat (Figure 4.41).
161
100
Net effective radiation
50
(Wm-2)
8 27 33 45 57
-50
-100
Station Number
Jan. 92 Aug. 92 Mar. 9493 Dec. 94
Figure. 4.41 Variation of net effective radiation (W m-2) computed for the
data collected of the time series stations indicated at the
positions shown in figure 3.1.
162
4.3.5.5 Net Heat Gain (Q)
The mean of the Net Heat Gain (Table 6.1) during the winters of 1992
(January) and 1994 (December) was 138 and 6 Wm-2 respectively.
Whereas, during March 1993, mean of the Net Heat Gain was computed
as 124 Wm-2 and during August 1992, 96 Wm-2. The Net Heat Gain values
depicted that in the entire area of observation, heat was lost from sea
surface to the atmosphere. The negative values as computed at some of the
time series stations and plotted in figure 4.42 indicate the transfer of heat
fluxes from atmosphere to the ocean.
163
Table 4.4. Mean of Net Effective and Net Heat Gain Fluxes
computed from the data collected at the time series
stations indicated in figure 3.1
Recording Period R Q
Wm-2 Wm-2
January 1992 -95 138
August 1992 -48 96
March 1993 73 124
December 1994 -1 6
164
450
350
250
Net Heat Gain
150
(Wm )
-2
50
-50
-150
-250 8 27 33 45 57
-350
-450
Station Number
Jan. 92 Aug. 92 Mar. 9493 Dec. 94
Figure. 4.42 Variation of Net Heat Gain (W m-2) computed from the
data collected at the time series stations indicated in
figure 3.1
165
4.3.5.6 Momentum Fluxes
The momentum fluxes some times referred as wind stresses computed
from the time series data recorded during the January 1992 and December
1994 are quite large in both the components of eastward (Fig. 4.43) and
northward (Fig. 4.44). During the August 1992 the east and north
component are negative which was the indication of momentum direction
from southwest with values under 0.1 N m-2. During the March 1993, east
component has positive and negative values (Fig. 4.43), while north
component recorded negative values only at time series station 8. The
fluxes remained under 0.2 N m-2 at all the time series stations except at
station 57 where values are more than 0.3 N m-2 in the east component.
The graphical presentation (Fig. 4.43 and 4.44) depicted that momentum
started to build up in the early part of the day. At stations 45 and 57 east
component is very small (0.008 and 0.002 N m-2) however north
component is comparatively high (0.052 and 0.148 N m-2 ). During the
summer 1992 stresses at the time series stations are small as compared to
winter 1992 but east west and north south components are almost equal in
magnitude (85 > east > 25 and 35 > north > 16 N m-2).
166
a b
d
c
Figure. 4.43 Time-series plots of east component of momentum
fluxes (Nm-2 10x10-3) at the sampling stations in the
north Arabian Sea. a, January, b, August c, March,
and d, December
167
a b
c d
Figure. 4.44 Time-series plots of north component of momentum fluxes
(Nm-2 10x10-3) at the sampling stations in the north Arabian
Sea. a, January, b, August c, March, and d, December
168
4.3.5.7 Buoyancy of Seawater
Decrease in the total buoyancy fluxes from north to south has been noticed
during NASEER cruises (Fig. 4.45a – 4.45d). The buoyancy remained
negative in all the seasons except during December (Fig. 4.45c) cruise in
which northern part was occupied with the positive buoyancy indicating
the density loss. The values obtained are in agreement with the annual
averages computed by Prasad (1997).
During the January, negatively averaged thermal fluxes increased from ~
300 x 10-6 kg m-2 sec-1 in the northern Arabian Sea area to ~ 700 x 10-6 kg
m-2 sec-1 in the south (Fig. 4.46a). The similar pattern is observed during
the month of March with the lesser values (Fig. 4.46b). However values
during December have the wide range from positive 200 x 10-6 kg m-2
sec-1 in the northern Arabian Sea to -950 x 10-6 kg m-2 sec-1in the east (Fig.
4.46d).
169
Figure. 4.45A Buoyancy computed for the time series stations (10 x 10-6
kg/m2 sec-1) over the sea surface of the north Arabian Sea
170
Figure. 4.45B Buoyancy computed for the time series stations (10 x 10-6
kg/m2 sec-1) over the sea surface of the north Arabian Sea
171
Figure. 4.46A Mean values computed for the thermal buoyancy (10 x10-6
kg m-2 sec-1) over the sea surface of the north Arabian Sea
172
Figure. 4.46 Mean values computed for the thermal buoyancy (10
x10-6 kg m-2 sec-1) over the sea surface of the north
Arabian Sea
173
During January 1992, the haline fluxes, which are a contribution of
salinity in the computation of buoyancy of seawater, were dominant in the
southern part of the Arabian Sea with more salt gain in the north (Fig.
4.47a). The salt gain increased from 10 x 10-6 kg m-2 sec-1 in the north to
40 x 10-6 kg m-2 sec-1in the south. However during March 1993, the
pattern is reversed with maximum salt gain in the north (35 x 10-6 kg m-2
sec-1) and decreased to 20 x 10-6 kg m-2 sec-1 in the south. Whereas, during
December 1994, salt gain of the ocean decreased from 9 x 10-6 kg m-2 sec
in the west to 5 x 10-6 kg m-2 sec-1 in the east.
174
Figure. 4.47 Mean values computed for the haline buoyancy
the north Arabian Sea
175
Figure. 4.47 Mean values computed for the haline buoyancy
the north Arabian Sea
176
The absolute values of the heat to salt fluxes ratios are found higher during
January and December in the northern area of the Arabian Sea which
reversed during the March cruise (Fig. 4.48a – 4.48c).
177
Figure. 4.48A Mean absolute values computed for the thermal
to haline ratio over the sea surface of the
north Arabian Sea
178
Figure. 4.48B Mean absolute values computed for the thermal to
Sea
179
THE FORMATION OF WATER MASS
Analysis of data performed for the mixed layer depths computation was
done using the 1 oC change in surface and subsurface temperature criteria.
The analysis of data showed that During January 1992, the deep mixed
layer depths are found on the axis of Murray Ridge (Fig. 4.49Aa). The
shallower mixed layer depths are observed in the southeast and northwest.
The mixed layer depth data shows that their depths exceed 125 m.
During March 1993, the maximum mixed layer depth (>120 meters) ar
observed near Pakistan continental shelf (Fig. 4.49Ab). March is
considered as transition period (calm) and presence of strong feature
seems to be entraining water from east and north. To the south and west
mixed layer depths are shallower than in January with most values around
60 meters (Fig. 4.49a). During May 1994, (Fig. 4.49Ba) mixed layer depth
further shoals with depths less than 20 m along the Pakistan shelf in the
north to depths over 30 m in the south. The maximum (40 meters) mixed
layer depth is observed in the southwest.
During December 1994 (Fig. 4.49Bb), mixed layer depths varied between
60-80 meters. Greater depths are observed towards the east and south. In
180
general, mixed layer depths are observed around 70 meters. Ruling out
inter-annual changes the data suggest a deepening of mixed layer depth
from December to January as the NE monsoon progresses.
181
a
Figure. 4.49A Contours of mixed layer depths (m) drawn for the data collected
under NASEER a, January 1992, b, March 1993
182
a
Figure. 4.49B Contours of mixed layer depths (m) drawn for the data collected
under NASEER a, May1994, b, December 1994
183
FORMATION
The analysis of NASEER and Agro floats data was also performed to see
the existence and formation behaviour of the upper salinity maximum in
the northern Arabian Sea. The stations of NASEER data for January
cruise was plotted for T-S characteristic in almost east-west direction
(Fig. 4.50) and it was observed that water diluted from east to west. It was
clearly observed that upper salinity maximum moved with 25 kg m-3
sigma-θ curve. This phenomenon is more visible in the profiles plotted in
the figure 4.51 for the same stations.
The meridional plotting of the T-S diagramme for the same cruise (Fig.
4.52) also show the similar pattern but with lesser variation. This pattern
depicts that there is more mixing in east-west direction than the north-
south. However in the north-south plotting of T-S graph (Fig. 4.52) it was
observed that at the last station there are two salinity maxima around 25
kg m-3 density curve that confirmed the Morrison (1997) inference that 25
kg m-3 is merely denser fraction of the ASW.
184
185
Figure. 4.50 Location of NASEER January 1992 stations (left) and T-S plot (right)
186
Figure. 4.51 Profiles of NASEER January 1992 stations as shown in figure 4.50
187
Figure. 4.52 Location of NASEER January 1992 stations (left) and meridional T-S plot (right)
The meridional profiles of temperature, salinity and density plotted in the
figure 4.53 also show the variation of mentioned parameters with distance
from first station to the last station. The profiles clearly depict that mixed
layer as well as temperature and salinity of sea water increased from north
to south.
188
189
Figure. 4.53 Profiles of NASEER January 1992 stations as shown in figure 4.52. Distance from northern station
The time series data of NASEER cruise conducted during March 1993
revealed some interesting features in the zonal T-S plot shown in figure
4.54. The stations near to the Pakistan coast show only one salinity
maximum in the upper layers, whereas, those stations which are near the
Oman coast , specially the last station (45) just south to the Ras al Hadd
show more than one salinity maximum. The zonal profiles of temperature,
salinity and density (Figure 4.55) show the similar pattern.
190
191
Figure. 4.54 Location of NASEER March 1993 stations (left) and zonal T-S plot (right)
192
Figure. 4.55 Zonal Profiles of NASEER March 1993 stations as shown in figure 4.54. Distance from northeast station
The meridional plotting of the T-S curves (Figure 4.56) depict that during
March 1993, due to low density of water, the denser water of σθ 25 kg m-3
subducted underneath, forming the upper salinity maximum which became
more clearer moving farther form northern coast. The formation of upper
salinity maximum in the month of March 1993, confirms the inference
drawn by Prasad (1997). The meridional plotting of the temperature,
salinity and density anomaly profiles (Figure 4.57) further confirms this
conclusion.
The similar pattern is also observed in May 1994 cruise of NASEER. The
upper salinity maximum is prominent in the meridional plotting of T-S
curve (Fig. 4.58) of all the stations which further strengthen the formation
of water masses. The profiles plotted for the stations in the figure 4.59
confirm the behaviour of summer monsoon.
193
194
Figure. 4.56 Location of NASEER March 1993 stations (left) and meridional T-S plot (right)
195
Figure. 4.57 Meridional Profiles of NASEER March 1993 stations as shown in figure 4.56. Distance taken from northern station
196
Figure. 4.58 Location of NASEER May 1994 stations (left) and meridional T-S plot (right)
197
Figure. 4.59 Meridional Profiles of NASEER May 1994 stations as shown in figure 4.58
The analysis of the Argo floats data also strengthens the hypothesis. The
North Arabian Sea High Salinity Water (NASHSW) is traceable with very
distinctive features in the recorded data of Argo float 2900397 which
moved very close to the Indus Delta. The float which was trapped in the
shallow depths off Indus Delta clearly shows that as soon as it moved near
to the shallow depths, the North Arabian Sea High Salinity Water
(NASHSW) became more prominant (Fig. 4.16 and 4.17).
The profiles of potential temperature, salinity and sigma-θ plotted for the
float data show that in the middle of May, mixed layer was deep and as
time progressed depth decreased (Figure 4.60a – 4.60c). The contour plot
of the sigma-θ anomaly show that water with sigma-θ 25 kg m-3 level is
capped by the lighter water (Figure 4.61). This is in confirmation to the
inference drawn by Prasad (1997) that lateral mixing with the Bay of
Bengal water along the west coast of India during winter reduces core
salinity of upper salinity maximum.
198
199
Figure 4.60 Time series profiles of Argo float 2900397. a. Potential temperature, b. salinity, c. Sigma-theta
200
Figure. 4.61 Sigma-θ profile with contours of Argo float 2900397
The sigma-θ contour plot (Figure 4.62) of the Argo float 2900134 that
remained in the northern Arabian Sea near the mouth of Gulf of Oman
through out its period of activation shows the intermittent formation of 25
sigma-θ anomaly and subsequently coverage with the lighter water in the
different periods of the time.
201
202
Figure. 4.62 Potential Density Profiles with contours for the Argo float 2900134
The sigma-θ contour profile of Argo float 200135 (Figure 4.63) that also
remained in the northern Arabian Sea near the mouth of Gulf of Oman off
Baluchistan coast (Figure 4.10) shows the similar pattern. The T-S
features (Figure 4.11) depict the strong presence of upper salinity
maximum in the offshore area of Pakistan. The profiles of potential
temperature, salinity and sigma-θ anomaly (Figure 4.12) which are plotted
against time also show the resemblance with the Argo float 2900134.
203
204
Figure. 4.63 Density Profiles with contours for the Argo float 2900135
The Argo floats deployed in the Arabian Sea show some interesting
features. The Argo float 2900097 deployed in the northern area near the
axis of Findliter Jet (Figure 4.1), moved to southeast due to subsurface
currents in almost nine months. During its course of movement, it covered
almost three seasons viz; winter, post winter and summer seasons. The
salinity and temperature profiles show that during winter, surface water
consisted of high sigma-θ water (24 kg m-3) due to Ras al Hadd features,
while in the post winter season, high salinity water covered the surface
waters of Arabian Sea (Figure 4.2 and 4.3). The sigma-θ contour (Figure
4.64) showed that during this season surface water was covered with
lighter water of 24 kg m-3 density. Similar pattern is also observed in
another Argo float 2900098 that was deployed in the same area (Figure
4.65).
205
206
Figure. 4.64 Density Profile with contours for the Argo float 2900097
207
Figure. 4.65 Density Profile with contours for the Argo float 2900098
208
Chapter – 5
5.0 Simulation of Model

5.1 MODEL EQUATIONS
A turbulent surface layer is formed by instability of vertical and horizontal
velocity gradients, buoyancy forces arising from the vertical in
homogeneity of the medium in the earth's gravity field, destruction of
surface waves and destruction of internal waves. Statistical values of
oceanic turbulence are determined by its generation and decay
mechanisms (Monin, 1969, 1973,). The decay mechanisms are the transi-
tion of turbulent energy into enthalpy due to molecular viscosity and the
transition of turbulent energy into potential energy due to work against
buoyancy forces.
Interest in the method of mathematical simulation of turbulence has
increased greatly since the evolution of powerful computers and the
development of numerical methods for the solutions of nonlinear partial
differential equations. In constructing a statistical theory of turbulence, the
209
dynamic equations for correlation functions are derived by averaging the
Navier-Stokes equation.
Mellor and Durbin (1975) studied the quasi-homogeneous layer dynamics
with a simpler turbulence model. The stationary turbulent kinetic energy
equation, without the diffusion term, is closed with a simple relation for
the turbulence scale. Marchuk et al (1977) suggested the advantage of this
model due to the simplicity of its numerical realization. On the other hand,
application of the turbulent kinetic energy and turbulent decay equations
give more extensive information of the processes and make it possible to
detail the solution in the zone of the temperature jump.
In the present study the one-dimensional turbulent model of Mellor and
Durbin (1975) that was further modified by Miller (1976) and Garwood et
al (1981) to include salinity effects was applied to simulate the response of
the mixed layer of the Arabian Sea. The time derivatives of the mixed
layer parameters, Mixed Layer Depth, Mixed Layer Temperature and
Mixed Layer Salinity were obtained by the equations as under:
β
[ ( )] 
( ) 
2 G − D + Qi γ −1 1 − e −γh − h Qb + Qe + Qh + Qi 1 + e −γh − S (P − E )
α ……..(5.1)
dh
=  
 β 
h (T − Th ) + (S − S h )
dt
 α 
210
dT 1  dh
dt h  dt
( ) ∧ dT
= − (T − Th ) + Qb + Qe + Qh + Qi 1 − e −γh  + V ………..(5.2)
 dn
dS 1  dh 
=  (S − Sh ) − S (P − E ) ………..(5.3)
dt h  dt 
where h=Mixed Layer Depth, T=Mixed Layer Temperature and S=Mixed
Layer Salinity, Th and Sh are the temperature and salinity immediately
below the mixed layer. G-D is the turbulent energy derived from the
equation (5.4) as suggested by Denman (1973).
G − D = mUτ ………..(5.4)
where m is a tuning constant, U is the wind velocity and τ is wind stress
over the surface of sea. α, β as stated in the chapter 3 are the coefficient of
thermal expansion and salt contraction, P and E are precipitation and
evaporation rates. γ is the extinction coefficient of the sea water in the

∧
mixed layer. V is the sea water velocity and dT/dn is the horizontal
gradient of temperature in the mixed layer.
211
5.2 RESULTS OF SIMULATION
System of equations is solved at each time step by performing the
calculation on MATLAB using the Runge-Kutta method for differential
equations. The details of data input for simulation are presented in Table
5.1. The results of the simulations that were performed at station 27 are
given in figures 5.1. The simulated parameters were compared with the
observed data.
The simulation of the model revealed that simulated mixed layer (figure
5.1a) was in the close relationship with the observed data, however, results
are shallower than the observed. Similarly, simulated salinities in the
mixed layer (figure 5.1c) also show the same pattern as of mixed layer
depth. But, the temperature of the mixed layer (figure 5.1b) differed about
0.15 oC from observed data that is cooler than the simulated. The trend as
shown in the figures plotted in figure 5.1 further show that during day
time, mixed layer depth increased due to in-coming short wave solar
fluxes, while, during night time, mixed layer shallowed. The mixed layer
diurnally varied between 70 meters in the night time to 115 meters during
day time heating. The deepening of the mixed layer depends upon net heat
gain that is depicted by the sea surface temperature. A little change in the
212
SST amplified the variation. The salinity of the sea surface also depicted
that during day time it was higher than the results obtained for the night
time.
The application of model was not repeated for other recording periods as it
was considered that results of model simulation were almost in agreement
with the data collected.
213
Table 5.1 Initial values and constants used for mixed layer
simulation at station 27 of NASEER Programme
Parameter Initial in put Values
Mixed Layer Depth 75

Mixed Layer Temperature 24.82
Mixed Layer Salinity 36.75
Temperature bellow ML 22.0
Salinity below ML 36.18
Incoming short wave radiation (Qi) 0
Back Radiations (Qb) 177
Latent Heat Flux (Qe) 72
Sensible Heat Fluxes (Qs) 133
Wind speed at 10 m 6
Horizontal Temperature gradient 2.2 x 10-6
Extinction coefficient γ 0.002
m 0.0018
214
Figure 5.1 Time series plot of the simulated and observed mixed layer
(Top to bottom); (a) depth, (b) temperature and (c) salinity for
the data recorded at station 27 during January 1992
215
Chapter – 6
6.0 Discussion
6.1 NORTH ARABIAN SEA HIGH SALINITY

WATER (NASHSW) MASS (THE UPPER MOST
SALINITY MAXIMUM)
The analysis of data collected during NASEER cruises and through Argo
floats showed that in the northern Arabian Sea, just underneath the mixed
layer depth, there is a subsurface salinity maximum associated with
subsurface salinity minimum that is traced in almost all the NASEER
cruises and Argo floats that were launched in the northern Arabian Sea.
The representative temperature, salinity sigma-theta profiles taken from
station 27 of NASEER programme very clearly show its presence (Figure
6.1b).
The distribution of the core potential temperature, depth, salinity, potential
density anomaly and dissolved oxygen (Figure 4.18 – 4.24) of North
Arabian Sea High Salinity Water (NASHSW) suggests that it is formed
during NE monsoon at the continental shelves off Indus and Makran,

216
Pakistan. The surfaces plotted for the core layer depth (Figures 4.18 and
4.19) depicted the deepening pattern of NASHSW.
217
a b
d
c
Figure. 6.1 Profiles of (a) potential temperature (oC), (b) salinity,
(c) sigma-theta (kg m-3) and (d) T-S plot for the data
collected at an interval of six hours at station 27 during
January 1992 cruise under NASEER programme
218
6.2 ROLE OF SEA SURFACE METEOROLOGY IN
THE WATER MASS FORMATION
Among the key parameters which govern the formation of water mass as
already been stated are temperature difference between air and sea surface
water and wind velocity. Both of the parameters are part of Bulk
aerodynamic formulae used to compute latent and sensible heat fluxes.
The NASEER data collected from the area of study which was confined to
the poleward of 20 oN in the northern Arabian Sea suggested two
distinctive patterns in the meteorological parameters; diurnal variation in
the 25 hours long time series data and seasonal variation. Diurnal variation
in the air and surface seawater temperature data is due to the diurnal
variation in the radiative heat fluxes particularly in-coming short-wave
and out-going long-wave radiations, whereas, seasonal variation due to the
reversal of monsoon in the Arabian Sea (Figures 4.26 and 4.27).
The analysis of NASEER data showed that variation in air temperature is
more than seawater temperature due the larger latent heat capacity of
water. Maximum variation in seawater temperature was observed during
January 1992 at station 57 which is relatively closer to the Makran,
Pakistan coast. The data collected during NE monsoon showed seawater
o
temperature between 22 – 23.7 C whereas, maximum sea water
219
temperature was observed during SW monsoon (August 1992). The
pattern observed in the data is almost similar to the pattern described by
Colborn (1976) which has four phases; February to May warming, May to
August cool, September to mid November warm and mid November to
January cooling phase.
The analysis of the atmospheric data confirms a generally accepted
hypothesis that the Northern Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea are greatly
influenced by a unique semi annual monsoonal cycle, with reversing wind
forcing, an excessive evaporative fresh water flux over most of the basin,
and an annual mean heat gain (Dueing and Leetmaa, 1980). The recorded
time series data for the wind condition during the NASEER cruises
(Figures 4.28 and 4.29) confirmed the reversal of wind pattern during
northeast (NE) or winter monsoon months, and during southwest (SW) or
summer monsoon months. The analysis of momentum fluxes computed
from NASEER data showed that upper ocean is forced by the momentum
and surface buoyancy fluxes which produced the turbulent kinetic energy
with in the mixed layer. As a result of momentum fluxes, heat is
transferred not only between atmosphere and sea surface but between
upper and deep ocean. Major forcing of the wind stresses in the northern
Arabian Sea occurred during the SW monsoon.
220
The momentum fluxes resolved in to east and north component as
presented in figures 4.43 and 4.44 are in line with the general perception
about the applied momentum fluxes in the Arabian Sea. As earlier stated
the observations for momentum fluxes during NE monsoon are higher
than data recorded during August 1992. The east and north component of
momentum fluxes were negative and remained 0.1 N m-2 showing the
momentum direction to west and south. However, the data for March 1993
showed the variation of momentum in east and west as well as north and
south, an indication of transition period from NE to SW monsoon.
The mean of the stresses for the time series observation showed that the
momentum direction is the direction of stress applied (Figure 6.2a – 6.2d).
Generally, in all the recording periods under NASEER programme other
then August 1992, the momentum is from north and northeast direction as
a result of the wintertime northeast (NE) Monsoon (January 1992 and
December 1994) and transition period from NE monsoon to SW monsoon
(March 1993). The analysis further showed that during NE monsoon
period wind velocities were relatively higher (Figures 4.28 and 4.29) as
compared to general trend observed during this time of the year. The
northeast (NE) Monsoon is characterized by mild to moderate wind stress
(Prasad & Ikeda, 2002). However, during August 1992, the direction of
221
momentum is towards southwest (Figure 6.2b), the prevailing direction of
winds during the SW monsoon that blow in the Arabian Sea. The SW
monsoon season, brings strong surface wind forcing across the central
Arabian Sea in the form of the Findlater Jet (Findlater, 1969), that rapidly
increases and maintains for much of the season. The two inter-monsoon
seasons has been characterized by weak wind forcing and large
evaporative and heat fluxes. This fact has been clearly observed in the
computed momentum for the data collected during March 1993 (Figure
6.2c).
The cool and dry winds during the NE monsoon of 1992 from northeast
direction decreased the seawater temperature and increased the
evaporation over the sea surface, which increased surface salinity as well
as density. The salinity surfaces for the core layer as plotted in figures
4.20 and 4.21 show the pattern as observed in the wind condition. During
NE monsoon core layer salinity increased in the direction of wind coming
from. As a result of increased density surface seawater loosed its
buoyancy during March 1993 and sunk to subsurface as a salinity
maximum. This pattern clearly depicted the influence of temperature and
wind on the formation of NASHSW mass. The data showed that
maximum evaporation was in the winter of 1992 and pre summer 1993.
222
Evaporation at the air-sea interface results in the transport of energy and
water vapour into the atmosphere. The energy transport partly
compensates losses of energy through radiation processes in the
atmosphere. Thus the surface latent heat flux causes cooling of the upper
layer of the ocean and, through the loss of water vapour, an increase of
salinity in the ocean mixed layer (Randhir et al, 2001).
223
26N
25N
a, January 148 68
24N b, August
30
23N
45 87
22N 53 157
200
21N
20N
26N
25N
46
24N
c, March d, December 72
47 191
23N
224
48
22N
41
21N 37 63
20N
Figure. 6.2 Mean variation of momentum fluxes (Nm-210x10-3 ) computed at the data collected of the time series
stations indicated at the positions shown in figure 3.1. a, January 1992, b, August 1992, c, March 1993
and d, December 1994

THE FORMATION OF WATER MASS
It has been earlier explained that wind blowing on the ocean stirs the
upper layers leading to a thin mixed layer at the sea surface. The analysis
of data showed that generally, thickness of mixed layer increases from
near-shore to offshore along Pakistan coast which is in confirmation to
argument made by Ali et al (1995). They had further referred that some of
the variations in the mixed layer depths (MLD) correspond to the presence
of Cyclonic and Anticyclonic eddies (Quraishee 1984, Rao et al, 1994)
that tend to have shallower and deeper mixed layer depth (MLD)
respectively in their cores. During the northeast monsoon, cooling of the
surface water by dry winds leads to vertical convection, which deepens the
mixed layer and erodes the pycnocline. Deeper mixed layer depths along
the coast in winter are related to water mass formation tied to evaporation
and cooling on the shelf (Banes, 1984 and 1990).
During January 1992, the mixed layer depth data as analysed from
NASEER (Figure 4.49a) showed that mixed layer depths exceeded 125 m,
which was referred as to be associated with the formation of cold and
saline waters over the shelf and their mixing across the narrow shelf and
steep continental slope by Ali et al (2005). During March 1993, the

225
maximum mixed layer depth were found over the shallow Murray Ridge
peak. March is considered as transition period (calm) and presence of
strong feature seems to be entraining water from east and north. During
August (Figure 4.49c) thickness of mixed layer decreased and limited the
depth of mixed layer to less than 20 m along the Pakistan shelf in the north
to depths over 30 m in the south.
The results of simulation of the model developed by Mellor and Durbin
(1975) revealed that modelled mixed layer (Figure 5.1a) is closely related
with the observed data. Similarly, the modelled salinities in the mixed
layer (Figure 5.1c) also show the same pattern as of mixed layer depth.
However, the modelled temperature of the mixed layer (Figure 5.1b) is
higher than the observed values at the station.
Considering the boundary conditions of the model, parameterization of the
surface heat and fresh water fluxes as well as choice between flux and
restoring boundary condition has generated much discussion in the
modelling community (Paiva, 1999). Therefore correct combination of
surface fluxes, surface properties and water mass formation is very
difficult to obtain under the surface forcing parameterization based on
prescribed oceanic and atmospheric data.
226
6.4 ROLE OF SURFACE FLUXES IN THE WATER
MASS FORMATION
6.4.1 Heat Fluxes
The selection of parameters for the consideration is a very important factor
in the computation of fluxes. The dynamic coupling depends both on the
temporal and spatial variability of the fluxes. Generally the short-wave
heating which peaks ~1000 W m-2 on a sunny day, is ~200 W m-2 in the
summer. The upward and downward long-wave fluxes are 100W m-2,
whereas the net long-wave is typically between 40 - 80 W m-2. These
results of the present study are similar to the conclusion made by Fischer
et al. (2002). The analysis of the data revealed that in the entire area of
observation poleward to 20 oN, heat was lost from sea surface to the
atmosphere enabling surface waters leaving to atmosphere in the form of
evaporation resulting increase in salinity. During the NE monsoon, the
north Arabian Sea generally looses heat, whereas, during the SW monsoon
there is heat gain.
With the onset of the summer monsoon, the northern Arabian Sea
experiences a milder net heat loss from the ocean, which is dominated by
227
contributions from the large latent heat release. It is well known that the
monsoon winds (Findlater Jet; Findlater 1969), which carry moist air from
the south, dominate all the flux fields in the Arabian Sea during the
summer monsoon. Reduced long-wave radiation (due to cloudy skies) and
latent heat flux (due to moist air) contribute to the weaker summertime
heat losses. From early August to late September, the entire Arabian Sea
gains heat from the atmosphere.
With the onset of northeast monsoon winds in the northern Arabian Sea,
the net heat flux decreases rapidly from October to November due to the
domination of the large latent heat release from the ocean. Prasad and
Ikeda (2002) inferred that reduced solar insolation together with elevated
latent heat release in the northern Arabian Sea result in a net heat loss
from the ocean. Part of this cooling is contributed by increased long-wave
radiation due to lower cloudiness. By March, the ocean begins to gain heat
due to increasing solar radiation and reduced evaporation from the
decreasing winds.
Prasad and Ikeda (2002) further explained that during transition periods,
the ocean experiences a net heat gain on account of decreased latent heat
(weak winds) together with increased solar insulation. During the spring
228
season (March–May) the ocean receives more heat than the fall (October)
in the northern Arabian Sea. The difference in net heat flux during the
transition periods can be attributed to the shift in solar insulation and
relatively weaker winds during spring.
6.4.2 Buoyancy of Seawater
The radiative heating of the ocean causes motion because it leads to
density differences. However, these differences are effective only in
producing motion because of gravity, but it is actually the differences in
the weight per unit volume gρ that are important (g is universally defined
as constant of gravity and ρ the density of seawater). The quantity -gρ is
called the buoyancy, the minus sign being used because a particle is said
to be more buoyant when it has less weight. The ocean moves because of
buoyancy contrasts, but these are due to salinity differences as well as
temperature differences. These differences are created by the fluxes of
heat and water at the ocean surface, whose combined effect on buoyancy
is called the buoyancy flux.
Decrease in the total buoyancy fluxes from north to south has been noticed
during NASEER cruises (Fig. 4.45a – 4.45d). The buoyancy remained
229
negative in all the observation periods except during December 1994
(Figure 4.45c) cruise in which northern part was occupied with the
positive buoyancy indicating the density gain due to cool dry winds.
Increased salinity and decreased temperature at the surface increases
surface density. When the surface water of the northern Arabian Sea
increased in density, it sunk to subsurface and mixed with the water below
mixed layer resulting in convection.
The absolute values of the heat to salt fluxes ratios are found higher during
January and December in the northern area of the Arabian Sea which
reversed during the March cruise (Fig. 4.48a – 4.48c). This pattern showed
the dominance of thermal /heat fluxes over the salt fluxes in the northern
Arabian Sea. The total contribution of thermal fluxes to the buoyancy of
the sea surface is dominant over the haline/salt fluxes depicting the density
gain in winter monsoon causing the formation of upper salinity maximum
in the northern Arabian Sea.
The computed seawater buoyancy fluxes indicate that the negative
buoyancy values are the result of increased heating due to excessive
incoming short wave fluxes, while positive values depict the increased
heat loss (Joseph et al, 1992, Prasad, 1997). Data further depicts that
230
between sun set and sun rise seawater buoyancy remained negative
indicating loss of buoyancy, while during day time due to incoming short
wave solar radiation density loss occurs. The surfaces plotted for the
averaged seawater buoyancy computed for the 24 hours time series data
indicate loss of heat in northern Arabian Sea during January 1992 and
December 1994 (winter monsoon) more than the other areas. However
during March 1993, density gain increases causing the NASHSW mass to
form at the sea surface of the Arabian Sea.
It is inferred from the figures 4.46 and 4.47 that the thermal and haline
flux separately contribute to the total buoyancy of northern Arabian Sea
water and show the dominance of thermal buoyancy fluxes over the haline
buoyancy fluxes. The buoyancy of seawater due to haline contribution
show the resemblance of moisture flux surfaces plotted in the figure 4.40.
The study shows that upper salinity maximum which has been referred as
the North Arabian Sea High Salinity Water (NASHSW) is intermittently
formed in the Northern area of the Arabian Sea. Banse (1990) described
that the NASHSW mass, recharge during the NE monsoon and becomes
231
relatively well oxygenated, while during inter-monsoonal periods oxygen
level decreased due to oxidation and consumption by the marine animals.
Similar findings were obtained in the results of analysis conducted on the
data of NASEER (Figure 4.24).
It is clearly seen from the scatter-dot plots of sigma-theta, salinity (Figure
6.3a ) that except during December 1994, in other cruises, the potential
density anomaly (σθ) of the core layer remained centered ~ 25 kg m–3 with
salinity ranging from 36.5 to 36.8. The 25 kg m–3 potential density
anomaly water mass in the northern Arabian Sea has been described by
Banse (1990) as the characteristic density anomaly of the NASHSW mass,
which is recharged during the NE monsoon (December and January) and
becomes relatively well oxygenated. This phenomenon has been
confirmed in the present study by the analysis of seawater dissolved
oxygen data (Figure 6.3b). The dissolved oxygen data showed that during
NE monsoon (January 1992, and December 1994) core layer of NASHSW
is highly oxygenated (~ 4 ml/l), whereas pre-SW monsoon (March 1993
and May 1994), data for the dissolved oxygen level showed minimum ~ 2
- 3 ml/l due to mixing and consumption by marine animals. The extremes
and mean of the core layer temperature, salinity, potential density anomaly
and dissolved oxygen are summarized in table 6.1.
232
Figure. 6.3a Scatter plot of potential temperature and salinity of the
NASHSW core layer deduced from the NASEER data at
the positions shown in figure 3.1
233
Figure 6.3b Scatter plots of oxygen and σθ of the NASHSW core
layer deduced from the NASEER data at the positions
shown in figure 3.1
234
Table 6.1 NASHSW mass core layer parameters as observed in NASEER data.
NASHSW January March May December

Core Min. Max. Mean Min. Max. Mean Min. Max. Mean Min. Max. Mean
Depth 5 70 26 5 125 61 30 130 74 5 75 47

(m)
Potential 23.03 24.99 23.94 23.58 25.55 24.6 22.77 26.0 23.8 25.74 26.1 25.9
Temperature
( oC)
235
Salinity 36.53 36.82 36.65 36.47 36.69 36.62 36.33 36.62 36.5 36.39 36.7 36.55
σθ 24.7 25.09 24.91 24.38 24.99 24.69 24.18 25.1 24.84 24.1 24.35 24.24
(kg m–3 )
Oxygen 3.94 4.57 4.31 2.84 4.15 3.59 2.28 4.1 2.9 3.16 4.12 3.8
(ml/l)
The analysis of NASEER data (Figure 4.50) showed that water diluted
from east to west. Those stations that are close to the Oman coast have the
lighter densities than the stations near Pakistan coast. It was further
observed that core of the upper salinity maximum moved with 25 kg m-3
sigma-θ curve.
The time series data of NASEER cruise conducted during March 1993
revealed that the stations near to the Pakistan coast show only one salinity
maximum in the upper layers, whereas, those stations which are near the
Oman coast , specially the last station (45) just south to the Ras al Hadd
show more than one salinity maximum. The station 45 is having more
salinity maxima than the other stations depicting the zonal variation and
influence of post winter monsoon and its consequences.
It was observed in the analysis of data that during March 1993, the core
layer of water mass moved from Oman basin in the northwest to Indus
basin in the southeast (Figure 4.20b and 4.18b). Data further showed that
during the same observational month, sea surface water over the northern
Arabian Sea had attained high temperature and salinity producing the low
density high buoyancy surface water. Due to this low density surface
water, higher density NASHSW mass became fully formed and sunk to a
236
depth below 40 m.
The results of the NASEER cruise conducted during May 1994 indicate
high salinity (Figure 4.21a) and deepening of the core layer in the axis of
Findlater Jet (Figure 4.19a). During SW monsoon (July and August) the
winds of Findlater Jet (Findlater, 1971) causes upwelling all along the
Somali coast that moves northward (Luther et al, 1985) and diverts near
the tip of Ras Al Hadd ridge into the northeastern Arabian Sea. As a result
of Ras Al Hadd jet another upwelling has also been recorded near the Ras
Al Hadd ridge. The upwelled water due to Ras Al Hadd jet further
intensifies the capping of high salinity surface water of the northern
Arabian Sea. The upwelling phenomenon was observed in the data
collected by Argo float 2900394 (Figure 4.15c) which depicts
considerable upwelling during summer monsoon. The movement of the
Argo float 2900394 as plotted in the figure 4.13 and salinity profile plotted
in the figure 4.15b depict the circulation pattern and advection of cold low
salinity water as a result of injection of significant amount of upwelled
water into the Arabian Sea during the southwest (SW) monsoon. The
advection of cold low salinity waters into a region of higher surface
salinities of the Arabian Sea has an effect, similar to that produced by
precipitation, generating subsurface salinity maximum. The data further
237
shows that the NASHSW core layer is pushed into the northeast direction
(Figure 4.19a) because of the impact of Ras Al Hadd jet. Boehm et al,
(1999) observed a pair of cyclonic and anti-cyclonic eddies in the north
Arabian Sea developed due to the Ras al Hadd, that was validated by the
AVHRR derived sea surface temperature (SST) data for the same period.
Similar observations were also seen by Rangoonwala and Ahmed (1999)
in Ocean Colour and Temperature Scanner (OCTS) data of November
1996 for chlorophyll-a mapping by the Japanese Earth Observation
Satellite (ADEOS).
The analysis of the Argo floats data also strengthens the hypothesis. The
North Arabian Sea High Salinity Water (NASHSW) is traceable with very
distinctive features in the recorded data of Argo float 2900397 which
moved very close to the Indus Delta. The float which was trapped in the
shallow depths off Indus Delta clearly shows that as soon as it moved near
to the shallow depths, the North Arabian Sea High Salinity Water
(NASHSW) became more prominent (Figure 4.16 and 4.17).
The T-S diagrams drawn from the data collected by the Argo floats
2900097 (Figure 4.2), 2900098 (Figure 4.5), 2900134 (Figure 4.8), and
2900135 (Figure 4.11), 2900334 (Figure 4.14), and 2900337 (Figure 4.17)
238
clearly depict the presence of the NASHSW mass with the salinity 36.55 –
36.65, potential temperature 23.0 - 25.5 oC and potential density anomaly
(σθ) 25 kg m-3 in the Argo floats launched in the northern Arabian Sea.
These characteristics subsequently diluted in the relatively southern Argo
floats.
The contour plot of the sigma-θ anomaly show that water with sigma-θ
25 kg m-3 level is capped by the lighter water (Figure 4.61). This is in
confirmation to the inference drawn by Prasad (1997) that lateral mixing
with the Bay of Bengal water along the west coast of India during winter
reduces core salinity of upper salinity maximum.
The sigma-θ contour plot (Figure 4.62) of the Argo float 2900134 that
remained in the northern Arabian Sea near the mouth of Gulf of Oman
through out its period of activation shows the intermittent formation of 25
sigma-θ anomaly and subsequently coverage with the lighter water in the
different periods of the time. The profile depicted that during January
2003, density of surface water is high (> 25 kg m-3) which subducted in
April 2003 at a depth of approximately 50 meters due to overcoming of
lighter water at the surface. It further deepens in the summer monsoon to a
depth of about 100 meters. The pattern is repeated in the next year (2004)
239
with similar behavior. This pattern further confirms that upper salinity
maximum form in the months of winter monsoon and starts sinking from
March due to excessive heating.
The sigma-θ contour profile of Argo float 2900135 (Figure 4.63) that also
remained in the northern Arabian Sea near the mouth of Gulf of Oman off
Baluchistan coast (Figure 4.10) shows the similar pattern. The recording
period of the Argo float 2900135 is from January 2003 to June 2004. In
the initial period it remained northern Arabian Sea near the mouth of Gulf
of Oman and moved southward due to subsurface currents and then
trapped in the upwelling area off Ras al Hadd in August and moved away
due to currents. The upwelling phenomenon is quite visible in the salinity
and sigma-θ profiles (Figure 4.12). The sigma-θ contours plotted for the
same period (Figure 4.63) verify the earlier stated inference.
240
6.6 PRESENCE OF SUB-SURFACE SALINITY
MINIMUM AND ITS IMPACT ON THE
FORMATION OF “NASHSW” MASS
From the data analysed it was observed that just above the NASHSW
there exists a subsurface salinity minimum that causes the NASHSW to
show its separate existence (Figure 6.1b) . Analysis of NASEER data
depicted that during the months of winters the cold dry winds evaporate
the surface water and generate high density surface water, which after the
end of winter monsoon due to increased solar heating causes the capping
of high density water with low density water allowing it to subduct in the
subsurface. Shetye et al (1992, 1994) inferred the existence and formation
of this sub-surface salinity minimum due to cool and dry winds from
Saurashtr (India), a peninsula just south of Indus Delta during NE
monsoon. They further suggested that this salinity minimum move
northward along the shelf of Pakistan as a coastal current and on
confluence of the higher salinity water coming from north former sinks
below the latter. However, Banse (1990) believed that sub-surface salinity
minimum which present in the northern Arabian Sea, just above the higher
salinity water is the intrusion of low salinity water from south not as a
result of surface cooling at the shelf off Karachi and Indus mouth. Banse
(1990) interpreted this sub-surface salinity minimum as Sverdrop’s

241
modified Indian Ocean Water which is uplifted by the influx of high
salinity water mass. The low salinity layer that capped the high salinity
water leads to a salinity minimum just above the NASHSW.
6.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS
In the present study it has been demonstrated that in the northern Arabian
Sea a water mass with potential density anomaly 25 kg m-3 is formed due
to cool and dry winds from subcontinent land mass during winter. The
formation of this subsurface high salinity water mass was diagnosed by
Banse (1984, 1990) as North Arabian Sea High Salinity Water
(NASHSW). The analysis of data depicted that after sinking underneath
mixed layer this water mass move to south where it loses its identity and
replaced by lower density water mass Arabian Sea Water (ASW).
Prasad et al (1998) suggested that a water mass with the potential density
anomaly between 22 - 24 kg m-3 is identifiable below the mixed layer in
the Arabian Sea that is formed in the northern Arabian Sea and called it as
Arabian Sea High Salinity Water (ASHSW). The water mass mentioned
by Prasad (1998) could not be identified and verified in the northern
Arabian Sea by the data used in this study as the data was limited to
242
polward of 20 oN. However, Morrison (1997, 2003) argued that the water
mass with 25 kg m-3 is denser fraction of the Arabian Sea Water (ASW)
mass.
The results of this study further showed that the formation of the upper
salinity maximum in the North Arabian Sea is not a permanent feature.
The formation of the upper salinity maximum that was referred in this
study as North Arabian Sea High Salinity Water (NASHSW) mass
depends upon the driving mechanism and strength of the atmospheric
forces.
Due to the limitation of area of observation in the northern Arabian Sea
there were several unanswered questions;
1. Since the area did not cover the area of existence of Arabian
Sea High Salinity Water (ASHSW) mass as proclaimed by
Prasad, so it could not be ascertained to differentiate between
formation processes of Arabian Sea High Salinity Water
(ASHSW) mass with characteristic density anomaly σθ 22 - 24
kg m-3 and North Arabian Sea High Salinity Water (NASHSW)
mass with characteristic density anomaly σθ 25 kg m-3.
2. What are the formation processes of the subsurface salinity
243
minimum that exists just above the NASHSW water mass?
3. What other role other than the role discussed earlier is played
by the subsurface salinity minimum in the formation of
NASHSW?
244
Chapter – 7
7.0 Conclusions
As earlier described in chapters 1 & 2; the north Arabian Sea in an active
region of air-sea interaction and exhibits a number of unique
characteristics as compared to other oceans such as reversal of monsoons,
the dynamic processes governing the phenomenon of formation of high
salinity water mass. The primary objectives were to investigate the
processes responsible for formation and dynamics of the upper salinity
maximum being reported near the mixed layer depth in the Arabian Sea.
The research was carried out using original data collected during the
various cruises carried out during 1992 – 1994 under the North Arabian
Sea Environment and Ecosystem Research (NASEER) programme of the
National Institute of Oceanography, Pakistan and Argo floats launched in
the Arabian Sea in early year 2000 under the pilot programme of the
Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS).
In addition to the study of dynamic processes, the other objective was to
perform the numerical simulation under the boundary conditions obtained
from the collected data. The numerical simulation was performed to
245
understand the atmospherically forced subsurface variability with focus on
the impact of surface heat flux on the water mass formation. The results of
the data analysis and model simulation have been discussed in detail in the
chapters 4, 5 and 6.
The analysis of data obtained through NASEER and Argo programmes
confirmed the presence of three distinct high salinity water masses in the
upper 1000 meters of the northern Arabian Sea as described by Rochford
(1964), Wyrtki (1971), Banse (1984, 1990) and Morrison (1997, 2003).
These water masses could be described as; (i) Arabian Sea Water
(ASW)/North Arabian Sea High Salinity Water (NASHSW) being the
shallowest of the three water masses observed at a depth of 75 – 150 m,
(ii) Persian Gulf Water (PGW) being reported at a depth of 300 - 400 m in
the Arabian Sea and (iii) Red Sea Water (RSW) found between 500 - 700
m depth in the Arabian Sea. The present study also confirmed the
conclusions drawn by Rochford (1964), Wyrtki (1971), Banse (1990),
Morrison and Olson (1992), and Morrison (1997) about the presence of a
subsurface salinity maximum in the northern Arabian Sea. The subsurface
salinity maximum has been traced in almost all the data obtained through
NASEER cruises and Argo floats launched in the Northern Arabian Sea.
246
The scatter-dot plots of potential temperature, salinity (Figure 6.2) on
potential density anomaly indicate that the density of the core layer was
around 24 kg m–3 during December, however during January, March and
May, the density of the core layer was centered around 25 kg m–3. The
water with 25 kg m–3 density anomaly has been termed by Banes (1984) as
North Arabian Sea High Salinity Water (NASHSW), whereas, Morrison
described it as a denser fraction of Arabian Sea Water (ASW). The
advection of low salinity surface waters upwelled off Ras Al Hadd and
from south into a region of higher surface salinities of the Arabian Sea has
an effect, similar to that produced by precipitation, generating subsurface
salinity maximum.
The dynamics of formation of subsurface salinity maximum was studied
by computing the heat budget of the Arabian Sea. The water properties,
such as temperature and salinity, are formed by the heat exchange through
the relative contribution of heat and freshwater fluxes only when the water
is at the surface or in the mixed layer. The basic parameters that govern
the formation and subduction of upper salinity maximum are the heating,
cooling, upwelling and evaporation through the surface buoyancy fluxes
(density fluxes) that inturn is controlled by the air sea coupling.
247
Heat budget was computed using the data collected under the NASEER
programme due to limitation of the data to synchronize with the Argo
floats data. The analysis of the atmospheric data confirmed a much
discussed conclusion that the Northern Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea are
greatly influenced by a unique semi annual monsoonal cycle, with
reversing wind forcing, an excessive evaporative fresh water flux over
most of the basin, and an annual mean heat gain. The time series data for
the wind condition recorded during the NASEER cruises indicated that
during the months of January and December which are characterized as
Northeast (NE) or winter monsoon months, winds blew predominantly
from northeast direction, while, in August which is characterized as
southwest (SW) or summer monsoon month, winds blew from southwest.
The time series data recorded during January 1992, showed that during
this period air temperature over the northern Arabian Sea remained
-
between 21 26 oC, however during summer and pre summer period
variation in air temperature was observed between 23 – 32 oC. The mean
air temperature during winter was recorded as 23 oC whereas during
summer it was 27 oC. The sea surface temperature during winter and pre-
summer seasons varied between 21 - 26 oC while in summer it remained
between 27 - 30 oC.
248
The computed incoming solar radiation Qi at the time-series stations of the
NASEER programme in the northern Arabian Sea gives a reasonable
estimation. The out come of the present study shows that the computed
mean incoming solar radiation is similar to the results for the same period
even though Sultan and Ahmed (1992) used meteorological data recorded
from shallow water stations in their computation. The study show that the
day time averages of the incoming short-wave solar radiation at the time
series data during the January decrease zonally from east to west which is
similar even in December data, but during March, increased from south to
north. However the data shows that during May it is reversed and showed
increase from northeast to southwest.
The computed mean of the time series results of the long-wave flux Qb are
almost double the values computed by Sultan & Ahmed (1993) for the
northern Arabian Sea. The difference in the values is due to the difference
in the choice of parameters. Surface latent heat flux, as one of the
dominant components in the surface energy balance, plays a key role in
both the hydrological cycle and in coupling between the ocean and
atmosphere (Peixoto and Oort 1992). The computed latent heat fluxes
depicted that during the recording period of January and August, latent
heat fluxes zonally decreased from south to north, whereas for March, it
249
increased to northeast in the orientation of Murray ridge. However in the
December it decreased zonally to east. The surface latent heat flux causes
cooling of the upper layer of the ocean and, through the loss of water
vapour, an increase of salinity in the ocean mixed layer is observed.
The computed sensible heat fluxes in January found to be higher on the
southern stations and lower in the northern stations. However, the fluxes
computed for the December data showed the reverse pattern. The
maximum evaporation is observed in the winter of 1992 and pre summer
1993. During these months seawater is warmer than the air, the vapor
pressure at the sea surface remained greater than that in the air, so
evaporation was greatly facilitated because the turbulence of the air was
fully developed.
The buoyancy remained negative in all the cruises except during
December in which northern part occupied with the positive buoyancy
indicating the density gain due to cool dry winds. The values obtained are
in agreement with the annual averages computed by Prasad (1997). The
summertime southwest (SW) Monsoon brings strong surface wind forcing
across the central Arabian Sea in the form of the Findlater Jet (Findlater,
1969), and a neutral to strongly stabilizing surface-buoyancy flux.
250
The results of the study showed that upper salinity maximum is
intermittently formed in the Northern area of the Arabian Sea. The
distribution of the core temperature, depth, salinity, density and dissolved
oxygen of upper salinity maximum indicated that it formed during NE
monsoon at the continual shelf of Indus and Makran, Pakistan.
The simulation of the numerical model revealed that the simulated mixed
layer is in close relationship with the observed data, however, simulated
mixed layers are ~5 m thinner than the observed. Similarly, the
numerically simulated salinities of the mixed layer are also lower. But, the
temperature of the mixed layer differed about 0.15 oC from observed data
that is cooler then the simulated.
So from the data results, it is concluded that at all the sampling stations of
NASEER or Argo profiling sites in the northern Arabian Sea, there is a
subsurface salinity maximum near the mixed layers. This sub-surface
salinity maximum could be called North Arabian Sea High Salinity Water
(NASHSW) as suggested by Banse (1990). Since it could not be
ascertained in the present study that in the northern Arabian Sea is there
any other salinity maximum other than the described PGW and RSW, so it
is further concluded that the inference drawn by the Morrison (1997,
251
2003) that 25 kg m-3 water found in the area and termed as NASHSW
water is a denser part of the ASW appears to be correct.
252
References
Ali A., A. A. Khan and A. S. Naeem, 2003. Spreading of Persian Gulf
Water in the northern Arabain Sea. Pakistan Journal of Marine
Science, 12(2), pp. 29-38.
Ali, A., A. S. Naeem and A. A. Khan, 2005. Mixed layer depths in
northern Arabian Sea. Pakistan Journal of Oceanography, 1(1) 89
- 96.
Argo programme, 2006. www.argo.ucsd.edu.
Banse K., 1984. Overview of the hydroghraphy and associated biological
phenomena in the Arabian Sea, off Pakistan. In ‘Marine Geology and
Oceanography of Arabian Sea and Coastal Pakistan’. (eds. B. U. Haq
and J. D. Milliman), pp. 271-303.
Banse K., 1990. Subsurface water masses of the upper 500m in the
northern Arabian Sea. EOS 71(43): 1381.
253
Beal L. M., A. Ffield and A. L Gordon, 2000a. Spreading of Red Sea
overflow waters in the Indian Ocean. Journal of Geophysical
Research, 105, 8549–8564.
Beal L. M., R. L. Molinari, P. E. Robbins and R. K. Chereskin, 2000b.
Reversing bottom circulation in the Somali basin. Geophysical
Research Letters, 27, 2565–2568.
Boehm E., J. M. Morrison, V. Manghnani, K. Hyun-Sook and C. N.
Flagg, 1999. The Ras al Hadd Jet: Remotely sensed and acoustic
doppler current profiler observations in the 1994-1995. Deep-Sea
Research II 46, pp 1531-1549.
Brown J., A. Colling, D. Park, J. Phillips, D. Rothery and J. Wright, 1989.
Ocean Circulation, The Open University/Pergamon. P 238.
Colborn, J., 1976. The thermal structure of Indian Ocean, 177 pp.
Denman K. L., 1973. A time dependent model of the upper ocean. J. Phys.
Oceanogr., 3, 173-184.
Duffie J. A. and W. A. Beckman, 1991. Solar engineering of thermal
processes, 2nd edn. J. Wiley and Sons, New York.
Düing W. and A. Leetmaa, 1980. Arabian Sea cooling. A preliminary
heat budget. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 10, 307.312.
254
Durand F., S. R. Shetye, J. Vialard, D. Shankar, S.S.C. Shenoi, C. Ethe
and G. Madec, 2004. Impact of temperature inversions on SST
evolution in the southeastern Arabian Sea during the pre summer-
monsoon season, Geophysical Research Letter, 31, L01305,
doi:10.1029/2003 GL018906.
Findlater J., 1971. Mean monthly airflow at low levels over western Indian
Ocean. Geophys. Mem., 115, 53 p.
Fine R.A., 1993. Circulation of Antarctic Intermediate Water in the South
Indian Ocean. Deep-Sea Research I, 40, 2021-2042.
Friedman R.M., 1989. Appropriating the weather. Vilhelm Bjerknes and
the construction of a modern meteorology. Ithaca and London: Cornell
University Press.
Friehe C. A. and K. F. Schmitt, 1976. Parametarization of air-sea fluxes of
sensible heat and moisture by the bulk aerodynamic formulas. Journal
of Physical Oceanography, 6, 801-809.
Garwood R. W., R. W. Fett, K. M. Rabe and H. W. Brandli, 1981.
Ocean frontal formation due to shallow water cooling effects as
observed by satellite and simulated by a numerical model. Journal of
Geophysical Research, 86, 11000-11012.
255
Helland and Hansen B., 1916. Nogen hydrografiske metoder. Skand.
Naturtorsker mote, kristiania (Oslo).
Houghton J.T., L.G. Meira Filho, B.A. Callender, N. Hariris, A.
Kattenberg and K. Maskell, 1995. The science of climate change, (eds)
Cambridge University Press.
Johnson G.C., B.A. Warren and D.B.Olson, 1991b. Flow of bottom water
in the Somali basin. Deep-Sea Research, 38, 637-652.
Johnson G.C., Warren, B. A. and D.B.Olson, 1991a. A deep boundary
current in the Arabian basin. Deep-Sea Research, 38, 653-661.
Joseph M. G., P. V. Hareesh Kumar and M. X. Joseph, 1992. Deep and
shallow water characteristics of mixed layer response to momentum
and buoyancy fluxes off Bombay, west coast of India, during winter.
Continental Shelf Research, 12, 5/6:661-673.
Joseph S. and H. J. Freeland, 2005. Salinity variability in the Arabian Sea
Geophysical Research Letters, 32, L09607,
doi:10.1029/2005GL022972,
Khan, T. M. A., J. G. De Las Alas, A. E. Mariano and S. H. N. Rizvi,
1995. Heat budget studies of the north Arabian Sea during summer
and winter monsoons, 1992. Pakistan Journal of Marine Science, 4(2):
81-90.
256
Kumar M. D. and Y. H. Li, 1996. Spreading of water masses and
226
regeneration of silica and Ra in the Indian Ocean. Deep-Sea
Research I, 43, 83-110.
Kumar S. P. and T. G. Prasad, 1996. Winter cooling in the northern
Arabian Sea. Current Science, 71, 834-841.
Kumar S. P. and T. G. Prasad, 1999. Formation and spreading of Arabian
Sea High Salinity water mass. Journal of Geophysical Research. 104,
pp. 1455-1464.
Kumb F. E., 1964. Influence of cloud on hourly amount of solar radiation.
Quarterly Journal of Royal Meteorological Society, 90, 43-56.
Luther M. E., J. J. O’Brien, and A. H. Meng, 1985. Morphology of the
Somali current system during the southwest monsoon. In Coupled
Ocean-Atmosphere Models, (ed. J. C. J. Nihoul), pp. 405-437,.
Marchuk G. I., V. P. Kochergin, V. I. Klimok and V. A. Sukhorukov,
1977. On the dynamics of the Ocean Surface Mixed Layer. Journal of
Physical Oceanography, 7, 865-875.
Mellor G. L. and P. A. Durbin, 1975. The structure and dynamics of the
ocean surface mixed layer. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 5, 718–
728.
257
Miller J., 1976. The salinity effect in a mixed layer ocean model. Journal
of Physical Oceanography, 6, 29-35.
Monin A. S., 1969. Oceanic turbulence. Izv. Akad. Nauk. USSR Fiz.
Almos. Okeana, 5 (2), 218-225.
Monin A. S., 1973. Turbulence and microstructures in the ocean. Usp.
Fiz. Nauk., No. 2, 109, 333-354.
Morrison J. .M., 1997. Inter-monsoonal changes in the TS properties of
the near-surface waters of the northern Arabian Sea. Geophysical
Research Letters, 24, 2553-2556.
Morrison J. .M., 2002. Hydrography. In: Report of the Indian Ocean
synthesis group on the Arabian Sea Process Study.
Morrison J. .M. and D. B. Olson 1992. Seasonal basinwide extremes in
T-S characteristics in the near surface waters of the Arabian Sea
and Somali Basin. In: Oceanography of the Indian Ocean. B.N.
Desai (Ed.), p. 605-616.
Naeem A. S, A. Ali and T. M. A. Khan 2005a. Diurnal variation of the
Radiative Heat Fluxes over the sea surface of the Northern Arabian
Sea. Pakistan Journal of Oceanography, 1(1) 41-50.
258
Naeem A. S., A. Ali and A. A. Khan, 2005b. The Study of Formation of
Upper Salinity Maxima in the Northern Arabian Sea and Its
Distribution. Pakistan Journal of Marine Science 14(1): 1-12.
Naeem A. S, A. Ali, A. A. Khan and M. A. Yousuf Zai, 2006. Diurnal
fluctuation of the heat fluxes over the northern Arabian Sea,
Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 2(2) 105 - 117.
Naeem A. S., M. U. Mohammad and A. Ali, 2007. Identification of water
masses in the upper 1000 meters of the Arabian Sea and Bay of
Bengal using the Argo floats data. Submitted for publication in the
Pakistan Journal of Oceanography (in press).
NOAA, 2002. www. pmel.noaa.gov.
Nuzhdin, P.V., 1982. On laws covering fluctuations of the Arabian Sea
active layer thermodynamics properties and air-sea energy exchange
characteristics during the southwest monsoon. In: GARP International
Conference on the scientific results of the monsoon experiment, Bali,
ICSU/WMO, Geneva, 724.727.
Paiva A. D., 1999. The impact of surface buoyancy flux variation on
water mass formation in north Atlantic numerical simulations. PhD
Thesis. University of Miami. Coral Gables Florida.
259
Payne R. E., 1972. Albedo of the sea surface. Journal of Atmospheric
Science, 29, 959-970.
Peixoto J. P. and A. H. Oort, 1992. Physics of Climate. American Institute
of Physics, 500 pp.
Prasad T. G., 1997. Annual and seasonal mean buoyancy fluxes for the
tropical Indian Ocean. Current Science, 73 (8), 667-674.
Prasad T. G. and Ikeda M, 2002. The Wintertime Water Mass Formation
in the Northern Arabian Sea: A Model Study. Journal of Physical
Oceanography, 32, 1028-1040.
Quraishee G. S., 1984. Circulation in the North Arabian Sea at Murray
Ridge during the SW monsoon. Deep-Sea Research, Part A, 31, 651-
664.
Rabindra K. N., 2005. Coupling between the north Indian Ocean and the
monsoons. PhD Thesis. National Institute Of Oceanography Council
of Scientific and Industrial Research Dona Paula. Goa. India, 147 pp.
Ramesh Kumar M. R. and L. V. Gangadhara, Rao 1989. Latitudinal
variation of air-sea fluxes in the western Indian Ocean during austral
summer and fall. Boundary-Layer Meteorology 48, 99-107.
260
Randhir Singh, B. Simon and P. C. Joshi, 2001. Estimation of surface
Latent Heat Fluxes from IRS-P4/MSMR satellite data. Proc. Indian
Acad. Sci. (Earth Planet. Sci.), 110 (3), September 2001, pp. 231-238.
Rangoonwala A. and S. Ahmed, 1999. Use of ADEOS OCTS data for
Chlorophyll-a mapping in the exclusive economic zone of Pakistan.
Asian-Pacific Remote Sensing and GIS Journal, 12(1), 15-21.
Rao R. R., R. L. Molinari and J. F. Festa, 1989. Evolution of the
Climatological Near Surface Thermal Structure of the Tropical Indian
Ocean. 1. Description of Mean Monthly Mixed Layer Depth, and Sea
Surface Temperature, Surface Current, and Surface Meteorological
Fields. Journal of Geophysical Research, 94. (C8), 10801-10815.
Reed R. K., 1977. On estimating insulation over ocean. Journal of
Physical Oceanography, 7, 482-485.
Rochford D.J., 1964. Salinity maxima in the upper 1000 meters of the
North Indian Ocean. Australian Journal of Marine & Freshwater
Research 15, 1-24.
Sastry J.S. and V. Ramesh Babu, 1984. Summer cooling of the Arabian
Sea - A review. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences (Earth
and Planetary Sciences), 94, 117-128.
261
Schott F. A. and J. Fischer, 2000. Winter monsoon circulation of the
northern Arabian Sea and Somali Current. Journal of Geophysical
Research, 105, 6359-6376.
Schott F. A., P. Julian and McCreary Jr., 2001. The monsoon circulation
of the Indian Ocean. Progress in Oceanography 51, 1–123.
Shetye S. R., A. D. Gouveia and S. S. C. Shenoi, 1992. Des winter
cooling lead to the subsurface salinity minimum off Saurashtra, India?
In: Oceanography of the Indian Ocean. 617 – 625.
Shetye S. R., A. D. Gouveia and S. S. C. Shenoi, 1994. Circulation and
water masses of the Arabian Sea. Proceedings of the Indian Academy
of Sciences (Earth and Planetary Sciences), 103(2), pp, 107-123.
Stewart R. H., 2003. Introduction to Physical Oceanography. 344 pp.
Stramma, L., J. Fischer and F. Schott, 1996. The flow field off southwest
India at 8N during the southwest monsoon of August 1993. Journal
of Marine Research, 54, 55–72.
Sultan, S. A. R. and F. Ahmed, 1993. Surface and oceanic heat fluxes in
the Gulf of Oman. Continental Shelf Research, 13(10) 1103-1110.
Swallow, J. C., M. Fieux and F. Schott, 1988. The boundary currents east
and north of Madagascar, Part I: Geostrophic currents and transports.
Journal of Geophysical Research, 93, 4951–4962.
262
Thorpe, S. A., 1985. Small-scale processes in the upper ocean boundary
layer. Nature, 318, 519–522.
Tomczak M., 1999. Some historical, theoretical and applied aspects of
quantitative water mass analysis. Journal of Marine Research 57(2),
275–303.
Toole J. M. and B. Warren, 1993. A hydrographic section across the
subtropical South Indian Ocean. Deep-Sea Research I, 40, 1973–2019.
UNESCO, 1983. Algorithms for computation of fundamental properties
of seawater. UNESCO technical papers in marine science, 44.
Warren B. A. and G. C. Johnson,1992. Deep currents in the Arabian Sea
in 1987. Marine Geology, 104, 179-188.
Watt, 1978. On the Nature and Distribution of Solar Radiation US
Government Printing Office Stock No. 016-000-00044-5.
Wyrtki K., 1966. Seasonal variation of heat exchange and surface
temperature in the north Pacific Ocean. Hawaii Institute of Geophysics
Report HIG-66-3, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, 8pp.
Wyrtki K., 1971. Oceanographic Atlas of the International Indian Ocean
Expedition. National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C.,
531pp.
263
Wyrtki, K., E. B. Benonett and D. J. Rochford, 1971. Oceanographic Atlas
of the International Indian ocean Expedition, N.S.F.,Washington, D.C.,
pp. 1.531.
You, Y., 1997. Seasonal variations of thermocline circulation and
ventilation in the Indian Ocean. Journal of Geophysical Research,
103(10), 391-10,422.
You, Y. and M. Tomczak, 1993. Thermocline circulation and ventilation
in the Indian Ocean derived from water mass analysis. Deep-Sea
Research, 40, 13-56.
264
The water masses of specific characteristics are formed in different regions of the oceans by the processes
occurring at the surface of the oceans due to the ocean-atmosphere interactions at specific locations and
sink from the surface to subsurface depths. The water mass distribution is controlled by temperature and
salinity. The Arabian Sea is an active region of air-sea interaction processes and plays a major role in driving
the monsoon system. The semi-annual reversal in wind stresses associated with the monsoon, water mass
intrusions from marginal seas and other oceans, geographical features give the upper waters of the Arabian
Sea a unique thermohaline structure and circulation. In the Arabian Sea due to air – sea interaction
processes, water mass forms at the surface and sinks to just below the mixed layer depth.
At different location of Arabian Sea high salinity water masses are formed. Rochford (1964) reported a water
mass and termed it as ‘D’; Wyrtki (1971) reported this water mass as Arabian Sea water (ASW) mass, Kumar
and Prasad (1997) reported an other high salinity water mass as the Arabian Sea High Salinity Water (ASHSW)
mass, and Banse (1984) announced the presence of a water mass in the northern Arabian Sea and called it
as the North Arabian Sea High Salinity Water (NASHSW) mass due to its formation in the northern Arabian
Sea. Whereas, Morrison (1997) referred NASHSW as a denser fraction of Arabian Sea Water (ASW).
In view of the above, the present study has been planned with the prime objective of understanding the
dynamical processes that govern the formation of upper salinity maximum in the north Arabian Sea by
analysing original data collected under the North Arabian Sea Environment and Ecosystem Research
(NASEER) Programme (1992 – 1995) and Argo floats launched in the Arabian Sea under the pilot programme
of the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS).
NAEEM AHMED
Institute of Marine Sciences, University Of Karachi

EB-40 Final

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

EB-40 Final

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Naeem Ahmed

Study of Dynamics of Upper High Salinity Water

SERVICES FOR SCIENCE AND EDUCATION

Study of Dynamics of Upper High Salinity Water Mass in

Copyright © 2020, Society for Science and Education (United Kingdom)

permission of Dr. M. M. Rabbani, Director General National Institute of

Oceanography, Karachi, Pakistan. Dr. John M. Morrison (University of North

critical and constructive comments on the manuscript. Dr. Shaukat H. Khan of

National Institute of Oceanography, Karachi, is also acknowledged for his excellent

review of the manuscript.

The entire thesis is composed by me

1.0 Introduction …………………………………………….. 1

2.0 The background…………………………………………. 15

2.1 WATER MASSES………………………………………… 15

2.2 THE AIR - SEA INTERACTION SYSTEM………..…… 21

2.2.1 The Earth's climate system………………………… 22

2.2.2 The ocean as the flywheel for the Earth's climate

2.2.3 Air-sea interaction processes and sea surface

2.2.4 Sea Surface Temperature (SST) and the concept

of mixed layer …………………………………….. 35

2.3 NORTH INDIAN OCEAN AND THE MONSOONS……. 38

2.4 WATER MASSES IN THE UPPER 1000 m OF THE

INDIAN OCEAN ………………………………………… 46

2.4.1 Shallow Water Masses……………………………... 48

2.4.1.1Arabian Sea High Salinity Water (ASHSW)…. 48

2.4.1.2 Arabian Sea Water (ASW)……………………. 48

2.4.1.3Bay of Bengal, Waters ( BBW)………………. 49

2.4.1.4Persian Gulf Water (PGW)…………………… 50

2.4.2 Intermediate Water Masses………………………… 50

2.4.2.1Indian Central Water (ICW)………………….. 50

2.4.2.2Banda Sea Water or Australian Mediterranean

2.4.2.3Indian Equatorial Water (IEW)…………………. 52

2.4.2.4North Indian Intermediate Water (NIIW)………. 52

2.4.2.5Red Sea Water (RSW)…………………………. 52

2.5 OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY……………54

3.0 Research Data and Analytical methods ……………….. 55

3.1 COLLECTION OF RESEARCH DATA………………… 56

3.1.1 North Arabian Sea Environment and Ecosystem

3.1.2 Argo Floats Data…………………………………… 61

3.2 ANALYTICAL METHODS ……………………………. 64

3.2.1 Potential Temperature () and Potential

3.2.2 Determination of Salinity Maximum……………… 64

3.2.3 Construction of Temperature - Salinity (T-S) plots.. 65

3.2.4 Identification of Mixed Layer Depth…………….... 65

3.2.5 Estimation of Heat Budget………………………… 66

3.2.5.1 Radiative Heat Fluxes……………………… 67

3.2.5.1.1Shortwave Flux (Qi )………………... 67

3.2.5.1.2Longwave Flux (Qb)…………………. 70

3.2.5.2 Turbulent Heat Fluxes………………………71

3.2.5.2.1Latent Heat Flux (Qe)…………………71

3.2.5.2.2Sensible Heat Flux (Qs)…………….....72

3.2.5.3 Freshwater heat fluxes……………………...72

3.2.5.3.1Moisture heat fluxes (Evaporation)…. 73

3.2.5.3.2Surface Buoyancy Flux……………… 73

3.2.5.4 Momentum Fluxes…………………………. 74

3.2.5.5 Net Effective Radiation (R)………………... 75

3.2.5.6 Total Heat Loss…………………………….. 75

3.2.5.7 Net Heat Gain of Ocean…………………… 76

4.1 IDENTIFICATION OF WATER MASSES IN THE

4.1.1 Argo float 2900097 ……………………………… 77

4.1.2 Argo float 2900098………………………………… 82

4.1.3 Argo float 2900134………………………………… 86

4.1.4 Argo float 2900135………………………………… 90

4.1.5 Argo float 2900394………………………………… 94