e system de- of the system fe s(n) of the a program to ir similarities se h(n) of the 3, and Ja are CHAPTER The z-Transform and Its Application to the Analysis of LTI Systems ‘Transform techniques are an important tool in the analysis of signals and linear time- invariant (LTT) systems. In this chapter we introduce the z-transform, develop its properties, and demonstrate its importance in the analysis and characterization of linear time-invariant systems. The z-transform plays the same role in the analysis of discrete-time signals and LT systems as the Laplace transform does in the analysis of continuous-time signals and LTI systems. For example, we shall see that in the z-domain (complex z-plane) the convolution of two time-domain signals is equivalent to multiplication of theit corresponding z-transforms. This property greatly simplifies the analysis of the re- sponse of an LTI system to various signals. In addition, the z-transform provides us with a means of characterizing an LTT system, and its response to various signals, by its pole-zero locations. ‘We begin this chapter by defining the z-transform. Its important properties are presented in Section 3.2. In Section 3:3 the transform is used to characterize in terms of their pole-zero patterns. Section 3.4 describes methods for inverting the z-transform of a signal so as to obtain the time signal. Finally, in Section 3.6, we treat one-sided z-transform and use it to solve linear difference equations with nonzero initial conditions, Section 3.5 is focused on the use of the z-transform in the analysis of LT! systems. ignals jomain representation of the The z-Transform In this section we introduce the z-transform of a discrete-time signal, investigate its convergence properties, and briefly discuss the inverse z-transform, 147148 Chapter3 The s-Transtorm and tts Application tothe Anayss of LI Systems 3.1.1 The Direct z-Transform The z fansform of a discrete-time signal x(n) is defined as the power series x@ G44) where z is a complex variable, The relation (3.1.1) is sometimes called the direct transform because it transforms the time-domain signal x(n) into its complex-plane representation X (z). The inverse procedure [ie., obtaining x(n) from X (z)]is called ‘transform and is examined briefly in Section 3.1.2 and in more detail in the inverse Section 3.4 For convenience, the z-transform of a signal x(n) is denoted by X@) = Zl} (3.12) the relationship between x(n) and Xz) is indicated by x(n) > XG Since the z-transform is an infinite power series, it exists only for those values of z for which this series converges. The region of convergence (ROC) of X(z) is the set of all values of z for which X(z) attains a finite value. Thus any time we cite a ‘transform we should also indicate its ROC. ‘We illustrate these concepts by some simple examples, EXAMPLE3.1.1 Determine the z-transforms of the following fnite-duration signals. (@) x90) = 11,2.5,7,0.1) () 29) = 11,2,5.7,0.11 © x 5.7.01 @ win) ot) © x © x(n) = 52H, k > 0 @ Hl) = 8 +H, k>O From definition (3.1.1), we have 4 5e24-7e34 275, ROC: entire z-plane except 2 = 0 | + 2-9, ROC: entire z-plane except z =O and 2 =00 7, ROC: entire z-plane except #4245472! +23, ROC entize z-plane except <= (©) Xs(e) = 1 fie, dln) <> 1], ROC: entire z-plane 2 fie, Sn —&) 2+ ot), k > 0, ROC: entire z-plane except plane except A fie 804k) + 2], k > 0, ROC entire zsystems ted as the power series GLI) sometimes called the direct z al x(n) into its complex-plane ning x(n) from X(z)] is called ion 3.1.2 and in more detail in is denoted by icated by G13) sists only for those values of rgence (ROC) of X(z) is the ue, Thus any time we cite a ses, ‘gnats re except = 0 cept: =O and 2 = 00 ane except : =0 xcept z = 0 and plane except z ane except 2 = 3 The z-Transform 149 From this example it is easily seen that the ROC of a finite-duration signal is the entire z-plane, except possibly the points z = 0 and/or z = oo. These points are excluded, because z* (> 0) becomes unbounded for z = oo and z~* (k > 0) becomes unbounded for z = 0. From a mathematical point of view the z-transform is simply an alternative representation of a signal, This is nicely illustrated in Example 3.1-1, where we si that the coefficient of 2~", in a given transform, is the value of the signal at time n In other words, the exponent of z contains the time information we need to identify the samples of the signal. In many cases we can express the sum of the finite or infinite series for the transform in a closed-form expression, Insuch cases the z-transform offers acompact, alternative representation of the signal. EXAMPLE3.1.2 Determine the z-transform of the signal 1 x(n) = (Yuin) sonsists ofan infinite number of nonzero values The signal x(n) X@ This isan infinite geometric series. We recall that LHAPAE A poe itlal<1 X(z) converges to Consequently, for “|< 1, or equivalently, for 1 on Key= Pe ROCHE > We see that in this case, the z-transform provides « compact alternative representation of the signal x(n),150 Chapter 3 The z-Transform and ts Appiation tothe Analysis of LT Systems Let us express the complex variable in polar form as ere G4) where r = |z| and 9 = %2. Then X(z) can be expressed as X@lene = Do x07 In the ROC of X(z), [X@)| < ce. But | $5 etayrert 7 7 G5) SY poor te} = YD lator] Hence |X (2) i finite if the sequence x(n)r~ is absolutely summable “The problem of finding the ROC for X (2) is equivalent to determining the range of values ofr for which the sequence x(n)r-* is absolutely summable, To elaborate, let us express (3.1.5) as res D ror tS el ~ e (G16) ra,asillustrated in Fig. 3.1.1(b). 2) requires that both sums in (3.1.6) be finite, it follows that the ROC of X(z) is generally specified as the annular region in the 2- plane, rx < r r1, there iso common region of convergence for the two sums and hence X(z) does not exist The following examples illustrate these important concepts.(a) G15) G16) fons in (3.1.6) cere must exist of all points in On the other sircle of 6) be finite, it agion in the z ire finite. "This fy Si Thee-Tansform 151 a... Figure 3.1.1 Region of convergence for X@ components EXAMPLE3.1.3, Determine the z-transform of the signal : nz0 x(n) =a"u(n) ea Solution, From the definition (3.1.1) we have ot = te x If jae~1| < 1 oF equivalently, [z| > la, this power series converges to 1/(1— az"). Thus we have the z-transform pair4152 Chapter’3 The z-Tansform and its Application to the Analysis of LT Systems Ime) Reta) @ » sn) (a), and the ROC of its 2 Figure 3.1.2 The exponential signal x(x) transform (6). ROC: el > lal G17 x(n) =atu(n) E> KO = ‘The ROC isthe exterior ofa citcle having radius a. Figure 3.1.2 shows a graph of the signal x(n) and its corresponding ROC. Note that, in general, « need not be real T in (3.1.7), we obtain the z-transform of the unit step signal x(n) = u(n) E> ROC: [el >1 G18) EXAMPLE3.1.4 Determine the z-transform of the signal x(n) = ~a"u(-n— 1) ce net From the definition (31.1) we have Yeon t = -Leerte) 1. Using the formula where when [Al < 1 gives <1 or, equivalently, |z| < Jal. Thus 1 provided that lo x(n) ROC: [zl < lal Gis) “The ROC is now the interior of a circle having radius la). This is shown in Fig. 3.13.3. The eransform 153 Te) @ ® |, and the ROC of its Figure 3.1.3 Anticausal signal a'u(-n 1) ¢ z-transform (b). @un Examples 3.1.3 and 3.1.4 illustrate two very important issues. The first concerns the uniqueness of the z-transform. From (3.1.7) and (3.1.9) we see that the causal vf the signal signal a"u(n) and the anticausal signal -a”u(—n ~ 1) have identical closed-form expressions for the z-transform, that is, : 7 1 aia Za"u(n)) = Zlane(—n Y= a This implies that a closed-form expression for the z-transform does not uniquely specify the signal in the time domain, The ambiguity can be resolved only if in addition to the closed-form expression, the ROC is specified. In summary, adiscrete- time signal x(n) is uniquely determined by its z-transform X(z) and the region of convergence of X(z). In this text the term “z-transform” is used to refer to both the closed-form expression and the corresponding ROC. Example 3.1.3 also illustrates the point that the ROC of a causal signal isthe exterior of a circle of sonte radius rp while the ROC ofan anticausal signal is the interior of a circle of some radius ry. The following example considers a sequence that is nonzero for —co < 1 < 00 EXAMPLE3.1.5, Determine the transform of the x(n) =a"u(n) + Buln 1) From definition (3.1.1) we have . “The frst power series converges if a2"1| < 1 oF [z] > [a]. The second power series converges G19) if or'e| <1 or [el = (A In determining the convergence of X we consider two different cases154 Chapter The e-Transform and its Application to the Analysis of LT Systems Ime a Imes) Figure 3.1.4 ROC for Xt) ROC for z-transform in Example 3.15) 3 shown in Fig. 3.1.4(a. bth power series can- Case | jb| < al: In this case the two ROC above do not overlap, Consequently, we cannot find values of z for whiel ‘verge simultaneously, Clearly, inthis case, X(2) does not exis Case 2 |b| > fal: In this ease there is a ring inthe z-plane where both power series converge simultaneously, as shown in Fig. 3.1.4(b). Then we obtain (110) The ROC of X(@) is lal < el < I) ‘This example shows that if there is a ROC for an infinite-duration two-sided signal, it isa ring (annular region) in the z-plane. From Examples 3.1.1, 3.1.3, 3.1.4, and 3.1.5, we see that the ROC of a signal depends both on its duration (finite or infinite) and on whether it is causal, anticausal, or two-sided. These facts are summarized in Table 3.1 ‘One special case of a two-sided signal is a signal that has infinite duration on the right side but not on the let [i.e.,x(a) = 0 for n

my > 0]. A third special nal that has finite duration on both the left and right sides [ie., x(n) = 0 for n < np < Oandn > m > 0. These types of signals are sometimes called right-sided, left-sided, and finite-duration two-sided signals, respectively. The determination of the ROC for these three types of signals is left as an exercise for the reader (Problem 3.5), Finally, we note that the z-transform defined by (3.1.1) is sometimes referred to as the nvo-sided or bilateral z-transform, to distinguish it from the one-sided or156 Chapter 3 The z-Transform and its Application tothe Analysis of LT Systems unilateral z-transform given by KO = Lame "The one-sided z-transform is examined in Section 3.6. In this text we use the expres sion z-transform exclusively to mean the two-sided z-transform defined by (3.1.1) The term “two-sided” will be used only in cases where we want to resolve any am- biguities. Clearly, if x(n) is causal [ie., x(w) = 0 for n < 0}, the one-sided and two-sided z-transforms are identical, In any other case, they are different 3.1.2. The Inverse z-Transform Often, we have the z-transform X(2) of a signal and we must determine the signal sequence. The procedure for transforming from the z-domain to the time domain is called the inverse z-transform. An inversion formula for obtaining x(n) from X (2) can be derived by using the Cauchy integral theorem, which is an important theorem in the theory of complex variables. To begin, we have the z-transform defined by (3.1.1) as 12) ‘Suppose that we multiply both sides of (3.1.12) by z”~! and integrate both sides over closed contour within the ROC of X 2) which encloses the origin. Such a contour is illustrated in Fig. 3.1.5. Thus we have where C denotes the closed contour in the ROC of X (2), taken in a counterclockwise direction. Since the series converges on this contour, we can interchange the order of, ine) Reis) Figure 3.1.5 Contour € for integral in G13).gaan) the expres dby G.1.1) sive any am- e-sided and at ne the signal ne domain is ») from X} fant theorem 1.12) uth sides over ich a contour aterclockwise ethe order of Properties of the 2-Tansform 157 integration and summation on the right-hand side of (3.1.13). Thus (3.1.13) becomes fxoe “ae G14) Now we can invoke the Cauchy integral theorem, which states that 1 o 1 kan ake te=|o bee aa where C is any contour that encloses the origin. By applying (3.1.15), the right-hand side of (3.1.14) reduces to 2r7jx(n) and hence the desired inversion formula “Although the contour integral in (3.1.16) provides the desired inversion formula for determining the sequence x(n) from the z-transform, we shall not use (3.1.16) directly in our evaluation of inverse z-transforms. In our treatment we deal with sig- nals and systemsin the z-domain which have rational z-transforms (i.e, z-transforms that are a ratio of two polynomials), For such z-transforms we develop a simpler ‘method! for inversion that stems from (3.1.16) and employs a table lookup. de G16) 3.2. Properties of the z-Transform The z-transform is a very powerful tool for the study of diserete-time signals and systems. The power of this transform is a consequence of some very important properties that the transform possesses. In this section we examine some of these properties, In the treatment that follows, it should be remembered that when we combine several z-transforms, the ROC of the overall transform is, at least, the intersection of the ROC of the individual transforms. This will become more apparent later, when we discuss specific examples, Linearity. If n(n) <> Xie) and then C20) x(n) = ayyy(n) + agxa(n) E> X(2) = arXi(2) + aXe for any constants a; and a3. The proof of this property follows immediately from the definition of linearity and is left as an exercise for the reader. ‘The linearity property can easily be generalized for an arbitrary number of sig nals. Basically, it implies that the z-transform of a linear combination of signals is the same linear combination of their z-transforms, Thus the linearity property helps us to find the z-transform of a signal by expressing the signal as a sum of elementary signals, for each of which, the z-transform is already known,158 Chapter’ The Transform and ks Application tothe Analysis of LI Systems EXAMPLE3.2.1 Determine the z-transform and the ROC of the signal x(n) = BR") —4G"y}un) It we define the signals x(n) = 2u(n) and xan) = Fun) then x(n) can be written as x(n) = 3xitn) = 4 According to (32.1) its z-transform is X(e) = 3Xy(2) — 4Xa(2) From (3.1.7) we recall that ROC: |x| > fal 622) By setting « = 2 and a =3 in (32.2), we obtain (0) = Dal) > Xv(e) ROC: [el > 2 sa(n) = 3u(n) <> Xa(e) = ROC: |r| > 3 3. Thus the overall transform X ‘The intersection of the ROC of X1(2) and x EXAMPLE3.2.2 Determine the z-transform of the signals (a) x(n) = (coscayndutn) (b) 262) = Ginoynuin) Solut (a) By wsing Euler's identity, the signal x(n) can be expressed as inn sain) x(n) = (Cosann)u ln) + ‘Thus (32.1) implies that 1 1 (2) = Ezleluimy) + $Zte™*uln))sform X() is 32 Properties of the zTransform 159 Ieweset a we obtain and ROC: [el = Thus (b) From Euler's identity x(n) = (sin nun) ur u(n)) Thus ROC: |e] > 1 and finally, (in opndu(n) E+ — i Time shifting. If x(n) 2X then HA Xe xa ‘The ROC of z~*X 2) is the same as that of X (2) except for 2 = Oif k > Oand z= 0 if k <0. The proof ofthis property follows immediately from the definition of the z-transform given in (3.1.1) The properties of linearity and time shifting are the key features that make the z-transform extremely useful for the analysis of discrete-time LTI systems. EXAMPLE 3.2.3, By applying the time-shifting property, determine the z-transform of the signals x3(n) and s(n) in Example 3.1.1 from the z-transform of xi (1)160 Chapt 3 The e-Transform and is Application tothe Analysis of TI Systems Solution, — It can easily be seen that a(n) and s(n) = (0-2) ‘Thus from (3.2.5) we obtain x brett Tete and Xa@) = 27x 42a Sete Tet +e at because of the multiplication by 22, the ROC of X2(z) does not include the point te, even if itis contained in the ROC of Xy(2) ‘ample 3.23 provides additional insight in understanding the meaning of the shifting property. Indeed, if we recall that the coefficient of 2" is the sample Value at time n, it is immediately seen that delaying a signal by k(k > 0) samples [ic. x(n) > x(a — &)] corresponds to multiplying all terms of the z-transform by 2! The coefficient of 2-” becomes the coefficient of 2") EXAMPLE3.2.4 Determine the transform ofthe signal oath 70) = Yo, elsewhere G26) Solution, We can determine the z-transform of this signal by using the definition (3.1.1). Indeed, feat ite41 be yn 627) ‘Since x(n) has finite duration, its ROC isthe enti ‘Let us also detive this transform by using the linearity and time-shifting properties. Note that rn) ean be expressed in terms of two unit step signals x(n) = (a) — a(n N) By using (32.1) and (3.2.5) we have X(@) = Zlu)) — Zlu(n— N)) == 2 *)Z be} G28) However from (3.1.8) we have Ziwin)) ROC: |z|> 1 which, when combined with (3.2.8), leads to (32.7)Ide the point vaning of the 5 the sample > 0) samples transform by 626) Gnition (3.1.1). roperties. Note (328) 32. Properties oft Example 3.2.4 helps to clarify a very important issue regarding the ROC of the combination of several z-transforms, if the linear combination of several signals has finite duration, the ROC of its z-transform is exclusively dictated by the finite~ duration nature of this signal, not by the ROC of the individual transforms. Sealing in the z-domain. If x) 2 X@, ROGn Xa" ll < lalre 329) for any constant a, real or complex. Proof From the definition (3.1.1) zlatxen) = SS atime = So moerte® = X(a"!z) Since the ROC of X(z) is ry < [zl < 72, the ROC of X(a~!2) is complex variable w = a~!z, Thus Z{x(n)} = X(z) and Z{a"x(n)} = X(w). Itcan (ee) This change of variables results in either shrinking (if ry > 1) or expanding (if ry <1) the z-plane in combination with a rotation (if # 2k) of the z-plane (see Fig, 32.1). This explains why we have a change in the ROC of the new transform where Jal < 1. The case |a) = 1, that is, a = e/ is of special interest because it corresponds only to rotation of the z-plane. Figure 3.2.1 Mapping of the <-plane to the w-plane via the transformation = a2,162 Chaptor’3 Th iransform and ts Application tothe Analysis of LT Systems EXAMPLE3.2.5 Determine the s-transforms of the signals (a) x(n) = 2" (coseanu(n) @) xe a" im cagn)u(n) Solution, (a) From (32.3) and (32.9) we easily obtain @210) (b) Similary, (2.2.4) and (3.29) yield asin ogni) > lel > fa 2.41) itd x(n) 25 X(@), ROC: < then : 1 A an) > x@H), ROC: = < 212) Proof From the definition (3.1.1), we have Z{x(-n) where the change of variable 1 = —n is made, The ROC of X(z"!) is al i 1 By using (3.2.12), we easily obtain afen) <> ROC: [:} <1 G24 Differentiation in the then x(n) > a Proof By differentiating both sides of (3.1.1), we have BOS seyemert ane! Sooke 27 !Z(nx(n)) Note that both transforms have the same ROC, EXAMPLE 3.2.7 Determine the z-transform of the signal x(n) =na"u(n) Solution, The signal x(n) can be expressed as nxi(n), where s(n) = a u(n). From (322) we have that ln) oun) H= 7 ROG: el > Jl Thus, by wi we obtain naan) <> X(2) ROC: lel > fl 6.213) we set « = I in (32.1), we find the «transform ofthe unit ramp signal “1 62.16)164 capter3 The eTransform and its Application to the Analysis of LT Systems EXAMPLE3.2.8 Determine the signal x(n) whose z-transform is given by XG) =log (tar, el > la By taking the first derivative of X (2), we obtain axe a iF “The inverse z-transform of the term in brackets is (~<)". ‘The multiplication by =~ implies a time delay by one sample (time-shifting property), which results in (~a)"-"w(n ~ 1). Finally, from the differentiation property we have Thus nix(n) = al~a)""u(a =) x(a) = 9" Lun — 0) Convolution of two sequences. If x(n) > Xi) then Xi(e)Xal2) (217) x(n) = ln) # x20) <> XG The ROC of X (2) is, at least, the intersection of that for X, (z) and X2(2), Proof ‘The convolution of 23(n) and a(n) is defined as xa) = YY u@xnr ‘The z-transform of x(n) is xe@= Yo sn: “= E/E niin) " Upon interchanging the order of the summations and applying the time-shifting wwe obtain xe ¥ e[ Eno YS woe = Xa property in (31). Finally, 217) me-shifting Properties ofthe zTransform 165 EXAMPLE3.2.9 Compute the convolution x(n) of the signals, su(n) = (1,-2,1) 1, Oenss alr 0, elsewhere From (3.11), we have X= Xa) = According to (32.17), we carry out the multiplication of X X(@) = Xu@Na(e) = Le Hence x(n) = (1, 0,0,0,0,-b1) ‘The same result can also be obtained by noting that 4) Xa(2) = Then ‘The reader is encouraged to obtain the same result explicitly by using the convolution sum: ration formula (time-domain approach). ‘The convolution property is one of the most powerful properties of the z-trans. form because it converts the convolution of two signals (time domain) to multipli- cation of their transforms. Computation of the convolution of two signals, using the z-transform, requires the following steps: 1. Compute the transforms of the signals to be convolved, Xi) = Zou} (sime domain —+ z-domain) Xa(2) = Zb2)} 2, Multiply the two z-transforms, X(2) = Xile)Xo(z),—_ (z-domain) Find the inverse z-transform of X(z) x(n) =Z°'{X(@)},— (z-domain —+ time domain)CChapter3 The eTransfrm and its Application tothe Analysis of LI Systems ‘This procedure is, in many cases, computationally easier than the direct evaluation of the convolution summation. Correlation of two sequences. If ail) > X12) x(n) 2+ Xa) then rant) = Yo mileraln =D) > Raya (218) Proof We recall that a() 2-1) ras () Using the convolution and time-reversal properties, we easily obtain Raya 4 Axi(D)Zlx2(-) = Xa) Xa) The ROC of Riya (z) is at least the intersection of that for X;(2) and X2(z~. As in the case of convolution, the crosscorrelation of two signals is more easily done via polynomial multiplication according to (3.2.18) and then inverse transform- ing the result. EXAMPLE 3.2.10 Determine the autocorrelation sequence of th signal acl x(n) = a"u(n), Solution. — Since the autocorrelation sequence of a signal isis correlation with itsel, (3.2.18) Rule) = Zr) = XOX) From (3.2.2) we have ROC: [e| > fa] (causal signal) a (anticausal signal) ROC: [al <+ evaluation 3.2.18) 2G) more easily ce transform itselt,3.2.18) 32 Properties of the «Transform 167 Since the ROC of Rys(2) isa ring, ry, () is a tworsided signal, even if x(n) is causal To obtain r,, (0), we observe that the z-transform of the sequence in Example 3.1.5 with b= 1/a is simply (1 ~ a?)Ry<(2). Hence it follows that raid) The reader problem given in Seetion 26 sncouraged to compare this approach with the time-domain solution ofthe same Multiplication of two sequences. If ail) > (2) a(n) 2+ Xo(2) then x(n) = x (n)xo(n) 2s X(2) 7 f xcs (2) 0 av 219) where C is closed contour that encloses the origin and lies within the region of convergence common to both X;(u) and X21 Proof The z-transform of x3(n) is, X@= Vo xe" = YO ade” Let us substitute the inverse transform iy she fe xvcna sim) = 5h xcovtd for x(n) in the z-transform X (2) and interchange the order of summation and inte: gration, Thus we obtain Hfrvo[ Z no Therefore, which is the desired resultGB Chapter’ The z-ansfrm and its Application to the Analysis of LT Systems To obtain the ROC of X(z) we note that if Xi(v) converges for ry < [vl < rw and X2(z) converges for ray < |e| < rau, then the ROC of X2(z/v) is < Mutou (3.2.20) Although this property will not be used immediately, it will prove useful later, especially in our treatment of filter design based on the window technique, where we multiply the impulse response of an [IR system by a finite-duration “window” which serves to truncate the impulse response of the IR system. For complex-valued sequences x(n) and x2(n) we can define the product se- quence as x(n) = x (n)x3(n). ‘Then the corresponding complex convolution integral becomes, x(n) = a(x) 2 X mignon (E)eta 221) The proof of (3.2.21) is left as an exercise for the reader Parsevat’s relation. If x(n) and x2(n) are complex-valued sequences, then F nangen= 2 favo (32.22) provided that ryry <1 < riurou, where rip < [el < riy and ry < ROC of Xi(2) and Xa(z). The proof of (32.22) follows immediately by evaluating Xz) in (3.2.21) at 2 | < ru are the The initial Value Theorem. If s(n) is causal fie, x(2) = 0 for n <0 then 1) = Jim X@) 6223) Proof Since x(n) i causal, (3.1.1) gives ) XG) = Doxoe" =x +4) +427 + Obviously, as 2 + 00, 2-" > O since n > 0, and (3.2.23) follows. 1(3.2.20) useful later, e, where we dow” which product se jon integral 221) then 3.2.22) rau are the y evaluating then (32.23) TABLE 3.2 Properties ofthe Property Time Domain Notation Transform 32. Properties ofthe 2-Translorm 169 aim) Roc; nln ROC: Linearity auayin)+ ‘Atleast the intersection of a) ROC} and ROC xer—&) That of X(c), except 2 = Of Sands Sait k= 0 asta) Time reversal x(n) Conjugation x Roc Real part Retr) Includes ROC Imaginary part ante()) Includes ROC Differentiation in nx(n) matin) the edomain Convolution s(n) a3(n) ‘Atleast, the intersection of ROC, and ROC Correlation Ing = Atleast, the intersection of sn = (1 ROC of Xy(2) and X22") Initial value 1x0» causal theorem Multiplication xy(n)xz() Atleast, rura < [al <7 All the properties of the z-transform presented in this section are summarized in Table 3.2 for easy reference. They are listed in the same order as they have been introduced in the text. The conjugation properties and Parsoval’s relation are left as, exercises for the reader. We have now derived most of the z-transforms that are encountered in many practical applications. These z-transform pairs are summarized in Table 3.3 for easy reference. A simple inspection of this table shows that these z-transforms are all rational functions (i., ratios of polynomials in z~!), As will soon become apparent, rational z-transforms are encountered not only as the z-transforms of various im- portant signals but also in the characterization of discrete-time linear time-invariant systems described by constant-coefficient difference equations,170 Chapter3 The s-Transform and Its Application tothe Analysis of LI Systems fransform Pairs Transform, X ROG 1 Bem 1 All 2 un) 2 esl 3 atuin) 4 natu lel> la Sawn 1) 6 naan 1) |< lal 7 (coseanutn) lat 8 syne) 9 (a cosayn)uin) 10 (@"sinagru(n) 3.3. Rational z-Transforms As indicated in Section 3.2, an important family of z-transforms are those for which X(2) is a rational function, that is, a ratio of two polynomials in 2~! (or z). In this section we discuss some very important issues regarding the class of rational z-lransforms, 3.3.1 Poles and Zeros ) are the values of 2 for which X(z) = 0. The poles of i a rational function, The zeros of a z-transform X| sransform are the values of z for which X(2 then If a # 0 and by # 0, we can avoid the ne} terms boz"™ and apz~" " as follows: + bu foo Tp Fay fanefor which (or z). In of rational he poles of al function, (631) ing out the 33. Rational Transforms 171 Since B(z) and A(z) are polynomials in z, they can be expressed in factored form as Bt) _ be @-a) ni = BO bs a AG) ~ a @= pn) Te-a 632) owt where G = bo/ay. Thus X(z) has M finite zeros at z = 21, 22,...,2u (the roots of the numerator polynomial), NV finite poles at z = p1, p2,.... pw (the roots of the denominator polynomial), and |v ~ M| zeros (if N > M) or poles (if N < M) at the origin z = 0. Poles or zeros may also occur at 2 = 00. A zero exists at 2 = 00 if X (co) = 0 and a pole exists at z = 00 if X(00) = oo. If we count the poles and zeros at zero and infinity, we find that X(z) has exactly the same number of poles as zeros ‘We can represent X (2) graphically by a pole-zero plot (or pattern) in the complex plane, which shows the location of poles by crosses (x) and the location of zeros by circles (0). The multiplicity of multiple-order poles or zeros is indicated by a number close to the corresponding cross or circle. Obviously, by definition, the ROC of a z-transform should not contain any poles, EXAMPLE3.3.1 Determine the pole-zero plot forthe signal xn) =u), a> Solution. From Table 3.3 we find that x Thus X(2) has one zero at 21 = 0 and one pole at py — a, The pole-zero plot is shown in Fig. 33.1. Note that the pole p; = a is not included in the ROC since the z-transform does not converge at a pole Figure 3.3.1 Pole-zero plot for the causal exponential signal“Transform and Its Application tothe Analysis of LI Systems 172 Chapter3 The EXAMPLE 3.3.2 Determine the pole-zero plat forthe signal a’, Osn=M-1 0,” elsewhere where a > 0. Solution. From the definition (2.1.1) we obtain k201..,Ma1 The zero zn =a cancels the pole at z = a. Thus yee which has Mf — 1 zeros and M — 1 poles, located as shown in Fig, 3.3.2 for M = 8, Note that the ROC is the entire z-plane except z = 0 because of the M ~ I poles located atthe origi, Figure 3.3.2 Pole-2ero pattern for the fnite-durat signal x(n) neM—1 0), for428, Note that ted atthe origin, 33 Rational :-Transforms 173 ets) Figure 3.33 Pole-zero pattern fo Example 3.33 | Clearly, if we are given a pole-zero plot, we can determine X (2), by using (3. to within a scaling factor G. This is illustrated in the following example EXAMPLE 3.3.3 Determine the z-transform and the signal that corresponds to the pole-zero plot of Fig. 33.3, Solution, ‘There are two zeros = reosey and two poles (N= 2) at Pi = rel, pa = re", By substitution ofthese relations into (33.2), we obtain (2 ~ ros _reoseO) 5, ROC: fel > r Alter some simple algebraic manipulations we obtain re eosa : : ROC: |e] > From Table 3.3 we find tha xen Fe" cos ayn)uln) ce that the product (< — pi)(z — pa) results in a poly- nomial with real coefficients, when p; and p2 are complex conjugates. In general, if a polynomial has real coefficients, its roots are either real or occur in complex. on, the z-transform X(z) is a complex function of the complex variable z = M(z) + jX(z). Obviously, |X(2)}, the magnitude of X/(2), is a real and positive function of z. Since z represents a point in the complex plane, |X(2] is a mensional function and describes a “surface.” This is illustrated in Fig, 3.3.4 for the z-transform X@)= Ga. +08i2 which has one zero at z = 1 and two poles at pr. p2 = 0.9e*/*/*, Note the high peaks near the singularities (poles) and the deep valley close to the zero.