INTRODUCTION CHAPTER-1

1.1 Problem Statement

By the car accidents large number of deaths and disabilities happen every day. Accident can
happen everywhere, if this unfortunate makes at no men area and there is no one to help
and driver can’t be able to call medical emergencies then this could be lead dangerous for
driver life. Medical Emergencies should be got there in short time but it happens when they
get where this hazardous happen. The project “Smart Help Calling Device In case of Accident”
is a device focus on vehicle safety. This device is implemented in Vehicle for the detection of
accident and send the help notification or call to nearest Hospital & Police station. This device
has many emergency features. Crash sensors are implemented in this for vehicle accident
detection and this device has GSM & GPS for find the location and automatically notify or call
the help to the nearest Hospital & Police station so the driver can get Help or we can say
medical emergencies easily and also in short amount of time.

1.2 Introduction
“Smart Help Calling Device in Case of Accident” as its name presents in simple words that at
a time of collision of vehicle a device smartly call help. What is this device basically how it’s
work!!! Let’s elaborate the thing, this device has functionality like Real Time Tracking
Location, Real Time Communication Technology, Automatic sensing the collision of vehicle.
This device made up with IC attach with Communication system like GSM, CDMA, LTE etc. &
attached GPS who track real time location and there is a function software which have all the
contact information of hospital and police station. This device basically implemented in a
vehicle and when vehicle collide device attached sensors sense the collision and track the
accident location and send help notification and location to the nearest Hospital & Police
station. With its crash detection technology, this device ensures that help will reach when
needed without any unnecessary delay. The device automatically detects crashes and uses
its cellular connectivity – a SIM card that makes it operate like a phone — to contact help. In
the case of a crash, the device automatically alerts local emergency responders like friends,
family, police officials, and hospitals, even if the driver and other people are unable to do so.
WORKING CHAPTER-2

2.1 Components of Device

i. GPS (Global Positioning System)
ii. Real Time Communication Systems
iii. IC (Integrated Circuit)
iv. Advance Crash Sensor
v. Installed Software (Contact Info. & Advance Tracking)

2.1.1 GPS (Global Positioning System)

What is GPS and how does it work?

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a navigation system using satellites, a receiver and
algorithms to synchronize location, velocity and time data for air, sea and land travel.
The satellite system consists of a constellation of 24 satellites in six Earth-centered orbital
planes, each with four satellites, orbiting at 13,000 miles (20,000 km) above Earth and
traveling at a speed of 8,700 mph (14,000 km/h).
While we only need three satellites to produce a location on earth’s surface, a fourth satellite
is often used to validate the information from the other three.
The fourth satellite also moves us into the third-dimension and allows us to calculate the
altitude of a device.

What are the three elements of GPS?

GPS is made up of three different components, called segments, that work together to
provide location information.
The three segments of GPS are:
• Space (Satellites) — The satellites circling the Earth, transmitting signals to users on
geographical position and time of day.
 • Ground control — The Control Segment is made up of Earth-based monitor stations,
master control stations and ground antenna. Control activities include tracking and
operating the satellites in space and monitoring transmissions. There are monitoring
stations on almost every continent in the world, including North and South America,
Africa, Europe, Asia and Australia.
• User equipment — GPS receivers and transmitters including items like watches,
smartphones and telematic devices.

How does GPS technology work?

GPS works through a technique called trilateration. Used to calculate location, velocity and
elevation, trilateration collects signals from satellites to output location information. It is
often mistaken for triangulation, which is used to measure angles, not distances.
Satellites orbiting the earth send signals to be read and interpreted by a GPS device, situated
on or near the earth’s surface. To calculate location, a GPS device must be able to read the
signal from at least four satellites. Each satellite in the network circles the earth twice a day,
and each satellite sends a unique signal, orbital parameters and time. At any given moment,
a GPS device can read the signals from six or more satellites.
A single satellite broadcasts a microwave signal which is picked up
by a GPS device and used to calculate the distance from the GPS device to the satellite. Since
a GPS device only gives information about the distance from a satellite, a single satellite
cannot provide much location information. Satellites do not give off information about
angles, so the location of a GPS device could be anywhere on a sphere’s surface area. When
a satellite sends a signal, it creates a circle with a radius measured from the GPS device to
the satellite.
When we add a second satellite, it creates a second circle, and the location is narrowed down
to one of two points where the circles intersect.
With a third satellite, the device’s location can finally be determined, as the device is at the
intersection of all three circles.
That said, we live in a three-dimensional world, which means that each satellite produces a
sphere, not a circle. The intersection of three spheres produces two points of intersection,
so the point nearest Earth is chosen.

Here is an illustration of satellite ranging:

Fig. 1- Satellite Ranging

As a device moves, the radius (distance to the satellite) changes. When the radius changes,
new spheres are produced, giving us a new position. We can use that data, combined with
the time from the satellite, to determine velocity, calculate the distance to our destination
and the ETA.

What are the uses of GPS?

GPS is a powerful and dependable tool for businesses and organizations in many different
industries. Surveyors, scientists, pilots, boat captains, first responders, and workers in mining
and agriculture, are just some of the people who use GPS on a daily basis for work.
They use GPS information for preparing accurate surveys and maps, taking precise time
measurements, tracking position or location, and for navigation. GPS works at all times and
in almost all-weather conditions.
There are five main uses of GPS:
1. Location — Determining a position.
2. Navigation — Getting from one location to another.
3. Tracking — Monitoring object or personal movement.
4. Mapping — Creating maps of the world.
5. Timing — Making it possible to take precise time measurements.

How accurate is GPS?

GPS device accuracy depends on many variables, such as the number of satellites available,
the ionosphere, the urban environment and more.

Some factors that can hinder GPS accuracy include:

• Physical obstructions: Arrival time measurements can be skewed by large masses like
mountains, buildings, trees and more.
• Atmospheric effects: Ionospheric delays, heavy storm cover and solar storms can all
affect GPS devices.
• Ephemeris: The orbital model within a satellite could be incorrect or out-of-date,
although this is becoming increasingly rare.
• Numerical miscalculations: This might be a factor when the device hardware is not
designed to specifications.
• Artificial interference: These include GPS jamming devices or spoofs.
Accuracy tends to be higher in open areas with no adjacent tall buildings that can block
signals. This effect is known as an urban canyon. When a device is surrounded by large
buildings, like in downtown Manhattan or Toronto, the satellite signal is first blocked, and
then bounced off a building, where it is finally read by the device. This can result in
miscalculations of the satellite distance.

Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS)

A GPS is considered to be a Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) — meaning it is a
satellite navigation system with global coverage.
As of 2020, there are two fully operational global navigation satellite systems: the U.S.
navigation signal timing and ranging (NAVSTAR) GPS and Russia’s Global Navigation Satellite
System (GLONASS). The NAVSTAR GPS consists of 32 satellites owned by the U.S. and is the
best-known and most widely-utilized satellite system. Russia’s GLONASS consists of 24
operational satellites with three remaining as spares or in testing.

Fig. 2- GNSS

Satellite Navigation - GPS - How It Works

Satellite Navigation is based on a global network of satellites that transmit radio signals
from medium earth orbit. Users of Satellite Navigation are most familiar with the 31 Global
Positioning System (GPS) satellites developed and operated by the United States. Three
other constellations also provide similar services. Collectively, these constellations and their
augmentations are called Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS). The other
constellations are GLONASS developed and operated by the Russian Federation, Galileo
developed and operated by the European Union, and Bei Dou, developed and operated by
China. All providers have offered free use of their respective systems to the international
community. All providers have developed International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
Standards and Recommended Practices to support use of these constellations for aviation.
 Fig. 3- Satellite Navigation
The basic GPS service provides users with approximately 7.0-meter accuracy, 95% of the
time, anywhere on or near the surface of the earth. To accomplish this, each of the 31
satellites emits signals that enable receivers through a combination of signals from at least
four satellites, to determine their location and time. GPS satellites carry atomic clocks that
provide extremely accurate time. The time information is placed in the codes broadcast by
the satellite so that a receiver can continuously determine the time the signal was
broadcast. The signal contains data that a receiver uses to compute the locations of the
satellites and to make other adjustments needed for accurate positioning. The receiver
uses the time difference between the time of signal reception and the broadcast time to
compute the distance, or range, from the receiver to the satellite. The receiver must
account for propagation delays or decreases in the signal's speed caused by the ionosphere
and the troposphere. With information about the ranges to three satellites and the location
of the satellite when the signal was sent, the receiver can compute its own three-
dimensional position. An atomic clock synchronized to GPS is required in order to compute
ranges from these three signals. However, by taking a measurement from a fourth satellite,
the receiver avoids the need for an atomic clock. Thus, the receiver uses four satellites to
compute latitude, longitude, altitude, and time.

Types of GPS systems

You’ll be dazzled once you begin to explore the many types of GPS systems and amazing
features available in today’s market. There isn’t one of us who can’t benefit somehow from
its multitude of applications.
2.1.2 Real Time Communication System
What is a Communication System?
The communication system is a system model that describes a communication exchange
between two stations, transmitter, and receiver. Signals or information passes from source
to destination through a channel. It represents a way in which the signal uses it to move from
a source toward its destination. To transmit signals in a communication system, it should first
be processed by beginning from signal representation, to signal shaping until encoding and
modulation. After the transmitted signal is prepared, it is passed to the transmission line of
the channel. Due to signal crossing this media, it is faced with many impairments like noise,
attenuation, and distortion.

The process of transferring the information between two points is called communication.
The main elements needed to communicate are the transmitter to send the information, the
medium to send the information and the receiver to receive the information on the other
end.

Types of Communication Systems

Based on physical infrastructure there are two types of communication systems:
• Line communication systems: Uses the existing infrastructure of power lines to
transfer data from one point to another point.
• Radio Communication systems: uses the infrastructure of radio waves to transfer the
information from one point to another point.
There is a physical link, called a hardwire channel between the transmitter and the receiver
inline communication systems.

Based on Signal specifications:

Signal specifications that are used to decide the type of communication system are:
• Nature of the baseband or information signal: Baseband signals is a technology which
can access the signals with very low frequency and also near zero frequency and based
on the nature of the transmitted signal, the baseband signal can either be transmitted
as it is without modulation or through a carrier signal with modulation.
Further, communication systems are divided into:

• Analog communication systems: The Analog system conveys the information from the
audio, video and pictures between two points using the analogue signals. A sinusoidal
signal is an example of an analogue communication system.
• Digital communication systems: Digital communication has become very important in
the age of the internet. It is a physical exchange of information between two points
discreetly. The information exchange happens through digital signals.
• Baseband communication system: Baseband communication is the transfer of signals
that are not amplified to higher frequencies. They help in transferring signals with
near-zero frequency.
• Carrier communication system: Carrier communication systems transfer the
information especially voice messages and calls by improving the frequency much
higher than the actual rate.

Out of four, a minimum of two types is needed to specify any communication system. Thus,
two groups are formed consisting of each of the two types such that at least one of the types
from each group is necessarily required to specify a communication system. These groups
can be formed as:
• Analog/digital communication systems
• Baseband/carrier communication systems
To completely define any communication system, four out of the eight types are required. If
any type is missing, then the description of the communication system will be incomplete.

Wireless and Wired communication system

Wireless communication systems use radio waves, electromagnetic waves and infrared
waves to communicate from one point to another point and the wire communication system
uses wire, optical fiber which works on the phenomenon of total internal reflection to
communicate from one point to another point.
Wireless communication is further divided into satellite communication, ground wave
communication, skywave and space wave communication. The satellite communication
receives the signals from the earth and resends them back to another point on the earth with
the help of a transponder. Wired communication is further divided into parallel wire, twisted
wire, optical fiber and coaxial wired communication.

Terms Used in Communication Systems

1. Signal
A signal is that information that has been converted into a digital format. Analog signals (such
as human voice) or digital signals (binary data) are inputted to the system, processed within
the electronic circuits for transmission, then decoded by the receiver. The system is claimed
to be reliable and effective; only errors are minimized within the process.

2. Communication Channel
A communication channel is a medium by which a signal travel.

3. Transducer
The device used to convert one form of energy into another form is a transducer.

4. Receiver
A receiver is a device that receives the signals sent/ transmitted by the senders and decodes
them into a form that is understandable by humans.

5. Attenuation
Attenuation is the reduction in the strength of analog or digital signal as it is transmitted over
a communication medium.

6. Amplitude
An amplitude of the signal refers to the strength of the signal.

7. Amplification
Amplification is the process to strengthen the amplitude of the signals using an electronic
circuit.
8. Bandwidth
Bandwidth explains the range of frequency over which a signal has been transmitted.

9. Modulation
As the original message signal can't be transmitted over an outsized distance due to their low
frequency and amplitude, they're superimposed with high frequency and amplitude waves
called carrier waves. This phenomenon of superimposing a message signal with a carrier
wave is called modulation. And the resultant wave is a modulated wave which is to be
transmitted.

Different Types of Modulation.

• Amplitude Modulation (AM)
• Frequency Modulation (FM)
• Phase Modulation (PM)

10. Demodulation
Demodulation takes a modulated signal and then extracts the original message from it.
11. Repeater
The repeater extends the range of communication systems by amplifying the signals.

12. Noise
Any electrical signal which interferes with an information signal is called noise.

Did You Know?

• Communication Is Related to Every Human Activity.
• Communication in Organization Flows in Various Patterns.
• Communication Is Media or Channel Based
• There are around 250 billion emails sent every day. Around 80% of these are spam.
• Around 20 hours of video are uploaded to YouTube every minute.
 • Fiber optics are good because they use less energy and are better for the environment
than electrical wires. They are also very resistant to weather.
• The first telephone pole was built in 1876.
• There are over 4 billion cell phones within the world and phones that are thrown away
every year are over 100 million.
• The first cell phone was invented by a company called Motorola.
• Over 3.8 billion people use the internet, which is 40% of the world's population.

What is CDMA vs. GSM vs. LTE?

GSM and CDMA are different technologies that phones use to connect. They were both
developed in the early nineties for 2G connectivity. But engineers couldn’t agree on which
one was the best. So, in the US, the FCC settled on a “dual-mode” route that required
either GSM or CDMA. That’s why we have 2 different technologies.
Europeans, though, agreed on GSM, as did the rest of the world. That’s why GSM is the de-
facto system for the rest of the world.
For 3G, carriers only improved the original GSM and CDMA technology. So, the duality
remained.
Fortunately, engineers agreed on a new cellular system for 4G connectivity. And that’s LTE.
Carriers designed LTE for data. But it’s been working so well that they are replacing
everything else with it. For example, they’ve introduced VoIP solutions like VoLTE to
replace traditional calls.

What is CDMA (Code-Division Multiple Access)?

CDMA (Code-Division Multiple Access) refers to any of several protocols used in second-
generation (2G) and third-generation (3G) wireless communications. As the term implies,
CDMA is a form of multiplexing, which allows numerous signals to occupy a single
transmission channel, optimizing the use of available bandwidth. The technology is used in
ultra-high-frequency (UHF) cellular phone systems in the 800 megahertz (MHz) and 1.9
gigahertz (GHz) bands.
CDMA employs analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) in combination with spread spectrum
technology. Audio input is first digitized into binary elements. The frequency of the
transmitted signal is then made to vary according to a defined pattern code. This enables the
signal to be intercepted only by a receiver whose frequency response is programmed with
the same code, following along with the transmitter frequency. There are trillions of possible
frequency sequencing codes, which enhances privacy and makes cloning difficult.

How does CDMA work?

Cell clusters form the cellular structure of wireless CDMA networks. Each cell in a cell cluster
has a transceiver with the necessary transmitting power and mobile units distributed around
the cell's coverage area. Every mobile unit runs a transceiver, which consists of a low-power
transmitter and a sensitive receiver operating with a wireless cellular environment. The
characteristics of the cellular environment include multipath propagation, access
interference and fading.
The near-far (N-F) effect plays a significant role in the quality of service (QoS) for CDMA
systems. It refers to a phenomenon that occurs when a user near the base station sends out
a transmission that interferes with and overpowers a weaker transmission signal coming
from a user further away. To this end, CDMA network providers use receivers that are
resistant to the N-F effect; they also use tight power control schemes.
The CDMA channel is nominally 1.23 MHz wide. CDMA networks use a scheme called soft
handoff, which minimizes signal breakup as a handset passes from one cell to another. The
combination of digital and spread spectrum modes supports several times as many signals
per unit of bandwidth as analog modes. CDMA is compatible with other cellular technologies;
this enables nationwide roaming.

The original CDMA standard, also known as CDMA One, offers a transmission speed of only
up to 14.4 kilobits per second in its single channel form and up to 115 Kbps in an eight-
channel form. CDMA2000 and Wideband CDMA (W-CDMA) deliver data many times faster.
The CDMA2000 family of standards includes single-carrier Radio Transmission Technology
(1xRTT), Evolution-Data Optimized Release 0, EVDO Revision A and EVDO Rev. B. People
often confuse CDMA2000, which is a family of standards supported by Verizon and Sprint,
with CDMA, which is the physical layer multiplexing scheme.
CDMA technology played an important role in 2G and 3G cellular wireless networks, as they
evolved to current 5G standards.
What is the difference between GSM and CDMA?
Most people often get caught up in the CDMA vs. Global System for Mobile Communication
(GSM) Divide when trying to transfer their phones from one cellular network provider to
another. Some carriers' phones are designed to operate only on their radio network, and
they're incompatible with other networks' cellular communications technologies. This was
especially rife some years back. In recent years, device manufacturers have been designing
phones that users can operate on both CDMA and GSM networks.
GSM and CDMA are multiple-access technologies that enable numerous data connections
and multiple calls on a single radio channel. CDMA cellular systems use a unique code to
encode every call's data and then transmit all those calls at once. On the other end, the
receivers divide the combined signal into their individual calls before channeling them to the
intended recipient. GSM transforms every call into digital data, transmits it via a shared
channel at a specific time and then puts each call back together at the other end of the line
for the intended recipient.
Which carriers are CDMA? Which is GSM? GSM is available in more than 200 countries. CDMA
is most widely used in the U.S. by carriers such as U.S. Cellular and Verizon. GSM carriers in
the U.S. include T-Mobile and AT&T.

Which is better: CDMA or GSM?

With GSM networks, users can transmit data and make voice calls at the same time, an
impossible feat for CDMA networks. But this is hardly the reason behind GSM's popularity. A
big driver was Europe's 1987 law that required the use of GSM.

Another reason was that GSM resulted from an industry consortium, while CDMA was, for
the most part, owned by Qualcomm, making GSM-powered devices cheaper to make and
use.
CDMA and GSM standards apply only to 2G and 3G connectivity. As the switch to fourth-
generation wireless began in earnest in 2010, carriers adopted Long-Term Evolution (LTE),
the global standard for 4G networks. Consequently, the distinction between CDMA and GSM
is becoming less important as CDMA phones and devices powered by GSM networks vanish
into history. But, for now, 2G and 3G networks still serve as backups for areas with weak 4G
LTE signals.
Real Time Communication (RTC)
Real-time communications (RTC) are any mode of telecommunications in which all users can
exchange information instantly or with negligible latency or transmission delays. In this
context, the term real-time is synonymous with live.
In RTC, there is always a direct path between the source and the destination. Although the
link might contain several intermediate nodes, the data goes from source to destination
without being stored in between them.
In contrast, asynchronous or time shifting communications, such as email and voicemail,
always involve some form of data storage between the source and the destination. In these
cases, there is an anticipated delay between the transmission and receipt of the information.

Real-time communications can take place in half-duplex or full-duplex modes:

• Half-duplex RTC. Data transmission can happen in both directions on a single carrier
or circuit but not at the same time.
• Full-duplex RTC. Data transmission can occur in both directions simultaneously on a
single carrier or circuit.
RTC generally refers to peer-to-peer (P2P) Communications, not broadcast or multicast.

The importance of real-time communications

Today's enterprise users expect to connect in real time from any location and device, making
RTC a critical element of unified communications and collaboration (UCC).

Team messaging platforms, file-sharing tools and video conferencing systems enable
geographically distributed and mobile teams to engage virtually from almost anywhere,
enabling a highly flexible workforce. Many businesses rely on IP-based real-time
communications technology to minimize travel expenses, support remote employees and
maximize team productivity.
The COVID-19 global pandemic dramatically underscored the importance of modern RTC
tools, which enabled many organizations to remain functional and productive even while
accommodating unanticipated and potentially long-term work-from-home requirements.
With live telecommunications and collaboration technology, enterprise users can accomplish
shared tasks that they otherwise would have needed to tackle in person in a formal office
setting.

Real-time communications examples

Real-time communications tools and applications are many and varied, ranging from old-
school telephony to cloud communications services.
They include the following:
• fixed-line telephony
• mobile telephony
• voice over IP (VoIP)
• teleconferencing
• video calling
• video conferencing
• presence
• file sharing
• screen sharing
• automatic, live meeting transcription
• team messaging (real-time or near-real-time)
• one-to-one IM (real-time or near-real-time)
• live customer chat (real-time or near-real-time)
• robotic telepresence
• two-way or multiway amateur radio

2.1.3 IC (Integrated Circuit)

Integrated circuits (ICs) are a keystone of modern electronics. They are the heart and brains
of most circuits. They are the ubiquitous little black "chips" you find on just about every
circuit board. Unless you're some kind of crazy, analog electronics wizard, you're likely to
have at least one IC in every electronics project you build, so it's important to understand
them, inside and out.
 Fig. 4- Integrated Circuit
Integrated circuits are the little black "chips", found all over embedded electronics.

An IC is a collection of electronic components -- resistors, transistors, capacitors, etc. -- all

stuffed into a tiny chip, and connected together to achieve a common goal. They come in all
sorts of flavors: single-circuit logic gates, op amps, 555 timers, voltage regulators, motor
controllers, microcontrollers, microprocessors, FPGAs...the list just goes on-and-on.
Integrated circuit (IC), also called microelectronic circuit, microchip, or chip, an assembly of
electronic components, fabricated as a single unit, in which miniaturized active devices (e.g.,
transistors and diodes) And passive devices (e.g., capacitors and resistors) And their
interconnections are built up on a thin substrate of semiconductor material (typically silicon).
The resulting circuit is thus a small monolithic “Chip,” which may be as small as a few square
centimeters or only a few square millimeters. The individual circuit components are generally
microscopic in size.
Integrated circuits have their origin in the invention of the transistor in 1947 by William B.
Shockley and his team at the American Telephone and Telegraph Company’s Bell
Laboratories. Shockley’s team (including John Bardeen and Walter H. Brattain) Found that,
under the right circumstances, electrons would form a barrier at the surface of certain
crystals, and they learned to control the flow of electricity through the crystal by
manipulating this barrier. Controlling electron flow through a crystal allowed the team to
create a device that could perform certain electrical operations, such as signal amplification,
that were previously done by vacuum tubes.
They named this device a transistor, from a combination of the words transfer and resistor.
The study of methods of creating electronic devices using solid materials became known as
solid-state electronics. Solid-state devices proved to be much sturdier, easier to work with,
more reliable, much smaller, and less expensive than vacuum tubes. Using the same
principles and materials, engineers soon learned to create other electrical components, such
as resistors and capacitors. Now that electrical devices could be made so small, the largest
part of a circuit was the awkward wiring between the devices.

Basic IC types
Analog versus digital circuits
Analog, or linear, circuits typically use only a few components and are thus some of the
simplest types of ICs. Generally, analog circuits are connected to devices that collect signals
from the environment or send signals back to the environment. For example, a microphone
converts fluctuating vocal sounds into an electrical signal of varying voltage. An analog circuit
then modifies the signal in some useful way—such as amplifying it or filtering it of
undesirable noise. Such a signal might then be fed back to a loudspeaker, which would
reproduce the tones originally picked up by the microphone. Another typical use for an
analog circuit is to control some device in response to continual changes in the environment.
For example, a temperature sensor sends a varying signal to a thermostat, which can be
programmed to turn an air conditioner, heater, or oven on and off once the signal has
reached a certain value.
A digital circuit, on the other hand, is designed to accept only voltages of specific given values.
A circuit that uses only two states is known as a binary circuit. Circuit design with binary
quantities, “on” and “off” representing 1 and 0 (i.e., true and false), uses the logic of Boolean
algebra. (Arithmetic is also performed in the binary number system employing Boolean
algebra.) These basic elements are combined in the design of ICs for digital computers and
associated devices to perform the desired functions.

Microprocessor circuits
Microprocessors are the most-complicated ICs. They are composed of billions of transistors
that have been configured as thousands of individual digital circuits, each of which performs
some specific logic function. A microprocessor is built entirely of these logic circuits
synchronized to each other. Microprocessors typically contain the central processing unit
(CPU) of a computer.
Just like a marching band, the circuits perform their logic function only on direction by the
bandmaster. The bandmaster in a microprocessor, so to speak, is called the clock. The clock
is a signal that quickly alternates between two logic states. Every time the clock changes
state, every logic circuit in the microprocessor does something. Calculations can be made
very quickly, depending on the speed (clock frequency) of the microprocessor.
Microprocessors contain some circuits, known as registers, that store information. Registers
are predetermined memory locations. Each processor has many different types of registers.
Permanent registers are used to store the preprogrammed instructions required for various
operations (such as addition and multiplication). Temporary registers store numbers that are
to be operated on and also the result. Other examples of registers include the program
counter (also called the instruction pointer), which contains the address in memory of the
next instruction; the stack pointer (also called the stack register), which contains the address
of the last instruction put into an area of memory called the stack; and the memory address
register, which contains the address of where the data to be worked on is located or where
the data that has been processed will be stored.
Microprocessors can perform billions of operations per second on data. In addition to
computers, microprocessors are common in video game systems, televisions, cameras, and
automobiles.

Memory circuits
Microprocessors typically have to store more data than can be held in a few registers. This
additional information is relocated to special memory circuits. Memory is composed of dense
arrays of parallel circuits that use their voltage states to store information. Memory also
stores the temporary sequence of instructions, or program, for the microprocessor.

Application-specific ICs
An application-specific IC (ASIC) can be either a digital or an analog circuit. As their name
implies, ASICs are not reconfigurable; they perform only one specific function. For example,
a speed controller IC for a remote-control car is hard-wired to do one job and could never
become a microprocessor. An ASIC does not contain any ability to follow alternate
instructions.
Radio-frequency ICs
Radio-frequency ICs (RFICs) are widely used in mobile phones and wireless devices. RFICs are
analog circuits that usually run in the frequency range of 3 kHz to 2.4 GHz (3,000 hertz to 2.4
billion hertz), circuits that would work at about 1 THz (1 trillion hertz) being in development.
They are usually thought of as ASICs even though some may be configurable for several
similar applications.
Most semiconductor circuits that operate above 500 MHz (500 million hertz) cause the
electronic components and their connecting paths to interfere with each other in unusual
ways. Engineers must use special design techniques to deal with the physics of high-
frequency microelectronic interactions.

Monolithic microwave ICs

A special type of RFIC is known as a monolithic microwave IC (MMIC; also called microwave
monolithic IC). These circuits usually run in the 2- to 100-GHz range, or microwave
frequencies, and are used in radar systems, in satellite communications, and as power
amplifiers for cellular telephones.

Fabricating ICs
Making a base wafer
The substrate material, or base wafer, on which ICs are built is a semiconductor, such as
silicon or gallium arsenide. In order to obtain consistent performance, the semiconductor
must be extremely pure and a single crystal. The basic technique for creating large single
crystals was discovered by the Polish chemist Jan Czekalski in 1916 and is now known as the
Czochralski method. To create a single crystal of silicon by using the Czekalski method,
electronic-grade silicon (refined to less than one part impurity in 100 billion) is heated to
about 1,500 °C (2,700 °F) in a fused quartz crucible. Either an electron-donating element such
as phosphorus or arsenic (For p-type semiconductors) or an electron-accepting element such
as boron (For n-type semiconductors) is mixed in at a concentration of a few parts per billion.
A small “seed” crystal, with a diameter of about 0.5 cm (0.2 inch) and a length of about 10
cm (4 inches), is attached to the end of a rod and lowered until it just penetrates the molten
surface of the silicon. The rod and the crucible are then rotated in opposite directions while
the rod is slowly withdrawn a few millimeters per second. Properly synchronized, these
procedures result in the slow growth of a single crystal.
 Fig. 5- Fabricating ICs

crystal pulling using the Czochralski method

A schematic view of a modern apparatus for crystal pulling using the Czekalski method.
Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.
After many days the single crystal can be more than 1 meter (3.3 feet) in length and 300 mm
(11.8 inches) in diameter. The large ingot is then sliced like a loaf of bread into thin wafers
on which numerous ICs are fabricated simultaneously. The ICs are cut and separated after
fabrication.

Building layers
All sorts of devices, such as diodes, transistors, capacitors, and resistors, can be built with p-
and n-type semiconductors. It is convenient to be able to manufacture all of these different
electronic components from the same few basic manufacturing steps.
ICs are made of layers, from about 0.000005 to 0.1 mm thick, that are built on the
semiconductor substrate one layer at a time, with perhaps 30 or more layers in a final chip.
Creating the different electrical components on a chip is a matter of outlining exactly where
areas of n- and p-type are to be located on each layer. Each layer is etched, using lines and
geometric shapes in the exact locations where the material is to be deposited. A wafer can
be changed in one of three fundamental ways: by deposition (That is, adding a layer), by
etching or removing a layer, or by implantation (altering a layer’s composition). These
processes are described below. (Further details on etching are described in the section
Photolithography.)
Deposition
In a process known as film deposition, a thin film of some substance is deposited onto the
wafer by means of either a chemical or a physical reaction.

Chemical methods
In one common method, known as chemical vapour deposition, the substrate is placed in a
low-pressure chamber where certain gases are mixed and heated to 650–850 °C (1,200–
1,550 °F) in order to form the desired solid film substance. The solid condenses from the
mixed gases and “rains” evenly over the surface of a wafer. A special variant of this technique,
known as epitaxy, slowly deposits silicon (or gallium arsenide) on the wafer to produce
epitaxial growth of the crystal. Such films can be relatively thick (0.1 mm) and are commonly
used for producing silicon-on-insulator substrates that lower the power requirements and
speed the switching capabilities of CMOSs (described in the section Complementary metal-
oxide semiconductors). Another variation, known as plasma-enhanced (or plasma-assisted)
chemical vapor deposition, uses low pressure and high voltage to create a plasma
environment. The plasma causes the gases to react and precipitate at much lower
temperatures of 300 to 350 °C (600 to 650 °F) and at faster rates, but this method tends to
sacrifice uniformity of deposition.
Two more chemical methods of deposition are electrodeposition (or electroplating) and
thermal oxidation. In the former the substrate is given an electrically conducting coating and
placed in a liquid solution (electrolyte) containing metal ions, such as gold, copper, or nickel.
A wide range of film thicknesses can be built. In thermal oxidation the substrate is heated to
900–1,100 °C (1,650–2,000 °F), which causes the surface to oxidize. This process is often used
to form a thin (0.0001-mm) insulating layer of silicon dioxide.

Physical methods
In general, physical methods of film deposition are less uniform than chemical methods;
however, physical methods can be performed at lower temperatures and thus at less risk of
damage to the substrate. A common physical method is sputtering. In sputtering, a wafer
and a metal source are placed in a vacuum chamber, and an inert gas such as argon is
introduced at low pressure. The gas is then ionized by a radio-frequency power source, and
the ions are accelerated by an electric field toward the metal surface. When these high-
energy ions impact, they knock some of the metal atoms loose from the surface to form a
vapor. This vapor condenses on the surfaces within the chamber, including the substrate,
where it forms the desired film.
Finally, in casting, a substance is dissolved in a solvent and sprayed on the wafer. After the
solvent evaporates, an extremely thin film (perhaps a single layer of molecules) Of the
substance is left behind. Casting is typically used to add a photosensitive polymer coating,
called the photoresist layer.

Etching
A layer can be removed, in entirety or in part, either by etching away the material with strong
chemicals or by reactive ion etching (RIE). RIE is like sputtering in the argon chamber, but the
polarity is reversed and different gas mixtures are used. The atoms on the surface of the
wafer fly away, leaving it bare.

Implantation
Another method of modifying a wafer is to bombard its surface with extra atoms. This is
called implantation. Enough of the atoms become deeply embedded in the surface to alter
its characteristics, creating areas of n- and p-type materials. Overzealous atoms ripping
through the nicely organized crystal lattice damage the structure of the wafer. After
implantation the wafer is annealed (heated) to repair this damage.
As a side effect of annealing, the implanted atoms usually move a little, diffusing into the
surrounding material. The total area that contains implanted atoms after annealing is
therefore called a diffusion layer.

Photolithography
In order to alter specific locations on a wafer, a photoresist layer is first applied (as described
in the section Deposition). Photoresist, or just resist, typically dissolves in a high-pH solution
after exposure to light (Including ultraviolet radiation or X-rays), and this process, known as
development, is controlled by using a mask. A mask is made by applying a thick deposit of
chrome in a particular pattern to a glass plate. The chrome provides a shadow over most of
the wafer, allowing “light” to shine through only in desired locations. This enables the
creation of extremely small areas—depending on the wavelength of the light used—that are
unprotected by the hard resist.
After washing away the developed resist, the unprotected areas can be modified through the
deposition, etching, or implantation processes described above, without affecting the rest of
the wafer. Once such modifications are finished, the remaining resist is dissolved by a special
solvent. This process is repeated with different masks at various layers (30 or so) to create
changes to the wafer.
2.1.4 Advance Crash Sensor
Crash sensors need to detect a collision and convert it to usable signals within milliseconds.
The accelerating forces acting on the sensors after a collision can be as high as 100g (100
times the earth's gravitational force). When a car is stopped abruptly by an impact, all bodies
or objects that are not firmly fixed to the car will continue to move at the impact speed. The
sensors measure this acceleration and relay it to the control unit as usable data. Many of our
cars are fitted with ultra-fast pressure sensors in the front doors. These sensors detect a side
collision that pushes the outer door panel inwards, creating excess pressure. Acceleration
sensors are also fitted near the C-pillars so that collisions from the side, which don't cause
deformation of the front doors, can also be detected in time.

Fig. 6- Advance Sensors in Vehicle

Working of Remote Acceleration Sensors
Crash sensors available in today’s automobiles are more advanced. Some older sensors like
simple pressure sensors are now replaced with highly advanced micro-machined
accelerometers.
These sensors sense the deceleration taking placing during a vehicle crash or an accident.
They also determine the position of the vehicle with respect to the road. During a roll over,
if the vehicle moves out of the horizontal plane, the sensor immediately sends the required
information to the electronic control unit, which initiates air bag deployment. These sensors
can be mounted in various parts of the vehicle, but sophisticated sensors in newer systems
are usually placed within the electronic control unit or the airbag itself.
During deceleration, the sensor housing within the car stops at the same time as the car.
However, the occupant inside the car continues to move at the speed of the car, which causes
him to move forward and contact an electric switch to complete the circuit.
The electric impulse generated through the completion of the circuit is transmitted to the
control unit or airbag. The control unit receives impulses from several acceleration sensors,
determines which airbag to deploy, and sends back the impulse to the corresponding address
for deployment. Each control unit has to receive two or more impulses from the sensors to
deploy airbag.
When the control unit determines a crash, it sends an impulse to an inflator that ignites the
sodium aside propellant inside the airbag. The ignition releases nitrogen that fills the airbag
within few milliseconds before the occupant’s body is pushed forward. The nitrogen then
starts escaping via the vent holes as the occupant falls on the bag thereby reducing the
occupant’s momentum, and hence preventing the occupant’s impact.

Benefits of Remote Acceleration Sensors

Conventional acceleration sensors used in crash sensing technology usually evaluate data in
one dimension, either lateral acceleration for side impact detection or longitudinal
acceleration for front impact detection.
However, multi-axis sensors used in modern systems measure acceleration in more than one
dimension at the same time. These types of sensors possess improved crash sensing
performance required for rating tests of front pole impact and front small overlap impacts.
On the other hand, dual-axis sensors placed on the B-Pillar can provide enhanced sensing
performance without the need for additional pressure or acceleration satellite sensor.
Traditional chassis-rail-mounted remote single-axis acceleration sensors may not rapidly
detect pole impacts at the vehicle center under frontal accident conditions due to the relative
lack of rigidity in the vehicle area. However, the front dual-axis acceleration sensor with Y-
axis sensing used in the modern systems can sense the impact and lateral deformation of the
vehicle more quickly. Moreover, it also possesses improved sensing performance to deploy
side airbags in front oblique, resulting in improved occupant protection.
Rollover sensing is another potential benefit of multi-axis sensing systems. These systems
measure the lateral and vertical acceleration to determine the rollover events for passenger
cars, without the use of roll gyro. Thus, they offer potential cost savings.

Products – Latest Advancements

Some of the latest vehicle acceleration sensor systems available in the market include the
following:

Central Acceleration Sensor

The central acceleration sensor is an automotive sensor technology introduced by Bosch. It
is manufactured with the help of surface micro-mechanical technology. It can be integrated
with the airbag control unit, and is capable of providing signals along the longitudinal and
lateral axes of the vehicle. These signals in turn generate the airbag triggering decision and
provide a plausibility signal.

Lateral Acceleration Sensor

The lateral acceleration sensor introduced by Volkswagen measures the lateral acceleration
of the vehicle in order to determine the actual position of the vehicle. It can be located on
the same housing as that of the rotation-rate sensor.

Low-g-Sensor
Bosch's low-g-sensor is designed for sensing the rollover of the vehicle. This sensor measures
the acceleration of the vehicle along both the longitudinal and vertical directions. With the
help of the angular rate signal, the rollover sensing algorithm of the sensor can detect the
rollover event of the vehicle. It also transmits additional sensor signals with respect to the
vehicle dynamics to enhance the rollover sensing application.
2.1.5 Installed Software (Contact Info. & Advance Tracking)
In this Device there is function of tracking Nearest Hospital & Police station. A cloud base
software is installed in device which have all contact information. This software smartly
tracks the location by the help of GPS and check the nearest Police station & Hospital to send
the information via help of Real Time Communication System.

2.2 Working
This Device is basically implemented in the vehicle where it has less chance to get damage
by the time of collision. It's attached with advance crash sensor which are setup at all the
vehicle direction (all over the vehicle part) so they can easily sense the collision.
The device is made up of circuit which is attached to IC connected with GPS & Real Time
Communication system to track the Real time location of vehicle & send the help notification.

Suppose that vehicle is collide at no men’s area like in mid-ware of road where no one is
there to help!!! If the vehicle crashed and driver is unable to call help then this can be fatal.
So, this implemented device automatically sense the location at the time of location by the
advance crash sensor and the device going to be activated to track the location by the help
of GPS where the accident or this vehicle and send the location to the nearest Hospital &
Police station which can be easily tracked by Software and Real Time Communication System.
And then after the notification medical emergencies should be gone there in less time and
driver can get help in short time and This device can be life Saviour.

Working described in points,

i. Implemented Device
ii. Accident happen & Driver is unable to Call Help
iii. Device attached sensor sense the collision
iv. Device track the location and find the nearest Hospital & Police Station
v. The location and Help notification sent
vi. Help & medical emergencies should be there in shorten time
Block Diagram

By the Help of Block Diagram This device working easily understandable.

Device Implemented in Vehicle

If any unfortunate happens and driver is unable to call help

Implemented Device automatically detects the collision

Send the information or help to Nearest hospital and police station

Help or Medical Emergencies provided in shorten time

ADVANTAGES

➢ Shorten the time Response for Rescue or get fastly medical Emergencies.
➢ If driver is unable to call help, then this Device automatically call help at nearest
Hospital & Police Station.
➢ This device can smartly detect the accident in real time and send the information.
➢ Passengers or driver can get help smartly in short time and get life Saviour medical
emergencies.
➢ Effective and Life Saviour.
➢ Increase the security of Vehicle.
➢ Track the Real Time Location & do Real Time Communication for Help.

DISADVANTAGES

➢ This Device is Costly.

➢ If this device is added with new vehicle, New Vehicle cost will increase.
➢ This device working need active internet connection and it can be cost effective.
➢ At some places where the network connectivity is major issue, there is device can’t be
that helpful.
➢ Maintenance of the device can be little bit costly.
➢ Where the advance crash sensor implemented or the device placed, if at a time of
collision, it can be damaged and then device can’t be helpful.
APPLICATION

➢ For the Safety purpose of the Vehicle.

➢ Use to detect accident or collision.
➢ To track the accident location at a Real Time.
➢ Smartly calling help in case of Accident.
➢ To increase the vehicle security.
➢ To shorten the time response of the medical emergencies.

FUTURE SCOPE
In the present time there is less smart vehicle and there are less safety devices implemented.
As now the population is growing very faster and vehicle becomes people basic needs to
travel so at a time on road there are a lot of vehicles. And the accident number is so huge, so
we can imagine that in future how much population is going to be there and how much
vehicle on road, and it can be leading a large number of accidents. This project aims that for
the safety purpose of driver or passenger this is going to be used for the detection of vehicle
collision and calling or sending help notification to the nearest Hospital & Police station. You
can imagine that how much it is going to important and life Saviour at a time of collision at a
no men's area where no one is there to help. This project or a device can be life Saviour. If its
works fine it's going to save many lives.

REFERENCES
All References taken from IEEE-XPLORE, SCIENCE-DIRECT, WIKIPEDIA and many other
websites and Resources.