BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY (BUET)

CE 6514
GIS and Remote Sensing in Transportation

Assignment on
Global Positioning System

Course Teacher
Professor Dr. Hasib Mohammed Ahsan

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1. Define GPS. Explain briefly the different segments of GPS.

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based system that can be used to locate positions
anywhere on the earth. Operated by the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD), NAVSTAR (NAVigation
Satellite Timing and Ranging) GPS provides continuous (24 hours/day), real-time, 3-dimensional
positioning, navigation and timing worldwide. Any person with a GPS receiver can access the system,
and it can be used for any application that requires location coordinates.
GPS is a space-based satellite navigation system that provides location and time information in all
weather conditions, anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or
more GPS satellites. The system provides critical capabilities to military, civil and commercial users
around the world. It is maintained by the United States government and is freely accessible to anyone
with a GPS receiver.
GPS (Global Positioning System) is the only system today able to show you where your exactly position
on the earth at anytime and any weather condition. 24 satellites are all orbit around the earth at 11,000
nautical miles or approximately 20,200 kms. Above the earth. The satellites are placed into six different
orbital planes and 55 degree inclination. They are continuously monitored by ground stations located
worldwide.

Different segments of GPS.

GPS consists of three main segments:

The Space Segment: The space segment comprises a network of satellites . The complete GPS space
system includes 24 satellites, 11,000 nautical miles above the earth, take 12 hours each to go around the
earth once or one orbit. They are orbit in six different planes and 55 degrees inclination. These positions
of satellites, we can receive signals from six of them nearly of the time at any point on earth. Satellites are
equipped with very precise clocks that keep accurate time to within three nanoseconds ( 0.000000003 of a
second or 3e-9). This part consists of 24 satellites, manufactured by Rockwell International, which are
launched into space by rockets, from Cape Canaveral, Florida. They are about the size of a car, and weigh
about 19,000lbs. Each satellite is in orbit above the earth at an altitude of 11,000 nautical miles (12,660
miles), and takes 12 hours to orbit one time. There are 6 orbital planes each having 4 satellites. The orbits
are tilted to the equator of the earth by 55° so that there is coverage of the Polar Regions. The satellites
continuously orient themselves to ensure that their solar panels stay pointed towards the sun, and their
antennas point toward the earth. Each satellite carries 4 atomic clocks. 

The Control Segment: This part consists of 5 worldwide unmanned base-stations that monitor the
satellites to track their exact position in space, and to make sure that they are operating correctly. The

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stations constantly monitor the orbits of the satellites and use very precise radar to check altitude, position
and speed. Transmitted to the satellites are ephemeris constants and clock adjustments. The satellites in
turn, use these updates in the signals that they send to GPS receivers. The control Segment of GPS
consists of:
 Master Control Station ( one station ): The master control station is responsible for overall
management of the remote monitoring and transmission sites. As the center for support operations, It
calculates any position or clock errors for each individual satellite from monitor stations and then order
the appropriate corrective information back to that satellite.
 Monitor Stations ( four stations ): Each of monitor stations checks the exact altitude , position , speed ,
and overall of the orbiting of satellites. A station can track up to 11 satellites at a time. This check-up is
performed twice a day by each station as the satellites go around the earth.

The User Segment: This part consists of user receivers which are hand-held or, can be placed in a
vehicle. All GPS receivers have an almanac programmed into their computer, which tells them where
each satellite is at any given moment. The GPS receivers detect, decode and process the signals received
from the satellites. The receiver is usually used in conjunction with computer software to output the
information to the user in the form of a map. As the user does not have to communicate with the satellite
there can be unlimited users at one time.
As the pilot fly , the GPS receiver continuously caculates the current position and display the correct
position / heading.The GPS unit listen to the satellite's signal and measure the time between the satellites
transmission and receipt of the signal. By the process of triangulation among the several satellites being
received, the unit computes the location of the GPS receiver. GPS receiver has to see at least four
satellites to compute a three dimensional position (it can compute position with only three satellites if
know altitude). Not only latitude and Longitude, but altitude as well. There are numerous forms of display
among the various manufacturers. No frequency tuning is required, as the frequency of the satellite
transmissions are already known by the receiver.

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2. Differentiate between Precise and Standard Positioning Services .

In an effort to make this beneficial service available to the greatest number of users while ensuring that
the national security interests of the United States are observed, two GPS services are provided Standard
Positioning Service and the Precise Positioning Service.

The Precise Positioning Service (PPS) is available primarily to the military of the United States and its
allies for users properly equipped with PPS receivers. The Precise Positioning Service (PPS) is a highly
accurate military positioning, velocity and timing service which will be available on a continuous,
worldwide basis to users authorized by the U.S. P(Y) code capable military user equipment provides a
predictable positioning accuracy of at least 22 meters (95 percent) horizontally and 27.7 meters vertically
and time transfer accuracy to UTC within 200 nanoseconds (95 percent). PPS will be the data transmitted
on the GPS L1 and L2 frequencies. PPS was designed primarily for U.S. military use. It will be denied to
unauthorized users by the use of cryptography. PPS will be made available to U.S. and military and U.S.

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Federal Government users. Limited, non-Federal Government, civil use of PPS, both domestic and
foreign, will be considered upon request and authorized on a case-by-case basis, provided:
 It is in the U.S. national interest to do so.
 Specific GPS security requirements can be met by the applicant.
 A reasonable alternative to the use of PPS is not available.

The Standard Positioning Service (SPS) is designed to provide a less accurate positioning capability
than PPS for civil and all other users throughout the world. The Standard Positioning Service (SPS) is a
positioning and timing service which will be available to all GPS users on a continuous, worldwide basis
with no direct charge. SPS will be provided on the GPS L1 frequency which contains a coarse
acquisition (C/A) code and a navigation data message. SPS provides a predictable positioning accuracy
of 100 meters (95 percent) horizontally and 156 meters (95 percent) vertically and time transfer accuracy
to UTC within 340 nanoseconds (95 percent).

3. Explain the main features of GPS Satellite Signals.

The positioning information from GPS satellites in sent in the form of repeating codes which identify the
sending satellite, give locations of the other satellites in the system, and give the navigation data. The
codes which form the GPS signal structure are superimposed upon two carrier waves in the L-band , a
frequency range set aside for satellite communication. Both the carrier frequencies and the signal
frequencies are derived directly from the onboard atomic clock oscillator frequency of 10.23 MHz. The
coded signals are repeated regularly in epochs on the order of 15 seconds. The codes used are referred to
as "pseudo-random codes", a name applied by early radio astronomers who were the first to make wide
use of such codes. The codes are well suited to decoding a message embedded in noise signals which may
be orders of magnitude larger than the signal itself. Such techniques were valuable in picking up radar
echoes off the moon and asteroids. Use of these codes facilitates the sorting out of signals which arrive
simultaneously from several GPS satellites.

GPS satellites transmit two low power radio signals, designated L1 and L2. Civilian GPS uses the L1
frequency of 1575.42 MHz in the UHF band. The signals travel by line of sight, meaning they will pass
through clouds, glass and plastic but will not go through most solid objects such as buildings and
mountains.

A GPS signal contains three different bits of information - a pseudorandom code, ephemeris data and
almanac data. The pseudorandom code is simply an I.D. code that identifies which satellite is transmitting

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information. You can view this number on your Garmin GPS unit's satellite page, as it identifies which
satellites it's receiving.

Ephemeris data, which is constantly transmitted by each satellite, contains important information about
the status of the satellite (healthy or unhealthy), current date and time. This part of the signal is essential
for determining a position.

The almanac data tells the GPS receiver where each GPS satellite should be at any time throughout the
day. Each satellite transmits almanac data showing the orbital information for that satellite and for every
other satellite in the system.

The satellite broadcasts two carrier waves, the L1 carrier wave at 1575.42 MHz, and L2 at 1227.60 MHz.
These dual frequencies are chosen to eliminate ionospheric dispersion, one of the major sources of
systematic range error.

The pseudoranges, which are derived from signal travel time to the receiver, use two pseudorandom
noise (PRN) codes. These codes are modulated onto the carrier frequencies. The first code, which is
available for civilians, is the C/A- code (Course/Acquisition-code), which has a wavelength of
approximately 300 meters. The C/A-code is modulated only upon L1. Its omission from L2 allows the
government to control the level of accuracy available to civilian users.

The second code, the P-code (Precision-code) is available only to the military and a few designated users.
P-code, with a wavelength of approximately 30 meters, is modulated on both L1 and L2. Access to the P-
code has been denied to the public since the system was declared fully operational in 1992.

The technique used to transmit the signals from the satellites involves transmitting a carefully formulated
code known as pseudo-random sequences. The received signals and the transmitted sequences are
compared to one another, and the travel time for the signal is found by measuring when the two signals
are most closely correlated.

In order to maintain control over the navigation

system, the military wanted to limit access to the most
accurate GPS measurements. The method they chose
for this operation was to transmit inaccurate
information to civilians about when the signals had
been sent from the satellites. By altering the satelliteUs
clocks slightly according to a specific code, those with

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access to the code are able to obtain accurate information while civilians are forced to deal with the
inaccuracy in distance measurements resulting from the time error. The modified signals allow non-
military GPS users to obtain navigational readings that are accurate to approximately 100 meters.
However, civilians have found ways around this dithering of the clocks. By comparing the GPS-measured
position of a known location with its actual coordinates, it is possible to detect the amount of dithering.
Once the amount of dithering is known, the corrections can be broadcast to the GPS receiver, and an
accurate calculation of the receiverUs position can be achieved. Thus even without access to the dithering
codes kept by the military, it is possible for a civilian to determine their position with an accuracy of
millimeters.

GPS Satellite Signals

4. Explain how the position of a GPS receiver is determined from pseudo-range
measurements.

The range from one satellite defines a sphere, where somewhere is a point that represents the receiver.

If two pseudo-ranges are obtained, both will define radii of spheres and the result will be the intersection
of two spheres.

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If three pseudo-ranges are obtained, their intersection will define one point that represents the receivers
horizontal position
The reception of four satellite signals allows for the determination of the actual receiver position.

Figure The geometric problem of 3-D positioning from ranges.

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In order to determine position in two dimensions three satellites are required
 Four satellites are required for three dimensions
 Mathematically there are four unknowns: X, Y, Z and time
 Four knowns are required to solve for four unknowns
 Knowns: light travels at 3.0 x 105 (300,000) km/s AND the Satellite are in a 20,200 km orbit
 The least amount of time for the radio signal to travel is 20200 km /(3.0 x 105 km/s) = 67.3
milliseconds
 Mathematically we can represent the true range R as being made up of the pseudo range PS and
the clock bias, CBR = (PS - CB) = {(Xs. Xr)2 + (Ys. Yr)2 + (Zs. Zr)2}
Where Xs, Ys, Zs is the position of the satellite and Xs, Yr, Zr is the position of the receiver
 Clock bias can be divided into two segments
– Satellite error
– Receiver error
 The satellite clock error is transmitted for each satellite in the Navigation Message in the form of
four coefficients: a0, a1, a2, and a reference time t0
 This yields the equation
CBs = a0 + a1(t - t0) + a2(t - t0)2 for given time, t
 Solving this equation for each satellite will resolve most the satellite clock error. Once the
original equations are mathematically solved for each satellite, three coordinates of position are
obtained
 This data is translated into values referenced to a particular datum.

Another way of measuring the distance to satellites is with carrier-phases

 The range is determined to be the sum of the total number of carrier cycles plus fractional cycles
at the receiver and satellite, multiplied by the carrier wavelength.
 The L1 and/or L2 carrier signals are used in carrier phase surveying
 Tracking carrier phase signals provides no time of transmission information
 The carrier signals, while modulated with time tagged binary codes, carry no time-tags that
distinguish one cycle from another
 The measurements used in carrier phase tracking are differences in carrier phase cycles and
fractions of cycles over time
 At least two receivers track carrier signals at the same time
 Receivers usually need to be within about 30 km of each other
 Carrier phase is tracked at both receivers and the changes in tracked phase are recorded over time
in both receivers
 The lack of a time-tag results in a potential error source known as the ambiguity bias
 Despite the ambiguity bias, highly accurate measurements can be achieved with carrier-phase
measuring techniques if relative positioning is employed.
 A cycle slip is defined as a discontinuity or jump in the carrier-phase measurements due to
temporary signal loss
 Signal loss can occur due to obstruction from trees, buildings, or other objects, radio
interference, ionosphere disturbance, or receiver malfunction
 Cycle slips may last a couple minutes or much longer and affect more than one satellite signal
 The size of the slip could vary from one cycle to millions
 In order to avoid large errors in position computation, cycle slips must be identified and
corrected.

5. Explain briefly the sources of errors in GPS.

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There are many sources of possible errors that will degrade the accuracy of positions computed by a GPS
receiver. The travel time of GPS satellite signals can be altered by atmospheric effects; when a GPS
signal passes through the ionosphere and troposphere it is refracted, causing the speed of the signal to be
different from the speed of a GPS signal in space. Sunspot activity also causes interference with GPS
signals. Another source of error is measurement noise, or distortion of the signal caused by electrical
interference or errors inherent in the GPS receiver itself. Errors in the ephemeris data (the information
about satellite orbits) will also cause errors in computed positions, because the satellites weren't really
where the GPS receiver "thought" they were (based on the information it received) when it computed the
positions. Small variations in the atomic clocks (clock drift) on board the satellites can translate to large
position errors; a clock error of 1 nanosecond translates to 1 foot or .3 meters user error on the ground.
Multipath effects arise when signals transmitted from the satellites bounce off a reflective surface before
getting to the receiver antenna. When this happens, the receiver gets the signal in straight line path as well
as delayed path (multiple paths). The effect is similar to a ghost or double image on a TV set.

Sources of Errors in GPS

Selective Availability
Ephemeris errors should not be confused with Selective Availability (SA), which is the intentional
alteration of the time and epherimis signal by the Department of Defense. SA can introduce 0-70 meters
of positional error. Fortunately, positional errors caused by SA can be removed by differential correction.

Plot of the position determination with and without SA

(Diagram from http://www.igeb.gov/sa/diagram.shtml (page no longer available)
With friendly permission of Dr. Milbert (NOAA))

Satellite geometry
Another factor influencing the accuracy of the position determination is the "satellite geometry".
Simplified, satellite geometry describes the position of the satellites to each other from the view of the
receiver.

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If a receiver sees 4 satellites and all are arranged for example in the north-west, this leads to a “bad”
geometry. In the worst case, no position determination is possible at all, when all distance determinations
point to the same direction. Even if a position is determined, the error of the positions may be up to
100 – 150 m. If, on the other hand, the 4 satellites are well distributed over the whole firmament the
determined position will be much more accurate. Let’s assume the satellites are positioned in the north,
east, south and west in 90° steps. Distances can then be measured in four different directions, reflecting a
good satellite geometry.

The following graph shows this for the two-dimensional case.

Good geometrical alignment of two satellites

If the two satellites are in an advantageous position, from the view of the receiver they can be seen in an
angle of approximately 90° to each other. The signal runtime cannot be determined absolutely precise as
explained earlier. The possible positions are therefore marked by the grey circles. The point of
intersection A of the two circles is a rather small, more or less quadratic field (blue), the determined
position will be rather accurate.

Bad geometrical alignment of two satellites

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If the satellites are more or less positioned in one line from the view of the receiver, the plane of
intersection of possible positions is considerably larger and elongated- The determination of the position
is less accurate.

Satellite Orbits
Although the satellites are positioned in very precise orbits, slight shifts of the orbits are possible due to
gravitation forces. Sun and moon have a weak influence on the orbits. The orbit data are controlled and
corrected regularly and are sent to the receivers in the package of ephemeris data. Therefore the influence
on the correctness of the position determination is rather low, the resulting error being not more than 2 m.

Multipath effect

Interference caused by reflection of the signals

The multipath effect is caused by reflection of satellite signals (radio waves) on objects. It was the same
effect that caused ghost images on television when antennae on the roof were still more common instead
of todays satellite dishes.

For GPS signals this effect mainly appears in the neighbourhood of large buildings or other elevations.
The reflected signal takes more time to reach the receiver than the direct signal. The resulting error
typically lies in the range of a few meters.

Atmospheric effects

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 Influenced propagation of radio waves through the earth's
atmosphere

Another source of inaccuracy is the reduced speed of propagation in the troposphere and ionosphere.
While radio signals travel with the velocity of light in the outer space, their propagation in the ionosphere
and troposphere is slower.

In the ionosphere in a height of 80 – 400 km a large number of electrons and positive charged ions are
formed by the ionizing force of the sun. The electrons and ions are concentrated in four conductive layers
in the ionosphere (D-, E-, F1-, and F2-layer). These layers refract the electromagnetic waves from the
satellites, resulting in an elongated runtime of the signals.

These errors are mostly corrected by the receiver by calculations. The typical variations of the velocity
while passing the ionosphere for low and high frequencies are well known for standard conditions. Theses
variations are taken into account for all calculations of positions. However civil receivers are not capable
of correcting unforeseen runtime changes, for example by strong solar winds.

It is known that electromagnetic waves are slowed down inversely proportional to the square of their
frequency (1/f2) while passing the ionosphere. This means that electromagnetic waves with lower
frequencies are slowed down more than electromagnetic waves with higher frequencies. If the signals of
higher and lower frequencies which reach a receiver are analysed with regard to their differing time of
arrival, the ionospheric runtime elongation can be calculated. Military GPS receivers use the signals of
both frequencies (L1 and L2) which are influenced in different ways by the ionosphere and are able to
eliminate another inaccuracy by calculation.

The tropospheric effect is a further factor elongating the runtime of electromagnetic waves by refraction.
The reasons for the refraction are different concentrations of water vapour in the troposphere, caused by
different weather conditions. The error caused that way is smaller than the ionospheric error, but can not
be eliminated by calculation. It can only be approximated by a general calculation model.

The following two graphs visualize the ionospheric error. The left data were collected with a one-
frequency receiver without ionospheric correction, the right data were collected with a two-frequency
receiver with ionospheric correction. Both diagrams have approximately the same scale (Left: latitude
-15 m to +10 m, longitude -10 m to +20 m, Right: latitude -12 m to +8 m, longitude -10 m to +20 m). The
right graph clearly shows less outliers, while the mean accuracy of the position for 95 % of the data is not
considerably enhanced by the correction of the ionospheric error.

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 Position determination without and with atmospheric corrections by using the second frequency
on a dual-frequency receiver
(diagrams from http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/FGCS/info/sans_SA/iono.
With friendly permission of Dr. Milbert (NOAA))

With the implementation of WAAS and EGNOS it s possible to set up „maps“ of the
atmospheric conditions over different regions. The correction data are sent to the receivers,
enhancing the accuracy considerably.

Clock inaccuracies and rounding errors

Despite the synchronization of the receiver clock with the satellite time during the position determination,
the remaining inaccuracy of the time still leads to an error of about 2 m in the position determination.
Rounding and calculation errors of the receiver sum up approximately to 1 m.

Relativistic effects

The following section shall not provide a comprehensive explanation of the theory of relativity. In the
normal life we are quite unaware of the omnipresence of the theory of relativity. However it has an
influence on many processes, among them is the proper functioning of the GPS system. This influence
will be explained shortly in the following.

As we already learned, the time is a relevant factor in GPS navigation and must be accurate to 20  - 30
nanoseconds to ensure the necessary accuracy. Therefore the fast movement of the satellites themselves
(nearly 12000 km/h) must be considered.

Whoever already dealt with the theory of relativity knows that time runs slower during very fast
movements. For satellites moving with a speed of 3874 m/s, clocks run slower when viewed from earth.

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This relativistic time dilation leads to an inaccuracy of time of approximately 7,2 microseconds per day
(1 microsecond = 10-6 seconds).

The theory of relativity also says that time moves the slower the stronger the field of gravitation is. For an

Ionospheric effects ± 5 meters

Shifts in the satellite orbits ± 2.5 meter
Clock errors of the satellites' clocks ± 2 meter
Multipath effect ± 1 meter
Tropospheric effects ± 0.5 meter
Calculation- und rounding errors ± 1 meter

Altogether this sums up to an error of ± 15 meters. With the SA still activated, the error was in the range
of ± 100 Meter. Corrections by systems like WAAS and EGNOS, which mainly reduce ionospheric
effects, but also improve orbits and clock errors, the overall error is reduced to approximately
± 3 - 5 meters.

6. Explain the main features of the Differential GPS Technique.

Main features of the Differential GPS Technique

Satellite navigation systems can provide far higher accuracy than any other current long and medium
range navigation system. Specifically, in the case of GPS, differential techniques have been developed
which can provide accuracies comparable with current landing systems. The aim of this chapter is to
provide an overview of current DGPS techniques and flight applications
Differential GPS (DGPS) was developed to meet the needs of positioning and distance-measuring
applications that required higher accuracies than stand-alone Precise Positioning Service (PPS) or
Standard Positioning service (SPS) GPS could deliver. DGPS involves the use of a control or reference
receiver at a known location to measure the systematic GPS errors; and, by taking advantage of the spatial
correlation of the errors, the errors can then be removed from the measurement taken by moving or
remote receivers located in the same general vicinity. There have been a wide variety of implementations
described for affecting such a DGPS system. It is the intent in this chapter to characterise various DGPS
systems and compare their strengths and weaknesses in flight applications. Two general categories of
differential GPS systems can be identified: those that rely primarily upon the code measurements and
those that rely primarily upon the carrier phase measurements. Using carrier phase, high accuracy can be
obtained (centimetre level), but the solution suffers from integer ambiguity and cycle slips. Whenever a
cycle slip occurs, it must be corrected for, and the integer ambiguity must be re-calculated. The
pseudorange solution is more robust, but less accurate (2 to 5 m). It does not suffer from cycle slips and
therefore there is no need for re-initialisation.
A typical DGPS architecture is shown in Figure 1-1.
The system consists of a Reference Receiver (RR) located at a known location that has been previously
surveyed, and one or more DGPS User Receivers (UR).
The RR antenna, differential correction processing system, and data link equipment (if used) are
collectively called the Reference Station (RS).

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Both the UR and the RR data can be collected and stored for later processing, or sent to the desired
location in real time via the data link.
DGPS is based on the principle that receivers in the same vicinity will simultaneously experience
common errors on a particular satellite ranging signal.
In general, the UR (mobile receivers) use measurements from the RR to remove the common errors. In
order to accomplish this, the UR must simultaneously use a subset or the same set of satellites as the
reference station.
The DGPS positioning equations are formulated so that the common errors cancel.
The dominant contributors are listed in this table along with the likely amount that they contribute
(assuming a good sky view and reasonable satellite geometry). Note that in real life the errors may be
higher than those listed in the table.
Error Value
Ionosphere 4.0 meters
Clock 2.1 meters
Ephemeris 2.1 meters
Troposphere 0.7 meters
Receiver 0.5 meters
Multipath 1.0 meter
Total 10.4 meters

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7. Explain briefly with diagrams the concepts involved in representing the earth surface in
terms of topographic, geoid and ellipsoid surfaces.

The surface of the Earth is anything but uniform. The oceans, can be treated as reasonably uniform, but
the surface or topography of the land masses exhibits large vertical variations between mountains and
valleys. These variations make it impossible to approximate the shape of the Earth with any reasonably
simple mathematical model. Consequently, two main reference surfaces have been established to
approximate the shape of the Earth. One reference surface is called the Geoid, the other reference surface
is the ellipsoid. These are illustrated in the figure below.

The Earth's surface, and two reference surfaces used to approximate it: the Geoid, and a reference
ellipsoid. The deviation between the Geoid and a reference ellipsoid is called geoid separation (N).

We can simplify matters by imagining that the entire Earth’s surface is covered by water. If we ignore
tidal and current effects on this ‘global ocean’, the resultant water surface is affected only by gravity. This

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has an effect on the shape of this surface because the direction of gravity - more commonly known as
plumb line - is dependent on the mass distribution inside the Earth. Due to irregularities or mass
anomalies in this distribution the 'global ocean' results in an undulated surface. This surface is called the
Geoid. The plumb line through any surface point is always perpendicular to it.

The Geoid, exaggerated to illustrate the complexity of its surface.

As a result of satellite gravity missions, it is currently possible to determine the orthometric height (height
H above the Geoid) with centimetre level accuracy. It is foreseeable that a global vertical datum may
become ubiquitous in the next 10-15 years. If all published maps are also using this global vertical datum
by that time, heights will become globally comparable, effectively making local vertical datums
redundant for GIS users.
Above, we have defined a physical surface, the Geoid, as a reference surface for heights. We also need a
reference surface for the description of the horizontal coordinates (i.e. geographic coordinates) of points
of interest. Since we will later project these horizontal coordinates onto a mapping plane, the reference
surface for horizontal coordinates requires a mathematical definition and description. The most
convenient geometric reference is the oblate ellipsoid (figure below). It provides a relatively simple figure
which fits the Geoid to a first order approximation, though for small scale mapping purposes a sphere
may be used. An ellipsoid is formed when an ellipse is rotated about its minor axis. This ellipse which
defines an ellipsoid or spheroid is called a meridian ellipse (notice that ellipsoid and spheroid are used
here as equivalent and interchangeable words).

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An oblate ellipse, used to represent the Earth surface, defined by its the semi-major axis a and semi-minor
axis b.
Many different ellipsoids have been defined in the world. Local ellipsoids have been established to fit the
Geoid (mean sea level) well over an area of local interest, which in the past was never larger than a
continent. This meant that the differences between the Geoid and the reference ellipsoid could effectively
be ignored, allowing accurate maps to be drawn in the vicinity of the datum (figure below).

The Geoid, a globally best fitting ellipsoid for it, and a regionally best fitting ellipsoid for it, for a chosen
region.

Geodesy deals with the earth surface and the other surfaces used for computation of control points and
representation of spatial data, namely the ellipsoid and geoid surfaces. These surfaces can be defined as
follows.

(a) The earth has a highly irregular and constantly changing surface. Models of the surface of the earth are
used in navigation, surveying and mapping. Topographic and sea level models attempt to model physical
variations of the surface, while gravity models and geoids are used to represent local variations in gravity
that change the local definition of a level. The topographical surface of the earth is the actual surface of
the land and sea at some moment in time. Sea level is the average surface of the oceans. Tidal forces and
gravity differences from location to location because even this smoothed surface to vary over the globe by
hundreds of meters. Gravity models attempt to describe in detail the variations in the gravity field. The
importance of this effort is related to the idea of leveling. Local variations in gravity, caused by variations
in the earth’s core and surface materials, cause this gravity surface to be irregular. Future trends of GIS
may focus in representing and analyzing the physical and geophysical information an important spatial
data infrastructure.

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(b) The ellipsoid is generated by the revolution of an ellipse about its minor axis;. The ellipsoid is
considered to represent simplified figure of the earth and used as the fundamental reference surface for
horizontal coordinates. This figure is flattened towards the earth's poles (Figure 2). The size of the
ellipsoid is defined by its semi-major axis (a) and minor axis (b); its geometrical shape is defined by the
flattening (f=1-b/a), while reference ellipsoids are usually defined by the semi-major axis and the
flattening.

Figure 1. The relation between the earth surface, ellipsoid and geoid

Figure 2. An ellipsoid with semi-major axis a and semi-minor axis b

(c) The geoid (Figure 1) is the equipotential surface of the earth's gravity field, which corresponds most
closely with mean sea level and extends continuously through the continents and used as zero reference
for orthometric heights. However, the geoid is a geometrically and mathematically complicated surface,
which is impractical to use for mapping purposes. The knowledge of the geoid is necessary for automatic
transformation of the ellipsoidal heights to orthometric heights and vice versa.

The ellipsoidal height (Figure. 1) is a purely geometrical quantity, the length of the normal to the
reference ellipsoid between the ellipsoid and the point of interest. The orthometric height, on the other
hand, is defined as the length of the line that is always normal to the equipotential surface of the gravity
field, between the geoid and the point of interest and is related to the gravity field of the earth. The
relationship between the orthometric height, h, the ellipsoidal height, H, and the geoidal height, N can be
given by the following approximation:

       h = H + N          (1)

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Regional ellipsoids have generally been established using astronomical observations to define the
deflection of the vertical (difference between geoidal and ellipsoidal normals) to be zero at an origin
point. The orientation and scale of the ellipsoid is defined using further geodetic observations. Once the
best fitting regional ellipsoid has been defined, it is adopted as the reference surface for geodetic positions
in that region. The available geodetic observations are then adjusted, applying the least squares technique,
to form the regional datum based on that reference ellipsoid.

A global ellipsoid (such as WGS84) corresponds to a best fit to the geoid over the entire earth. Early
attempts to define the global ellipsoid used both gravity and arc measurements. The first internationally
recognized global ellipsoid was the 1924 International Ellipsoid. The advent of satellite-derived geodetic
data enabled improved determinations of the global ellipsoids. Furthermore, such ellipsoids are
geocentric, which means that their geometrical centre corresponds with the earth's centre of mass. The
orientation of the ellipsoid is achieved by aligning its minor axis with the earth's mean spin axis at a
particular time. The next internationally recognized global geocentric ellipsoid, which was derived with
the inclusion of refined and superseded by the Geodetic Reference System 1980 (GRS80), which is also
geocentric, with a=6378137 metres and f=1/298.257222101 (Moritz, 1980).

In addition to defining the geometrical size and shape of the earth, physical parameters are associated
with global ellipsoids. These are the product of the Newtonian gravitational constant and the mass of the
earth (GM), the angular velocity of the earth's rotation, and the dynamical form factor. This factor is used
to derive the flattening of the ellipsoid (Heiskanen and Moritz, 1967; Moritz, 1980). These additional
physical parameters allow a model gravity field to be computed. The most recent and widely used global
geocentric ellipsoid is the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84), which based on the GRS80 ellipsoid,
but with f=1/298.257223563.
In georeferencing system the study of the gravity field is usually taken into account.

Gravity anomalies can be derived from land observations or satellite radar altimeter data, and can be used
for geoid determination and gravity anomaly maps production.

8. Explain briefly with diagrams the two major Global Coordinate Systems.

Latitude, Longitude, Height

 The most commonly used coordinate system today is the latitude, longitude, and height system.
 The Prime Meridian and the Equator are the reference planes used to define latitude and
longitude.

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  The geodetic latitude (there are many other defined latitudes) of a point is the angle from the
equatorial plane to the vertical direction of a line normal to the reference ellipsoid.
 The geodetic longitude of a point is the angle between a reference plane and a plane passing
through the point, both planes being perpendicular to the equatorial plane.
 The geodetic height at a point is the distance from the reference ellipsoid to the point in a
direction normal to the ellipsoid.

ECEF X, Y, Z

 Earth Centered, Earth Fixed Cartesian coordinates are also used to define three dimensional
positions.
 Earth centered, earth-fixed, X, Y, and Z, Cartesian coordinates (XYZ) define three dimensional
positions with respect to the center of mass of the reference ellipsoid.
 The Z-axis points toward the North Pole.
 The X-axis is defined by the intersection of the plane define by the prime meridian and the
equatorial plane.
 The Y-axis completes a right handed orthogonal system by a plane 90 degrees east of the X-axis
and its intersection with the equator.

Geodetic Coordinate Systems

A geographic coordinate system (GCS) uses a three-dimensional spherical surface to define locations on
the earth. A GCS is often incorrectly called a datum, but a datum is only one part of a GCS. A GCS
includes an angular unit of measure, a prime meridian, and a datum (based on a spheroid). The spheroid
defines the size and shape of the earth model, while the datum connects the spheroid to the earth's surface.
 
A point is referenced by its longitude and latitude values. Longitude and latitude are angles measured
from the earth's center to a point on the earth's surface. The angles often are measured in degrees (or in
grads). The following illustration shows the world as a globe with longitude and latitude values:
 

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In the spherical system, horizontal lines, or east–west lines, are lines of equal latitude, or parallels.
Vertical lines, or north–south lines, are lines of equal longitude, or meridians. These lines encompass the
globe and form a gridded network called a graticule.
 
The line of latitude midway between the poles is called the equator. It defines the line of zero latitude.
The line of zero longitude is called the prime meridian. For most GCSs, the prime meridian is the
longitude that passes through Greenwich, England. The origin of the graticule (0,0) is defined by where
the equator and prime meridian intersect.
 
Latitude and longitude values are traditionally measured either in decimal degrees or in degrees, minutes,
and seconds (DMS). Latitude values are measured relative to the equator and range from –90° at the south
pole to +90° at the north pole. Longitude values are measured relative to the prime meridian. They range
from –180° when traveling west to 180° when traveling east. If the prime meridian is at Greenwich, then
Australia, which is south of the equator and east of Greenwich, has positive longitude values and negative
latitude values.
 
It may be helpful to equate longitude values with x and latitude values with y. Data defined on a
geographic coordinate system is displayed as if a degree is a linear unit of measure. This method is
basically the same as the Plate Carrée projection. A physical location will usually have different
coordinate values in different geographic coordinate systems.
 
Geodesy is interested in positioning points on the surface of the earth. For this task a well-defined
coordinate system is needed. Many coordinate systems are being used in georeferencing, mainly local and
geocentric coordinate systems. The coordinates systems use both Cartesian and curvilinear coordinates.
The geocentric systems have their z-axis aligned with the instantaneous spin axis of the earth and became
more useful, with the advent of satellite positioning. The non-geocentric systems are used for local
coordinate systems, in such case their origin would be located at a point on the surface of the earth.

Both the geocentric and local geodetic coordinate systems are used together with reference ellipsoids.
These reference ellipsoids are taken to be geocentric or near geocentric, with the axis of revolution
coinciding with the z-axis of the coordinate system. The basic idea behind using the reference ellipsoids is
that they fit the real shape of the earth, as described by the geoid. Basically, reference ellipsoids are the
horizontal surfaces to which the geodetic latitude and longitude are referred. As well the ellipsoid is
associated with the Cartesian coordinate system, and must be fixed with respect to the earth. Such an
ellipsoid is often called a horizontal datum. The horizontal geodetic coordinates (Latitude, f, and
longitude, l), together with the ellipsoidal height, H, make the basic curvi-linear coordinates system. They
are related to their associated Cartesian coordinates X, Y and Z by the following expression:

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Where
v : The radius of curvature of reference ellipsoid,
a : Semi major axis of the reference ellipsoid.
E : the eccentricity. And
H : the ellipsoidal height.

In recent years, the International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS), is fixed to the earth through
several permanent stations whose horizontal velocities are monitored and recorded. The fixing is done at
realization of the ITRS by means of coordinates of some selected points is called the International
Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF). Transformation parameters needed for transforming coordinates
from one epoch to the next are produced by International Earth Rotation Service (IERS), which keep
track of the time evolution of the positions.

Many organizations recommend that the coordinate system used for the Framework should meet the
criteria of global consistency. This is most convenient when the GIS spatial data expand beyond the
extent of national boundaries, using global datums.

Global Coordinate Systems are coordinate systems to specify locations on the surface of the earth and
have defined three-dimensional positions with respect to the center of mass of the reference ellipsoid. The
Z-axis points toward the North Pole; The X-axis is referenced to the intersections plane defined by the
prime meridian and the equatorial plane. The Y-axis completes a right-handed orthogonal system by a
plane 90 º east of the X-axis and its intersection with the equator.

The most widely used global coordinate system consists of lines of geographic latitude (phi or  or  and
longitude (lambda or Lines of equal latitude are called parallels. They form circles on the surface of
the ellipsoid. Lines of equal longitude are called meridians and they form ellipses (meridian ellipses) on
the ellipsoid. Both lines form the graticule when projected onto a map plane. Note that the concept of
geographic coordinates can also be applied to a sphere as the reference surface.

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 The latitude ( and longitude ( angles represent the 2D geographic coordinate system.

The latitude  of a point P (figure section 2.2) is the angle between the ellipsoidal normal through P' and
the equatorial plane. Latitude is zero on the equator ( = 0°), and increases towards the two poles to
maximum values of  = +90 (90°N) at the North Pole and  = - 90° (90°S) at the South Pole.

The longitude  is the angle between the meridian ellipse which passes through Greenwich and the
meridian ellipse containing the point in question. It is measured in the equatorial plane from the meridian
of Greenwich = 0°) either eastwards through  = + 180° (180°E) or westwards through  = -180°
(180°W).

Latitude and longitude represent the geographic coordinates ,of a point P' with respect to the
selected reference surface. They are also called geodetic coordinates or ellipsoidal coordinates when an
ellipsoid is used to approximate the shape of the Earth. Geographic coordinates are always given in
angular units. An example, the coordinates for the City hall in Enschede are:

 = 52° 13' 26.2" N,  = 6° 53' 32.1" E.

These latitude and longitude coordinates are related to the Amersfoort datum. Note that the use of a
different reference surface will result in a different latitude and longitude for the angular units of
geographic coordinates. The Geographic coordinates are often used to store and manage, and interchange
spatial data. The data are projected onto a local map coordinate system for editing, analysis and mapping.
As example, the internal coordinate system of Google Earth are geographic coordinates
(latitude/longitude) on the World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS84) datum. When the data are displayed
on the monitor they are projected using the equidistant cylindrical (or simple cylindrical) map projection.

Next to the geodetic (or geographic) latitude there are two other type of latitudes. These are the
astronomic latitude and the geocentric latitude. The astronomic latitude () (figure below) is the angle
between the equatorial plane and the normal to the Geoid (i.e. a plumb line). It differs from the geodetic
(or geographic) latitude only slightly, due to the slight deviations of the Geoid from the reference
ellipsoid. The astronomic latitudeis the latitude which results directly from observations of the stars,
uncorrected for vertical deflection (section 3.5), and applies only to positions on the Earth's surface.

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Astronomic observations are used to establish local horizontal (or geodetic) datums. The geocentric
latitude (') is the angle between the equatorial plane and a line from the center of the ellipsoid (used to
represent the Earth). This value usually differs from the geodetic latitude, unless the Earth is represented
as a perfect sphere. Both geocentric and geodetic latitudes refer to the reference ellipsoid and not the
Earth.

Three different latitudes: the geodetic (or geographic) latitude (  ), the astronomic latitude () and the
geocentric latitude (' ).

3D geographic coordinates (, h)

3D geographic coordinates , h) are obtained by introducing the ellipsoidal height h to the system.
The ellipsoidal height (h) of a point is the vertical distance of the point in question above the ellipsoid. It
is measured in distance units along the ellipsoidal normal from the point to the ellipsoid surface. 3D
geographic coordinates can be used to define a position on the surface of the Earth (point P in figure
below).

The latitude (f ) and longitude (l) angles and the ellipsoidal height (h) represent the 3D gegraphic
coordinate system.

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Geocentric coordinates (X,Y,Z)

An alternative method of defining a 3D position on the surface of the Earth is by means of geocentric
coordinates (x,y,z), also known as 3D Cartesian coordinates. The system has its origin at the mass-centre
of the Earth with the X- and Y-axes in the plane of the equator. The X-axis passes through the meridian of
Greenwich, and the Z-axis coincides with the Earth's axis of rotation. The three axes are mutually
orthogonal and form a right-handed system. Geocentric coordinates can be used to define a position on
the surface of the Earth (point P in figure below).

An illustration of the geocentric coordinate system

It should be noted that the rotational axis of the Earth changes its position over time (referred to as polar
motion). To compensate for this, the mean position of the pole in the year 1903 (based on observations
between 1900 and 1905) has been used to define the so-called 'Conventional International Origin' (CIO).

2D Cartesian coordinates (X,Y)

A flat map has only two dimensions: width (left to right) and length (bottom to top). Transforming the
three dimensional Earth into a two-dimensional map is subject of map projections and coordinate
transformations (section 4 and 5). Here, like in several other cartographic applications, two-dimensional
Cartesian coordinates (x, y), also known as planar rectangular coordinates, are used to describe the
location of any point in a map plane, unambigiously.

The 2D Cartesian coordinate system is a system of intersecting perpendicular lines, which contains two
principal axes, called the X- and Y-axis. The horizontal axis is usually referred to as the X-axis and the
vertical the Y-axis (note that the X-axis is also sometimes called Easting and the Y-axis the Northing).
The intersection of the X- and Y-axis forms the origin. The plane is marked at intervals by equally spaced

27
coordinate lines, called the map grid. Giving two numerical coordinates x and y for point P, one can now
precisely and objectively specify any location P on the map.

An illustration of the 2D Cartesian coordinate system.

 9. State the information required to define a datum

Information required:

 The position of the Origin

 The direction of the Z (up) Axis
 The direction of the X Axis (The Y Axis is automatically fixed by the other two) The Unit of
Measurement
 The Name

10. State the information required to define the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS-84).

WGS 84 is an Earth-centered, Earth-fixed terrestrial reference system and geodetic datum. WGS 84 is
based on a consistent set of constants and model parameters that describe the Earth's size, shape, and
gravity and geomagnetic fields. WGS 84 is the standard U.S. Department of Defense definition of a
global reference system for geospatial information and is the reference system for the Global Positioning
System (GPS). It is compatible with the International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS).

WGS 84 is an earth fixed global reference frame, including an earth model. It is defined by a set of
primary and secondary parameters:

 the primary parameters define the shape of an earth ellipsoid, its angular velocity, and the earth
mass which is included in the ellipsoid reference
 the secondary parameters define a detailed gravity model of the earth.

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These additional parameters are needed because WGS 84 is used not only for defining coordinates in
surveying, but, for example, also for determining the orbits of GPS navigation satellites.

The WGS84 definition includes the following items:

• Origin: Earth’s center of mass being defined for the whole Earth including oceans and atmosphere

• Axes:

 Z-Axis = The direction of the IERS Reference Pole (IRP). This direction corresponds to the
direction of the BIH Conventional Terrestrial Pole (CTP) (epoch 1984.0) with an uncertainty of
0.005″

 X-Axis = Intersection of the IERS Reference Meridian (IRM) and the plane passing through the
origin and normal to the Z-axis. The IRM is coincident with the BIH Zero Meridian (epoch
1984.0) with an uncertainty of 0.005″

 Y-Axis = Completes a right-handed, Earth-Centered Earth-Fixed (ECEF) orthogonal coordinate

system

• Scale: Its scale is that of the local Earth frame, in the meaning of a relativistic theory of gravitation.
Aligns with ITRS

• Orientation: Given by the Bureau International de l’Heure (BIH) orientation of 1984.0

• Time Evolution: Its time evolution in orientation will create no residual global rotation with regards to
the crust

Coordinate System: Cartesian Coordinates (X, Y, Z). WGS 84 (G1674) follows the criteria outlined in
the International Earth Rotation Service (IERS) Technical Note 21. The WGS 84

Coordinate System origin also serves as the geometric center of the WGS 84 Ellipsoid and the Zaxis
serves as the rotational axis of this ellipsoid of revolution. WGS 84 geodetic coordinates are generated by
using its reference ellipsoid.

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Defining Parameters: WGS 84 identifies four defining parameters. These are the semi-major axis of the
WGS 84 ellipsoid, the flattening factor of the Earth, the nominal mean angular velocity of the Earth, and
the geocentric gravitational constant as specified below.

11. Explain the transformation process from WGS84 to a local geodetic datum also state
the transformation parameter values for transformation from WGS84 to Everest 1830
Datum.

Step 1: Convert WGS84 longitude/latitude/height (above ellipsoid) to geocentric 3D cartesian

coordinates X, Y, Z.

Step 2: Move center: ΔX, ΔY, ΔZ meters

Rotate system: ωX, ωY, ωZ seconds of arc
Scale: δ ppm
X Y, Z in the local datum

Step 3: Convert local geocentric 3D cartesian coordinates X, Y, Z to longitude/latitude/height (above

ellipsoid).
Φ, λ, h (height above ellipsoid) in local datum

Step 4: Calculate map coordinates from φ, λ

Map X. Y, in the local datum

Step 5: Calculate H (orthmetric height, height above mean sea level) from
h and N (geoid height for the local datum).
H (height above mean sea level)

WGS 84 to Everest 1830 Datum Transformation

 Dx:-283.729m
 Dy:-735.942m
 Dz:-261.143m
 Rx:0.0
 Ry:0.0
 Rz:0.0
 Scaling:0.0

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12. What is meant by "Map Projection"? Explain with diagrams the different groups of
projection methods.

A map projection is a mathematically described technique of how to represent the Earth’s curved surface
on a flat map. To represent parts of the surface of the Earth on a flat paper map or on a computer screen,
the curved horizontal reference surface must be mapped onto the 2D mapping plane. The reference
surface for large-scale mapping is usually an oblate ellipsoid, and for small-scale mapping, a sphere.
Mapping onto a 2D mapping plane means transforming each point on the reference surface with
geographic coordinates (f,l) to a set of Cartesian coordinates (x,y) representing positions on the map plane
(figure below).

Example of a map projection where the reference surface with geographic coordinates (f,l) is projected onto the 2D
mapping plane with 2D Cartesian coordinates (x, y).

Projection Methods
Azimuthal- Tangential plate
Conical - Tangential or cutting cone
Cylindrical - Equatorial or transverse cylinder.
Mathematical - Subject to formula

Azimuthal projections

Azimuthal (or zenithal or planar) projections are made upon a plane tangent (or secant) to the reference
surface. All azimuthal projections possess the property of maintaining correct azimuths, or true directions
from the centre of the map. In the polar cases, the meridians all radiate out from the pole at their correct
angular distance apart. A subdivision may be made into perspective and non-perspective azimuthal
projections. In the perspective projections, the actual mapping can be visualized as a true geometric
projection, directly onto the mapping plane; illustrations are in the figure below. For the gnomonic
projection, the perspective point (like a source of light rays), is the centre of the Earth. For the

31
stereographic this point is the opposite pole to the point of tangency, and for the orthographic the
perspective point is an infinite point in space on the opposite side of the Earth. Two well known non-
perspective azimuthal projections are the azimuthal equidistant projection (also called Postel projection)
and the Lambert azimuthal equal-area projection.

Conical - Tangential or cutting cone

Probably one of the best known cylindrical projections is Mercator's cylindrical projection. The
transverse case and occasionally the oblique case of the Mercator projection are used in several countries
for topographic mapping purposes. The Transverse Mercator and Univeral Transverse Mercator (UTM)
projection are the best known examples. Two other well-known normal cylindrical projections are the
equidistant cylindrical (or Plate Carrée) projection and Lambert's cylindrical equal-area projection.
Normal cylindrical projections are typically used to map the world in its entirety.

Universal Tranverse Mercator (UTM) projection:

The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) projection uses a transverse cylinder, secant to the reference
surface (figure below). It is recommended for topographic mapping by the United Nations Cartography
Committee in 1952. The UTM divides the world into 60 narrow longitudinal zones of 6 degrees,
numbered from 1 to 60. The narrow zones of 6 degrees (and the secant map surface) make the distortions
so small that they can be ignored when constructing a map for a scale of 1:10,000 or smaller.

The projection plane of the UTM projection is a secant cylinder in a transverse position.

The UTM projection is designed to cover the world, excluding the Arctic and Antarctic regions. The areas
not included in the UTM system, regions north of 84°N and south of 80°S, are mapped with the
Universal Polar Stereographic (UPS) projection. The figure below shows the UTM zone numbering

32
system. Shaded in the figure is UTM grid zone 3N which covers the area 168° - 162°W (zone number 3),
and 0° - 8°N (letter N of the latitudinal belt).

Cylindrical - Equatorial or transverse cylinder

The equidistant cylindrical projection, also called simple cylindrical, or Plate Carrée, has a true scale
along all meridians (i.e. no distortion in north-south direction). The projection is also known as the
latitude/longitude projection because the latitude and longitude are directly mapped into y and x
respectively. Meridians are spaced at the same distances as the parallels, forming a grid of equal
rectangles. Both shape and area are reasonably well preserved with the exception of the polar regions.
Used for simple portrayals of the world or regions with minimal geographic data such as index maps.
Google Earth uses the equidistant cylindrical (or simple cylindrical) projection for the display of its
imagery base. The transverse version of this projection is known as the Cassini projection.

The equidistant cylindrical projection (also called Plate Carrée projection). The map is equidistant (true to
scale) along the meridians (in north-south direction). Both shape and area are reasonably well preserved
with the exception of the polar regions.

Lambert's cylindrical equal-area projection:

The Lambert's cylindrical equal-area projection represents areas correctly, but it does have rather
noticeable shape distortions towards the poles. Meridians are equally spaced and 0.32 times the length of
the equator. Parallels are unequally spaced and farthest apart near the equator (opposite to the Mercator
projection). Because of the distortions it is of little use for world maps. The Mollweide projection, a
pseudo-cylindrical equal-area projection, would be a better choice for this purpose. The Gall-Peters
projection is a version of Lambert's projection, but with standard parallels at 45 degrees North and South,
and also the Behrmann projection, but with standard parallels at 30 degrees North and South.

33
 Lambert's cylindrical equal-area projection. The shape distortions are significant towards the polar
regions.

Pseudo-cylindrical projections:

Pseudo-cylindrical projections are projections in which the parallels are represented by parallel straight
lines, and the meridians by curves. The central meridian is the only meridian that is straight. Examples are
Mollweide, Sinusoidal (Sanson-Flamsteed), Goode Homolosine, McBryde-Thomas series, Eckert's series
(I -VI), Winkel (I, II), Denoyer and Robinson. They are typically used to map the world in its entirety.
Most pseudo-cylindrical projections are equal-area (certainly not conformal because the parallels and
meridians do not always cross at right angles).

Mollweide's pseudo-cylindrical projection with an equal-area property.

The Robinson projection (figure below) is neither conformal nor equal-area and no point is free of
distortion, but the distortions are very low within about 45° of the center and along the Equator and
therefore recommended and frequently used for thematic world maps. The projection provides a more
realistic view of the world than rectangular maps such as the Mercator.

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 Robinson's pseudo-cylindrical projection. Shapes and areas are reasonable well preserved

The three classes of map projections: cylindrical, conical and azimuthal. The projection planes are
respectively a cylinder, cone and plane.

Three secant projection classes.

Mathematical - Subject to formula

This is mostly achieved through mapping equations. A forward mapping equation transforms the
geographic coordinates (f,l) of a point on the curved reference surface to a set of planar Cartesian
coordinates (x,y), representing the position of the same point on the map plane:

35
 (x, y) = f (f, l)

The corresponding inverse mapping equation transforms mathematically the planar Cartesian coordinates
(x,y) of a point on the map plane to a set of geographic coordinates (f,l) on the curved reference surface:

(f, l) = f (x, y)

Following are two examples of mapping equations for the sphere (equations for the ellipsoid are generally
more complex).

I. The first example are the mapping equations used for the Mercator projection:

The forward mapping equation is:

The inverse mapping equation is:

Where R is the radius of the spherical reference surface; f and l are given in radians; l o is the central
meridian of the projection; e = 2.7182818, the base of the natural logarithms, not the eccentricity.

Suppose a point, located at 60oN and 130oW, is projected on a map that uses the Mercator projection
(where the reference surface is a sphere with a radius of 6371000 m. and the central meridian (l o) is 0o,
equal to the Greenwich meridian). Using the forward mapping equation of the Mercator projection, the
values found for the Cartesian coordinates are for x = -14,455,340m and for y = 8,390,339m.

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 II. The second example is the mapping equations used for the north polar stereographic projection:

The forward mapping equation is:

The inverse mapping equation is:

where R is the radius of the spherical reference surface; l o is the longitude of the projection centre.

Suppose the same point, located at 60oN and 130oW, is projected on a map that uses the stereographic
projection (where the reference surface is a sphere with a radius of 6371000 m., the centre of the
projection is located on the North pole and the longitude of the centre (l o) is 0o). Using the forward
mapping equation of the north polar stereographic projection, the values found for the Cartesian
coordinates are for x = -2615435m and for y = 2194610m.

 13. State the parameter values required to define "Universal Transverse Mercator(UTM)"
and "Bangladesh Transverse Mercator(BTM)" map projections.

Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)

60 map projections, one for each zone
Projection type: Transverse Mercator
60 fixed central meridians, 6°apart,
one for each zone at 1770 W, 1710 W ... 1770 E
Unspecified ellipsoid
(Unspecified geodetic datum)
False easting: 500000 meter
False northing: 0 meter on the northern hemispere
10 000 000 meter on the southern
Scale factor at central meridian: 0.9996 (Universal Polar Stereographic projections (UPS) over North and
South Polar areas)

Bangladesh transverse mercator (BTM)

Central Meridian: 90° E
Latitude of Origin: 00° (Equator)
False Easting: 500.000 m

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False Northing: 0 m
Scale Factor: 0.9996

38