Introduction

to
Global Positioning
System
 INTRODUCTION
• A technology, which provides unequalled
accuracy and flexibility of positioning for
navigation, surveying and GIS data capture.
• The GPS NAVSTAR (Navigation Satellite
timing and Ranging Global Positioning System)
is a satellite-based navigation, timing and
positioning system.
• provides continuous 3D positioning 24-hrs a
day throughout the world.
 INTRODUCTION
• beneficiary to the GPS user community in terms of
obtaining accurate data up to about
– 100 meters for navigation,
– metre-level for mapping, and
– down to milli-metre level for geodetic positioning.
• tremendous amount of applications in GIS data
collection, surveying, and mapping.
 Geopositioning - Basic Concepts
By positioning we understand as the
determination of position of stationary or moving
objects.

These can be determined as follows:

i) In relation to a well-defined coordinate system,
usually by three coordinate values and
ii) In relation to other point, taking one point as
the origin of a local coordinate system.
Geo-positioning - Basic Concepts
The first mode of positioning is known as point
positioning, the second as relative positioning.

If the object to be positioned is stationary, it is

known as STATIC POSITIONING.
When the object is moving, then it is known as
KINEMATIC POSITIONING.

static positioning is used in surveying and

kinematic position in navigation.
GPS - Components and Basic Facts

The GPS uses satellites and computers to compute

positions anywhere on earth and is based on satellite
ranging.

That means the position on the earth is determined by

measuring the distance from a group of satellites in
space.
 Measurements of distance

• Distance measurement
start: 0.00 s

end: 0.06 s
GPS - Components and Basic Facts

The basic principle behind GPS is really

simple, even though the system employs some
of the most high-technology based equipment
ever developed.

In order to understand GPS basics, the system

can be categorised into FOUR logical Steps
 STEP I
• To compute a position in three dimensions,
four satellites have to be observed.
 STEP II
To triangulate, the GPS measures the distance
using the travel time of the radio message.
To measure travel time, the GPS needs a very
accurate clock.
 STEP III
• Once the distance to a satellite is known, then it’s location
in space is required.
 STEP IV
•As the GPS signal travels through the ionosphere
and the earth's atmosphere, the signal is delayed.
 Components of a GPS

The GPS is divided into three major components

• The Space Segment

• The Control Segment
• The User Segment
SPACE SEGMENT
 CONTROL SEGMENT
• The Control Segment consists of five
monitoring stations

Colorado Springs,

Ascension Island,

Diego Garcia,

Hawaii, and

Kwajalein Island.
 CONTROL SEGMENT
• Three of the stations (Ascension, Diego Garcia,
and Kwajalein) serve as uplink installations,
capable of transmitting data to the satellites,
including new ephemerides i.e. satellite positions
as a function of time, clock corrections, and other
broadcast message data,
• Colorado Springs serves as the Master Control
station.
 CONTROL SEGMENT
• The Control Segment is the sole responsibility
of the Department of Defence (DoD) who
undertakes construction, launching,
maintenance, and virtually constant
performance monitoring of all GPS satellites.
• The DoD monitoring stations track all GPS
signals for use in controlling the satellites and
predicting their orbits.
 Control Segment
• Meteorological data also are collected at the
monitoring stations, permitting the most accurate
evaluation of tropospheric delays of GPS signals.

• Satellite tracking data from the monitoring stations

are transmitted to the master control station for
processing.
• This processing involves the computation of
satellite ephemerides and satellite clock
corrections.
 SPACE SEGMENT

• The Space Segment consists of the

Constellation of NAVSTAR earth orbiting
satellites.

• The current Department of Defence plan calls

for a full constellation of 24 Block II satellites
(21 operational and 3 in-orbit spares).
• The satellites are arrayed in
6 orbital planes, inclined
55°° to the Equator.

• They orbit at an altitude of

about 12000 miles each,
with orbital periods of 12
sidereal hours (i.e.,
determined by or from the
stars), or approximately one
half of the earth's periods,.
 SPACE SEGMENT

 The next block of satellites is called Block IIR, and

they will provide improved reliability and have a
capacity of ranging between satellites, which will
increase the orbital accuracy.
 Each satellite contains four precise atomic clocks
(Rubidium and Cesium standards) and has a
microprocessor on board for limited self-monitoring
and data processing.
 The satellites are equipped with thrusters which
can be used to maintain or modify their orbits.
 USER SEGMENT

• The user segment is a total user and supplier

community, both civilian and military.
• It consists of all earth-based GPS receivers
which can vary greatly in size and
complexity, though the basic design is rather
simple.
 USER SEGMENT

• The typical receiver is composed

of
– an antenna and preamplifier,
– radio signal microprocessor control
– display device, data recording unit,
and power supply.
• The GPS receiver decodes the
timing signals from the 'visible'
satellites (four or more) and,
having calculated their distances,
computes its own latitude,
longitude, elevation, and time.
GPS Hand-held Type
 USER SEGMENT

• This is a continuous process and generally the

position is updated on a second-by-second
basis, output to the receiver display device and,
if the receiver provides data capture
capabilities, stored by the receiver-logging
unit.
 SATELLITE RANGING
• GPS positions are based on the measurement of
the distance from the satellite to the GPS receiver
on earth.
• The GPS receiver can determine the distance to
each satellite.
• The basic idea of determination of position is that
of resection or trilateration, which many surveyors
use in their daily work.
 SATELLITE RANGING
• If the distance of 3 points relative to unknown
position is known, then the position of
unknown point relative to these 3 points can be
determined.
• Similarly, if the distance of one satellite is
known, then the position of the receiver must be
at some point on the surface of an imaginary
sphere of radius equal to that distance with
origin at the satellite.
• By intersecting three imaginary spheres the
receiver position can be determined accurately.
Satellite location

• Given 1 satellite …
Satellite location

• We can locate our position on the surface

of a sphere
Satellite location

• Given 2 satellites …
Satellite location

• Given 2 satellites …
Satellite location

• We can locate our position on the intersection of

2 spheres (a circle)
Satellite location

• Given 3 satellites …
Satellite location

• We can locate our position on the

intersection of 3 spheres (2 points)
Satellite location

• Given 4 satellites we can locate our

position on the intersection of 4 spheres
(1 point)
Satellite location

• The point should be located on the

earth’s surface
 SATELLITE RANGING

The GPS receiver also calculates the distance from the

receiver to the satellite using the equation,
Distance = Velocity x Time
where
velocity = the velocity of the radio signal, i.e. 290,000
km per second (speed of light) and
time = the time taken by the radio signal to travel from
the satellite to the receiver.
SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
• GPS satellites communicate all the information
to receivers by using codes.
• It broadcasts two carrier waves which are
modulated by the coded information signal.
• The two GPS carrier waves are radio waves
called L1 and L2, in the L-Band (390 MHz to
1550 MHz).
• These are derived from the fundamental
frequency of 10.23 MHz, generated by a very
precise atomic clock.
 SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

• L1 carrier is broadcasted at 1575.42 MHz (10.23 x

154).
• L2 carrier is broadcasted at 1227.60 MHz (10.23x
120).
• The L1 carrier has two codes modulated upon it:
– The Coarse/Acquisition code (C/A code) modulated at
1.023 MHz
– The Precision code ( P-code 10.23 MHz).
• The L2 carrier has only one code modulated upon it,
the L2 P-code, modulated at 10.23 MHz.
 New Civil Signals
• Three new signals designed for civilian use:
L2C, L5, and L1C.
• First Signal : L1 C/A or C/A at L1
• Second signal : L2C
• Third signal : L5
• Fourth signal : L1C
 Second signal : L2C

• The name "L2C" refers to the radio frequency

used by the signal (1227 MHz)
• designed specifically to meet commercial needs.
• enables ionospheric correction, a technique that
boosts accuracy.
 Third Civil Signal: L5

• "L5" refers to the radio frequency of 1176 MHz.

• L5 in combination with L1 C/A to improve
– accuracy (via ionospheric correction) and
– robustness (via signal redundancy).

• in combination with L1 C/A and L2C, L5 will provide a

highly robust service through a technique called tri-laning,
where the use of three GPS frequencies may enable sub-
meter accuracy.
 Fourth Civil Signal: L1C

• "L1C" refers to the radio frequency of 1575 MHz

• designed to enable interoperability between GPS and
international satellite navigation systems.
– European Galileo
– Japan's Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS),
– Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS),
– China's Compass system
– Glonass Russia
 SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
• The Navigation Message (the information that the
satellites transmit to a receiver) contains:-
- the satellite orbital and clock information,
- general system status messages and
- an ionospheric delay model.
• The navigation code has a low frequency of 50 Hz
and is modulated both on the L1 and L2 carriers.
• It communicates the data in a message called GPS
message or navigation message.
 GPS CODES
• GPS receivers use different codes to distinguish
between satellites.
• These codes can also be used as a basis for making
pseudo-range measurements which enable the
calculation of position.
• GPS codes are binary in nature.
• The three basic codes in GPS are
- the Precise code or the P-code,
- the Coarse/ Acquisition code or C/ A code,
- the Navigation code.
 GPS CODES
• The modulated C/A code and P-code are referred to as
Pseudo-Random Noise (PRN) code.

• This PRN code is actually a sequence of very precise time

which permits the ground receivers to compare and
computes the time of transmission between the satellite
and ground station. (Purpose of PRN)

• From this transmission time, the range to the satellite can

be derived and is the basis behind GPS range
measurements.

• The C/A code pulse intervals are approximately 300 m in

range and the more accurate P-code intervals have a range
of 30 m.
 IMPORTANCE OF PRN CODE
• The PRN code is a complex pattern, thus ensuring that the
receiver does not accidentally synchronize with some
other signal.
• The patterns are so complex that it is highly unlikely that a
stray signal will have exactly the same shape.
• Each satellite has its own unique PRN code which ensures
that the receiver will not accidentally pick up a signal
from another satellite.
• Hence all the satellites can use the same frequency without
signal jamming.
 IMPORTANCE OF PNR CODE
• This makes it difficult for any hostile force to jam the
system.
• PNR code gives the DoD a complete control the
access to the system.
• The complexity of the PNR code makes GPS
economical.
– That is why GPS receivers do not need big satellite dishes
to receive the GPS signals.
 PSEUDO-RANGE
• It is a measure of the apparent signal propagation
time from GPS satellite to the GPS receiver
antenna, scaled into distance by speed of light.
• The apparent propagation time is the difference
between the time of signal reception and the time of
emission.
• Hence pseudo-range is the time delay between the
satellite clock and the receiver clock, as determined
from C/A code or P-code pulses.
 PSEUDO-RANGE

• If a satellite is right over the head of an observer, the

travel time of signal would be about 0.06 seconds.

• This time difference gives range measurements but

is called a pseudo-range, since at the time of the
measurement the receiver clock is not synchronized
to the satellite clock.
 PSEUDO-RANGE
• In most cases, an absolute 3D real time navigation
position can be obtained by observing at least four
simultaneous pseudo-ranges.
• Pseudo-range differs from the actual range due to
- the influence of satellite orbital errors,
- user clock error, and
- ionospheric delays.
 GPS BROADCAST

• Each NAVSTAR GPS satellite periodically

broadcasts data concerning clock corrections,
system and satellite status, and most critically, its
position or ephemeris data.

• There are two basic types of ephemeris data

- the broadcast and
- the precise.
 Broadcast Ephemeris
• The broadcast ephemeris is actually predicted
satellite positions broadcasted within the
navigation message transmitted from the
satellites in real time.
• A receiver capable of acquiring either the C/A
or P-code can acquire the ephemeris in real
time.
• The broadcast ephemeris is computed using
past tracking data of the satellites.
 BROADCAST EPHEMERIS
• The satellites are tracked continuously by the
monitor stations to obtain more recent data to be
used for the orbit predictions.
• The data is analyzed by the Master Control
Stations and new parameters for the satellite orbit
are transmitted back to the satellites.
• This upload is performed daily with new predicted
orbital elements transmitted every hour by the
navigation message.
 PRECISE EPHEMERIS
• The precise ephemeris is based on actual tracking
data that is post-processed to obtain more accurate
satellite positions.
• This ephemeris is available at later date and is more
accurate than the broadcast ephemeris and are based
on the actual tracking data and not predicted data.
• For most survey applications, the broadcast
ephemeris is adequate to needed accuracies.
 ALMANAC DATA
• GPS receiver stores the data about the position of
the satellites at any given time in its memory.
• This data is called the almanac data received from
the satellites.
• When the GPS receiver is not turned for a long
time, the almanac gets outdated as the latest
corrected data is not by the receiver for a long time.
• This condition is called as a cold receiver.
 ALMANAC DATA
• When the GPS receiver is cold, it would take longer
time to acquire satellite.
• A receiver is considered warm, when the data has
been collected satellites within the last four to six
hours.
• While purchasing a new GPS receiver, the cold and
warm acquisition specifications must be noted, as the
time taken by the GPS unit to lock on to the satellite
signals and calculate a position is important.
• Once the locked onto enough satellites to calculate a
position, it is ready navigation or for surveying.
 CALCULATING LOCATIONS
•A GPS receiver determines its position by using the
signals that it observes from different satellites.
•Since the navigation message supplies the satellite
positions and the code measurements provide pseudo
range (PR) between the receiver and the satellite, the
receiver computes its position using resection techniques.
•Since the receiver must solve for its position (X,Y,Z) and
the clock error (ξ), four SVs are required to solve
receiver's position using the following four equations:
R1= SQRT{(X-x1)2 +(Y-y1)2 +(Z-z1)2 +ξ2}
R2= SQRT{(X-x2)2 +(Y-y2)2 +(Z-z2)2 +ξ2}
R3= SQRT{(X-x3)2 +(Y-y3)2 +(Z-z3)2 +ξ2}
R4= SQRT{(X-x4)2 +(Y-y4)2 +(Z-z4)2 +ξ2}
Calculating Locations
 CALCULATING LOCATIONS
where
(x1,y1) (x2,y2) (x3,y3) and (x4,y4) stand for the
location of satellites and
R1, R2, R3, R4 are the distances of satellites from the
receiver position.
Hence solving the four equations for four unknowns
X,Y, Z and ξ, the position or location of the station
is calculated.
However, the accuracy of position determination
depends upon the code used in calculation.
 CALCULATING LOCATIONS
•Post processed static carrier-phase data can provide
–1-5 cm relative positioning within
–30km of the reference receiver with
– measurement time of 15 minutes for
–short baselines (10km) and
–one hour for long baselines (30km).
•Rapid static or fast static surveying can provide
–sub-cm level accuracies with
–20km baselines and
–10-20 minutes of recording time.
•The Real-time-Kinematic (RTK) technique provides
–centimetre measurements in real time over
–10km baselines tracking five or more satellites and
–real-time radio links between the reference and remote receivers.
 Method Accuracy Distance Measuremen Baseline
between t Time
Base & Rover
Post 1-5 cm 30 km 15 minutes 10 km
processed
static carrier-
phase
1 hour 30 km

Rapid static Sub- m 10 – 20 20 km

or fast static minutes
Real-time- Cm level 30 minutes 10 km
Kinematic
(RTK)
DIFFERENT TYPES
OF
GPS POSITIONING
 POSITIONING MODES FOR GPS

• Absolute or Point positioning where coordinates

are in relation to a well-defined global reference
system.

• Differential or relative positioning where

coordinates are in relation to some other fixed
point. In GPS surveying this is referred to as
baseline determination.
 ABSOLUTE POSITIONING
• This mode of positioning relies upon a single
receiver station.
• It is also referred to as 'stand-alone' GPS, because
ranging is carried out strictly between the satellite
and the receiver station.
• As a result, the positions derived in absolute mode
are subject to the unmitigated errors inherent in
satellite positioning.
• It is, however, the most widely used military and
commercial GPS positioning method for real time
navigation and location determination.
 ABSOLUTE POSITIONING
• The accuracies obtained by GPS absolute
positioning are dependent on the user's
authorization.
• A Standard Positioning Service (SPS) user can
obtain real-time point positional accuracies of 25
m without selective availability (S/A).
• The Precise Positioning Service (PPS) user (with a
receiver capable of tracking P-code) can use a
decryption device to achieve a point positional
(3D) accuracy in the range of 10-12 m with a
single-frequency receiver.
 DIFFERENTIAL POSITIONING
•Relative or Differential GPS carries the triangulation
principles one step further, with a second receiver at
a known reference point.
•To further facilitate determination of a point's
position, relative to the known earth surface point,
this configuration demands collection of an error-
correcting message from the reference receiver.
•Differential-mode positioning relies upon an
established control point.
•The reference station is placed on the control point,
a triangulated position, the control point coordinate.
 DIFFERENTIAL GPS

•A base station receiver is set

up on a location with
coordinates known.
•Signal time at reference
location is compared to time
at remote location.
•Time difference represents
error in satellite’s signal
•Real-time corrections
transmitted to remote
receiver
– Single frequency (1-5 m)
– Dual frequency (sub-
= Error meter)
Reference Remote
location location
 DIFFERENT METHODS OF DGPS

• There are eight basic DGPS surveying techniques

– Static surveying
– Rapid Static surveying
– Stop-and-Go Kinematics surveying
– True Kinematic surveying
– Pseudo-kinematic surveying
– Kinematic on-the-fly (OTF) surveying
– Real-time Kinematic (RTK) surveying
– Real-time DGPS (code/carrier) surveying
 STATIC SURVEYING
• Primary and most widely used for control and geodetic
surveying.
• Involves long observation time (1-2 hours depending on
number of visible satellites) in order to resolve the integer
ambiguities between the satellite and the receiver.
• Relative static positioning involves several stationary
receivers collecting simultaneously from at least four
satellites during an observation session which usually lasts
30 minutes to 2 hours.
 STATIC SURVEYING
• Post processing software analyzes all data from the
receivers simultaneously and obtains the
differential position between the two receivers.
• This method is used for
– long lines,
– geodetic networks,
– tectonic plate studies etc.
• Offers high accuracy of 1cm to 10 cm over long
distances like 10 kilometers.
 RAPID STATIC SURVEYING
• latest method added to GPS positioning
procedures.
• measure baselines and determine positions up to
centimeter level with short observation time of
about 5-20 minutes.
• The observation time is dependent on the length of
the baseline and number of visible satellites.
• In rapid static surveys, a reference is chosen and
one or more rovers operate with respect to it.
 RAPID STATIC SURVEYING
• Rapid static technique is used for detailing the
existing network, establishing control points etc.
• It is similar to the static method, but consists of a
shortened site occupation time.
= temporaryReference
Station Tracks
Continously

= Roving Receiver Moves

Point –to Point, Short
Observation Time with 4 or
more Satellites.
 STOP-AND-GO TECHNIQUE IN
KINEMATIC METHOD

• The term Kinematic is applied to GPS surveying

methods where the rover receivers are in
continuous motion.
• However, for relative positioning the more typical
arrangement is a STOP-AND-GO technique, a
method developed by Dr. Benjamin Remondi.
• This method is sometimes referred to as semi-
kinematic survey.
 STOP-AND-GO METHOD
• A reference station is already established.
• At least four satellites have to be tracked without
signal loss for this method.
• Good geometry of satellite resulting in good
GDOP and strong satellite constellation is needed
with favorable ionospheric conditions.
• The roving receiver starts from an initial point for
initial rapid static fix or starts from a known
position coordinate.
 STOP-AND-GO METHOD

4 5
3

2 Ref.
1 Stn
7
 STOP-AND-GO METHOD
• Then it moves to other points maintaining lock on the
satellites.
• The rover remains only for a small time for two
epochs on each detail point 1, 2, 3,4, 5 in serial order.
• Using a post processing software these points can be
plotted.
• This technique is similar to rapid static method in
which all receivers observe the same satellites
simultaneously, and the reference receivers occupy
the same control point throughout the survey.
 STOP-AND-GO METHOD
• Applications
(i) Detailed and engineering surveys in open areas.
(ii) When points are too close together.
• Advantages
(i) It is a fast and economical method.
• (ii) One of the fastest way to survey detail points.
• Disadvantages
(i) New static or rapid static fix is needed if complete
loss of satellite lock occurs.
(ii) Must maintain phase lock to at least four satellites
for a successful survey.
 KINEMATIC SURVEYING METHOD

• Kinematic surveying is often referred to as dynamic

surveying.
• It is faster than static methods.
• It uses two single frequency L1 receivers for recording
observations simultaneously.
• One receiver is set over a known point (reference station)
and the other is used as rover (i.e. moved from point to
point or along a path).
 KINEMATIC SURVEYING METHOD
• Before the rover receiver can rove, a period of
static initialization or antenna swap must be
performed.
• The reference and rover are switched on and
remain absolutely stationary for 5-20 minutes,
collecting data.
• The actual time depends upon the baseline length
from the reference and the number of satellites
observed.
• This period of static initialization is dependent on
the number of satellites visible.
• After this period the rover starts to move freely,
the user can record its positions at a predefined
recording rate (say at 1 or 2 or 5 seconds
interval).
• This part of the measurements is commonly
called kinematic chain.

Temporary reference
station tracking satellites
continuously

Rover receiver on
vehicle boat etc.
Start continuously in motion
 ADVANTAGES
• It can produce the large number of positions within a short
period of time.
• Only slight degradation in the accuracy of the work.
• In this method, the receiver resolves the phase ambiguity,
once and only once, at the beginning of the project.
• Then by keeping a continuous lock on the satellite’s signals,
it maintains that solution throughout the work.
• The kinematic technique needs initialization.
• The receivers can occupy each end of a baseline between
two control points and since the distance between the points
is known, the phase ambiguity is resolved in a few minutes.
 Applications of Kinematic Method
(i) Measuring trajectory of moving objects.
(ii) In hydrographic surveys.
(iii) In surveying centre of a road.
(iv) Photogrammetry with ground control.
(v) Collection of data for the preparation of highly
accurate topographic maps.
• Advantages
(i) Fast and economical
(ii) Continuous measurements
• Disadvantages
(i) New static or rapid static fix needed in case of
complete loss of satellite lock.
(ii) Occupied stations should be free of overhead
obstructions.
(iii) The route between stations must be clear.
 PSEUDO-KINEMATIC GPS SURVEY
• Pseudo-kinematic GPS surveying is similar to stop-
and-go techniques except that loss of satellite lock
is tolerated when the receiver is transported
between occupation sites.
• This feature provides the surveyor with a more
favourable positioning technique since obstructions
such as bridge overpasses, tall buildings, and
overhanging vegetation are common.
• Loss of lock that may result due to these
obstructions is more tolerable when pseudo-
kinematic techniques are employed.
• Pseudo-kinematic techniques require that one
receiver be placed over a known control station.
• A rover receiver occupies each unknown station
for 5 minutes.
• After 1 hour of the initial station occupation, the
same rover receiver must re-occupy each unknown
station.
• The pseudo-kinematic technique requires that at
least four common satellites are observed between
initial station occupation and the requisite re-
occupation.
 COMPARISON OF METHODS
• Pseudo-kinematic and Stop-and-Go techniques are
considered as the ideal GPS measurement
techniques for large scale surveying purposes.
• Pseudo-kinematic technique can be used
advantageously in areas where there is a fear of
signal shading due to vegetation and built up areas,
as there is no requirement for the rover receiver to
maintain its lock to the satellite during movement.
• For open areas, Stop-and-Go technique proves more
useful.
 KINEMATIC ON THE FLY (OTF)
• Similar to kinematic differential GPS surveying as it
requires two receivers recording observations
simultaneously and allows the rover receiver to be
moving.
• Unlike the kinematic surveying, OTF surveying
technique uses dual frequency Ll/L2 GPS observations
and can handle loss of satellite lock.
• Since this method uses the L2 frequency, the GPS
receiver must be capable of tracking the L2 frequency
during anti-spoofing.
• In OTF method, successful ambiguity resolutions are
required for baseline formulations.
• The OTF technology allows the rover receiver to initialize
and resolve the ambiguity integers without a period of
static initialization.
• With OTF, if loss of satellite lock occurs, initialization
can be done while on motion.
• The integers can be resolved at the rover within 10-30
seconds, depending upon distance from the reference
station.
• OTF uses the L2 frequency transmitted by the GPS
satellites for the ambiguity resolution.
 REAL TIME KINEMATIC SURVEYING
(RTK)
• It is a method that can offer positional accuracy in
real time similar to static carrier-phase positioning.
• RTK is capable of delivering 5 cm accuracy.
• RTK is a differential GPS method that uses carrier
phase observations corrected in real-time and
therefore, depends upon the fixing of the integer
cycle ambiguity.
• In this method, one of the GPS receivers is set over
a known point, and the other is moving or kept on
a mobile platform.
• If the survey is performed in real time, a data link
and processor is required and the method is known
as Real time Kinematic Surveying (RTK
Method).
• The method requires dual frequency GPS receivers
capable of making both carrier phase and precise
pseudo-range measurements.
• Observations on L1 and L2 are combined into a
wide lane (ambiguity = 86 cm), and the integer
ambiguity is solved in the first pass.
• Therefore, RTK is suitable where there is good
correlation of atmospheric biases at both ends of
the baseline and hence distance between the
base and rover should be less than 20 km.
• Usually RTK GPS surveying equipment operate
between 450-470 MHz.
• The configuration operates at 4800 or 9600 baud rate.
 REAL-TIME DGPS SURVEYING

• The code phase differential GPS system is

commonly used for positioning hydrographic survey
vessels and dredges.
• It also used for topographic, small-scale mapping
surveys and input to GIS database.
• Real-time DGPS is a method that improves GPS
pseudo-range accuracy.
• This is also known as real time (code) DGPS
surveying.
• Differential GPS involves the usage of two receivers
having a communication link
– one is stationary on a reference station and
– other roving around making position measurements.
• The reference receiver antenna is mounted on a previously
measured with known coordinates and placed on a known
survey station in an area having an unobstructed view of
sky.
• The reference receiver is switched on and it begins to
track satellites.
• The reference station measures the timing and ranging
information broadcasted by the satellites and computes
and format range corrections for broadcast to the user
equipment.
• It calculates its own position from the received
signals from the satellites.
• The actual co-ordinates of the known station of
the reference receiver antenna is fed manually.
• The reference receiver works out the difference
between the computed and measured value of the
ranges to the satellites.
• These differences known as pseudo-range
corrections.
• Since the roving receiver may use any satellite to
calculate its position, the reference receiver quickly
runs through all the visible satellites and computes
errors of all the visible satellites.
• It then transmits all the corrections to the rover
receiver through the radio link.
• The rover, in turn, calculates ranges to the satellites
and then applies the transmitted corrections to the
corresponding satellite ranges.
• This enables the rover receiver to calculate its
position more accurately.
• Further, multiple rover receivers can receiver
corrections from one single reference.
• Also, the base station takes a little time to calculate
these errors and transmit them through a radio link.
• The rover receivers this transmitted data from the
reference station, decodes the data and applies it
through its software.
 Accuracy of GPS
There are four basic levels of accuracy - or types
of solutions - you can obtain with your real-time
GPS mining system:

Autonomous 15 – 100 meters

Differential GPS (DGPS) 0.5 – 5 meters
Real-Time Kinematic Float 20 cm – 1 meter
(RTK Float)
Real-Time Kinematic Fixed 1 cm – 5 cm
(RTK Fixed)
FACTORS THAT AFFECT GPS
• The GPS errors associated with GPS are:

(i) Number of satellite required.

(ii) Multipath
(iii) Ionospheric delays
(iv) Tropospheric delays
(v) Satellite Health
(vi) Signal Strength
(vii) Distance from the Reference receiver.
(viii) Radio frequency interference
(ix) Loss of radio transmission from the base.
 NUMBER OF SATELLITES REQUIRED
At least four common satellites be tracked and the
same four satellites by both the reference and rover
receivers, for either DGPS or RTK solutions.
Also to achieve centimeter -level accuracy, a fifth
satellite for on-the fly RTK initialization must be
tracked.
This extra satellite adds a check on the internal
calculation.
Any additional satellites beyond five provides even
more checks, which is always useful.
 MULTIPATH

• Multipath is simply reflection of signals similar to

the phenomenon of ghosting on our television
screen.
• With multi-path reception, the receiver collects
both the direct signal from the satellite and a
fractionally delayed signal that has bounced off of
some nearby reflective surface then reached the
receiver.
 Effects of Multipath on the GPS Signal
Satellite

• Avoid Reflective Surfaces

• Use A Ground Plane Antenna
• Use Multipath Rejection Receiver

GPS
Antenna

Hard Surface
 MULTIPATH

• The problem is that the path of the signal that

has reflected off some surface is longer than
the direct line to the satellite.
• This can "confuse" some lower-end receivers
resulting in an incorrect range measurement
and, consequently, an incorrect position.
MULTIPATH
 MULTIPATH
• There are several ways to deal with this problem.
• Most receivers have some way of "seeing" and
comparing the correct and incorrect incoming signal.
• Since the reflected multi-path signal has traveled a
longer path, it will arrive a fraction of a second later,
and a fraction weaker than the direct signal.
• By recognizing that there are two signals, one right
after another, and that second one is slightly weaker
than the first, the receiver can reject the later, weaker
signal, thus minimizing the problem.
• This ability is referred to as the receiver's multi-
path rejection capability.
 MULTIPATH
• Mapping and survey quality receivers use semi-
directional, ground-plane antennas to reduce the amount
of multi-path that the receiver will have to deal with.
• Semi-directional antennas are designed to reject any
signal below a tangent to the surface of the Earth.
• This is usually seen as a large (up to 20 to 30
centimeters across) flat metal plate (usually aluminum)
with the actual, much smaller, receiver antenna attached
on top.
• The metal plate interferes with any signals that may be
reflected off of low reflective surfaces below them, such
as bodies of water.
IONOSPHERE - CHANGE IN THE TRAVEL
TIME OF THE SIGNAL:
• Before GPS signals reach the antenna on the earth,
they pass through a zone of charged particles called
the ionosphere, which changes the speed of the
signal.
• If the reference and rover receivers are relatively
close together, the effect of ionosphere tends to be
minimal and if one is working with the lower range of
GPS precisions, the ionosphere is not a major
consideration.
• However if the rover is working too far from the
reference station, one may experience problems,
particularly with initializing the RTK fixed solution.
 TROPOSPHERE

•Troposphere is essentially the weather zone of

the atmosphere, and droplets of water vapour in
it can effect the speed of the signals.
•The vertical component of the GPS answer
(i.e. elevation) is particularly sensitive to the
troposphere.
 SATELLITE HEALTH - AVAILABILITY
OF SIGNAL
• While the satellite system is robust and dependable,
it is possible for the satellites to occasionally be
unhealthy.
• A satellite broadcasts its health status, based on
information from the U.S. Department of Defense.
• Receivers have safeguards to protect against using
data from unhealthy satellites.
 SATELLITE GEOMETRY
• Satellite Geometry - or the distribution of satellites in the sky
- effects the computation of your position often referred to as
Position Dilution of Precision (PDOP).
• PDOP is expressed as a number, where lower numbers are
preferable to higher numbers.
• The best results are obtained when PDOP is < 7.
• PDOP is determined by
– the geographic location,
– the time of day, and
– any site obstruction, which might block the satellites.
• It is advisable that a planning software be used to determine
when one will have the most satellites in a particular area.
 Dilution Of Precision (DOP)
A Measure of The Geometry Of The Visible GPS
Constellation

Good DOP

Poor DOP
Dilution Of Precision
• VDOP = Vertical Dilution Of Precision
• PDOP = Position Dilution Of Precision (Most
Commonly Used)
• GDOP = Geometric Dilution Of Precision
• HDOP = Horizontal Dilution Of Precision
• TDOP = Time Dilution Of Precision

QUALITY DOP
Very Good 1-3
Good 4-5
Fair 6
Suspect >6
 SIGNAL STRENGTH

• The strength of the satellite signal depends on

obstructions and the elevation of the satellites
above the horizon.
• To the extent it is possible, obstructions
between your GPS antennae and the sky should
be avoided.
• Also watch out for satellites which are close to
the horizon, because the signals are weaker.
 DISTANCE FROM THE REFERENCE
RECEIVER
• The effective range of a rover from a reference
station depends primarily on the type of accuracy
you are trying to achieve.
• For the highest real time accuracy (RTK fixed),
rovers should be within about 10-15 Km of the
reference station.
• As the range exceeds this recommended limit, you
may fail to initialize and be restricted to RTK float
solutions (decimeter accuracy).
 RADIO FREQUENCY (RF) INTERFERENCE
• RF interference may sometimes be a problem both for GPS
reception and radio link system.
• Some sources of RF interference include:
Radio towers
Satellite dishes
Transmitters
Generators
• One should be particularly careful of sources which transmit
either near the GPS frequencies (1227 and 1575 MHz) or near
harmonics (multiples) of these frequencies.
• One should also be aware of the RF generated by his own
machines.
 Loss of Radio Transmission from Base

• If, for any reason, there is an interruption in the

radio link between a reference receiver and a
rover, then the rover is left with an autonomous
position.
• It is very important to set up a network of radios
and repeaters, which can provide the
uninterrupted radio link needed for the best GPS
results.
 GPS APPLICATIONS
• One of the most significant and unique features of
the Global Positioning Systems is the fact that the
positioning signal is available to users in any
position worldwide at any time.
• With a fully operational GPS system, it can be
generated to a large community of likely to grow as
there are multiple applications, ranging from
surveying, mapping, and navigation to GIS data
capture.
• The GPS will soon be a part of the overall utility of
technology.
 SURVEYING AND MAPPING

• The high precision of GPS carrier phase

measurements, together with appropriate
adjustment algorithms, provide an adequate tool for
a variety of tasks for surveying and mapping.
• Using DGPS methods, accurate and timely
mapping of almost anything can be carried out.
• The GPS is used to map cut blocks, road
alignments, and environmental hazards such as
landslides, forest fires, and oil spills.
 SURVEYING AND MAPPING

• Applications, such as cadastral mapping,

needing a high degree of accuracy also can
be carried out using high grade GPS
receivers.
• Continuous kinematic techniques can be
used for topographic surveys and accurate
linear mapping.
 NAVIGATION
• Navigation using GPS can save countless hours in
the field.
• Any feature, even if it is under water, can be
located up to one hundred meters simply by scaling
coordinates from a map, entering waypoints, and
going directly to the site.
• Examples include road intersections, corner posts,
accident sites, geological formations, and so on.
• GPS navigation in helicopters, in vehicles, or in a
ship can provide an easy means of navigation with
substantial savings.
 REMOTE SENSING AND GIS
• It is also possible to integrate GPS positioning into
remote-sensing methods such as photogrammetry
and aerial scanning, magnetometry, and video
technology.
• Using DGPS or kinematic techniques, depending
upon the accuracy required, real time or post-
processing will provide positions for the sensor
which can be projected to the ground, instead of
having ground control projected to an image.
• GPS are becoming very effective tools for GIS data
capture.
 REMOTE SENSING AND GIS
• The GIS user community benefits from the use of
GPS for locational data capture in various GIS
applications.
• The GPS can easily be linked to a laptop computer in
the field, and, with appropriate software, users can
also have all their data on a common base with every
little distortion.
• Thus GPS can help in several aspects of construction
of accurate and timely GIS databases.
 GPS Applications
Geodesy
Geodetic mapping and other control surveys can be
carried out effectively using high-grade GPs
equipment, especially when the line of sight is not
possible, GPS can set new standards of accuracy and
productivity.

Military
The GPS was primarily developed for real time
military positioning. Military applications include
airborne, marine, and land navigation.
THE END