Airframe & Accessory Technology

T6e Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine: A special thanks to all contributing columnists:
Airframe Teehnology/Acceaso~yTechnology
by Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine Airframe Technology
(ISSN 10723145) Jim Benson
Kathy Man; Publisher John Boyce
Greg Napert, Editor Gary Eiff
Richard Floyd
Cynthia Foreman
O 1996 Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine, Johnson Joseph Hahn
Hill Press Inc., a subsidiary of F'TN Publishing Company; B.J. High
Stanley S. Sills, chairman and CEO; Richard A. Reiff, Douglas Latia
president and COO.
The material presented in Aircraft Maintenance Technol-
Peter S. Lert
ogy is intended t o complement technical information that is Nick Levy
currently available from supplier and regulatory sources such Greg Napert
as aircraft manufacturers and the Federal Aviation Adminis- Jim Sparks
tration. Every effort is made to ensure that the information Gerald R. Stoehr
provided is accurate. However, if information presented by
Aircraft Maintenance Technology is in conflict with supplier
and regulatory sources, the latter shall take precedence.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
Acceeeory Technology
reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, John Bakos
electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or Dennis Dryden
any information storage or retrieval system, without written Andrew E. Geist
permission from the publisher. Eric Kornaw
Scott Marvel
Joseph F. Mibelli
Published 1996 by Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc.
Greg Napert
Printed in Canada Jeff Rogers
Don Ross
99 98 97 96 Jim Sparks
Rob Starr
Rudy Swider
Ted Wilmot
ASA---A
ISBN 1-56027-270-8

Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. (ASA)

7005 132nd Place SE
Newcastle, WA 98059-3153

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 Contents
Preface ..........................................................................................................................................................
vii
Airframe Technology
Composite machining .......................................................................................................................................3
Interior refurbishing .......................................................................................................................................
6
AMT's interior services and supplies directory ......................................................................................... 9
Corrosion detection methods ......................................................................................................................... 13
Forms of corrosion ..................................................................................................................................15
Window care and repair ................................................................................................................................. 17
A short list of certif7cated window repair companies .............................................................................. 20
Finding solutions for environmental concerns at paint shops is not easy ..................................................... 21
Pitobstatic system testing ............................................................................................................................ 23
Enginedriven fuel pumps ............................................................................................................................... 26
More fuel pump tips ................................................................................................................................ 28
What every technician should know about turbine fuel contamination .................................................. 29
The importance of cleanliness in hydraulic maintenance .............................................................................. 30
Auto pilot INOP: Oh no! ................................................................................................................................ 33
Large aircraft air conditioning ....................................................................................................................... 36
Keeping corrosion at bay .............................................................................................................................. 40
Going beyond the requirements in a helicopter airframe inspection ............................................................. 43
Getting a grasp on hydraulic systems ............................................................................................................ 45
Taking command of composites ................................................................................................................... 49
Pneumatic system maintenance .................................................................................................................... 51
Air pump pointers .................................................................................................................................54
This is not your father's fabric ...................................................................................................................55
Aircraft fluorescent lighting systems ............................................................................................................ 58
Lead-acid battery servicing tips ...................................................................................................................... 61
Technicians can't jump ............................................................................................................................ 63
Helpful tips for handling flexible hose ......................................................................................................... 64
King Air fiveyear landing gear inspection tips .............................................................................................. 68
Touch-up painting pointers ............................................................................................................................. 71
Paint compatibility rules .......................................................................................................................... 72
Fire detection/extinguishing systems ............................................................................................................. 73
Magnetic particle inspection .......................................................................................................................... 76
The VOM and electrical measurement errors ................................................................................................ 79
Fuel Quantity Indicating Systems .................................................................................................................. 82
Nondestructive testing ...................................................................................................................................
86
Penetrant waste water disposal ............................................................................................................... 89
The Art of Welding ........................................................................................................................................
90
Autopilots ..................................................................................................................................................
92

Continued

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A k h m e Technology continued
Deicer systems ...............................................................................................................................................95
Don't fuel with it ............................................................................................................................................
99
Electrical troubleshooting basics .................................................................................................................. 101
The pressurized window ............................................................................................................................... 104
Who's qualified to repair your windows? .................................... ...................................................... 107
Corrosion .......................................................................................................................................................
108
ACF-50 .................................................................................................................................................
110
*es of corrosion ................................................................................................................................. 111
Sheet metal repairs .................................................................................................................................... 112
Blind riveting guidelines ....................................................................................................................... 114
Oxygen systems ............................................................................................................................................. 115
Composite rotor blade inspection and repair ............................................................................................. 118
Avionics removal and replacement ............................................................................................................... 121

Accessory Technology
Troubleshooting aircraft alternator systems ............................................................................................ 125
Battery care .................................................................................................................................................
129
A new approach to battery maintenance ...............................................................................................131
A closer look at inspecting aircraft windows ......................................................................................... 134
Certified vs. q u f l i e d welders ...................................................................................................................... 136
Causes and cures of common welding troubles ....................................................................................138
Starter-generator overhaul ........................................................................................................................... 140
Phosphate ester-based hydraulic fluids ........................................................................................................ 143
Skydrol fluid safe handling s u m m q ....................................................................................................148
Helicopter rotor track and balance .............................................................................................................149
Hydromatic propeller governors ................................................................................................................... 152
Tire care and maintenance ......................................................................................................................... 157
A few tire definitions to keep you straight ............................................................................................ 162
Tire inspection criteria .......................................................................................................................... 163
Aviation ignition exciters ............................................................................................................................. 165
General maintenance tips for turbine ignition systems .........................................................................167
Lubricants as tools .......................................................................................................................................169
Slip sliding away ..........................................................................................................................................
172
%ical escape slide folding sequence ................................................................................................... 174
The composite propeller ............................................................................................................................... 175
Troubleshooting the Bendix DP fuel control system ....................................................................................179
Carbon brake repair ..................................................................................................................................... 182
A few D.C. generator basics ........................................................................................................................ 185
Upgrading to an alternator .................................................................................................................... 187
Raw data .......................................................................................................................................................
188
Ultrasonic testing basics .............................................................................................................................. 191

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 A look inside the Bell 206L transmission ....................................................................................................193
Gulf Coast corrosion protection is part of PHl's maintenance program ...............................................195
Safety wiring basics ................................................................................................................................... 196
New technology in safety wiring ............................................................................................................ 197
Do you know Eddy? Current. that is .......................................................................................................... 198
More than meets the eye ........................................................................................................................... 201
Precision bearing inspection ....................................................................................................................... 204
Typical bearing defects .....................................................................................................................206
The neglected ELT .......................................................................................................................................207
Rotor track and balance ............................................................................................................................. 210
Technician's input alters magneto ......................................................................................................... 212
Nickelcadmium battery maintenance ...................................................................................................... 213
Recip engine synchronization ....................................................................................................................... 216
Turbine engine synchronization ................................................................................................................... 219
Braking tradition ......................................................................................................................................... 221
Rotor head inspection tips ....................................................................................................................... 224
Recip engine oil .............................................................................................................................................
227
Hot cooler tips ...............................................................................................................................................
230
The basic overhaul process .................................................................................................................... 231
The combustion heater ................................................................................................................................. 232
Run your heater on a Hobbs" ...............................................................................................................235
Check Mate@expedites troubleshooting ................................................................................................. 235
Maintenance of the Precision Airmotive RSA fuel system ..........................................................................236
Starter-generators .........................................................................................................................................240
Wheel and brake servicing ........................................................................................................................... 243
Aging props prompt closer attention to maintenance .................................................................................. 246
McCauley meeting produces common questions and good answers ...................................................... 248
Starter systems .............................................................................................................................................
249
Cold weather operation ........................................................................................................................ 251
Vacuum pumps ......................... . ................................................................................................................252
Slick's new magneto timing procedure is truly "slick" .........................................................................253
Hot brakes or cool? ............................................................................................................................ 254

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 Technical reading material is, by its very nature, "dry." No laughs or chuckles can be heard as a technician
reads through the typical A&P training manual, nor can you find the average technician sitting down on the
weekend entertaining himself with a good A&P regulations book.
When we started publishing Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine in 1989, we wanted to provide a
technical training curriculum that technicians could use to advance themselves in their profession; yet, we
realized that if it were to work, we would have to provide material that was not only technically accurate and
relevant to the profession, but fun to read. We feel that we've accomplished this over the years, as our
subscribers relate stories of actually reading the material during their leisure hours-and learning something
from it.
The fact that the magazine is required reading material in many A&P schools and that the FAA and
Transport Canada have approved the material for recurrency training purposes is testament to the fact that
the material is also technically relevant.
After being hounded repeatedly for permission to reprint articles and to provide back issues to
individuals, and after realizing that much of the material in the magazine was actually timeless, we finally
decided to make the material available in book format.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine series represents the best articles published
during the years 1989 through 1995. It is divided into a three-volume set, which includes the Recip &
Turbine Technology Series, Airframe & Accessory Technology Series, and Professional & Legal Series. The
articles appear only in the order they appeared in AMT Magazine, not according to subject matter. So read
each volume from back to front, front to back, or select only the subject matter you are interested in.
But most importantly, find a nice quite place, and sit back and enjoy.

Happy reading!
Greg Napert
Editor, AMT Magazine

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 Airframe Technology

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 Composite machining
Basic techniques for working composites
By Cynthia Foreman
C
omposite materials are quickly becoming recog-
nized as the most advanced substance for fabrica-
tion. Composite structures are made from a
combination of materials in the form of fabrics, fibers,
foams, and honeycomb materials bonded by a matrix
or resin system.
The term composite is used to describe two or more
materials that are combined to form a much stronger
structure than either material by itself. The most
simple composite is composed of two elements: a
matrix which serves as a bonding substance, and a
reinforcing material.
One of the most common problems associated
with the use of composites is that there are too few
technicians who are trained in the techniques and
methods of composite repair. Composites represent new
materials and techniques which must be mastered
by those persons who want to stay in tune with the
repair industry.
It's not difficult to complete an airworthy repair to a
composite structure; however, the techniques, materials,
and tools which are used are different than those which
are used on conventional repairs. If care is not taken
to do a composite repair correctly, the repair will
not develop the full-strength characteristics that are
desirable in a composite structure.
Besides having a good understanding of resins and
the bonding process, the drilling, sanding, and cutting of
the materials or "machining" is much more critical than
most realize. Composite materials act differently than
traditional aluminum or other common metals when
machined. Each different type of fabric will machine
differently, and understanding the interaction between
the machining tools and the different fabrics can make a
difference in the success of the repair.
Cutting uncured fabrics
Before a fiberglass or carbodgraphite fabric is
combined with a matrix and cured, it can be cut with
conventional fabric scissors. Aramid fabric or KevlaP,
which is a trade name of DuPont, in its raw state is
more difficult to cut, however. Scissors with special steel
blades containing serrated or diamond edges are used to
cut through aramid. Also desirable for use on aramid
fabric are ceramic blades with serrated edges. These
scissors will cut through aramid with ease and last many
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times longer. The serrated edges will hold the fabric
and prevent it from sliding, while it cuts without fraying
the edges.
Scissors that are used to cut aramid should only be
used to cut aramid, never fiberglass or carbodgraphite.
The reason for not interchanging scissors is that the
different fabrics tend to dull the cutting surface in
different ways. Keep your scissors and tools reserved
for specific materials and the life of the tool will be
dramatically extended.
Similarly, conventional fabric scissors can be used to
cut fiberglass or carbon/graphite. However, scissors
which are intended to cut fiberglass should never be
used to cut carbonlgraphite, and visa versa. Although
fiberglass and carbodgraphite can be cut with the same
type of scissors, they are not interchangeable.
Preimpregnated materials can be cut with a razor
bladehtility knife, and a template or straight edge. The
resin tends to hold the preimpregnated fibers in place
while the razor edge cuts through the fiber. Very sharp,
defect-free cutting edges are necessary to work with
composite fabrics.
Machining cured composites
Because of the high strength of cured composites,
different machining tools and techniques are used as
compared with metal structures. Machining charaderis-
tics of composites vary with the type of reinforcement
fiber being used.
A note of warning however: Machining of cured
composite structures will produce dust that may cause
skin irritations. Breathing excessive amounts of this
dust may irritate your lungs. Also, some composites
decompose when being trimmed or drilled at high
speeds. Because of the friction generated, you may be
burning away various materials, creating toxic fumes.
Composites vary in their toxicity, so you should consider
all composites equally hazardous and should observe
appropriate safety precautions while working with any
of them.
Drilling and countersinking
The production of holes in composite materials
presents different problems from those encountered in
drdhg metal. Composites are more susceptible than
metal to material failures when machined. The propel
selection and application of cutting tools can produce
structurally sound holes.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 3
 Some problems that may occur when drilling compos-
ites are delamination, fracture, breakout,
and separation:
Delamination... most often occurs as a peeling way of
the bottom layer when the force of the drill pushes the
layers apart, rather than cutting through the last piece.
Fracture... occurs when a crack forms along one of
the layers due to the force of the drill.
Breakout... occurs when the bottom layer splinters as
the drill completes the hole.
Separation... occurs when a gap opens between layers
as the drill passes through the successive layers-usually
from using too much pressure.
To combat these problems in drilling, the material
being drilled should be backed with wood whenever
possible. When the backside is inaccessible, a wood
backup may not be possible. A drill stop is useful to
limit how deep the drill will go through the composite
structure. By limiting the depth of the drill passage,
breaking the fibers on the backside can be eliminated.
When exiting the backside of a hole with a drill, very
light or no pressure should be used. A very sharp
drill should be used to cut through the laminate, not
push through. This will prevent the delamination of the
last ply.
Carbide drill bits will work on all types of composites
and have a longer life than a standard steel drill.
Diamond dust charged cutters perform well on fiberglass
and carbon; however, they will produce excessive fuzzing
around the cut if used on an aramid or Kevlar compo-
nent. Drill motor speed is important. A high speed will
work best for most types of materials being drilled.
However, do not use excessive pressure.
Drilling aramid
Machining and drilling materials reinforced with
aramid or Kevlar fibers require different tools from
those made of fiberglass or carbodgraphite fibers. The
physical properties of aramid fibers are unique.
Because of the flexibility of the aramid fiber, the drill
will pull a fiber to the point of breaking instead of
cutting it. As each fiber is pulled before it is cut, a
fuzzing appearance is produced around the edge of the
drilled hole. Drilled holes in aramid often measure a
smaller diameter than the drill which is used, because of
the fuzzing of the fibers. The fuzzing around the hole
may not produce a problem in itself; however, if a fas-
tener is to be installed, it may not seat properly in the
hole. Consequently, if the fastener doesn't seat properly,
mechanical failure may occur when stresses are not
properly distributed.
There are drill bits which are made specifically for
aramid. The special bits cut through the fibers without
fraying the material. The bits will last longer than
conventional drill bits, and will usually produce a cleaner
hole. If possible, use a drill made specifically for aramid,
and use it only on aramid.
4 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
The brad-type bit The dagger or Diamond cut bit
used for Kevlar spade bit for for routing out
fabrics. carbonlgraphite honeycomb cores.
or fiberglass.
One such bit is a brad point which is designed
specifically for aramid fabric. It is produced with a
C-shape cutting edge to pull the fiber out, then cut
through the fiber without stretching. Although they
were specifically designed for aramid composites,
they will also produce good holes in fiberglass and
carbodgraphite.
Aramid should be drilled at a high speed. A better
cut will be produced if the drill is very sharp. The
pressure on the drill should be light; the weight of the
drill motor alone is usually sufficient. When exiting out
the backside of the hole with the drill, less pressure
should be used in order to prevent breakout. This
problem can be eliminated if a drill stop is used that is
set so that just the tip of the drill will have clearance
past the backside of the material.
Drilling fiberglass or carbonlgraphite
Drilling fiberglass or carbon/graphite can be accom-
plished with most conventional tools; however, the
abrasiveness of these composite materials will reduce
the quality of the cutting edge and shorten the life of the
drill drastically.
Carbide, diamondcharged, or carbidecoated tools
are used to obtain better results and longer tool life.
Diamondcharged tools are usually steel drills which have
a coat of diamond dust to cut through the material. This
type of drill works well in carbodgraphite and fiberglass
components. When cutting fiberglass, the fibers in most
cases fracture at the cutting edge of the tool.
Carbodgraphite fibers are stiffer and stronger and
resist the cutting action of the tool. If a dull or improper
drill starts to cut the individual fiber, it may break inside
the composite structure, causing the hole size to be
larger than that of the drill. Drilled holes in carbon/
graphite will often show larger diameters than the drill
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Sanding composite materials can be difficult but mastered
with practice.
which is used. Dust chips which are allowed to remain
in the holes during the drilling process can also cut,
thus enlarging the hole diameter. This creates a problem
in that the excessive hole size will cause the fastener
to wear in the hole, and will not offer the required
strength.
For fiberglass or carbon/graphite driumg, a dagger or
spade bit can be used. The use of these bits will reduce
the tendency of the fibers to break rather than be cut.
This type of bit has a single cutting edge.
Mechanical sanding
Mechanical sanding is the fastest and easiest method,
but it's also more likely to cause additional damage by
sanding away too much material. One of the best tools
for mechanically sanding of composites is a small
pneumatic right-angle sander. Adequate control of the
sanding operation can best be achieved with patience
and experience.
Finer grit sandpaper will usually keep the fuzzing
down when sanding aramid fabric. The finer grit also
removes the material slowly, allowing more time to find
the individual plies. The sanding operation may be
accomplished by step-cutting or by scarfing.
When sanding laminates during a repair operation, a
righbangle sander or drill motor should be used. The
tool should be capable of 20,000 rpm and equipped with
either 1-,2- or 3-inch sandmg disc. The sanding disc can
be used in combination w i t h a drill motor or with a
sander. These come in many different diameters, but a
smaller 1-or 2-inch disc will give you more control when
stepsanding or scarfing the composite structure.
The drill motor is widely used in the repair industry.
It is used primarily for drilling, but can also be used
with a disc as a sander. A right-angle sander is used for
scarfing and step-cutting the repair. There is much more
control, however, with a right-angle sander than with a
drill motor because your hand is closer to the work.
Each material sands differently, and various tech-
niques should be used with each material. When sanding
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aramid, expect the material to fuzz. When the sanding is
almost through the layer, a lighter color of fuzz will be
seen and spots of "gloss area" may appear. During the
sanding process it is important to look carefully for a
gloss area. When an area begins to gloss, it is indicating
that one layer of laminate has been removed and the
sander is just above the following layer.
Carbon/graphite material will produce a very fine
powder when it is sanded. It is usually easier to see the
layers of carbodgraphite than with aramid.
Another way to tell if sanding through one layer has
been completed is to look at the weave. Since most com-
posites are made with each layer's weave in different
directions, seeing a change in weave direction may be an
indication of a new layer. As the top ply is sanded, the
next layer will produce the weave in a different orienta-
tion, signaling that one layer has been removed.
Use extreme care when sanding composites. The
layers of a composite laminate are very thin, and it's not
uncom-mon to sand with too much pressure, moving too
quickly through the layers. Because of this, two layers can
be mistaken for one. This may present a problem if there
are only three layers in the laminate over a core structure
and the repair calls for sanding down to the core. If the
first two layers are sanded down and counted as one
layer, then when the next layer is sanded down, the
honeycomb core is exposed, and there will not be enough
surface area to laminate a new patch over the plies.
lkimming cured laminates
Standard machining equipment can be used to trim
composites; however, some modifications to the tooling
may be necessary. All cutting surfaces should be carbide
coated whenever possible. Diamondedged blades work
well on carbon/graphite and fiberglass.
Routers
The most common types of routers operate at 25,000
to 30,000 rpm. They are used to trim composite lami-
nates and to route out damaged core material.
For routing honeycomb, carbodgraphite or fiberglass
laminates, a carbide blade diamond cut router bit works
best. A diamond cut router bit does not refer to diamond
chips or dust on the cutting surface, but rather to the
shape of the cut on the flutes. These bits can be used for
routing fiberglass, carbodgraphite, and for NomeP
honeycomb.
This brief overview of composite machining tech-
niques reflects some of the more common problems
and techniques involved with the repair of commercial
aircraft. The techniques are not Micult to master, but
may require some practice. iDl November/December 1995
Cynthia Foreman is the chief executive officer of
Composite Educational Services and CES Composites.
She is also the author of Advanced Composites,
published by International Aviation Publishers.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 5
Interior refurbishing
An inside look on the inside jobs

By Greg Napert

A
lthough interior refurbishing may seem quite
simple, at first glance, when viewed more closely,
it involves a host of skius, talents, and FAA
approvals. For this reason, many maintenance facilities
choose to leave interior refurbishment up to specialty
shops and/or facilities who offer the service.
Returning an aircraft to its original condition is
about the simplest form of refurbishment. But it still
takes the skills and talents required to upholster, carpet,
and finish surfaces-skills and talents that are not
within the scope of the average maintenance facility.
And add one simple modification, upgrade, or accessory,
and you're staring down the face of an FAA approval
procedure that may require testing of materials, proof of
performance, and a recalculation of weight and balance,
at a minimum.
In the corporate market, there are also many aircraft
operators requesting outrof-theordinary interior refur-
bishment options and installations. And designing,
building, and approving these requests is time-consuming
to say the least.
Fortunately, there is an array of facilities available
which are designed to either help the average mainte
nance department, or to provide full-service interior
refurbishment to aircraft operators. Upholstery shops,
cabinet shops and entertainment specialists are among
some of the specialty shops available.
Then there are the full-service refurbishers and
completion centers. These facilities tend to offer every-
Technicians at K-C Aviation finish interior panels.
thing- from maintenance to cabinet work. to u~holsterv
services all under one roof. AMT magazine traveled to
one of those facilities, K-C Aviation in Appleton, WI, These regulations not only apply to fabric, they also
to get a taste of what they go through to refurbish apply to new foam, cushions, etc.
interiors. Although K-C focuses on the highend Dawn Jensen, design coordinator for K-C in
corporate market, the experience it has gained in the Appleton, says, "The vertical burn test is something that
interior refurb and completion business can give anyone is very important when we are tallring about the type of
in the industry a feel for what interior refurbishment material that can be used. Generally, we try very hard
is all about. not to present anything to the customer that won't pass
the fire block or vertical burn test.
Materials selection "The materials that can be used, however, are
Because K-C's clientele is primarily the corporate different depending if you're taJking about a fireblocked
market, much of its work involves customization. airplane or not?
Custornization of interiors means that rarely is the "If the aircraft is a Part 135 aircraft, it will need to
same material used from aircraft to aircraft. Customers be c e a i e d for fire block. Fire blocking is a much more
often choose leathers, suedes, carpeting, and other stringent certification than the standard vertical burn
materials that must be tested to ensure they pass mini- requirement. Part 91 operators, which are usually
mum FAA regulations. These regulations can include corporate customers, don't typically choose to comply
such things as "vertical burn" and "fire blocking" tests.

6 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance TechnologyMagazine

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 with fireblocking requirements. This gives them a larger
selection of material to choose from.
"It's good to build in added safety, however. Part
25.853B addresses burn requirements that apply to
every single item that goes into an airplane regardless
if the airplane is operating under 91 or 135. Part 135
takes it one step further and requires fire blocking for
materials such as upholstery and carpeting in the cabin,"
she says.
Vertical burn vs. fire blocking
Jensen explains, "The vertical burn test is a very
specific test where, the fabric is cut to a special length,
placed into a controlled environment where a controlled
flame is applied to the fabric for a specific amount of
time. Then the flame is removed and the burning fabric
has to selfextinguish within so many seconds. At KC,
we have the capability of performing this test in-house.
"We have a policy here that we test all fabrics we use
for vertical burn requirements in-house, regardless if the
manufacturer says the fabrics meet the requirements.
There are companies that say their materials pass,
but we just don't take their word for it. Since we're
ultimately held responsible for the certification, we want
to make sure the fabrics we use pass the FAA's
requirements.
"Fire blocking, on the other hand," says Jensen,
"involves treating the fabric so that it meets certain burn
requirements. Because the treatment and the test are
more complex for fire blocking, we don't perform the
test at our facility; instead we source it out.
"What we do is select and purchase the material and
make up three seat cushions and three backs for testing.
These items require up to 90 square feet of fabric or
leather plus the foam materials which are ultimately
destroyed for the tests.
"Generally, if a material passes a vertical burn test, it
can pass the fireblocking test. The fireblocking test,
however, looks for such things as material weight loss
after the 'blow torch' test. Factors that can affect
whether or not the seat cushions pass these tests include
such things as how tightly the fabric is stretched over
the cushion material. This is something we can easily
control, and we have quite a bit of experience. We have
occasionally had to send something back to retest,"
says Jensen.
"One thing that we do to ensure the materials are
going to pass these tests is to always use natural fibers
such as wool. Natural fibers are much more fireresistant
than synthetic materials," she says.
Typically, in order for many of these produds to
meet these fireblocking tests, some sort of chemical
treating is necessary.
Jensen says that "flame treating a fabric is a big
operation, and when you're looking at 40 yards of fabric,
flame treating is not a feasible operation for most FBOs.
Also, treating leather can present many problems. If
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you're not careful, you can ruin the material."
Besides fabrics, all other materials need to be tested
as well-counter tops for example.
STC vs. field approvals
Norm Kopesky, avionics systems coordinator for KC
works very closely with the FAA on many of the
company's completions. "Coordinating FAA," he says, "is
pretty much the same whether you're doing an avionics
installation, an interior redesign, or a green completion."
There are several types of FAA approvals that KC
seeks, including: FAA Field Approved Form 3379, 81103/
FAA Form 337 combination, or STCs. The type of
approval they seek depends on a couple of factors such
as: what type of installation is being performed and
how much time they have to get the approval. He says,
"Because we have several FAA designated engineering
representatives in our facility, the quickest form
of approval is typically an 811@3/FAA form 337
combination.
The 811M is a statement of compliance that the
DER fills out to certify the data (drawings or reports)
conform to FAA specifications and regulations. This is
essentially done on behalf of the engineering office of
the FAA. A 337 then has to be filled out stating the
installation of the system or component is done per
the approved data; the aircraft can then be returned
to service.
"In the case of a microwave oven installation, for
instance," Kopesky says, "we would typically do an
8110-3 approving the data and then return the aircraft to
service on an FAA Form 337. In order to determine if it
meets basic FAA design requirements, we will look at
things like wire type, wire gauge, and all of the
structural aspeds related to how it's installed. But it
doesn't make any difference if it is a microwave, a black
box, or a brick; all aspects of the installation have to be
thoroughly reviewed and approved.
A decision to obtain a Supplemental Type Certificate
(STC) depends on a number of factors including:
whether or not we have time to apply for and complete
the STC, whether or not we think the modification or
installation will have application on other aircraft of the
same type, and whether or not we think there will be a
demand for the STC.
"We often take one of our existing STCs and make
minor modifications to them. In these cases, we simply
deviate from the STC and have our DERs approve the
data. Then if we have future application, we will incorpe
rate that deviation into a revision or amendment to the
original STC. If the deviations are s i d i c a n t enough,
they may become separate STCs unto themselves,"
he says.
Kopesky explains, "A complete refurbishment can
include a variety of STCs and field approvals. We try
to keep certain 'packages' under one STC, but it's
often impossible to include everything. Items such as
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 7
emergency lighting or oxygen systems will be a separate
STC. Avionics items are usually going to be separate
approvals, STC'd or otherwise. Antenna installations,
phones, and entertainment systems are so customized
that they are usually field approvals.
"One challenge today is all of the personal electronics
items that customers want installed such as personal
computers, faxes, displays, etc.
"A lot of customers are also requesting outlets and
computer jacks to be installed and that way they don't
have to approve the computer installation, only the
installation of the jack. We have many customers who
want cellular phones installed with external antennas.
The only problem here is that the FCC has ruled them
to be illegal for use when in flight. However, they can be
used anytime you are on the ground or when you are
taxiing around the airport. If we have installed a cellular
phone system, we typically wire the phone to the squat
switch so that it is inoperative when once airborne, and
we always placard the airplane stating the regulations
related to cellular phone usage.
'Unfortunately, many customers now have the phones
in their pockets and they do what they want to do,"
he says.
Soundproofing
Joe Thurman, supervisor for fabrication and installa-
tion at K-C, says that "soundproofing is something that
we at KC work very hard at. We try to reduce noise as
much as possible when we design an interior. However,
ultimately, any soundproofing you install adds weight to
the aircraft. And that creates a penalty in terms of how
many passengers or luggage you can carry.
"Our customers also sometimes specify cabin noise
limits. We have to emphasize, however, that this may
affect their selection of materials and/or design of
the interior.
"To reduce noise, we can do things such as install
fabric bulkheads instead of wood, or fabric on the
seats instead of leather. or insulated window shades.
Additional soundproofing beyond manufacturers' d e
signs, will usually result in some sort of tradeoff,"
he says.
"Most aircraft manufacturers have a completion
center manual with recommended sound packages. But
these are more or less guidelines to go by.
"As far as soundproofing materials go, the primary
type of material used in the past was lead vinyl.
However, lead vinyl is very heavy and cumbersome, and
the adhesives that you need to use are very caustic. The
technicians have to completely suit up just to install it.
Also, lead vinyl is only effective if completely sealed. It
a d s as a barrier, sealing out the sound rather than
dampening it. If you have an opening anywhere in the
lead vinyl, the sound gets through. So you have to make
sure everything is sealed tightly, which is a tedious task.
8 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
All fabrics and materials used in refinishing must pass
rigid FAA burn standards.
"We have found that we have more success with
sound dampening instead. This starts at the aircraft skin
using a foam material with a foil backing. Skin dampen-
ing materials have improved considerably over the years.
The problem in the past was that in extreme cold
temperatures, at altitude, the foam would get hard and
would no longer serve its purpose. Newer dampening
foam can withstand extreme temperatures and still be
effective."
Probablv the most success that KG has had with
noise reduction is through the use of vibration isolation.
Thurman explains, "We have found through experience
that it is usually better to dampen or isolate vibrations
rather than to block out the noise.
"For starters, we design our cabinetry to 'float'
rather than hard-mount it. We shock-mount as many
components as possible so the noise doesn't transmit
from the aircraft frame into these units. If hard-
mounted, the furnishings can become, essentially, big
'speakers' that tend to amphfy these vibrations.
"As more people are getting involved in vibration
isolation, it's becoming more of an exact science. It's
quite a change from the basic concept of soaking up or
blocking noise. The move to vibration isolation allows us
to implement noise controls without adding additional
weight to the aircraft," he says.
"As promising as vibration isolation is, however,
there are some items that you just can't use it on. For
example, you would not want to mount a table on
vibration isolators because you don't want the table to
flex; you want it to feel solid.
"But we're getting smarter. What we do in the case
of the table now is to mount the table solidly onto a
panel and then dampen the panel.
"We're also using headliner panels and side wall
panels that are vibration isolated as well.
"In practice, what we do is incorporate many of these
changes into a noise reduction package that we provide
as part of a completion package," Thurman concludes.
Aircraft Technical Books
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 Dealing with a variety of requests
Peg Doder, sales manager for K-C, says that they
often deal with a variety of requests for installation of
items in the aircraft. "Some of the most popular are new
entertainment systems, phone systems, flat screen TVs
and avionics requests for GPS installations. Most
requests involve creature comforts.
"We also have many requests from pilots and from
maintenance people. Maintenance folks want interiors
that are easy to repair or clean, for instance. We take
all of these requests under consideration in our initial
discussion. We also take into consideration whether
the aircraft is going to be for charter or if it's going to
have a lot of different people in it. For heavy traffic we
would steer the customer toward an ultra leather rather
than suede, or a dark carpet rather than a light carpet,"
says Doder.
AMTysinterior services and supplies directory
Whether you're in the business of working on aircraft
interiors or not, you'll want to keep this handy list of
interior maintenance facilities and service providers
nearby. The following are companies that responded to
a mailing conducted by AMT magazine:
Accent Interiom
Offers fabrication and modification of interiors, design,
upholstery, and cabinet work.
Opa Locka Airport, Bldg. 147, Opa Loka, FL 33054,
Ruth Cannon, (305) 6814010.
AD1 Interiora
The company offers full interior design capabilities
in-house, or will work with a designer of your choice.
Also offered are certified fire blocking services, an
on-staff DER, and a broad selection of fabrics, leathers,
and carpets from around the world
Oakland/Pontiac Airport, 6544 Highland Rd., P.O. Box
270100, Waterford, M148327-0100, Brian Wells
(810) 666-3500.
Aem Air Inc.
A full service FBO specializing in extensive corporate jet
and turboprop interior refurbishing and exterior paint.
Complementing these services are aircraft maintenance,
sales, charter, and entertainment systems installations.
2050 N.E. 25th Ave, Portland-Hillsboro Airport,
Hillsboro, OR 97124, Tom Krueger, (503) 640-3711.
Aircraft Technical Books
800-780-4115
www.actechbooks.com
Thurman says that "we also try to make things as
accessible as possible for maintenance. When we put in
a galley, we try to make it easy to take that galley out.
We use as many quick disconnects and access panels
as possible."
As a final note, Kopesky says, "Any aircraft modifica-
tion or installation requires a look at the aircraft weight
and balance. If it's a minor installation and the aircraft
has been weighed recently, we will use existing numbers
and recalculate the weight and balance based on the
existing numbers. If it's a major installation or modifica-
tion, we will reweigh the entire aircraft for a fresh
weight and balance report."
Air0 Indmkies Inc.
Aircraft interior refurbishments include galleys, seats,
and sidewall panels.
14675 Titus St., Panorama City, CA 91402, David Nejad,
VP Sales/Mktg., (818) 78M733.
Arizona Aircraft Interior Deaigns, Inc.
Offers complete interior refurbishing of aircraft includ-
ing: cabinets, fire blocking, interior painting, and sound-
proofing. Specializes in turboprops and small jets for
corporate customers.
5047 E. Roadrunner Dr., Mesa, AZ 85215,
Wayne Bryant, 602) 832-1330.
Brice Manufacturing
Manufactures aircraft seat components and offers refur-
bishment services for the integration of all telephonics
and personal video system products. Also, turnkey
service for the design, manufacture, and certification
of seat kits.
10262 Norris Ave., Pacoima, CA 91331,
Sean Prendergast, (918) 665-2321.
Byerly Aviation Inc.
Complete business jet and turboprop refurbishing
capability. Exterior paint and cabinet refinishing with
complementary avionics support and GPS installations.
Commander, Citation, and King Air maintenance and
modifications.
Greater Peoria Airport, 1900 S. Maxwell Rd., Peoria, IL,
61607, R. Bruce Byerly, (309) 697-6300, Ext. 360.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 9
Alrframe Technology
Cameron Aircraft InteriorE Inc.
Offers interior refurbishment of all categories of aircraft.
31W651 North Ave., Dupage Airport, West Chicago,
60185, Harry Cameron, (800) 866-4886, (708) 5849359.
Cleveland Jet Center Inc.
Complete aircraft refurbishment, from design to paint,
and wood shop. DAR, DER on staff. Aircraft worked
include BAC 1-11 to piston twin.Full service mainte-
nance facility,
38630 Jet Center Pl., Lost Nation Municipal Airport,
Willoughby, OH 44094, Jack Barnett, (216) 942-0087.
Commodore Aviation Inc.
Perform interior refurbishment of seats, galleys, lavs,
interior mods, and painting for Boeing, Douglas
and other commuter aircraft. Also accomplish heavy
maintenance services.
5300 N.W. 36 St., Box 661078, Miami, FL 33266-1078,
Rick Weltmann, Dir.-MMg./Contracts,
(305) 871-1169, Ext. 201.
Cwbm Aircraft Jnterion Inc.
Manufactures complete interior components for MDHC
500 Series aircraft. Prototype and design capabilities for
all aircraft interiors.
3701 Industry Ave., Lakewood, CA 90712, Patricia Erwin,
(310) 426-5098.
Downtown Airpark Inc.
Specializes in all types of interior work-from minor
repairs to complete custom design.
P.O. Box 26027,1701 South Western, Oklahoma City, OK
73121, Greg Groves, (800) 2581456, (405) 634-1456.
Eagle Aviation Inc.
Full-service FBO offering such services as jet and turbo
prop maintenance, avionics, completions, with 250
trained personnel.
2861 Aviation Way, Columbia Metro Airport,
W. Columbia, SC 28170, Jim Neece, (803) 8225586.
Elite Interior Deaigne
Offers aircraft interior refurbishment including: seats,
headliners, sidepanels, carpets, and cabinet work. Also
T.S.O. restraint belt refurbishment.
101 E. Reserve St., Pearson Airpark, Vancouver, WA
98661, Paul and Alana Sanchez, (206) 6930051.
GulfetreamALcraRJnc.
Now offers full-service interior refurbishment for
Gulfstream aircraft in its Brunswick, Georgia facility.
500 Gulfstream Rd., Savannah, GA 31408,
David F. Fulcher, (912) 965 3472.
10 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Gulfetream Servica Center
Complete interior refurbishment for Turbo Commander,
Westwind, Sabreliner, and Citation aircraft. Complete
woodwork returbishment and cabinet design capabilities.
7301 N.W. 50th, Bethany, OK 73008, Mark A. Fulton,
(405) 7895000, Ext. 486.
Heli-Dyne &bmm Inc.
F&ertified full-service helicopter support facility.
Offers complete in-house capabilities to include custom
design and engineering, avionics and communications.
9000 Trinity Blvd., P.O.Box 966, Hurst, TX 76053,
David Likes, (817) 282-9804.
Hill Aircraft Interion
Hill Aircraft leads the way in the provision of master
quality interior design, repair, and installation on
Beechcraft KingAir, Learjets, and twinengine aircraft
such as Cessna, Piper, and others.
3948 Aviation Circle, Fulton County Airport Brown
Field, Atlanta, GA 30336, Jacques Escalere,
(404) 6913330.
J.A. Air Center
J. A. Air Center interior department offers the finest
quality fabrics and leathers. Services range &om simple
repairs to full refurbishing of interior.
3N060 Powis Rd., DuPage Airport, West Chicago, IL
60185, Rick Milburn, (708) 5943200.
J&rp
Technical capabilities include: major interior refutbish-
ment, nondestructive testing, engine repairs, hot
sections, parts support, accessory repair and overhaul,
airframe inspections, and avionics repair
and installation.
18152 Edison Ave., Spirit of St. Louis Airport,
Chesterfield, MO 63005, Jerry Moore, (314) 53Cb7000.
Jet Eaet Inc.
Full service FBO-Citation and Leajet authorized service
center providing minor to extensive refurbishments.
Avionics total on-site support. Also offers parts, sales
and charter services.
7363 Cedar Springs, Dallas, TX 75235, Leticia Chacon,
(214) 350-8523.
KaiaerAir Inc.
Provides custom interior refurbishment for both 91 and
135 operations. Custom cabinetry, fabrication, and
custom interior design consultant available.
Airport Station, Box 2626, Oakland,CA 94614,
Andrew F. Fitzgerald, (510) 5699622.
Aircraft Technical Books
800-780-4115
www.actechbooks.com

Kal-Aero Inc.
Is a full "one stop shop" fixed based operator. Capabili-
ties include state-of-theart paint, refurbishment, and
maintenance.
15745 S Airport Rd., Battle Creek, M1 49017,
John Hooskins, (616) 9698400.
KC Aviation
Provides refurbishment, completion, maintenance
services, avionics installation and repair, overhaul and
repair services, and personnel and consulting services.
DER and DAR on staff.
7440 Aviation Place, Dallas, TX 75235, Dallas Love Field,
John Rahilly, (214) 6187719.
King Aeroepace C o m m d Corp.
Aircraft brokers, interior design, - installation and
modification, maintenance and repair station, painting,
coating and cleaners.
4444 Westgrove, #250, Dallas, TX 75348,
Jerry King-Echevarria, (214) 248-4886.
Mechanical Enterprise8 Inc.
ME1 is a manufacturer of plastic seat parts, tray tables,
arm shrouds, etc. FAA-approved repair station.
2961 A Olympic Industrial Dr., Smyrna, GA 30080,
Ron Kirschner, Pres., (404) 350-8489.
Midcoast Aviation
Offers modification, refurbishment, and maintenance
services, combining stateof-theart technology with
old-world craftsmanship.
8 Archview Dr., Cahokia, IL 62207, Rodger Renaud,
(618) 337-2100.
Million Air Inc.
Provides the highest quality craftsmanship on custom
interior refurbishments, maintenance work, and avionics
upgrades and installations. Specializes in corporate
aircraft.
4300 Westgrove, Dallas, TX 75248, Bob Tharp,
(214) 733-5821.
Omdight
Offers completion/refurb. capabilities. Omniflight
provides custom interiors for EMS, executive, law
enforcement and new completions or refurbishments.
4650 Auport Parkway, Dallas, TX 75248, Allen Dales,
(214) 233-6464.
Aircraft Technical Books
800-780-4115
www.actechbooks.com
Airframe Technology
The Oxford Aircraft Refurbishing Centre
Offers custom interior design service with owner partici-
pation. Standard refurbishing package includes: restyled
seat cushions, carpeting, plastic paneling-ultrasuede
covered, new headlining, cabinetry, and repolishing.
Oxford Auport, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 IRA,
Don Tempest, 01865-370848.
Premier Aviation Inc.
Full service helicopter completion~modificationcenter
providing executive transport air medical, public service,
and special missions interiors. Cockpit design and instru-
mentation available.
2621 Aviation Pkwy, Grand Prarie, 'IX 75050,
Tamera Bidelspach, (214) 988-6181.
Ranger Aviation E n t e r p h Inc.
Provides complete paint and interior on all aircraft from
turboprop through jet. Have contract to paint all U.S.
Airforce Lear 35s.
P.O. Box 61010, San Angelo, TX 769061010, John or
Sandy Fields, (915) 9493773.
Rocky Mountain Heliwptma
Operates an in-house completion center for the design
and installation of medical interiors. The company's
specialists design and install each aircraft to customer
specifications.
P.O. Box 1337, Provo, UT 84603, Jennifer HunterJones,
(801) 375-1124.
Sky Harbor AircraR Refiniehing Ltd.
Provides aircraft refurbishment services to include paint,
interior, and maintenance. Over 40 years experience in
complete interior and exterior aircraft refurbishment.
R.R. #5, Box 536, Goderich Airport, Goderich, Ontario
N7A 4G7, D.E. (Sandy) Wellman, (519) 5242165.
Skyworthy Interiors
Specializes in refurbishing and updating complete
interiors in design and production. F k e r t i f i e d
upholstery shop, meeting all specifications.
3112 N. 74th E. Ave, Hangar 23, Tulsa, OK 74115,
D.A. Williams, (918) 835 4770.
South C o d Aircraft Interiors Inc.
Complete interior restoration of executive aircraft since
1982. Fire blocking, design and engineering services,
window replacement, sound proofing, FAA repair station.
2898 Montecito Rd., Hangar A-1, Ramona, CA 92065,
Andy Mirabelli (619) 788-9276, (800) 55@9276.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 11
Special Produde Aviation Inc. West Star Aviation Inc.
Builds and repairs fabriccovered airplanes. Also offers Provides custom paint and interior refurbishments. Also
painting and composite services. log reproduction, super soundproofing, entertainment
850 9th Ave., Conway, AR 72032, Kenny Blalock, systems, commuter, medical, and custom business
(501) 3274339. retrofits, and more.
796 Heritage Way, Grand Junction, CO 81506,
l'd3tat.e Airmotive LU: J. Gregory Heaton, (970) 2437500.
Accessory overhaul, paint, interior, sheetmetal and
airframe inspection. Weat V i Air Center
20 TriState Rd., Berryville, AR 72616, Chuck Bennett, Offers aircraft maintenance, sheetmetal, interior, paint
(501) 423-4911. and composite on regional and corporate aircraft.
P.O. Box 908, 2400 Aviation Way, Bridgeport, WV
United Beechcraft Tampa 26330, Gary Palmer, (304) 842-6300.
Full service interior, cabinets, distinctive designs, S.T.C.
approvals. Cabin &splays, video and audio systems, and
configuration changes.
2450 N. Westshore, Tampa, FL 33607, Skip Davies,
(813) 8784500.

12 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

Aircraft Technical Books

800-780-4115
www.actechbooks.com
 Corrosion detection methods
New technologies emerge as aircraft age
By Greg Napert
s the average age of the general aviation fleet
climbs over 30 years, it has become evident t o
many in the industry, including the FAA, that
new tools and nondestructive inspection (NDI) tech-
niques are needed to locate corrosion, as well as other
problems associated with aging. Corrosion prevention
can be quite successful simply by keeping an aircraft
clean, yet, even the most meticulous shop can't avoid
the onset of corrosion on an aircraft that's exposed to
the elements.
As a matter of economics, if a piece of NDI equip
ment can be employed to scan an aircraft for corrosion,
the need to pull rivets and remove skins to perform
the inspections visually-a process that is both time
consuming and expensive-can be eliminated.
But many questions arise as this new "high-techn
inspection equipment is introduced to the aviation
marketplace: Which equipment and techniques for
detecting corrosion are acceptable? What level of
corrosion is acceptable before removing an aircraft from
service? Who's going to give approval for these new
inspection techniques?
Because of the flood of new technologies and equip
ment, combined with an urgent need to apply NDI
equipment to the aging fleet, the FAA began a project
in 1991 called the Aging Aircraft NDI Validation Center
(AANC). The center, located in Albuquerque, NM, at
Sandia National Laboratories, has been charged with
testing and validating several emerging forms of NDI
inspection for use on aircraft.
Part of the validation process developed by the AANC
involves inviting actual industry technicians into the
facility to evaluate each one of the NDI processes.
As a result, during a recent meeting in Albuquerque,
the International Association of Machinists and
Aerospace Workers Flight Safety Committee were invited
to the facility to help evaluate the latest technology.
Aircraft Maintenance Technology magazine went along.
Our interest was in discovering emerging technolc-
gies for detecting corrosion. Interestingly, most of the
technology being introduced is technology that has been
employed in other industries for years, but has never
been adapted for use on aircraft.
The following three NDI methods are examples of
emerging technology that show promise for locating
corrosion and for being readily available to the aviation
industry in the near future:
Aircraft Technical Books
800-780-4115
www.actechbooks.com
Compton X-ray backscatter imaging
Probably the most promising technology for the
inspection of corrosion is a process called Compton
backscatter imaging (CBI). CBI is a reemerging near
surface NDI measurement and imaging technique which
can detect critically imbedded flaws such as cracks,
corrosion, and delaminations in metal and composite
aircraft structures. The technology offers exciting possi-
bilities because it provides a twc- or threedimensional
density map of the inspected area. This means that the
data can actually measure the depth and extent of
corrosion and/or cracks in subsurface layers.
According to a report from AANC called Emerging
Nondestructive Inspection for Aging Aircraft, the infor-
mation provided by this technology can be presented in
forms ranging from a simple acceptrepair gauge for
corrosion-induced aircraft skin thinning to the more
sophisticated threedimensional tomographic-like digital
flaw image displays.
Compared to conventional radiography where the
whole area is flooded with X-rays, backscatter imaging
equipment has a highly collimated, pencil-like X-ray beam
and detector geometry and exposes only a very small
volume of the inspection area. This sigtuf~cantlyreduces
the stray radiation and minimizes additional shielding
requirements for maintenance personnel.
The technology is currently available from Philips
Electronics Instrument Co., Industrial Automation
Division, Norcross, GA. Philip's unit, called the
ComScan, can determine, both in depth and size,
first and second-layer corrosion, honeycomb impact
damage, density variations in carbon composite sand-
wiches, water entrapment in honeycomb structures, and
the detection of delaminations and cracks in stabilizer
stringers in allcarbon reinforced wings which have es-
caped detection by traditional X-ray inspection methods.
CBI is unaffected by variations in liftoff, surface
roughness variations or paint, metal conductivity, delami-
nation, and air gaps. The technology can inspect solid
aluminum or composite materials to depths of 2 inches
or more. And if the structure is layered with intervening
air gaps, information can be obtained at greater depths.
Up until now, CBI use in the aviation industry
has been virtually nonexistent because cost-effective
equipment has not been developed for the industry.
However, according to the report, costeffective systems
can be developed.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 13
Magneto-optic eddy current imaging (MOI)
Nearly as promising as CBI is a process called
magnetooptic eddy current imaging. MOI does real-time
imaging of airframe fatigue cracks and corrosion.
Although it is best for searching for fatigue cracks on
aircraft skins, it also has some possibilities for corrosion
detections as well.
The unit consists of a hand-held imaging scanner
head, TV monitor and power unit, and 30 feet of inter-
connecting flexible cable. The lightweight imaging head
contains the eddycurrent inducing system, a magneto-
optic sensor element, and a TV camera.
The MOI images result from the response of the
magnetooptic sensor to weak magnetic fields that are
generated when eddy currents induced by the MOI
interact with defects in the inspected material.
Unlike conventional eddy current in which crack
detection is based on graphs, needle movement, or
other indications in which interpretational skills are
required, MOI offers visual images that closely corres-
pond to flaws.
Use of MOI by airlines and aircraft manufacturers
has shown that inspection of large areas for cracks
and corrosion is rapid, the inspection can be reliably
performed through paint and airline decals, the inspec-
tion results can be videotaped for test documentation,
the unit is portable, and it requires little training to
become proficient in its use.
Airlines and aircraft manufacturers currently using
this system report oneeighth to onetenth of the time
needed for conventional eddy current inspections is
needed for inspections using the MOI.
Boeing Commercial Airplane Group in Wichita, for
instance, has reported that the templateguided surface
eddy current inspections of pressure cabin skins that
took 32 hours to complete were completed in three and
one half hours using the MOI.
MOI procedures have been developed by both Boeing
and McDonnell Douglas for use on their aircraft. Boeing
published an all model procedure in March 1992 and
has included it in their aircraft NDI manuals. The final
procedures from McDonnell Douglas are soon to be
published. Lockheed is currently involved in writing
procedures.
14 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Advanced eddy current techniques
Eddy current equipment and techniques are
becoming somewhat commonplace in aviation mainte
nance. But despite the advancements in equipment,
conventional techniques are typically limited to inspec-
tion of only a single layer of material or skin.
Advance techniques such as dual- or multiple
frequency techniques and pulsed eddy current techniques
are emerging as viable, coskffective methods to detect
cracks and quantify corrosion in single and multilayered
metal skins.
These techniques allow the detection of second-layer
corrosion and cracks and liftoff variations are reduced.
Additionally, computer programs combined with
automated scanners have been developed to process eddy
current data. Gscan images (two-dimensional pictures) of
eddy current inspection data over an area of a test piece
can be made using digital encoders.
Eddy current C-scan imaging has the potential to
improve inspections for many aircraft applications that
require quantitative information of crack length and
corrosion assessment.
Multifrequency and pulsed eddy current instruments
are on the market. The development stage of the instru-
ments is such that they can be implemented in the
field immediately after applications are identified and
procedures are developed to fully realize its capabilities.
According to AANC, pulsed eddy current techniques
for corrosion assessment could be developed and ready
for field use in two to three years.
Any further questions about any of the aforemen-
tioned technologies and/or possible applications can
be directed to Patrick L. Walter, Sandia National
Laboratories, NM, (505) 844-5226.
Aircraft Technical Books
800-780-4115
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 Forms of corrosion
Many forms of corrosion can be found on aircraft. The
forms are as varied as the types of metals used. And not
all corrosion is bad for the aircraft. Aluminum, for
instance, forms a corrosive shield on its surface which
prevents further corrosion. Yet, other metals are more
susceptible to corrosion due to granular characteristics.
The following, from ASKS Aviation Maintenance
Technician Series, by Dale Crane, is a brief overview
of the most common forms of corrosion seen on
today's aircraft:
Surface corrosion
Anytime an area of unprotected metal is exposed to
an atmosphere that contains industrial contaminants,
exhaust fumes, or battery fumes, corrosion will form
on the entire surface and give it a dull appearance.
Contaminants in the air r e a d with the metal and change
microsco~icamounts of it into the salts of corrosion. If
these deposits are not removed and the surface protected
against further action, pits of corrosion will form at
localized anodic area. Corrosion may continue in these
pits until an appreciable percentage of the metal thick-
ness is changed into salts, and in extreme cases, the
corrosion may eat completely through the metal.
Pitting corrosion shows up as small blisters on the
surface of the metal. When these blisters are picked with
the sharp point of a knife, they are found to be full of a
white powder.
Intergranular corrosion
Aluminum alloys are made up of extremely tiny
grains of aluminum and alloying elements, and they may
be hardened by heating them in an oven to the tempera-
ture at which the alloying elements go into a solid
solution with the aluminum metal. When this tempera-
ture is reached, the alloy is taken from the oven and
immediately quenched in cold water to lock all of these
alloying elements to the tiny grains of the aluminum.
When the metal is removed from the oven and begins
to cool, the grains begin to grow, If quenching is
delayed, for even a few seconds, these grains will reach a
size that will produce the anodic and cathodic areas
needed for corrosion to form.
I Caused by heat from the spot welding
I When the movement between the two surfaces is
$1 Residue from corrosion
causes skin to buckle
Spot weld
In tergranular corrosion
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Spot welds and seam welds can also cause the grain
structure inside an aluminum alloy to grow until they
are large enough for the metal to be susceptible to inter-
granular corrosion.
Intergranular corrosion is difficult to detect because
it is inside the metal, but it often shows up as a blister
on the surface. However, the fact that there are no
surface blisters does not assure you that there is no
intergranular corrosion.
Ultrasonic or X-ray inspection is needed for a good
inspection for intergranular corrosion. Once intergranu-
lar corrosion is found, usually the only sure fix for it is
the replacement of the part.
Galvanic corrosion
Galvanic corrosion occurs any time two dissimilar
metals make electrical contact in the presence of an
electrolyte. The rate at which corrosion occurs depends
on the difference in activities of the two metals.
Galvanic corrosion can form where dissimilar metal
skins are riveted together, and where aluminum alloy
inspection plates are attached to the structure with
steel screws.
I Corrosion products Electrolyte I
I I 9
Galvanic corrosion
Steel fastener Aluminum alloy
IS
Fretting corrosion
Fretting corrosion forms between two surfaces which
fit tightly together, but which move slightly relative to
one another. These surfaces are not normally close
enough together to shut out oxygen, so the protective
oxide coatings can form on the surfaces. However, this
coating is destroyed by the continued rubbing action.
small, the debris between them does not have an
opportunity to escape, and it acts as an abrasive to fur-
ther erode the surfaces. Fretting corrosion around rivets
in a skin is indicated by dark deposits streaming out
behind the rivet heads. These dark deposits give the
appearance of the rivets smoking. By the time fretting
corrosion appears on the surface, enough damage is
usually done that the parts must be replaced.
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Airframe Technology

Filiform corrosion
Filiform corrosion consists of threadlike filaments of
corrosion that form on the surface of metal coated with
organic substances such as paint films. Filiform corro-
sion does not require light, electrochemical differences
within the metal, or bacteria, but it takes place only in
relatively high humidity, between 65 and 95 percent.
The threadlike filaments are visible under clear
lacquers and varnishes, but they also occur under
opaque paint films such as polyurethane enamels,
especially when an improperly cured wash primer has
left some acid on the surface beneath the enamel.

Exfoliation corrosion
Exfoliation corrosion is an extreme case of inter-
granular corrosion that occurs chiefly in extruded
materials such as channels or angles where the grain
structure is more layerlike, or laminar, than it is in
rolled sheets or in castings.
I I
Exfoliation corrosion
1 Exfoliation corrosion occurs along the grain bound-
aries, and causes the material to separate or delaminate.
I By the time it shows up on the surface, the strength of
1 the metal has been destroyed. k5l July/August 1995

16 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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 A
ndrew Geist, general manager for Aeroscope,
Inc. in Broomfield, CO, says that with the world-
wide increase of crazing to acrylic aircraft
windows, the airline industry is spending literally
millions of dollars for research and development of new
techniques to extend the service life of their current
windows. The OEMs are also hot to find answers to the
industry's problems with new formulas for their acrylics
and special coatings.
Geist says that acrylic goes through a natural aging
process that eventually causes crazing, even sitting on a
parts shelf. It is all the other factors affecting acrylic
that causes the rapid acceleration in crazing. There are
numerous types and causes of crazing, which include
volcanic, chemical, and age crazing. The most prevalent
type seen at the corporate and airline level is caused by
volcanic crazing. "Crazing," he says, "can be defined as
fine micrwracks on or beneath the surface of the
acrylic. It is easily identifiable as a glaring refraction of
light from the surface of the window.
"When the combination of the outside applied forces
to the window surface exceeds the tensile strength of the
plastic, the surface cracks and crazing begins. Simply
put, acrylic stresses out. Any additional forces applied to
the window just accelerate the rate at which the window
crazes. These environmental forces result from pressur-
ization, thermal variations, age, and water disorption.
As the transparency is exposed to the dry environment
at altitude, the transparency loses water through
disorption, shrinks, dries, and cracks. It's believed by the
industry that the culprit of this increased rate of crazing
is caused by changes to our atmosphere, primarily the
increase in sulfuric acid aerosol."
He explains, for example, the Mount Pinatubo e r u p
tion on Luzon in the Philippines in 1991 dumped mil-
lions of tons sulfuric dioxide gases into the atmosphere.
Sulfuric dioxide from volcanoes combined with water
vapor in the atmosphere makes sulfuric acid aerosols.
"Over the last few years," Geist continues, "the
effects of gravity have brought the dioxides down to the
level that most transport and corporate aircraft operate.
This sulfuric acid is theorized to cause a rapid accelera-
tion in the drying process.
"Naturally," says Geist, "there are many other
contributors to this crazing problem such as ultraviolet
light, improper maintenance, neglect, and chemical
damage. Something as simple as a razor cut around the
radius of the window can cause shelling to the panel that
may eventually deem it unserviceable. Other enemies
such as plastic and glass cleaners which have not been
tested for use on aircraft transparencies should be
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Technician removes crazing damage on Citation
business jet.
avoided. Certain types of masking tapes used during
painting and nonapproved window sealants can also
cause crazing. The easiest way to determine if your
aircraft suffers from crazing damage is to view the
acrylic in direct sunlight or use a high-intensity light
held at a 45degree angle to the surface. Then move
your head around to change your visual angle relative
to the surface, and look for a reflection of light.
"Cleaning after each flight," he says, "is extremely
critical for the prevention of crazing. It should be
completed as often as possible, to remove any sulfuric
dust from the panel surface. The best recommendation
for cleaning an acrylic window is to first remove any
rings or watches so as not to scratch the windows. Then
wash the window down with water using your bare
hands only, so careful attention can be given and you are
less likely to scratch the surface. Dry the window with a
very soft cloth. Next polish the window with known
products that are recommended by the manufacturer.
"Besides the obvious cosmetic reasons to have a
damaged window repaired, there are other factors that
could lead to more serious consequences if not
addressed," says Geist. "Any damage to the window
surfaces will drastically reduce the structural integrity
of acrylic panel. If not addressed, a structural failure
of a transparency can radically change your day while
flying at FL400."
He explains a damaged aircraft window develops
stress areas known as stress risers, resultant from the
pressure applied to the uneven damaged surface. An
average cabin window from a business jet at FLAOO can
experience from 1,200 to as much as 1,700 pounds of
total pressure on the window surface from the combina-
tion of loads experienced in flight. Each individual stress
riser wdl be affected by the combination of the loads.
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 Geist says, "All is not lost when your enclosures
suffer from any type of damage which may degrade their
appearance. Your options are to replace the window with
a new unit, which is usually very costly, or effective
restorations can be completed saving your operation a
considerable amount of time and expense. Crazing and
other damme can be
removed a$ the optical
clarity restored through
.L
procedures approved
by the FAA and the
manufadurer."
Geist explains that
technicians at repair
facilities or on site will
remove uniform amounts
of acrylic through the
4
3 T use of various levels of
1 npical crazing reflection.
sandmg materials and
polishes. Additional
nondestructive precision
equipment such as optical
micrometers, ultrasonic testing equipment and prisms
are used to measure window thickness to keep repairs
within manufacturer's approved tolerances.
He warns, however, that improperly performed trans-
parency refinishing can create excessive distortion and
actually weaken the structural strength of the surface.
"When the correct combination of techniques and
materials are applied, window damage of almost any
type can be repaired successfully," says Geist.
Rethinking routine care
Don Mover of Norton Performance Plastics Cor~ora-
tion, Composites Operation in Ravenna, OH, says,
"Making the most of the window repair option requires
an industxywide rethinking of routine care, maintenance,
and inspection procedures.
"The first step," he continues, "is to minimize the
minor damages that make windows more vulnerable to
their punishing environments. Next, catch the damage
early enough to make repair possible. True, a single
scratch can be enough reason for a cockpit window to be
pulled. However, why then scrap and replace when it can
be inexpensively repaired to likenew condition instead?
"To a certain extent, taking full advantage of cockpit
window repair involves changing habits of the flight
crews and maintenance people, through upper manage-
ment, including purchasing agents and engineers. Think
of cockpit window repair as a strategic area of cost
reduction. It's especially important to educate the crews
who conduct the inspections and actually have authority
to pull windows. Better to pull it sooner and fix it than
wait until later and pay five times as much to replace it,"
explains Moyer.
18 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
I f bubbles are spotted, pull the window as soon as possible
to avoid irreparable damage.
Types of damage
Moyer says, "Surprisingly, much cockpit window dam-
age arises from the inside. A major cause, believe it or
not, is banging and scraping by clipboards placed on the
cockpit glare shield. Another culprit is crew members'
rings hi* the windshield when they lean forward to
reach for a cli~boardor other item. Also. automatic seat
belt retractorion the cepilot7s side cause some problems
when the buckle flies up during retraction," he says.
"Of course," explains Moyer, 'exterior factors also
cause cockpit window damage. Hail, birds, sand kicked
up from the runway during takeoff and heavy rain all
contribute to chipping, pitting, scratching, and seal
erosion. Under severe thermal and barometric cycling
coupled with exposure to 600-mph winds, tiny cracks
called crazing can impair pilot visibility.
'Another common type of damage is delamination,
the separation of the acrylic or glass pane from the
P-membrane. This is usually the result of age and
constant thermal and barometric cycling that occurs in
pressurized aircraft.
"Yellowing of the window is also a frequent problem.
It also results from aging and moisture encroachment.
It may not affect window functionality or truly impair
visibility, but it can become unsightly and prompt main-
tenance personnel to question its serviceability," says
Moyer.
''Milkiness may also occur. Again the cause is age
and moisture encroachment into the PVB layer between
the panes."
He says that in passenger widows, the most common
problem is micro crazing-the appearance of hundreds
of tiny surface cracks. Initially, the problem is more
cosmetic than functional. However, it is often a source of
passenger concern and complaint.
"These same problems also can affect the lenses
protecting exterior lighting. Lenses are not normally in
a crew's constant line of sight, making lens damage less
noticeable. But, if lens damage goes unnoticed too long,
there is the risk of burning out the electric circuitry or
contaminating it with dirt or water."
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 Moyer offers the following description of the types
of repairs that are possible at Norton's window repair
facility:
-
Relamination-to net rid of bubbles-indicative of
delamination, the window is disassembled, cleaned,
and relaminated in a large autoclave to new window
specifications. In Norton's case, it is to FAA-approved
specifications. The relamination process is straight
forward and much like the original manufacturing cycle.
Each delaminated transparency is repaired and cured in
a special vacuum package. Pressure and heat are applied
in an autoclave. A log generated during the repair
process documents the timetemperaturepressure cycle
for each step.
After relamination is completed, transparencies are
polished and matched to their original frames and
reassembled.
Milkiness removal-This is caused by moisture at
the interface between pane and membrane. The window
is dried and, in most cases, relaminated as well to
eliminate air spaces so no new moisture can enter.
Surface scratches-If the scratch is shallow, pane
thickness permitting, it may be ground or polished out.
Deeper scratches may require replacement of one of the
two panes that make up the entire window.
Crazing-This problem is usually solved by grinding
and polishing, assuming acrylic thickness and OEM
specifications permit.
Early detection is the key to easy repairs
Early recognition and action, emphasizes Moyer, will
yield major savings over the life span of the aircraft.
He offers this look at the early warning signs for
each type of common problem:
Bubbles-These are signs of delamination. The
pattern may be "champagne bubblesn-lots of little
ones-which indicate a possible controller problem that
causes overheating of the window. Large edge delamina-
tion bubbles indicate age and use. These bubbles can
impair visibility, but the window can be repaired. The
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window should be p d e d and repaired as soon as bubbles
are noticed and before irreparable damage sets in. Watch
for the bubbles around the edges first.
Craaing-The signs are obvious. The trick is to spot-
and act on-crazing while it is still small. Crazing does
not heal of its own accord and can spread in an instant.
And if deep enough, the crazing can provide a pathway
for less repairable damage. Remember to inspect the
outside for crazing. Crazing can be repaired.
Mlkhess-Again, the visible sign is obvious. The
good news is milkiness can often be corrected.
Yellowing-Though the signs are obvious, the prog-
nosis is not as good. At present, there is no known way
to correct yellowing short of replacing the pane. While
primarily cosmetic, it is nonreversible.
Micro crazing-This looks like a web of tiny cracks
on the exterior surface. It is the most common problem
in passenger windows. Spotted early, it can be corrected.
Left unchecked, it can lead to early replacement of
the window.
Distortion lines-These are signs of the deterioration
of heating elements due to fatigue breakage. The
windows are deiced by wire grids or heating films in the
vinyl interlayer. Repeated fight cycles and associated
deflections may cause individual wires to break and
cease working. Therefore, the window is partially heated,
resulting in fogged areas and localized poor visibility.
Thermal stresses in the glass also can lead to more
serious damage. Some wire breakage may be tolerated
unless the pilot finds his vision impaired, but heating
elements should be monitored closely. Distortion lines
may also be caused by localized repairs, for example,
where a maintenance worker sands only one scratch or
pit for local repair.
Loose connections-When you inspect cockpit
windows, also carefully check all electrical connections
to the defoggers and window heating elements. Proper
heating and defogging can go a long way toward
reducing thermal cycling stresses and preventing electri-
cal arcing and other damage.
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A short list of certificated window
repair companies
Aeroscope Inc. Norton Performance W c a
11750 Airport Way, Hangar #B12B Composites Operation
Broomfield, CO 80021 335 N. Diamond St.
(303) 465 -4414 Ravenna, OH 44266
(216) 296 -9949
Aircraff Window Repair
2207 Border Ave. Pergine
Torrance, CA 90501 2300 W. 6th St.
(310) 212-7173 Fort Worth, TX 76107
(800) 880-1966
LP A m Plastic8
Rd. #1Box 201B The Glass Doctor
Jeannette, PA 15644 2390 26th Ave. N.
(412) 744-4448 St. Petersburg, FL 33713
(813) 821-1761

20 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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Finding solutions for environmental
concerns at paint shops is not easy
Some facilities face extinction in face of high cost
By John Boyce
Contributing Editor
hile you might be able to make a case that
environmental and safety regulations govern-
ing aircraft painting facilities are overly
restrictive, you can't deny that they exist.
There are many painting facilities that are ignoring
the regulations, but it is only a matter of time before
they will face a regulator audit and the consequent fines
for noncompliance (as high as $25,000 per day). They
will also face the decision of whether or not spending the
money to install systems for compliance is worth it or is
indeed, feasible.
It appears it is smaller facilities that are slipping
through the regulatory net, and it is the smaller facilities
that face extinction because the cavital outlav for
systems to capture and dispose of hazardous waste is
considerable. For instance, it costs Duncan Aviation in
Lincoln, NE, "somewhere between $1,500 and $2,000
per paint job to take care of all the hazardous waste."
Ranger Aviation in the west Texas town of San
Angelo, a self-described "small paint shop," was audited
by the Texas Natural Resource Conservation Commission
mcc1.
"We were doing some of the stuff," says Ranger
owner John Fields, "but we had no idea what it was
going to take to comply with the regulations." Although
it crossed his mind to abandon aircraft painting, Fields
decided to stick with it so that he could continue to
provide full service at his FBO. It wasn't easy and it
isn't cheap.
Installing systems
Fields installed a system for capturing paint stripper
and the stripped paint which is then put in barrels and
transported to an incineration site at a cost of between
$350 and $650 a barrel. Fields also installed a water
treatment system, and because of the toxicity of the
main stripping agent, methylene chloride, painters wear
respirators and full rain suits. Additionally, because the
TNRCC said his concrete floors are porous-and thus
give access to the underlying earth-and consequently
pose a danger to ground water, no hazardous mat could
be allowed to contact the floor. As a result, Ranger had
to strip and paint on a plastic floor liner.
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"Literally)))says Fields, "I now spend about 50
percent of my time addressing environmental concerns.
It's mind-boggling. I'm sure there are some smaller paint
shops that are not going to be able to do all this. It's
been dZf~culton us because we're a small paint shop."
Because of the hazardous nature of methylene
chloride (operators suspect it will be banned eventually),
Fields and other painters have investigated other forms
of paint stripping, particularly with dry media. The
results have been mixed although dry media manufadur-
ers are quick to defend their products.
A variety of dry stripping media exist, including
plastic "%beads,"wheat starch, and carbon dioxide pellets.
But many operators report they don't work well on
modern, multicoated paint jobs, and they are apt to
damage the skins of general aviation aircraft. In
addition, dry stripping methods are not approved by
aircraft manufacturers.
"We have always used chemicals," says B.J. Wagner
of Cypress Aviation in Lakeland, FL, "but we have tried
dry stripping and haven't had good luck with it; it can
warp the aircraft skin."
Jed Heastrup, sales manager for Aerolyte Systems,
which makes equipment that uses lightweight media,
says, "I'm not aware of anybody who is concerned about
the use of plastic. You have to be trained. Even the most
experienced blaster can damage an aircraft. We don't
recommend blasting with any greater than 40 psi at
shallow angles."
Some shops have experimented with acid-based strip
pers and, indeed, some such as Beechcraft San Antonio
0 are using them. However, they have to be used with
great care because the acids can eat away hangar floors
and corrode fasteners on aircraft.
Concern tor the air
While stripping paint seems to get the major share
of attention in terms of environmental concerns, air
pollution from the paint spray is covered and will get
greater attention in the future.
At the moment there are limits on the amount of
air pollutants that any one facility can emit into the
atmosphere. But operators expect that aircraft will have
to be painted in sealed booths and any hazardous air
pollutants captured and remediated. In the meantime,
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 21
OEMs are continuing to develop high solid paints which
use less solvent, high volume low pressure W P ) guns,
and electrostatic applicators.
"If people don't have HVLP or electrostatic applica-
tors," says John Stewart, owner of P&J Aircraft in
Spring, TX, "they're going to have to have them real
quick. HVLP is a learning process after using a syphon-
type gun. It's much different. But it's to lessen the
amount of overspray going out into the air."
Jobbing out and liability considerations
Full-service facilities like to offer painting because it
brings in other business; if you must get a paint job,
then you might as well get other modifications and
repairs done during the downtime. However, the strin-
gent regulations and their attendant costs prompted
some operators to think of getting out of the paint
business and just jobbing out that portion of their
service. An extensive search failed to reveal a facility
that had actually abandoned painting, but it is a strong
testament to the regulatory climate that many operators
had at least considered such a move.
"It crossed my mind," says John Fields at Ranger
Aviation of giving up painting, "but I wouldn't job out
paint jobs on a customer's aircraft. Painting is labor
intensive and in order for the end product to be good,
the preparation has to be correct. I wouldn't surrender
control of that."
In another effort to avoid having to deal with regula-
tions, there has been talk of operators in border states
sending aircraft to Mexico, where the environmental
regulation is thought to be less stringent. Beside the
obvious fact that damaging the Mexican environment
is still damaging the natural environment, there is a
big question about the general quality of work south
of the border.
"I'd be very careful about sending work to Mexico,"
says one Dallas fJX' ) area operator. "The quality is in
question. You can get good paint jobs down there but it's
not a given. If I were going to do that, I would go down
and look at the facility very carefully, and I'd get a list of
past customers and talk to them.
"In fad, loobing over the facility and checking with
customers is what I would do if I were jobbing out work
anywhere, in the United States or anywhere else. It's
good policy."
22 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
As with anything else in aviation, liability looms
large as a consideration. Some shops will tell you the
customer can be held liable for a portion of any damage
to the environment arising from noncompliance at a
paint facility.
"My understanding," says Jeannine Falter, manager
of aircraft modification and completions at Duncan
Aviation, "is that because of the cradletc-grave concept
the EPA works with, you are responsible for any hazard-
ous waste that you generate. It (EPA) will always go for
the entity that has the greatest ability to pay." Meaning
that the operator and the customer could be held jointly
responsible for any damage.
Because of this and because they don't want to be
perceived as unconcerned about the environment, corpe
rations are asking operators about their EPA compliance.
Regulation likely to increase
Environmental compliance is likely to become more
difficult if a new EPA rule for the aerospace industry
is adopted as expected some time this summer. The
proposed regulation is known as National Emission
Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants for Source
Categories: Aerospace Manufacturing and Rework,
or NESHAP.
While the rule appears aimed at commercial and
military painting operations, general aviation facilities
are included. One estimate says that a facility that strips
and paints 35 large business aircraft per year is likely to
be covered by the regulation.
The rule calls for the virtual elimination of methylene
chloride, which will force operators to use dry media or
acid-based strippers. As noted earlier, there is little
confidence among general aviation operators that dry
media works on relatively thin-skinned GA aircraft.
However, developments in stripping technology are
ongoing. Stay tuned.
NESHAP is likely a harbinger of things to come-
regulation is apt to get tighter and tighter in the future.
Many operators don't like it; as one says, "It's getting
ridiculous." But unless there is a groundswell of protest,
which doesn't seem likely, the tide of regulation is rising
and w f l continue to do so. MarcWApril1995
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 Pitot-static system testing
By Richard Floyd

system - twin-engine
P . ~-..
rior to beginning any testing on pitotstatic
systems, it's imperative anyone performing these I Vacuum
~- ---?L.- ---aA--=.-*
1
tests be in com~liancewith FAR 91.411 and
familiar with the specific aircraft system.
It's equally important the test equipment used to
perform these procedures be equivalent to that specified
in Advisory Circular 43-2B and Advisory Circular
43-203B, and the personnel performing the tests
observe all the precautions given in the related FARs
and advisory circulars.
Prior to beginning any tests, ensure the aircraft has
not been flown, or the static system or the altimeter
-
Pressure svstem twin-enaine
aircraft with autopilot system
subjected to testing for at least three hours. Also verify
that the temperature of the aircraft altimeter and the
test equipment are within 5°F for at least 15 minutes.
Lastly, make sure all hoses, adapters and test equipment
are leak checked and all equipment is within its calibra-
tion interval.

Pitot system inspection

Although testing the pitot system is not required per
the FARs, such tests become necessary if the aircraft
airspeed indicator has an indicated range of 150 knot. or
less, or any static system testing will require a decrease
of indicated altitude of more than 1,000 feet above
ambient static pressure, or any static system testing will
require a decrease of indicated altitude below ambient
static pressure.
If any subsequent static system tests would cause the
range limits of the airspeed indicator to be exceeded, it
will be necessary to conned the pitot and static systems
together. Therefore, it's important to test the pitot
system for leaks prior to connecting to the static system;
otherwise, leakage observed during the static system
leak check could be in the pitot system.
To begin the test, connect the test equipment to the
aircraft pitot system. Using the test equipment, increase
pressure until airspeed reaches approximately 75 percent
of full range. Then close off the pressure source and
allow one minute for the system to stable. Record the
airspeed reading and time for one additional minute.
The reading must not change by more than 2 knots.
When testing is complete, return the system to
ambient. If more than one pitot system exists, repeat the
check for each.
Static system inspection
It's a good practice to first perform a visual inspec-
tion of the ports, plumbing, accessories, and instruments
connected to the static system, and repair or replace
lose parts which are defective. Purge the system, if
ecessary, to remove foreign matter which may have
ccumulated in the tubing, and check the static heater
> assure proper operation.
When an aircraft has more than one static system,
3st each system separately and ensure the leak rate for
ach system is within tolerance.
Conned the test equipment directly to the static
orts, if practical. If not, connect to a static system
rain or tee connection and seal the static ports. If the
+stequipment is connected to the static system at any
oint other than the static port, make sure that it's at
point where the connection can be readily inspected
fter it's returned to ita normal confiiation. Be sure
o remove all static port seals after completion of the
ltatic system test.
Static system leak testing
Ynpreesuriaed aircraff
Using the test equipment, evacuate the static system
~ta rate not to exceed the maximum reading of the air-
:raft climb indicator until the altimeter increases indica-
ion by 1,000 feet.
Then slowly begin to close off the vacuum source
vhile watching the VSI, and ensure that a severe leak
vhich could cause descent at a rate greater than the VSI
mge is not present. If a severe leak does occur, use the
racuum control to bring the system back to ambient and

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correct the leakage problem before proceeding. Now
close off the vacuum supply and allow one minute for
the system to stable. Record the altimeter reading and
time for one additional minute. The reading must not
change by more than 100 feet.
When testing is complete, return the system to arnbi-
ent at a safe rate. If more than one static system exists,
repeat the check for each system.
Pressurized aircraff
For pressurized aircraft the test is similar, but you
must first determine the maximum cabin merentid
pressure for which the aircraft is type certified.
Having preset the aircraft altimeter barometer to
29.92, evacuate the combined pitobstatic system at a
rate safe for the aircraft VSI until the predetermined
maximum cabin differential pressure has been achieved
(as indicated by the Cabin Differential Pressure indica-
tor or an accurate vacuum gauge connected to the
static system).
Then slowly begin to close off the vacuum source,
while watching the VSI, to ensure that a severe leak
(which could cause descent at a rate greater than the
VSI range) is not present. If a severe leak does occur,
use the vacuum control to bring the system back to
ambient and correct the leakage problem before
proceeding.
Now close off the vacuum supply and allow one
minute for the system to stabilize. Record the altimeter
reading and time for one additional minute. The leakage
rate shall not exceed 2 percent of the indicated altitude,
or 100 feet, whichever is greater.
When testing is complete, return the system to
ambient at a safe rate. Again, if more than one static
system exists, repeat the check for each system.
Altimeter tests
It's wise to begin with a visual inspection to check
the general appearance of the altimeter for obvious
defects such as a bent or broken setting knob, cracked
or loose glass, cracked or broken case, bad port threads
andlor fittings, peeling paint on dial or pointers and
evidence of corrosion.
Next check that the knob, pointers, and bar0 scale
turn smoothly without binding. Also, check that it has
sufficient drag so the setting will not shift with normal
vibration and that pulling or pushing on the knob while
turning will not cause disengagement of either the
pointers or barometric scale.
If the altimeter is being bench tested, a case leak
should be performed next. To do this, connect the altim-
eter to a controllable source of vacuum. With the bar0
set for 29.92, reduce the pressure at a rate not to exceed
20,000 fpm until the altimeter reaches 18,000 feet; then
close the vacuum supply and allow the pressure to stabi-
lize. The leakage rate at 18,000 feet shall not exceed 100
24 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
fpm. Lastly return the pressure to ambient at a rate not
to exceed 20,000 fpm. Any excessive jumping or sticlung
during ascent or descent will be cause for rejection.
Next, perform the Barometric Scale Error Test.
With the altimeter or system vented, no test equipment
connected, set bar0 to 29.92. With normal vibration,
record the indicated altitude. Set the bar0 scale to each
of the values specified in Table IV of Appendix E, Part
43. Again with normal vibration record the indicated
altitude for each test point. The altitude difference from
that recorded for the original 29.92 setting shall agree at
+
each point 25 feet.
The next test is the Barometric Correlation (altimeter
setting). This requires connecting the test equipment to
the altimeter for bench testing or to both the pitot and
static systems on the aircraft.
With both the master and test altimeter bar0 set
for 29.92, adjust the vacuum control of the test set to
produce zero feet altitude, as indicated by the master
altimeter. Allow at least one minute for the pressure to
stabilize; then carefully set the barometric correlation to
produce a zero feet indication with a bar0 set to 29.92.
It should be mentioned that the FAA does not con-
done resetting of the altimeter barometric scale unless
the person conducting the test is qualified to make the
necessary barometric correction.
We are now ready to perform the Scale Error and
fiction Tests. If testing on aircraft, remember that
although rate of ascent is not critical, it is specified as
5,000 to 20,000 fpm during descent for the hysteresis
tests which follows this test. If this exceeds the aircraft
VSI, then it will be necessary to isolate the VSI. Also
some provision is required to isolate the altimeter from
the static system to perform the case leak test.
To begin the Scale Error Test ensure that both the
master and test altimeter are set to 29.92. With the sys-
tem vented to ambient, record the test altimeter r e a m
and the current barometric pressure (altimeter setting).
These values will be used later for the After Effect Test.
With the tester properly connected to the altimeter,
or static system, operate the tester valves or controls to
establish the first test point (-1,000 ft). Now, apply the
correction fador from the calibration card to the master
altimeter. Maintain the test pressure for not less than
one, nor more than 10 minutes.
Apply hght vibration to master and test altimeter.
Check that test altimeter is within allowable e(lfoot
tolerance at -1,000 feet; then increase altitude to zero
feet, per corrected master, and allow minimum one, but
less than 10 minutes for pressure to stabilize. Next,
apply light vibration to master and test unit. Check that
test altimeter is within allowable tolerance.
The friction test may be combined with Scale Error
Test by increasing altitude at 750 fpm while vibrating
the master altimeter only. Then when the master
reaches 1,000 feet (first friction test point), maintain the
pressure and note the test altimeter reading.
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 Apply vibration to the test altimeter. The test altim-
eter after vibration shall not exceed the +7@foot
tolerance at 1,000 feet. Continue the combined scale
error and friction tests in this manner for each specified
test point until reaching 18,000 feet.
After completing the scale error test at 18,000 feet,
close the vacuum supply to the test altimeter. Isolate the
altimeter from the static system if the test is being
conducted while installed in the aircraft. Alter allowing
the pressure to stabilize, observe the test altimeter for
oneminute. Leakage shall not exceed the 100 feet in
oneminute tolerance. Return the system to normal
operation and continue the combined scale error and
friction test until reaching the desired maximum
test altitude.
The Hysteresis Test must be performed within 15
minutes after reaching the desired maximum test
altitude of the scale error test.
To accomplish this, begin increasing pressure
(descending altitude) at a rate not less than 5,000 fpm
nor more than 20,000 fpm (isolate aircraft VSI if
required). Take care not to overshoot the test point.
When reaching a point 3,000 feet above the first hyster-
esis test point, reduce the descent rate to approximately
3,000 fpm.
Observe the master altimeter while applying moder-
ate vibration, and stop the descent when the master
reaches the approximate hysteresis test point with
proper correction card.
After not less than five minutes, nor more than 15
minutes, while applying moderate vibration to both
master and test altimeters, the test altimeter reading
shall not differ from the reading observed by more than
the allowable 75-foot tolerance.
If any hysteresis check point is not within 500 feet of
one of the scale error points, it will require a notation of
the test altimeter reading. Since the master altimeter
may not have a correction value for this point, the
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master should be stopped at the appropriate check point
without correction and the test altimeter reading noted.
Continue descent to second hysteresis check point
in the same manner. With the master altimeter stable,
at the second check point with appropriate hysteresis
correction, after not less than one minute nor more than
10 minutes, with moderate vibration, the test altimeter
shall not differ from the readmg observed during the
scale error test by more than the allowable 75-foot
tolerance.
To accomplish the After Effect Test continue descent
in the same manner as described in the hysteresis test
until the system has reached and is vented to ambient
pressure. Alter reaching ambient pressure, within five
minutes of completion of hysteresis test, determine the
current barometric pressure (altimeter setting) and com-
pare current barometric setting with that recorded prior
to start of scale error test. If barometric pressure has
changed since beginning of test; determine amount and
direction of change and change setting of barometric
scale of the test altimeter from 29.92 by the same
amount and direction.
Then with vibration applied to the test altimeter,
observe the reading. The difference between this reading
and that recorded prior to the start of the scale error
test, shall not exceed 30 feet.
Completion of testing
Upon completion of satisfactory testing disconnect
the test equipment from the altimeter or aircraft If
testing on aircraft, remove all static port seals and
restore systems to their original status. Comply with
all maintenance record entry requirements.
Failure of any of the tests will necessitate correction
and retest. E d January/Februaiy 1995
Richard Floyd is a field engineer for B d e l d in
Atlanta, GA.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 25
AIrfram8 Technology

Enginemdriven fuel pumps

Reliable, but still in need of TLC

I
n the complex world of fuel injection systems,
the fuel pump is the device most often overlooked
because of its simplicity. "Generally, because of
their simple design, they are very reliable," says Charles
Chapman, shop manager for Southeast Fuel Systems
in Rockledge, FL, "but fuel pumps are susceptible to
contamination problems and can fail or cause serious
problems at a moment's notice."
The best way to care for them is to prevent contami-
nation of the systems and to know how they operate so
that you can quickly and effectively troubleshoot them.
Chapman explains that "the most common problems
we see at our repair station are the result of foreign
objects in the pump, particularly in the relief valve area
which causes the pump pressure to drop into the lower
rpm ranges.
"The introduction of foreign objects to the pump
relief valve can be eliminated, however. Careful installa-
tion, fuel line hose inspection, and proper application of
Teflon tapes (anti-seize) to threaded fittings will go a
long way toward this, and checking your filters and
strainers regularly will also help reduce pump failures." This system works well for flows in the cruise or high
Chapman explains that they always recommend power range, but when the flow is low, as in idling,
regular inspection and cleaning of fuel filters at the there's not enough restriction, he explains, to maintain
tank, and at the fuel injector. a constant output pressure. Therefore, an adjustable
Following are some specific items that should be pressure relief valve is installed in the line.
looked at along with brief descriptions of the critical During idle, the output pressure is determined by the
operating features of different fuel injection pumps. setting of the relief valve, and the orifice has no effect.
While at high speed operation, the relief valve is off its
Continental fuel pumps seat and the pressure is determined by the orifice. As in
Scott Rivenbark, shop supervisor for Southeast Fuel any fuel injection system you must have vapor-free fuel
Systems, says, "Anytime you have a problem with a in the metering section. A special function of the pump
Continental fuel injection system, go to the pump to is to remove all vapor from the fuel and return it to
inspect it-regardless of what fuel component is failing. the tank.
The pump is almost always involved in some way with An additional feature of this pump is a bypass check
the problem." valve around the pump so fuel from the boost pump may
Rivenbark explains that the Continental fuel injection 1 flow to the fuel control upon starting. When the engine
system on a normally aspirated engine meters its fuel as 1 pump pressure becomes higher than that of the boost
a function of the engine rpm, and doesn't use airflow as pump, the valve closes and the engine pump takes over.
a metering force.
The enginedriven pump is the heart of the system Turbocharged engines
and provides the fuel metering pressure. That's why you 1 Rivenbark continues that turbocharged engines, have
should always look a t the pump first in the event that 1 a unique problem during acceleration. If the fuel flow
problems develop. increases before the turbocharger has time to build up
This pump is a vanetype, constant displacement to speed and increase the airflow proportionately, the
with special features that allow it to produce an output engine may falter from an overly rich mixture.
pressure that varies with engine speed.

26 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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 There is a special aneroid valve for these pumps pump become inoperative, fuel pressure from auxiliary
which will vary the output fuel pressure proportional to pumps overcomes the valve's light spring load, and fuel
the inlet air pressure. In layman's terms, when the is allowed to flow through the disabled pump."
throttle is opened and the engine speed increases, rather Scott Rivenbark explains that a line mechanic is
than immediately supplying an increased fuel pressure really only authorized to perform a few adjustments. He
to the control, the aneroid holds the orifice open until says that "with most pumps that are constant pressure,
the turbocharger speed builds up and increases the air only the relief valve can be adjusted. Frequent adjust-
pressure into the engine. ment after prolonged use can be a sign of trouble on the
way, and possibly a relief valve assembly is hardening or
Lear-Siegler pumps the valve seat is showing signs of wear.
Bill Rivenbark, president of Southeast, explains "Other types of variable pressure pumps will have a
that LearSiegler pumps are positive displacement, van- tapered pin and variable orifice or aneroid adjustment.
type units, designed mainly for use in reciprocating But as before, only a minimum amount of adjustment
aircraft engines fuel should be necessary on installation," he says.
injection systems.
He says that "although
similar construction, -
each pump is tailored to
I- Typical fuel pump troubleshooting-
I1
meet the specific require-
I 'rouble / Probable Cause ! Remedv
ments of the fuel system
in which it has applica-
tion. Engine and fuel
system features such as
direction of rotation,
mounting considerations,
-
interface with eneine
accessory drive, and fuel
system performance
demands, affect relief
valve components and
adjustment, drive shaft
and spline codiguration,
and may require casting
modifications to accept
special fittings."
He continues, "Lear-
Siegler uses a Romec
developed, vanetype
structure that's enclosed
in an aluminum housing
and driven by an acces-
sory drive gear. Protec-
tion of the fuel system is
provided by a built-in
pressure relief and pump
bypass valves.
"While the pump is
operating, its discharge
Dressure maintains the
bypass valve in a closed
position. Should the
1 I
4oisy operation;
mi4 ~ I I hnt
~ Q
For* matter in pMWing
mar*loniam. *.uvrmrv o - n d k l
Completety overhaul pump.
I

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 27

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 "The line mechanic should also be alert for dye stains
and for the presence of fuel leaking from the overboard
drain. Any leaking in a fuel pump is unacceptable.
"Also, prior to installation of any pump, check all
fuel lines to the pump for deterioration, and use torque
values as specified by the pump manufacturer. If fittings
are to be installed on your pump, be careful not to
contaminate the pump with tape or a thread compound.
"And finally," he says. "if your aircraft is going to be
down for any length of time, be sure to drain your pump
of fuel. Also, avoid the use of compressed air because
it can introduce moisture in your pump and cause
corrosion. Cap all open fittings with recommended caps."

Cou~minationcan lead to a damaged valve seat and cause

fluctuating pressure or the inability to attain proper
operating pressures.

More fuel pump tips

Welton Maynard of Consolidated Fuel Systems in
Montgomery, AL, says they see contamination of fuel
pumps as being the biggest problem. He recommends
that during the installation of pumps, all lines to the
pumps should be blown through with clean shop air or
flushed to assure they are clean.
He warns that during the installation of the fittings
into the pump, the metal is frequently pulled from the
threads of the pump housing which then causes damage
to the valve and seat area of the pump. "Because of this,
pumps overhauled by Consolidated Fuel Systems are sold
with the fittings installed. This assures that any metal
pulled from the thread is cleaned out before the assem-
bly of the pump is completed," he explains.
He also suggests the following:
Take care not to depress the drive shaft on installa-
tion or in handling even though it will spring back
into place. A drive seal leak may result.
Proper torque on all fittings and the use of Teflon
paste will help prevent cracked bosses.
When removing and installing fittings, if you must
clamp the pump in a vise, do it by the mounting
flange-not the body.
At periodic inspections, you should pressurize the
pump with the boost pump and the mixture in idle
cutoff. This way you can check for leaks on the pump
body and drive seal.

Inr ntior ngs in to the pump body puLl the

threads and result in metal contamination. This must be
cleaned prior to running the pump.

28 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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 What every technician should know about
turbine fuel contamination
Fuel contamination in jet fuel can lead to many
problems. Most of the time, contamination is easy to
control by changing filters and adhering to maintenance
procedures which stress cleanliness.
Unfortunately, most maintenance personnel aren't
aware of the fact that fuel systems can be contaminated
by microorganisms, and this contamination is difficult to
control. It cannot be seen by the naked eye, and once it
contaminates the aircraft's fuel system it will continue to
exist unless it's controlled.
The following Q & A, offered by Harnmonds Fuel
Additives Inc., describes the effects of microorganism
fuel system contamination in jet fuel and discusses
methods for detecting and controlling it:
Q. What are microorganhw or bugs?
A. The scientific names for the types of organisms
that live in petroleum produds are Cladosporium resinae
and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The organisms are either
air- or waterborne and contaminate fuel systems by
entering through vents, standing water in sump bottoms,
dissolved "free water," or trash incurred during trans-
port or delivery. They grow at incredible rates with
some varieties having the ability to double in size every
20 minutes.
Q. What do these micmorganhnm do?
A. These s h y bugs live and multiply in the fueY
water interface. They actually exist in the water and
feed off the hydrocarbons in the fuel. They are referred
to as "hydrocarbon utilizing microorganisms." As they
grow, they form mats that are dark in color and appear
gel-like. Their waste produces water, sludge, acids, and
other harmful byproducts. Microorganisms will also
consume rubber gaskets, O-rings, hoses, or tank linings
and coatings.
Q. How do I know I have micloorganism
contamination?
A. The signs of microbial growth can vary. Some
of the obvious signs are clogged fiiters, loss of engine
power due to fuel starvation, plugged lines, contamina-
tion on tank bottoms, fuel with a sulphur smell and
tank access lids with green or brown slimy formations.
A more d e f i t e appraisal may be made with the use of
a microbe detector kit.
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A microbe detection k i t can help make a definite appraisal
o f whether or not fuel i s contaminated. Above are two
detection kits currently available.
Q. Why do I need to control microbes in
fuel syatema?
A. A sterile fuel system is one with lower mainte
nance costs. That translates to reduced equipment
disruptions or downtime due to fuel system complica-
tions. The elimination of bugs in both storage and
equipment tanks will also reduce the chances of fuel
tank damage due to corrosion from the microorganisms'
acid waste products.
Q. Isn't good fuel management and 'proper
housekeeping" enough to avoid problems?
A. The highest standards of housekeeping will not
ensure the absence of microbial infestations and associ-
ated problems. Microbial spores can exist in a dormant
stage for extended periods of time waiting for trace
amounts of water or improved growing conditions.
Q. What should I do if I k d I have a problem?
A. An additive is recommended (such as Hamrnonds
BiobormJF)to exterminate the infestation. The remains
might appear as coffee grounds in the bottom of the
fuel tank.
For more information on microorganism detection,
contact the following:
HRmmondn Fuel Additives Inc.
P.O. Box 38114-407
Houston, TX 77238
Aviation Laboratories
5401 Mitcheldale #B6
Houston. TX 77092
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance TechnologyMagazine 29
The importance of cleanliness in
hydraulic maintenance
A little attention to a clean work environment can mean the
difference between failure and success

By Greg Napert

H
ydraulic systems require relatively little mainte-
nance on today's aircraft. For the most part,
hydraulic fluids are capable of withstandmg a
wide range of operating temperatures, and the loads
placed upon the systems are relatively light.
So it's not in operation that these systems usually
break down; instead, it's more often than not that
foreign substances are unwittingly introduced during
scheduled maintenance. And it's the introduction
of these contaminants that work on the system and
degrade it.
"Ninety-nine percent of the key to hydraulic mainte-
nance is cleanliness," says Paul Finefrock, president
of Thunderbird Accessories Inc., in Bethany, OK.
"When you work on a hydraulic component, line, or
whatever, you've got to treat the area like a surgical
operating room.
"Cap all ends immediately, clean all your tools,
and the surrounding area, and do your work in a clean
environment.
"And don't leave hydraulic fluid uncovered in an
open container. Every bit of dust in the air will stick
to the surface of the fluid, and the surface will begin
to oxidize." Cleanliness i s absolutely essential in a hydraulic pump due
Joe Lundquist of Pall Corp., a manufacturer of to very tight clearances o f the pump mechanism.
hydraulic filtration systems, agrees. "We've conducted
tests and have found that with hyperfine filtration and you don't stress it by shearing it or subjecting it to
(below 1 micron) bearings just don't wear out. This ties high temperatures, the fluid will not oxidize and wdl
in the need for better filtration. And it's more important remain stabile."
especially with engines that they are trying to get more Lundquist says Pall likes to recommend that mainte
and more horsepower out of. We also find that better name facilities beginning a program like this use a com-
filtration can extend the life of the oil itself, the change pany that does spectrometric oil analysis. He suggests
intervals. We have been doing some work in this area monitoring the oil closely until they are comfortable with
on helicopters and have found our programs to be how long they should use hydraulic fluid and how often
very successful. they should filter it.
"If we can improve the cleanliness of the hydraulic Finefrock says that hydraulic components have
system, you're looking at such things as improved become outrageously expensive; you're talking between
component life and a savings on hydraulic fluid where $14,000 and $15,000 for a new Skydrolmtype pump.
instead of having to change it occasionally, you can get The criticality of proper cleanliness and proper
indefinite life out of the fluid. clearances in a pump are exemplified by the f a d that
"We're finding also that if you properly maintain a if you install gears in a pump that produce a clearance
fluid by removing water (with vacuum distillation of over one and onehalf thousandths, the pump won't
purification units), filtering particulate contamination, pump fluid.

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Serrations in the surface o f the pump body indicate
excessive contamination of the hydraulic fluid in this pump.
Source of contarninatlon
Finefrock says that you need to be aware of contami-
nation from sources like rubber gaskets and seals. A
piece of rubber, although the reservoir strainer will take
it out most of the time, can take out the hydraulic pump
very quickly. &cause there's only between .001 to .002
clearance in the pump, a piece of rubber can jam
between the gears and seize the pump, which will shear
the shaft. We've also seen where rubber works its way
between the flat face of the gear and the housing and
builds until it pushes the opposite side against the hous-
ing and causes metal to metal contact. And this results
in the gear seizing.
Most contamination is primarily metal as a result of
normal wear and tear of components in the hydraulic
system, however, and this slowly wears away at the
gears and bearings in the hydraulic pump.
Hydraulic fluid will oxidize and turn sticky where
it's exposed to the air. And if you have a suction leak
and cause foaming in the reservoir, it will cause the
hydraulic fluid to break down.
You've got to remember also that when you attach
the hydraulic mule to the aircraft to cycle the gear or
other hydraulic systems for maintenance purposes, you
are changing out the fluid with the fluid in the mule at
that time. You need to be aware of this and make sure
that your fluid in the mule is fresh, clean, and properly
fdtered preferably with a 1-micron or better filter.
Some maintenance shops will go through many
aircraft maintenance checks with their mule and not
even change the fluid in the mule once. Also, you've got
to be aware that if you use the mule to purge a system
and filter contaminated hydraulic fluid, you should clean
the mule and change the fluid on the mule before using
it on another aircraft.
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In fact, the mule is a good way to 'lter the hydraulic
system occasionally if it has a good filter on it.
We've also seen some of the rubber hoses in hydrau-
lic systems break down after a period of time and begin
contaminating the system. Solid lines aren't a problem.
But rubber/synthetic hoses become brittle after a while
and small chunks of the liner break off and contaminate
the system. That's why it's important to change the
hoses out at the slightest sign of them becoming
brittle or damaged. There are too many aircraft flying
around with 20-year-old rubber hoses that have never
been changed.
Inadequate filtration systems
Finefrock says that, "one of the major problems
with aircraft hydraulic systems is that there is no real
good filter or f i a t i o n system on them. Basically, one
reservoir services the entire aircraft. And the only filter
on the system is a strainer that is on the inlet side of
the pump This is a fairly coarse mesh strainer, and I
swear to God that coffee grounds will go through. All it
will take out is some large particle, like two microns.
"A really good idea for protecting your hydraulic
system is to install a suction side filter on the aircraft
that can filter particles down to 1micron. As a matter
of fact, I've installed one on mine. All you need to do is
install a filter housing that's equipped with a bypass, and
a flow gauge to monitor the condition of the fdter (you'll
need this so that you don't cause cavitation of the
pump), and a filter, and you'll protect the pump from
ever receiving any kind of contamination. We highly
recommend putting this on the suction side of the pump
between the reservoir and the pump. You could put it
on the return side before the fluid returns to the tank,
but then you wouldn't prevent contamination that's
introduced into the reservoir from getting to the pump.
Basically, you're installing the fiter to protect the pump,
which is the most critical part of the system and most
susceptible to damage."
Finefrock continues, "Kits are available for this
purpose from various automotive or commercial sources
for a relatively low cost, and a field approval should be
relatively easy to get.
"Some of our customers install a temporary filter to
run on the system after fmdlng contamination or after a
component failure. They'll then run the system for six to
eight hours with the filter on to clean out the hydraulic
oil and then remove it for flight.
"Another option, of course, is to use a mule with a
good fdter on it and to purge the system with a mule.
But you need to do it right. You need to put it up on
jacks and run the gear up and down and cycle all of
the hydraulics to assure moving all of the oil through
the system.
"In any case, you really need a filter that is capable
of removing all contamination down to a 1micron size.
With this level of filtration, the system will operate
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance TechnologyMagazine 31
properly, you won't have any problems, you won't break
pumps, and you won't be sending them back to us for
warranty," explains Finefrock.
Some product improvements
Finefrock says that one of the changes they have
made to accommodate the inevitable introduction of
contaminates to the hydraulic system is a to replace the
bronze bearings on certain hydraulic pumps with needle-
type bearings. Contamination in the hydraulic fluid
causes conventional bronze bearings to elongate. The
result is too much play and eventually the gears begin
binding on the gear faces until it shears the drive shaft.
The modification involves boring out the existing
brass bushing, replacing it with an oversized aluminum
bushing, and then pressing in a needle bearing.
"The cost of performing this modification on an
105HBG pump, for example, is approximately $1,100,
where buying a new one is $5,600," he says.
"Additionally, we've found the need to increase the
diameter of the shear section of the drive for this same
pump. We feel that it was originally designed to fail at
too low a pressure.
"A discovery that we made, quite by accident, is that
shafts are often shearing due to malfunctioning accumu-
lators. What happens is as a result of the check valve in
the accumulator sticking, the accumulator bangs in rapid
succession, and this hammers at the drive shaft and
eventually shears it. This happened to us once on our
test bench.
"It really doesn't take much hammering either. It
only has to happen one time and it cracks the shaft, or
it can also shear the key that engages the driven gear of
the pump.
"When we receive a pump in for overhaul that has a
sheared shaft or key, we now call the customer immedi-
ately and tell them that they may have a problem with
the accumulator," says Finefrock.
He explains that if the accumulator isn't working, it
can also blow the seal out of the intake side of the
pump. "It happens because you shut the engine down
and the back pressure forces its way through the gears
and puts reverse pressure on the seal," he says.
"Many times technicians assume that it's a problem
with the pump, but if you blow out a seal, it's usually a
problem with the accumulator.
"If the seal is blown, you have to take the pump
apart to replace the seal, which means you have to put
the pump back on a test bench to make sure it works.
"When we see this,we immediately alert the mainte
nance facility that they need to repair the accumulator."
Finefrock says that another way to damage a pump
is to fail to purge the air out of the hydraulic systems
after performing maintenance on them. If you don't
purge the system and get the air out of it, the pump
cavitates and then surges, and this frequently shears the
drive, he explains.
32 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Modified pump for the purpose of making it more resistant
to wear due to contamination involves replacing the
original brass bearing with a needle bearing. First, the
brass bearing is machined out (left), an aluminum bushing
is installed (middle), and the needle bearings (right) are
installed.
"What we do is use a cap that is adapted with an air
regulator and gauge on it. We attach it to the reservoir
and put 2 1/2 pounds of pressure on it. We then take
the outlet line from the installed pump and pull the prop
through by hand or motor it to turn the pump until we
have clear fluid coming out of the discharge line, no
bubbles. Sometimes it takes a gallon or 2, but it's worth
it to save the pump. You'll never have a problem if you
do that. Directions for this are in most aircraft mainte
nance manuals," he says.
"We had one company put three pumps on down in
Georgia that had air in the system, and he called accus-
ing us of problems with the pumps. We told him if he
read the directions, that he would purge the system and
that was the problem."
More frequent maintenance please
Finefrock says he's observed that too many people
are trying to make their accessories last to TBO before
overhauling them. "We never use to do that. We use to
overhaul all of our accessories at 50 percent of TBO,and
we never had any problems. And I guarantee that it
costs very little to have a unit that's in good condition
overhauled, compared to replacing something that's
broken, especially where TBOs on engines are being
extended longer and longer. People are expecting the
accessories to last as long as these engines, and
the accessories rarely went to TBO when they were
much lower.
"Not to mention that if you wait till something in the
hydraulic system fails, there's a good chance that you'll
get contamination from the parts that have failed, such
as metallic chips, gaskets, shavings, etc., and end up
damaging other components in the system. At the very
minimum, you'll have to flush the system thoroughly."
EDl September/October 1994
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 Auto pilot INOP: Oh no!
Key to troubleshooting autopilots is in asking the right questions
By Jim Sparks
A
utomatic Flight Control Systems (AFCS) are
categorized by how many axes of flight they can
control: The single axis autopilot, found in many
small aircraft, is a device for holding the wings level.
Dual axis autopilots can sometimes coordinate aileron
and rudder, or, in other systems dual axis will work
with an on-board "yaw damper" to provide pitch and
roll control. Many systems today are threeaxis, and
integrate pitch, roll, and yaw.
Isolating malfunctions
When malfunctions in the AFCS exist. it becomes
necessary to associate the fault with a specific axis
of flight:
The itch axis is the vertical mode and control infor-
mation supplied from air data systems, radio navigation,
vertical navigation computers, or flight management
systems. Autopilot response to commands from the verti-
cal mode can be made by elevator deflection, changing
the angle of attack of the horizontal stabilizer or even
by moving trim tabs. If the flight control cannot respond
to a specific condition, the autopilot can interpret this
as a failure.
A common malfunction in the vertical mode of auto
flight is "porpoising." This is defined as "a low frequency
oscillation in the pitch axis." The usual image of a
porpoise is jumping in and out of water and not main-
taining a level path. There are various situations that
can result in porpoising. For instance, if cables are used
to conned the auto~ilotservo motor to the elevator
system and cable tensions are not correct, overcontrol is
probable and the aircraft will porpoise. Also, several
types of aircraft make pitch changes by changing the
horizontal stabilizer angle of attack. Most use an electric
motor for this. If the motor operates too slowly, the
autopilot will always be lagging and this will cause
porpoising. In an attempt to prevent this, manufacturers
sometimes incorporate "brakes" to ensure an immediate
stop and prevent overtravel.
However, the brake is often manufactured from
carbon. With wear the carbon dust accumulates between
the friction disc and rotor. This dust works as a lubri-
cant and significantly reduces the stopping power of
the brake. The result is stabilizer overrun and again,
porpoising.
Not all of these low frequency oscillations can be
blamed on mechanical components, though. Faulty
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information supplied to the auto flight system may
result in the autopilot commanding the porpoise.
The information driving the autopilot is available
from one of two sources: the pilot using a manual auto-
pilot input, or more often, a "flight guidance" or "flight
director system."
Flight directors will compile all flight data available
and summarize it using priorities issued by the pilot.
The result is a pictorial display using "V" bars or "cross-
hair pointers," typically on the attitude indicator. The
pilot can manually fly the aircraft using this display or
can allow the flight director to communicate directly
with the autopilot.
By interrupting this communication or by switching
the autopilot to a second flight director, the input
data problems can be isolated. If the porpoising stops
with an alternate flight guidance system supplying the
information, a high likelihood is that the problem is
with the primary flight director or one of its informa-
tion providers.
Operation of the autopilot in "basic mode" is usually
a good place to start fault isolation. "Basic mode" is the
condition in which the autopilot will function without
commands from the flight guidance system. Pitch hold
and vertical speed hold are the most common '%asic
vertical modes." If the autopilot is engaged without
selecting a flight director mode, the autopilot will most
likely hold the aircraft just as it was when activated.
When a porpoising problem is encountered, you
should determine if the porpoising is also occurring with
the autopilot in its basic mode. If it is, then the problem
may be associated with the basic mode sensors, air data,
attitude reference, or with the autopilot to airframe
interface. If the porpoising does not occur in the basic
mode but only with ALTitude Hold engaged, then the
sensors that supply the aircraft altitude reference and
the altitude selection may be a good beginning in the
fault isolation process.
Find out how the system performs with other vertical
modes, which are: air speed hold, mach hold, vertical
speed hold, and approach. If the porpoising disappears
during approach with the automatic flight system receiv-
ing its information from a navigation receiver vs. an air
data computer, common sense dictates that you check
the air data systems.
Other common vertical mode discrepancies include
"pumping," a low frequency control wheel movement
back and forth, "stick bump," where controls give a quick
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 33
 VERTICAL MODE CONDITIONS/PROBLEMS
SUSTAINED OSCILLATION
MISSED CAPTURE (PORPOISING)
MAGNITUDE
-PERioo_I
'.
&
.'
(TIME1
CAPTURE AND TRACK DIVERGENT OSCILLATION
CONVERGENT
STANDOFF OSCILLATION
MAGNITUDE AND
DIRECTION (UPWIND,
DOWNWIND. CRAB
ANGLE, ETCl
moderate movement with little aircraft reaction, and
"stick buzz," a high frequency small movement of the
control wheels with no aircraft response.
Lateral mode auto flight discrepancies can also prove
quite challenging. The basic lateral mode is '%a& hold,"
or in some cases "heading hold." These modes are if the
aircraft is presently making a turn and the auto pilot
is engaged the aircraft will continue to turn until the
autoflight system receives a command that has priority
over the basic mode. Other common lateral modes
include HeaDinG, NAVigation, and Approach.
The HeaDinG mode will use information provided
from the Horizontal Situation Indicator. The actual
aircraft heading is compared to a heading reference
selector. Anytime the HDG mode is activated and actual
aircraft heading does not agree with selected heading,
the AFCS will command a bank to the selected heading.
The bank angle is preprogrammed and can be automati-
cally altered, depending on aircraft speed or altitude. A
failure of the directional sensing system will usually
34 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
LATERAL MODE CONDITIONS/PROBLEMS
COURSE CUT ANGLE SUSTAINED OSCILLATION
/'MAGNITUDE
CAPTURE AND TRACK DIVERGENT OSCILLATION
CAPTURE I
TRACK M
CONVERGENT
STANDOFF OSCILLATION
DIRECTION
IUPWINO.
WWNWINO. CRAB
prevent the autopilot from being engaged. The direc-
tional system also can provide rate of turn information.
For the NAVigation mode to function a navigation
receiver has to be operational. When maneuvering with
VOR (very high frequency Omni directional Receiver)
information, not only does the NAV receiver have to be
appropriately tuned, but a course also has to be selected
for the specific station. The VOR station transmits omni
directional signals in a full 33Odegree arc. Each degree
of the arc is referred to as a VOR Radial.
The Approach function operates in a similar manner
as NAV. The gain or system responsiveness might be
modified with the aircraft in a landing configuration
since airspeed is usually much lower than during cruise.
This means the autoflight system will have to use
greater flight control deflections.
This sensitivity adjustment is made using airspeed
information or radio altitude. Localizer gain program-
ming can also be activated by h u n g a NAV receiver to
an Instrument Landing System frequency. Malfunctions
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 in the gain programming can cause problems such
as oscillations. The autoflight system continually over-
corrects and the aircraft cannot properly track the
NAV signal.
The yaw axis is usually controlled by a rudder auto-
pilot servo or yaw damper. This function is used to
ensure turn coordination and to prevent slip. During
high speed flight, if airflow over an outboard wing is
disrupted, a wing dip could result. If uncorrected, this
asymmetric adlow could result in a dutch roll. A yaw
damper can provide immediate rudder response to
prevent the dutch roll tendency.
The primary source of information for rudder control
is a yaw sensing gyro. Some systems will use the normal
inertial reference system for this information. Other
manufacturers will use an independent yaw gyro. Yaw
damper authority, or the amount of rudder deflection,
can be regulated by airspeed. In many cases discrepan-
cies with the yaw damper can be related to airframe or
engine problems. If a flap system is rnisrigged and one
flap is extended slightly, this will cause an asymmetry in
wing airflow and the yaw damper will have to compen-
sate. In some systems a continuous yaw damp command
signal will result in a yaw damp disconnect. When the
yaw damper can be engaged and consistently discon-
nects, a good place to start troubleshooting is with
checking flight control rigging, engine alignment or
asymmetric thrust, and even possible fuel imbalance.
In most AF'CS the yaw damper can be engaged with-
out the autopilot, but the autopilot will not engage
without the yaw damper.
A good guideline to follow when faced with an
autoflight discrepancy is based on two rules:
1. Before taking any action, determine conditions when
the problem exists.
2. Get the flight crew to give a complete description of
the problem.
Asking questions
There are many questions to be asked for accurate
diagnosis. Here are a few to keep in mind:
Are any fault annunciators illuminated?
Which flight axis is experiencing the problem?
In what modes or conditions does the problem occur?
Is the problem related to flaps, landing gear, or
airbrakes?
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Does it occur only at certain engine power setting?
Is airspeed a factor?
Is altitude a factor?
Does the problem occur in more than one flight
guidance mode?
Could the problem occur with a specific sequence 01
mode selection?
Do only certain radio frequency selections give
the problem?
Does the problem only occur when using a radio
transmitter?
Does the weather radar have an effect?
Remember, even the configuration of electrical
power sources (alternators, generators, inverters) may
introduce malfunctions.
Built in test equipment
In AFCS using digital technology it is common to
find Built In Test Equipment BITE. This is used to
continually monitor the AFCS and record any faults.
This memory can then be accessed and the displayed
fault code translated to locate the failure. These "flight
fault" memories, in many cases, can be erased by remov-
ing power from the system. It is essential to inform the
flight crew to leave the system powered so any fault
codes can be recovered. Prior to troubleshooting any
AF'CS discrepancy and after a thorough crew debrief, it's
beneficial to obtain an operating manual for the specific
installation and read about how it's really supposed to
work. The airframe manufacturer's maintenance manu-
als, Airline Transport Association-Chapter 22 "Auto
Flight" and Chapter 34 "Navigationn-can add depth to
the text of the operating description. This sometimes is
sufficient to make a knowledgeable judgment as to faulty
components. If the problem can't be diagnosed at this
level, it may be necessary to get avionic manufacturers'
1 manuals and installation diagrams. July/August 1994
Jim Sparks is an instructor for Flightsafety Intema-
tional in Little Rock, AR. He has over 13years of
maintenance instruction and holds an A&P and
FCC certificate.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 35
Large aircraft air conditioning
An overview

By Jim Benson

T
o transport passengers and crews from point A to
point B comfortably, an aircraft's environment
must be designed to satisfy any demands that will
be encountered during a flight. To do this air inside the
cabin is modified with a process called air conditioning.
Air conditioning is the process of treating air so as
to control simultaneously its temperature, humidity,
cleanliness, and distribution.
The Garrett Corporation, a division of Allied Signal
of Phoenix, AZ, furnishes about 90 percent of environ-
mental systems for the aircraft produced in the free
world, and today, virtually all modern commercial air-
craft use an air cycle system called an air-conditioning
pack (short for package). The basic supply of air for an
airconditioning pack while in fhght comes from the
aircraft's engines. When parked, it comes from a builtin
auxiliary power unit called an APU.
The air is commonly referred to as pneumatic air and
is bled from the compressor sections of the engines or
APU. Newer air-conditioning systems have been designed
to run so efficiently they use less of this pneumatic air
source, thereby, allowing more air to be used by the
engines or by smaller more efficient APUs.
Improvements in the design and operation of air-
conditioning systems have
led to less maintenance,
higher efficiency, and
better troubleshooting.
Computers not only
monitor and control the
operation but store fault
information and data
for current and future
interrogation to help keep
the system running at
peak performance. This
translates directly to
lower maintenance and
fuel expenses.
The air-conditioning pack
A basic airconditioning pack is made up of a pack
flowcontrol valve, two heat exchangers, a bypass valve,
anti-ice valve, air cycle machine, and a water separator.
The air is typically bled from the engine at about 45
pounds of pressure and 400°F. The bleed air enters the
pack through the flowcontrol shuboff valve. This valve
can be a combination shuboff and flowcontrol valve, or
separate shuhff and flowcontrol valve. Its purpose is to
start or stop the pack and control the volume of air
based on the area to be heated or cooled.
The flowcontrol valve is basically a venturi with a
valve. When closed, it can act as a shuboff valve and
when open it is modulated to control the flow of air. If
we measure the air pressure at either end of the venturi
and compare it to the air pressure at the throat, we find
that the air pressure at the throat of the venturi is lower
than air pressure at either end.
This difference in pressure is affected by the amount
of air flowing through it, so the greater the flow of air,
the greater the difference in pressure. This difference in
pressure is used to control the movement of the valve,
thus controlling the amount of air flowing to the air-
conditioning pack.

Air-cycle air conditioner

36 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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 After the air passes
through the flow-control
shutr~ffvalve, it's routed
through a heat exchanger.
The heat exchangers are a
radiator-type device that
uses ram air or a cooling
fan (or both) as a heat
sink to cool down the air
before it enters the air
cycle machine.
The typical air cycle
machine (ACM) consists
of a centrifugal-type
compressor and turbine.
When the cooled air en-
ters the ACM's compres-
sor, the air is compressed,
thereby, increasing its
velocity and temperature.
This increase in tempera-
ture brings the compres-
sor output temperature
back to what it was when Air-conditioning system of a jet transport airplane using an aircycle system.
it entered the heat
exchanger, but the air velocity is now increased. The turbine of the ACM. Now the pack output can go below
compressor outlet temperature increase is closely moni- 35°F without freezing anything because there is not
tored and if it is too high, the pack will be signaled to enough moisture left in the air. The two additional heat
shut down. This feature protects the subsequent heat exchangers are sealed units with two passageways. As
exchanger in the pack. If the air is too hot, it will warp the air passes through, the first heat exchanger will
the cooling fins and destroy the exchanger, plus it will be remove some heat and the second will pick up the heat
too hot for a sufficient pack output temperature. that was extracted on the first pass.
The next path for the air depends on the type of pack The first exchanger is called a reheater and the
installed in the aircraft. In older traditional pack sys- second one is called a condenser. The condenser is
tems, the air is routed to the turbine section of the air cooled by the pack output and thus has the most effect
cycle machine where the air is expanded. This results in in cooling the airflow below the dew point. The second
lower velocity air with a cooler output. The moisture pass of the air through the reheater absorbs the heat
content of this expanded air must now be removed with removed on the first pass to raise the air above the dew
a water separator. point before entering the turbine. The second pass
This brings us to one of the weaknesses related to through the condenser absorbs the heat removed on the
this type of system. With this style of airconditioning first pass which will raise the pack output temperature.
pack, if the temperature drops below 35"F, the water will But because of the low output temperature of the ACM
freeze as it passes through the water separator and turbine will produce a colder output than in a traditional
block the pack output. To prevent this, an anti-ice valve system with the 35°F limited output.
is installed, which bypasses some of the hot air upstream This colder pack output means that less pack air
of the aircycle machine to prevent the output from is needed to satisfy the temperature demands of the
going below 35°F. This type of air-conditioning system, cockpit and cabin. This results in fuel savings because
therefore, is limited to a low pack temperature output less air is bled from the engines to run the pack.
of 35°F. The newer systems and some of the older systems
have another improvement which involves the air cycle
New generation packs machine itself. Older ACMs have oil bearings which need
In the newer advanced air-conditioning pack before servicing to make sure there is enough oil to prevent
the air is routed to the turbine it will pass through two bearing failures and the destruction of the ACM itself.
additional heat exchangers. They will drop the tempera- Newer units have air bearings which nearly eliminate
ture below the dew point thus forcing the water into servicing requirements.
suspension. The moist air goes through a water separa- A common procedure with old style ACMs with bear-
tor which will remove the water before entering the ings is to bypass the ACM in flight to slow it down. To

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 37

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do this the ram air doors are opened to allow more out
side air to flow across the heat exchangers and make up
for the idling ACM. This results in more drag on the
airframe, however, and a higher fuel burn. With the
newer ACMs and a resulting cooler pack output, the ram
air doors can be kept closed for better overall efficiency.

Controlling pack output

There are various methods of controlling the pack
output temperature. The first method is by allowing
more air to flow across the heat exchangers to give a
colder pack output. Another method involves controlling
the speed of the ACM. A faster turning ACM result. in a
colder pack output, so it follows that by controlling the
ACM speed, you're also controlling the pack temperature.
This is accomplished by opening the bypass valve
which will bypass warmer air to the pack output to raise
the pack output temperature. Because of the parallel
path that the air takes, it will slow down the ACM, which
will further raise the temperature. This gives the opera-
tor a wide range of control over the air-conditioning
pack output.
Because there might be some conditions where not
all of the moisture is removed, another device called
an anti-ice or a low limit valve is installed to prevent
the condenser from freezing up. This unit is normally
a pneumatically controlled valve that monitors the
pressure drop across the condenser. If the pressure drop
becomes greater because of the freezing of air passages,
the valve is commanded to open and add warm air to
melt the ice.
The final part of the airconditioning system is a It will then cycle on and off to keep the house at the
mixing chamber. This is where the pack output air is desired setting. Essentially the same events occur on
mixed with warmer air for temperature control. This is an aircraft.
typically used on some older systems like DG9 and 727 On newer aircraft, the air-conditioning packs are
type aircraft. This is not a desirable type of an air- commanded to feed their outputs to the mixing chamber
conditioning system because there are two separate along with the recirculated air (if so equipped) to satisfy
packs that receive temperature information and demands the demands of the lowest selected zone. The warmer
from two different sources. One source is the passenger demands of the remaining zones are satisfied by adding
cabin and the other is the cockpit. The result is two some hot air called trim air. This is more efficient than
separate packs feeding a common mixing chamber with older aircraft where the packs try to satisfy individual
two different outputs, which is like having two packs zones. Unlike the example of the house, the packs
fighting each other. keep running to keep the temperature constant. This is
Newer aircraft, 747, 757, DC-10, A3209 etc., employ a necessary because the air is being dumped overboard
mixing chamber with pack inputs, and recirculate cabin through an outflow valve to satisfy the aircraft's pressur-
and cockpit air via recirculation fans. This cuts back on ization system.
the amount of pack air required to accomplish the same Sensors are installed in the systems that feed infor-
job performed with the older systems. Normally, these mation to computers to monitor and control the packs.
new systems result in a 50/50 mixture of fresh air and Overheat sensors will monitor such things as bleed air,
recirculated air. Again, the result is more fuel savings. which will shut off the bleed air supply if it exceeds the
Think of the controls of aircraft air conditioning like design limits. Sensors will also signal a pack to shut
the thermostat in your house. You input a demand by down if the compressor outlet temperature or the tem-
turning a dial to a desired temperature. This signal is perature at the inlet to the turbine gets too high. Also if
sent to the furnace to tell either heat or the air condi- the pack output temperature gets too high, the pack will
tioning to turn on. When the house temperature is met, be commanded to a colder setting, and if that doesn't
the thermostat signals the heating or cooling to stop. help, the pack is shut down.

38 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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 There are also sensors in the ducts going up to the
cabin and cockpit so that if too much trim heat is added,
the pack is commanded to a colder output. These sen-
sors also turn on fault lights and warning lights in the
cockpit and can send messages to CRTs in the cockpit
which can aid in troubleshooting or recommend alter-
nate means of controlling a faulty system.
Other sensors help the computer to control the valves
and ram air doors. They also control the pack outputs
and monitor the mixing chamber and duds for proper
operation of the trim air and hot air valves. Finally there
are temp sensors and temp bulbs in the cabin and
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cockpit zones. These sensors feed information to the
computer to signal when hot or cold air is needed.
Although some of the newer systems are provided
w i t h built-in troubleshooting, it's still as important as
ever to understand the basics. Information obtained
from the maintenance and troubleshooting manuals is
a great aid in the repair of these systems. D
May/June 1994
Jim Benson is a training instructor for Northwest
Airlines in Detroit.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 39
Keeping corrosion at bay
The key is in knowledge and prevention
w ith the recent focus by the general aviation
industry on corrosion control, there is a
definite need in the industry for more educa-
tion on corrosion.
A thorough knowledge of corrosion: why it occurs,
how t o limit its effects, how to identity it and how to
correct it can significantly reduce the costs and down-
time associated with its repair.
Whether or not they have formal corrosion inspection
programs, airplane manufacturers would have to agree,
corrosion is a threat to any aircraft, regardless of make
or when it was built.
The basics
As materials corrode, they attempt to return to their
original elements. This is a natural phenomenon that
occurs to all material, but it can be particularly destruc-
tive to metal.
In the 1950s and early 1960s, the two primary
considerations in selecting materials for aircraft were
ultimate tensile strength and light weight. 7000 Series
aluminum alloy treated to the T6 temper became widely
used by jet air-frame manufacturers.
The industry employed these alloys for many years.
However, as the first jet aircraft came of age in the
1960s, manufacturers and owners discovered that the
tempered alloys showed an increased susceptibility
towards stress corrosion cracking and in heavy section
structures to general corrosion. From that time to
the present, manufacturers have been faced with the
challenge of finding extremely strong, lightweight materi-
als which will resist corrosion.
By the early 1960s, metals experts had developed a
new heabtreat process called "overaging," which included
the T7 and T8 tempers for 7000 Series alloy. Overaging
is a process which yielded alloys that were more resis
tant to stress corrosion cracking and, in heavy section
structures, t o general corrosion. Unfortunately, this
process also lowered the tensile strength of the alloys.
Because many aircraft had been designed to employ
T6 alloys, adoption of the weaker "overaged" alloys would
have meant redesigning entire aircraft.
So manufacturers waited until the advent of its next
aircraft model or next major redesign before using the
overaged materials. So it was really the mid 1960s before
the new alloys were adopted.
Over time, however, the industry has responded by
developing new alloys that offer even better corrosion
resistance and strength.
40 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
With each new aircraft designed, aircraft makers
tried to employ the latest and best that technology had
to offer.
Corrosion of metal is a primary concern as it eats
away at the structural integrity of the aircraft. Chemical
or electrochemical corrosion over time will change metal
into metallic compounds, such as rust.
Corrosion to metal accelerates in the presence of
an electrolyte. Electrolytes can be substances like water
or other contaminating materials that allow electrical
current to flow from a positively charged area to a
negatively charged area.
This flow of electrons results in metallic deterioration
and compounds like oxide that are formed from the
metal. The longer the metal is in contact with an electro-
lyte, the more likely it is that corrosion will occur.
Corrosion takes many different forms. Pitting, for
example, is a localized form of corrosion confined to
small areas of metallic surfaces. Pitting usually occurs
after the paint surface or other protective film has been
removed or penetrated. Exfoliation is a severely destruc-
tive form of corrosion where sections of metal actually
leaf out from the rest of the metal. By the time exfolia-
tion is detected, the strength of the part is impaired.
Attempts at prevention
It's no secret that many alloys, including aluminum
alloys, can corrode within a few years unless coated with
an effective finish system.
During the 1950s and early 1960s, and today, manu-
facturers typically applied a three-part system consisting
of a chemical conversion coating, primer, and, in the
case of exterior components, a topcoat. Each component
of the system plays a different role. The chemical conver-
sion coating provides both a surface to which the primer
can adhere and some corrosion protection. The primer
gives additional corrosion protection, and is a substrate
for the topcoat. And the topcoat gives color to the air-
craft, while protecting the primer from environmental
and mechanical damage.
Early finish systems, which utilized anodizing or
alodining, a chromated alkyd resin primer and a nitre
cellulose topcoat, provided moderate topcoat protection,
but required frequent stripping and repainting. In the
mid 1960s, the airframe industry adopted a number of
finish improvements, including the use of Epoxy polya-
mide primer and polyurethane as a topcoat material.
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-TI,-
(ELE-ED
CURRENT
H FlJJw L
Epoxy polyamide proved to be tough, durable, and
virtually impervious to water and aircraft fluids. Epoxy-
based primers were also available with corrosion inhibi-
tors such as zinc chromate mixed into the primer.
Although not as durable as pure epoxy, chromated
epoxies offered the added ability to mend minor
breaches in the finished surfaces.
Today, manufacturers can choose from among numer-
ous chromated primers, some employing zinc, barium,
calcium or strontium chromate or combinations thereof.
They may also choose nonchromated polyurethane
finishing systems. Interestingly, due to today's environ-
mental regulations, the industry stands at a crossroads
in developing new water-based nonchromated aircraft
coatings.
Many of these various finishes, both old and new,
provide an effective barrier to the elements. However,
none last forever and all of them must be rigorously
preserved through regular maintenance.
Many factors affect the level and rate of corrosion
which occurs to a specific aircraft or part. In addition,
geographic location and environment are significant
factors. Aircraft located in areas that frequently experi-
ence adverse conditions, such as saltwater areas, heavy
industrial areas, soils and dust in the air and tropical
climates, can encourage corrosive attack.
How an aircraft is used and how often can also
influence the rate of corrosion. The FAA in one of its
advisory circulars (43-4) says, "To postpone inspections
or corrective action because something new in corrosion
control is 'just around the corner' is ultimately an
expensive proposition."
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Airframe Technolo@y
Some answers
Preventive maintenance of the aircraft on a regular
schedule is the only sound practice. It minimizes the
cost of labor and productive time loss. It also puts both
of these costs on a predictable basis, and removes
uncertainty and guesswork on the actual equipment.
Removal of electrolyte (cleaning the aircraft) and
contaminating materials like moisture, salt, dirt, or
grease is the most important preventive procedure that
maintenance personnel can perform on the aircraft.
As the FAA reported as far back as 1973, the
primary approach to corrosion detection is visual. There
are areas, however, that are obstructed from view by
structural members or equipment installation. Ingenuity
should be encouraged as long as the improvised inspec-
tion methods are thorough.
If corrosion is detected, it should be treated in
accordance with accepted repair practices. If questions
arise during the course of inspection or repair or part
replacement, it's prudent to contact the manufacture,
and get involved in the repair scheme.
In an attempt to provide detailed information about
preventive maintenance procedures, Sabreliner Corpora-
tion introduced its Corrosion Control Inspection Guide
in 1989. This guide identifies additional areas on the
aircraft that should receive more than a cursory inspec-
tion. With input from the Sabreliner operator's advisory
panel, the guide was expanded into a complete corrosion
inspection program.
Sabreliner consolidated the inspections in the guide
and published them in 1990 as part of the required
recurrent maintenance inspection in Chapter 5 of the
Sabreliner maintenance manual.
Compliance with the inspections became mandatory
for all Sabreliners being operated under Chapter 5
within 12 months of publication of the manual. During
this initial 12-month compliance period, Sabreliner was
able to acquire a sigmficant amount of data relating to
corrosion as it inspected nearly 100 Sabreliner aircraft,
representing all models.
Examples of some findings include:
Camp Card 53.022 calls for a visual inspection of
the lefb and righbhand splice between the center skin
and fuselage stations 99 - 156 to detect any distinctive
bubbling or pillowing of the skin or flaws in the paint
or sealer. Bubbling or pillowing would indicate that
corrosion is present between the two materials. In more
severe cases, rivet heads begin to cup, as the hidden
1 structure begins to exfoliate. In the most severe cases,
1 rivet heads actually pop loose.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 41
 The skin was removed to further investigate the area.
Cracked or deteriorated sealer is also visual evidence
that there may be corrosion. Anytime that you identity
such a condition performing any of the inspections,
the sealer must be scraped away to take a closer look.
Assuming that nothing further is needed after identify-
ing cracked or deteriorated sealer is always improper.
This is particularly true in window areas. There is case
after case where corrosion is identified on the window
frame after the sealer is removed.
There are many cases where minor corrosion can
be removed, treated and primed and the parts replaced
without replacement parts.
To generalize, when major structural part replace
ment is necessary, the use of specialized tooling is
required to assure proper alignment of the fuselage.
42 The Best ofAircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
When corrosion is discovered, it's critical that correc-
tive action be taken to repair or replace the affected area
in accordance with appropriate practices. Postponing
corrective action is not only an expensive proposition in
terms of dollars but, more importantly, it compromises
the integrity of the airframe.
Corrosion is a continuing process. The safety of
any aircraft ultimately depends on a thorough ongoing
corrosion control and inspection program. kBi
MarchlApril1994
!l%e precedinginformation is from Saberliner
Corporation's Corrosion Education Control and
Prevention videotape.
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 Going beyond the requirements in a
helicopter airframe inspection
By John Boyce
Contributing Editor
S
AN ANTONIO, TX-Kerby Neff is like many
aircraft technicians; he doesn't get a lot of calls
to explain for publication how and why he does or
does not do things.
Neff, the director of maintenance at Helicopter
Specialists, Inc. just outside this south central Texas city,
has been working on helicopters for over 13 years.
During that time he has learned that with some items
on an inspection checklist, you don't go by the book,
you exceed the book. It's just that he's so used to doing
things rather than explaining them that the things
that experience has taught him don't necessarily jump
to mind.
"I guess if I thought for a while I could come up with
some things that go beyond what the manual tells you,"
Neff says. "But the 100-hour inspection on this ship is
pretty simple. The checklist covers just about everything.
It didn't used to-but now I think they've just about got
everything covered."
This ship is a Schweizer 269C helicopter owned by
the San Antonio Police Department. It's at Helicopter
Specialists for a 100-hour inspection. The 100-hour
inspection checklist on this aircraft runs to 40 items,
each of which is clearly distinguished from the others
with a carefully lined box and a place for the technician's
initials after each item. The boxing was Neff's idea.
"I've done it with all the inspection checklists," Neff
says. "It makes it easier to read and there's no confusion
over which item you're reading. The feds like it because
they can quickly read it and see that each item is
inspected."
Tail rotor cables
In inspecting the Schweizer 269C Neff takes extra
care with the tail rotor cables. The checklist does dictate
inspection of the cables for fraying, chaffing, broken
strands and corrosion. However, Neff and Helicopter
Specialists' general manager Harry Geyer have found
that simply checking the cables as dictated by the check-
list is not enough.
"The last major problem we had was a tail rotor cable
break on a customer's machine," Neff says. "We inspected
the tail rotor cable system as dictated by the 100-hour
checklist. That basically tells you to inspect it with refer-
ence to the HMI (Handbook of Maintenance Instruction).
The HMI tells you to visually inspect everything; how-
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ever, it doesn't tell you to remove the cables and look at
them much like you would on some fixed wing setups;
draw a rag over it and see if you can catch a loose
strand without doing it with your fingers.
"The tail rotor cable setup on this ship is pretty
simple; it only runs from the bell crank in the front of
the floor to the aft section on the center frame and its
push-pull tube and bell crank in the back.
"There are actually only two sections of cables
because in the middle they have a switch-ball; then it
goes over the bell cranks on the front and the back.
They hook together with two turnbuckles.
"The cable makes a hard 9Odegree turn right under
the co-pilot's seat and goes over two pulleys. It's in a box
section underneath the floor and it's verv hard to see.
If you can get a rag in there, you can really only get the
outer section (of the cable) that goes in the groove. You
can't get the part that runs in the groove of the pulley.
That's where we had the break."
Consequently, Neff now physically pulls those pulleys
to get enough slack in the cable for close inspection
and cleaning.
"The way that engine generates airflow, being close
to the ground and landing in dusty environments, those
cables take a beating," Neff says. "The HMI doesn't say
to dismantle that assembly but I always do now after
that one snapped. That cable probably had about 2,400
to 2,600 hours on it."
"When we started inspecting this way," says Geyer,
"we found another three or four of them that were fixing
to do the same thing. Some had a lot more time on
them, some had less so you can't go by the time on it;
you have to look at it closely."
Tail rotor control and drive systems
The entire tail rotor control and the tail rotor drive
systems in all Helicopter Specialists' inspections come
under close scrutiny because they are two of the most
critical systems in the helicopter. "On any of the helicop
ters I've ever worked on," Neff says, "the tail rotor drive
system and the tail rotor control system are the parts
you really have to worry about. They are probably the
weakest links in the machines. If you lose them they
can get you into the most trouble. I have always had
a tendency to keep a cl ose eye on those two systems-
above and beyond what the book says to do.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 43
 "You don't know if somebody has serviced some of
the old KP bearings or not. They don't tend to get a lot
of attention. Nobody ever takes them out and greases
them, and they need it. Eventually, you can tell there is
something wrong if you get a lot of play in the control
system, but you really can't tell the state of the grease in
each one of those bearings without removing each and
everyone of them. Most of the bearings down there are
like that and those down at the tail rotor pedals.
"Those bearings are down under the ship and they
pick up a lot of dirt. On one that we inspected, the tail
rotor pedals were stiff and the customer had gotten used
to it and never mentioned it. Then they got 'notchy' and
all it turned out to be was the cross-shafts and the bush-
ings just for the mechanisms that make the pedals work
had gotten full of grit and dirt. So those items we check
real close."
Landing skids
Helicopter Specialists has a lot of experience with
helicopters that are used in ranching applications. This
means, many times, the aircraft are transported by
trailer, which is particularly hard on landing gear skids.
As a result, Neff has developed the habit of carefully
checking the bearings in the landing skid of any helicop
ter he works on, particularly ones that have the older
friction dampers rather than the newer elastomeric
dampers.
Neff says he physically unloads those bearings to
check them by jacking up the aircraft to do a shake test.
"The trained eye can actually look and tell if you've
got wear, but somebody that doesn't know where those
parts should sit in relation with the other assemblies,
44 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
the next higher assembly, would not be able to tell if
there was wear because you can grab hold and shake it
while it's sitting on the ground and there won't be any
physical play. We usually jack them up and do a shake
test on it. Then you can really tell what kind of looseness
and play you've got in there."
Looking at everything
Neff says that the clutch actuary cable or lower cou-
pling drive shaft should receive normal service at every
inspection, but he has been removing the lower pulley
for years because that is one sure way to determine if
there has been an engine overspeed.
"I've had people overspeed the engine and not even
tell us about it," Neff says. "It's the quickest place you
can get to on normal maintenance where you can tell if
the engine has been oversped."
Although it isn't mandated, Neff removes the console
between the two seats of the Schweizer 269C because it
gives him an "excuse to go in there and look at all of
those controls that go through that area. It doesn't tell
you to physically remove that cover, but I want to see
everything under there. There's a throttle control and
lower longitudinal rod and those control rods go up
to the main rotors. It's just a good idea to take a look
at those.
"I've found problems just from one lOOhour inspec-
tion to the next in some of the bell cranks. They have a
ball-me bearing and those things will seize up from lack
of grease and actually cause the outer race to ruin the
casting of the bell crank that it's pressed into. Those
little bell cranks are quite expensive." El
January/February 1994
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 Getting a grasp on hydraulic systems
By B.J. High

I t was a dark and stormy night. I was wishing I was

on Snoopy's dog house, but, no such luck. F a d
was, I was easing out of the wheel well of a modern
corporate jet aircraft, soaked in hydraulic fluid, and
trying to remember where I had gone wrong. Yeah, I
hadn't been on this type of aircraft for all that long and
I had already put in my eight hours.
Then with the flash of a nearby lightning strike,
an apparition appeared and I heard a voice from
the darkness.
"What?" I said. And the voice came back, "I make
laws, send you to school, buy you books, and even send
an old hand around from time to time to give you a clue
and look at you. You're a mess, and so is the airplane."
"What do you mean make laws," I said. "Who are
you, anyway?"
"Pascal's the name. I'm the guy who put a l l the effort
into figuring out how fluid works under pressure and
put it into words so most can understand. I did this so formed here
you wouldn't have to get wet when you break a connec-
tion on a hydraulic system without bleeding down the Typical gear-type pump.
accumulator."
"Oh," I said, realizing that I had not bled the accumu- Basic systems
lator off before I broke the E n u t on that line. "Oh well,
it's bled now," I said. Systems range from simple to complex. Simple being
That was a long time ago and I wasn't the first nor a hydraulic jack, and a complex system being the hydrau-
the last maintenance technician to forget his place in lic system on a jumbo jet aircraft. And yet these have a
the physical world. But the laws of hydraulics stiU apply, common bond. They apply pressure to a fluid, and cause
and they apply not only to aircraft, but looking around work to be done.
our world we see heavy equipment, manufacturing In order to stay out of the engineer's domain, we will
equipment, farm equipment, to name a few, heavily keep it simple but with the idea that if we understand
involved in the application of Pascal's law. the way it works, we won't get wet, won't have to work
so late and will fix it right the first time.
The law An aircraft hydraulic system (like many systems used
in aircraft) consists of pumps, valves, pressure regulation
Pascal's law says that if pressure's applied to any devices, controls and indicating systems. Because these
part of a confined liquid, the pressure's transmitted with components are often arranged within the aircraft in
undiminished intensity to every other part of that liquid. a manner so that the technician can't get a finger on
To an engineer, this means lots of mathematics and them, much less a wrench, a review of components is
formulas in order to design a system that performs the in order.
work the way we want it to. But to us technicians, it
means that we can identdy, troubleshoot and repair Reservoirs
hydraulic systems without getting wet and with only
having to do it once. So if you know the normal opera- I love it when we speak French. But it's only a tank.
tion and the basic design of a hydraulic system, it will Sometimes it's a tank which stores and supplies fluid for
make the job much easier. the system and is sitting alone, high in the aircraft,
someplace where any air in the system will work its way
up and be bled off through venting or a manual bleed
valve. And some reservoirs are pressurized to prevent
foaming at altitude, ensuring the pump gets fluid and
not air.

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Airframe Technology
m i c a 1 symbols used in fluid power diagrams.
Some reservoirs use a standpipe inside to allow a
remaining amount of fluid in the pipe to supply an emer-
gency system in case the main volume becomes depleted
due to a malfunction downstream.
An emergency hand pump might get its fluid directly
from the standpipe while the main pumping station (like
an enginedriven pump) may get its supply from the
main volume of the reservoir.
Pumps
The pump delivers fluid at a rate needed to do the
work. If the load offers resistance to the fluid flow, pres-
sure will build up in all of the places where the fluid
flows. This can be felt in a hand pump as your arm gets
tired. Pascal's law branches out here and says, "The
greater the resistance, the quicker your arm gives out,"
or something to that effect.
There are complete technical training courses devel-
oped for pumps alone. There are so many different
types. But we'll limit this discussion to a prominent few.
The easiest to understand is the hand pump. It has a
piston, two ports and a check valve. When the lever on
the piston moves the piston in one direction, it draws
fluid into its little cylinder from the inlet port. If your
arm has not become too weak from that, you can move
(push) the lever the other way and a check valve (ball
46 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
and spring) prevents the fluid from going back out the
inlet, and makes it go out the outlet.
If you push hard enough, and there's resistance of a
load present, a pressure will result within the entire flow
stream. If the piston on our pump has an area of 1
square inch, and it takes 5 pounds of force to move the
load, you could cause a pressure gauge (if you had one
included in the circuit) to indicate 5 pounds per square
inch, or 5 psi, the pressure applied throughout the
pressure system.
Enginedriven pumps are used in most aircraft as the
main pressure source and they too can be of varying
types. There are gear-, vane and piston-type pumps
which also vary in their delivery style.
Variable delivery pumps use an internal compensab
ing unit to control the flow and pressure demands
placed on the pump. These pumps typically idle in free
flow when no systems are requiring work to be done.
Constant delivery pumps move the same amount of
fluid all the time, regardless of the demand. If several
systems need pressure at the same time, somebody has
to wait. (Ever see a DG3 gear go up?)
Piston pumps are intricate in their design, but, like
many things in life, they're more design than substance.
They are typically expensive, hard to fix and don't work
as well as gear-type pumps.
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 Accumulators
This is the dude that will get you. Just when you
think you have no pressure on the system (no pumps on,
no electrical power on, what could go wrong?). Well, this
is the unit that can store fluid under pressure. By doing
that, it's storing energy. Energy that can do work if you
direct it to the right place. But if you break a line that's
in the pressure path, you're going to have Pascal's law
all over you, the hangar floor and the airplane.
The accumulator has two chambers in it. One for
hydraulic fluid, and the other has a pro charge of nitre
gen of a pressure ranging in excess of 1,500 to 2,000 psi,
depending on the designed operating pressure. Some
units separate the two chambers by a diaphragm, while
some are a cylindrical design with a floating piston
separating the chambers. To allow maintenance down-
stream of the fluid side of an accumulator, the remain-
ing trapped system pressure must be reduced to zero by
relieving the pressure back to return until the piston (or
diaphragm) has bottomed out inside the accumulator
housing, leaving only the precharge of nitrogen remain-
ing. Most systems using accumulators provide a manual
valve for this purpose.
m
? Thermal relief valves are much like a check valve
4
s except they a d as a vent for any over pressurization of
Closed center, fourpart, poppet-type selector valve.
Control valves
Control valves direct the pressure to where you want
it to go. That is, you can use the same pressure source
(pump) to operate many different actuators, doing many
different jobs about the aircraft. Someone must tell the
valves when they are to open or close because without
us technicians, they are stupid. Some valves are hand-
operated (like with a selector lever), some are electrically
controlled (solenoid or electric motor driven), and some
are operated by the hydraulic fluid under pressure
(shuttle or sequence valves). Obviously, some valves are
smarter than others. Many selector valves provide a port
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to direct the flow of pressure by use of a ported cylinder
or piston (spool valve), and the ported selector will
usually provide a second ported path to allow for return
flow from the actuated unit.
Actuators
Actuating cylinders convert energy from the hydraulic
fluid into motion. These are the guys that actually
displace the load when the pressure gets to its piston.
Pascal says, "Because of the pressure on it, it'll move."
For, you see, the pressure is undiminished at all points.
So, with a push rod connected to the piston, they will
move together against a load.
Singleaction actuators apply force in only one direc
tion, while doubleaction actuators will apply force on
both the extension stroke or retracting stroke. When
troubleshooting hydraulic systems, we must remember
that when the piston inside the actuator is moving in
one direction (such as the extending stroke) something
must replace the area it's moving away from. It will not
move very far if it puts a giant suck on the part of the
cylinder it's vacating. On a singleaction actuator, it
may be vented to atmosphere. On a doubleaction unit,
hydraulic fluid will flow into the evacuated space and
prevent liquid lock.
Condiments
You need salt, pepper and lots of catsup to allow the
real food to form a great meal. So, you need several little
items in the hydraulic system to make it work right.
Check valves, thermal relief valves, pressureregulating
valves, system relief, all make the real stuff in the
system perform smoothly.
Check valves have a neat little ball and spring that
will allow flow of fluid in only one direction. Some also
have a drilled port called an orifice, and will d o w just a
tiny bit of back flow. This might be used to prevent
trapped pressure you don't want.
a section of line, or a component due to landing late on
a cool night, and tomorrow's sun causing the fluid to
expand so as to possibly rupture a line, or something.
(More rag wrenches, please.)
Pressure-regulating valves do just that. Some do it by
being placed where any fluid pumped must pass through
it and get regulated to a constant designed pressure
value. Others do it by controlling the angle of the rotat-
ing plate in a piston-type pump and thereby control the
pressure directly at the source.
System relief valves are the pop-off valves of the
system. Any excessive buildup of pressure will be
relieved as in the thermal relief valve, but will allow
for much more flow.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 47
 (MIL-H-83282). While it's
ACTUATOR
CVVER considered to be compatc
/ \ ible with 5606, you should
mix only when needed to
service up the system on
a temporary basis.
And then there's
Pascal's favorite, phos-
phate ester (she may have
been Pascal's daughter).
Known to most of us as
Skydrol or Hyjet, this
fluid @UL-H-8446) ia
potent stuff and the main-
tenance manuals of all the
aircraft that use it have a
listing of safety precau-
tions about it. Be sure you
follow them. Skydrol 500
is blue, 500A/B are
purple, and 7000 is light
green. These systems use
butyl rubber seals.
So, here we are at
the hangar, 10 o'clock
at night, I am missing
1 the continuing saga of
Complete basic aircraft hydraulic system using both an enginedriven pump and a hand pump. Maxwell Smart reruns
on Nick at Nite, and
guess what? An early
Hydraulic fluid launch and a hydraulic selector valve to change. But now
None of the above mentioned components can do I have arisen in status to director of maintenance, corpo-
much without a transmitting medium. That medium is rate aviation department, which means now it's me and
a fluid that can meet the requirements of our aircraft one new guy that's working on his A&P ticket.
system. It must be fire safe (have a high fire point and "I'll go to the supply room and get the parts while
flash point). It must be chemically stable in order to you start removing the valve," I said.
withstand the extreme conditions of altitude and tem- About the time I got to the supply drawer, I heard
perature variations, and the viscosity must be compatible that cbeaded sound. The sound of an accumulator piston
with the condiments and pumps and other components bottoming out at warp speed, f~llowedby that "waterfall
in the system. sound, and then followed by a bolt of lightning with a
A major concern is compatibility of fluid and seals. If voice coming out of the darkness muttering about
you have the wrong seals with a harsh fluid, guess what? schooh laws, books and that which I had heard
The seals turn to mush. So, what are the types of fluid Years before-
commonly used these days? "It wasn't me this time," I said, pointing my finger
There are three types commonly used: out toward the hangar floor. "He did it."
Vegetable oil base fluid (MIL-H-7644) is not used And the voice of Pascal came forth again and said,
much any more but some of the older aircraft systems "I'll take care of him, I want to talk to you about
may be using it. Being a mix of castor oil and alcohol, management and responsibility.''
you wiU recognize it from the odor. Also, it's dyed blue Well, he did that (which is another story). I thanked
so you can tell it from the other alcohol products you him, asked him how his daughter, Ester, was doing, and
may have stashed. Any fool knows not to eat or drink with a flash, he disappeared. Ba
anything blue. Natural rubber seals are found in a November/December 1993
system with this fluid.
Mineral base fluid (MILU-5606), is a reddyed B.J. High is an aircraft technical instructor for Citations
petroleum based fluid of which most of us are familiar. a t SimuElite Training International in Dallas, TX.
Synthetic rubber seals are found in these systems.
Another mineral base fluid gaining wider use is BRACO

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Taking command of composites
Knowing the basics is a good stat?

By Cindy Foreman

I
nadequate or incorrect repairs can result in further tapers down to the core
damage to a composite component causing it to material. Start sanding at
exceed repair limits. Thus, a very expensive com- the outermost mark and
posite component can be ruined if the proper techniques work down toward the
are not applied. center, removing one
It's not difficult to complete an airworthy repair to a layer at a time.
composite structure. However, the techniques, materials All repairs must be
and tools used are different than those which are used The damaged core i s cleaned after sanding.
on conventional repairs. routed out, and each layer Removal of sanding dust
In an actual repair situation, the manufacturer's i s sanded down in and any oil on the surface
structural repair manual must be consulted regarding concentric circles around is essential for proper
such information as operating environment, damage size the repair area. structural adhesion of the
limits, repair proximity limits and other information repair plies. The strength
pertaining to the specific reps. of a bond is directly related to the quality of the surface
preparation.
General repair procedures for advanced Next, gather together the materials needed for
composites the repair. The structural repair manual will list the
The first thing that needs to be accomplished when materials you need. Cross reference the area on the
confronted with a composite repair is to evaluate the aircraft where the damage occurred with the manu-
extent of the damage. Check the damaged area for entry facturer's description of the composite which was used
of water and/or foreign matter and for delamination to fabricate the part. The materials used should be
around the damaged area. Always consult with the identified by:
manufacturer's structural repair manual to determine Material type, class and style
whether the damage is within repairable damage limits.
Number of plies, orientation of warp and fill, and
Remove surface contaminants and paint around the
area to be repaired. Paint strippers should not be used stacking sequence
on any composite structure. Strippers can remove Adhesive and matrix system
surface layers of resin and expose fabric. Paint should Type of core, ribbon direction, core splicing adhesive
be removed by mechanical means. Typically this is done and potting compound
by sanding. Care should be taken not to sand into the
structural fiber layers. Be sure that all resins, adhesives and prepregs are
If damage has occurred to the core material of a within their usable
sandwich structure, the damaged core material must shelf life.
be removed prior to step cutting the laminate. This Iden* the
procedure is performed by using a router to remove the manufacturer's recom-
damaged core. Caution should be taken not to damage mended cure system and
the core materials that remain in the structure. ensure that the proper
To accomplish the proper step cuts in the laminate, tools are available (e.g.,
each successive layer of fiber and matrix must be hot patch bonding
removed without damaging the underlying layer. Great machine, heat blankets of
care must be exercised during this portion of the repair The warp compass i s used the proper size, vacuum
to align the fiber bagging equipment and
procedure to avoid damaging the fibers surrounding
orientation of the patches materials, etc.),
the area being removed. Sanding is the method that's for the repair.
usually used to remove the plies with the most control. The patches for the
Sand each layer down about 1/2 inch all the way repair must carry the
around the damaged area. The idea is to sand 1/2-inch- same stress loads that were manufactured into the part.
wide concentric circles (assuming a round repair) which The ability to endure these stress loads is dependent
on the way in which the fibers are oriented into the
repair area.

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 There should be one fabric bonding patch ply of the
same thickness and ply orientation for each damaged
ply removed.
Some manufacturers call for the use of prepreg
materials for use in certain repairs; however, other
repairs can be accomplished by allowing the technician
to fabricate and impreg-
nate resin to raw fabric.
Since prepregs may not
be available for a repair,
it's often necessary to
impregnate the fabric a t
the time of the repair. Be
sure to use the proper
resins and weigh and mix
The core and all patches
are ready for installation it properly. The fabric is
into the sanded part. impregnated by using a
squeegee to work the
matrix into the fibers. A
plastic backing is used to keep the materials clean prior
to being installed into the repaired area.
Once the repair patches have been impregnated with
resin and cut to shape, the repair plies of fabric can
then be laid into the s t e ~cuts.
Lay the patches over-the sanded area and remove all
plastic backing. Be sure to place them with the correct
ply orientation and in the right sequence-following your
structural repair manual.
Once the repair is made and the patches are in place,
cover the area with a parting film or a parting fabric
(peel ply). Tkis allows the excess matrix to flow through
to the upper surface and into the bleeder material. Pa&
ing film is easily removed after the cure is completed,
and it prevents other materials, such as bleeder material,
from sticking to the repair. The parting film or parting
fabric also feathers in a seam, or overlap, of fabric to
produce a smooth surface.
Some release fabrics can be used instead of a parting
film to provide a final rough surface (slightly etched)
suitable for painting.
A bleeder material is an absorbent material that's
either placed around the edges or on top of the repair to
absorb the excess matrix. A breather material is placed
to one side of the repair to allow air to flow through it
and up through the vacuum valve. Bleeders and breath-
ers can be made of the same material and can be used
interchangeably in many cases.
Next, attach sealant tape around the circumference
of the repair area. Sealant tape, in conjunction with the
vacuum bagging film, is designed to produce an airtight
seal which can be removed from the surface after the
repair is made, without taking the paint off.
If a heat blanket is used to cure the repair, place a
layer of p a r h g film over the repair with a thermocouple
to control the heat output of the blanket. Then, place the
50 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
heat blanket over the ther-
mocouple and cover the
I entire area with vacuum
bagging f h . Next, work
the vacuum bagging film
into the sealant tape to
produce an airtight seal.
The repair area i s vacuum Attach a vacuum hose
bagged and air is to the valve and evacuate
evacuated to produce the air. Air leaks in the
pressure on the part vacuum bag will produce
during the cure. a hissing sound. Leaks
often occur where the
sealant tape overlaps, or where wires pass through the
tape, and can be eliminated by pressing the bagging film
down into the tape until the hissing sound stops.
Vacuum bagging is probably the most widely used
and recognized method of applying pressure for use on
advanced com~ositere~airs.
Once the repair is vacuum bagged and sealed, it's
ready for a controlled heat cure.
The most widely accepted method of curing structural
composites employs the use of resins which cure at
higher temperatures. These adhesives and resins require
elevated temperatures during their cure in order to
develop full strength and reduce the brittleness of the
cured resin.
When a part is to be cured with heat, it's not enough
to simply apply heat at the final cure temperature. It's
also important that the resins be allowed enough time
to flow properly before they go through their curing
process. If this isn't allowed, a resin rich area may
result. "Ramping" (raising in increments) the tempera-
ture up to the final cure temperature slowly over a
period of time allows the slow heating process which is
critical in the curing of the composite.
The temperature is held constant at the final cure
tem~eraturefor a determined amount of time. It's also
important to allow a repair to cool at the proper rate.
Composites gain much of their cure strength in the
cooling down process. The heating and cooling process
is known as a "ramp and s o a k profile.
After completing a repair, the part should be painted.
For most aircraft, the same type of paint that is used for
the metal portions of the aircraft is suitable for use on
the composites. September/October 1993
Cindy Foreman is the chief executive officer of
Composite Educational Services and CES Composites.
She is also the author of Advanced Composites,
published by International Aviation Publishers.
Aircraft Technical Books
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 Airframe Technology

Pneumatic system maintenance

And the role of the dry air pump

L
ike any other mechanical system, the aircraft SINQLE ENGINE, SINGLE PUMP - VACUUM GYRO INSTRUMENT SYSTEM
pneumatic system deteriorates with age. Loose
hose connections, dry-rotted hose, oil contamina-
tion, dirty filters, malfunctioning pneumatic components
and inadequate maintenance procedures will invariably
take their toll over the years.
In many cases, this is the reason why the first air
pump installed in aircraft at the factory seems to
operate forever, but each succeeding pump installed lasts
for fewer and fewer hours.
However, a knowledgeable maintenance staff perform-
ing scheduled pneumatic checks can result in every air VAC GAGE

pump operating hours well in excess of the warranty. Figure I .

Back to basics
AU pneumatic system problems can be solved by
getting back to the basics. Let's look at a few points
and see if we can generate more in interest in checking
aircraft pneumatic systems more closely.
The aircraft gyro vacuum gauge (as shown in Figure
1) is connected across one of the pneumatic flight
instruments. As air is drawn through the instrument,
a pressure differential is created, causing the gauge to
indicate in a suggested range (usually 4.7 to 5.2 inches
hg). This value only indicates that there is sufficient
airflow through the gyro flight instruments to assure
proper operation. The gauge does not tell the pilot or
technician the operating pressures (or vacuum) o f the Figure 2.
dry air pump or pneumatic system.
In a properly operating singleengine pneumatic sys-
tem, if you were to measure air pump inlet vacuum, and Pilotlowner error
the gyro vacuum gauge in the instrument panel was indi- Let's look at a typical scenario:
cating 5.0 inches hg, the highest reading you should The new aircraft leaves the factory with a completely
obtain at the air pump is 6.5 inches hg. This 1.5-inch hg leak-free pneumatic system.
increase at the air ~ u m- r is
+
, the additional vacuum Over the years, hoses deteriorate, connections loosen
required to make up for what we generally call "system and clamps aren't replaced following that new panel
line loss." Line loss for a singleengine aircraft should improvement. One day, the pilot/owner happens to look
not exceed 1.5 inches hg-no exceptions. at his gyro vacuum gauge to discover it indicating 3 or 4
The pneumatic system on a twinengine, vacuum inches hg. With his or her knowledge of pneumatic
instrument aircraft is covered by basically the same rule. systems, the problem can be corrected by adjusting the
However, due to the longer distance between air pump aircraft vacuum regulator.
and gyro panel, a maximum of 2 inches hg line loss is The adjustment is made, the gyro instrument vacuum
dowed. For example, if the twinengine aircraft gyro gauge increases to the "green arc" and the pilot/owner
vacuum gauge is indicating 5.0 inches hg, the desired pats himselfherself on the back for correcting the
maximum vacuum developed at the inlet to the air pump problem without the help of a technician-saving several
should be 7 inches hg. dollars in the process.
Because the aircraft vacuum regulator has been
adjusted toward the closed position, less air enters
the regulator, and more air has to be drawn through
the inlet filter and gyro instruments. This loads down
the air pump.

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 With more load on the air pump, the vacuum at the
air pump inlet will increase causing increased pump
operating pressures and shorter air pump life-so much
for saving dollars.
Testing
Every aircraft, engine and/or pneumatic system
combination subjects the air pump to a different environ-
ment, so testing of the pneumatic system and its
components must be accomplished using an approved
pneumatic system test kit.
The system cannot be tested with the aircraft's air
pump. You've got to use a source of pressure that is
provided from an external source.
For example, Parker Hannifin, Airborne offers a 343
pneumatic test kit, a kit that's called out in the majority
of aircraft maintenance manuals. If you have one of
these kits, make sure you have the latest laminated
instruction manual. Also, it's good to know that if you
don't have a test kit, Airborne's customer support
department makes these available on a 'loan" basis.
Where has all the carbon gone?
There's a misconception about what happens to the
rotor and vane carbon particles that are generated when
an air pump fails during operation. To understand what
will happen in this instance, you've got to understand
the conditions of the system during normal operation.
During operation of a typical pneumatic system (refer
to Figure I), air enters the inlet filter, flows through the
gyro instruments and moves on toward the pneumatic
regulator and air pump. The following conditions should
exist under normal conditions:
If the inlet filter is clean, there will be no vacuum
measured at point A.
With the gyro producing a vacuum of 5.0 inches hg,
vacuum should be measured at all points between
the gyro "out" connection and the inlet to the dry
air pump.
Pressure at the outlet port of the air pump will be
a positive pressure, normally engine compartment
pressure.
Under these conditions, any carbon contamination
caused by a sudden stoppage w i l l be drawn (by vacuum)
"upstream" toward the vacuum regulator.
So if you change an air pump after a sudden stop
page, but don't check the inlet lines and vacuum regula-
tor for foreign material, the contamination may cause
instant pump failure. Or if the foreign material happens
to be wedged in the vacuum regulator, it might be a long
time before the material is dislodged and drawn into the
air pump.
This same situation can occur in a pressure system
(refer to Figure 2). In a pressure system, line pressure of
5 inches hg (2.5 psi) is present all the way back to the
52 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
"inlet" port of the gyro instruments. Pressure at the
inlet filter is basically outside ambient pressure, or in
some cases engine nacelle pressure. With an air pump
failure, contamination may flow toward the inlet filter.
Because of this possibility, Airborne is installing a
screen in the air pump inlet port area of new pumps.
This design provides extra protection against premature
pump failure caused by foreign object ingestion. This
same screen also helps to prevent the larger carbon
particles from leaving the air pump and entering the
pneumatic inlet lines during failure.
Despite the new design, however, its impossible to
retain all contamination within the pump, so always
clean the inlet lines before installing the next pump.
Thls vice ain't bad
Most aircraft technicians are not aware of one of the
most helpful indicators of air pump failure.
That little red and white anti-vise sticker provided on
every Airborne dry air pump should be examined not
only after a pump failure but whenever the cowling is off
and the pump is visible.
With 200 Series air pumps, if the pump creates
higher pressures than normal due to dwty filters, kinked
or blocked hoses and misadjusted regulators, pump body
(housing) temperatures will increase. This increase in
body temperature added to the already hot environmen-
tal operating temperatures will cause the anti-vise label
to darken in color.
A pump label darkening in color is an indication that
there's something drastically wrong with the system.
Ignore the label warning or the aircraft system
condition, and the label will get darker. Eventually the
increasing pressure and temperature will result in
premature failure of the pump.
With 240 and 400 Series pumps (cooling finned
pumps), as pressure within the air pump increases
due to faulty deice valves or blocked filters, internal
temperatures will rise. Eventually pump housing tem-
peratures wiU reach a point that can't be dissipated by
the cooling fins.
Overheated cooling fins will start to burn dark lines
through the back side of the anti-vise label.
Lines through the anti-vise label are an indication of
pneumatic system problems, that if not corrected, wiU
cause premature pump failure.
An ounce of prevention
Twinengine aircraft and the winter months bring on
a whole host of problems with deice systems.
Although each aircraft model and pneumatic system
may be different, there are several common problems
that continue to receive attention.
To prevent problems with deice systems during
the winter months, maintain the systems during the
summer months.
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 The cause of most inoperative systems is usually flhChange 6chadute
:I*:
traced to a sticking deice control valve (engine compart -&,I nupl b. m p k M at each a t pump rciphmment m n d at the lnkrvats
ment), or a deflated valve made inoperable by freezing ?dimdMYb.lOur.
water (holes in the boots) or plain old rust. FhprnncV Vawum system Pnwurre Sy.tem
During normal fhght, vacuum is applied to the boots
100 hrsf Vac. Fig. Garter F~ller Pump inlet F~lter
for holddown via the system deflate valve. In most m a w (PIN 83-51) (P/N83-5-1)
twinengine aircraft this deice deflate valve is located (PIN D9-14-5)
under the cabin floor, at a lower level than the wing (PN DQ-181)

deice boots.
Deice boots with holes or failing boot patches provide
a sure means for water to enter the system and be
drawn into the deflate valve. Here, the moisture causes
corrosion that results in problems during flight at alti-
tude. These problems often disappear when the techni-
cian tries to troubleshoot the system in a warm hangar.
Holes in deice boots also cause pressure problems.
Several aircraft deice systems cycle to the off position
only after maximum boot pressure is reached. With
boots that have multiple holes, activation pressure is
never reached, and the air pumps struggle to satisfy
the requirements.
A word to the wise
Failure of the air pump or any other component of
the pneumatic system during IFR flight in Instrument
Meteorological Conditions (TMC) can lead to spatial
disorientation of the pilot and subsequent loss of air-
craft control.
500 hnl Central Gyro Air Rter inlme Gyro Filter
mM4' (PlN D9-14-5) (P/N 1J4-4)
(P/ND9-181) (PIN 1J4-6)
(PIN 1J10-1) (P/N 1J4-7)
*~., . .
Use of single-engine aircraft in IMC is increasing.
Many single-engine aircraft do not have a backup pneu-
matic power source or backup electric attitude gyro
instruments. In aircraft without such backup devices,
the pilot, due to added workload, may not be able to fly
the aircraft with only "partial panel" instruments (that
is, turn and slip indicator, altimeter and air speed indica-
tor) in the event of primary air pump or pneumatic
system failure.
Air pump or pneumatic system failures can and do
occur without warning. This can be a result of various
factors, including but limited to normal wear of compo-
nents, improper installation or maintenance, premature
failure or use of substandard overhauled components.
Therefore, a backup pneumatic power source for the
air-driven gyros or a backup electric attitude gyro instru-
ment, must be installed in all aircraft which fly IFR.

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Air pump pointers
Keep the following points in mind when troubleshooting
and maintaining air pumps and pneumatic systems:
If you are consistently experiencing short pump life
(or decreasing pump life) from an air pump, this is
an indication that there's something seriously wrong
with your aircraft pneumatic system.
Twin-engine aircraft equipped with deice boots have
additional pneumatic system components which
require periodic maintenance. Operators consistently
experiencing short pump life, (or decreasing pump
life), on Airborne 400 Series dry air pumps should
perform a thorough check on the aircraft pneumatic
system and its components.
Functional checks of the aircraft pneumatic system
with the engines operating will not identify a serious
system problem.
54 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
The gyro vacuum (or pressure) gauge located in the
aircraft instrument panel does not indicate pump
vacuum (or pressure).
The need for adjustment of the pneumatic system
regulator normally indicates a system problem.
Pump failure during engine operation will probably
cause carbon contamination of the inlet hose.
Examination of the air pump "anti-vise" label may
provide important clues to the cause of premature
pump failure.
The aircraft deice boot system should be activated at
random intervals during the summer months.
Aircraft Technical Books
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 This is not your father's fabric
State-of-the-art coverings for aircraft

By Greg Napert

E
LK GROVE VILLAGE, IL-Although fabric cover-
ing on aircraft isn't typically considered state-of-
theart, its use in general aviation continues to be
widespread. In fad, fabric is used on a regular basis to
restore and maintain older aircraft and is quite popular
in the kitrbuilding industry.
Dip Davis, technical adviser for Superflite, a supplier
of fabric, dopes and flnishes for use in aviation, says
that the bulk of the fabric used on aircraft today is
synthetic.
Synthetic materials are stronger, lighter, longer last
ing, and offer advantages that are just plain superior to
cotton and linen. For instance, Davis says that synthetics
can have a service life of 15 to 20 years or more, with
virtually no care at all, whereas, you're lucky to get eight
to 10 years of use out of cotton if you keep it covered
and indoors.
If there's one advantage to cotton or linen, it's that
many aircraft that were produced before synthetics were
introduced had cotton or linen listed in the aircraft's
type certificate. So using these original materiala Tautening fabric requires accurate temperature setr2ngs
with the iron.
reauires no STC.
According to Davis, though, that really isn't a prob
lem because there are plenty of STCs available to cover ever, have a hard, silk-like texture, and if special primers
most installations of synthetic fabrics. Superflite, aren't used, the dope will not properly adhere. The s p e
he says, has over 115 STCs for various applications. cial primers penetrate the synthetic fabric and provide a
"Virtually every type of aircraft is covered under these. surface to which nonshrinking dope can be applied.
And if you have an airplane for which there isn't an Another alternative is the use of polyurethane
STC, we can probably have an STC for you before you're finishes. Superflite, for example, has developed a finish-
ready to cover the aircraft." ing system which uses polyurethane from start to finish.
Davis says that synthetic Dacronmor Du Pont polyes- Davis says the polyurethane finishing system is
ter fabrics were initially introduced in the '50s, and that superior to dope because of the flexibility and durability
produds such as Ceconitemand Eonex@were the first on of the coating. Also, says Davis, as little as three coats
the market. These produds were virtually indestructible. of polyurethane can be used to finish the aircraft, as
"In fact, we're finding people around with aircraft that opposed to the many coats required to finish an aircraft
are 30 to 35 years old or more, and the fabric is still with dope.
punch-testing good. But the earlier produds were very
heavy-bodied materials that were stiff and Wicult to Working with synthetic materials
work with. Modern synthetics, are lighter weight (2.7 "Unlike cotton and linen, synthetic fabric is very easy
pounds/square yard, as opposed to 3.8 pounddsquare to work with," says Davis. "With cotton, you've got to
yard for Ceconite and 4 pounds/square yard for GradeA shrink it and then when you put dope on it, it loosens.
cotton) and similar in texture to cotton." With linen, you've got to worry about the fabric shrink-
Davis says that dope finishes were originally devel- ing as the finish dries.
oped for cotton fabric which had a nap or "fuzz"to "When you heat-shrink synthetic coverings into place,
which the finish could adhere. Synthetic fabrics, how- they remain taut even as you apply the finishes.

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 55

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Q p e s of fabric fasteners for aluminum ribs.
"To shrink the fabric, use a standard household iron
to mark the thermostat positions to indicate 250°F,
300°F and 400°F. Begin at the 230°F setting and iron
the entire surface keeping the iron moving much in
the same manner as ironing a shirt. Increase the heat
setting, and go over the entire surface again using the
same technique. One more pass at 400°F should produce
the desired results."
Davis says to keep an eye on the seams as the fabric
tightens so that the seams align with the trailing and
leading edges, and to apply heat more liberally as needed
to center the seams. It's also important, he says, to
make sure that the heat doesn't exceed 400°F or you can
melt the material.
Davis doesn't recommend using air heat such as a
blow dryer or heat gun because the heat cannot be
controlled as well. He says that it's common to burn
through the fabric with a heat gun, and also the heat is
not as evenly applied. It's important to apply the heat
over the entire surface without missing any spots, he
emphasizes,
because an area that's not heated will sag as the outside
temperatures change.
Davis says that virtually all of the fabric that's sold
today is sold in presewn envelopes that slide over
specific parts of the aircraft. Sewing has been virtually
eliminated and replaced with overlapped and glued
joints, and mechanical fasteners are often used in place
of rib stitching.
There are envelopes for virtually all standard
category airplanes.
56 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
When you place the envelope on the aircraft, you put
it on like you're slipping on a sock. "There will be a large
variation in the way that it fits," he says. "Remember
that synthetic fabric should be installed rather loosely.
Superflite fabric has a heat shrinkage potential of
approximately 10 percent, or 5 inches in a typical chord
of 50 inches, and it's desirable to use the majority of
this potential.
"After you've slid it on, all that's left is to cement the
edges down, cement it shut and iron it," he says.
"If you don't wish to use envelopes, sheets of material
are available. Orientation of the weave of the fabric may
be parallel in either direction," says Davis.
He explains that pinked edges aren't necessary
using synthetics. "We do provide pinked edge tape for
people who want it to look authentic. On synthetics,
you don't have to worry about the material unraveling.
As soon as you glue the edges, the adhesive prevents
the material from unraveling. Also, tapes are cut with
a hot knife which seals the edges and prevents them
from unraveling.
"Surface tape should be applied as recommended
over ribs, seams and trailing edges even if no seams ex-
ist at that point," says Davis, and is applied using adhe
sive or dope as specified with the system that's being
used.
Tape can also be applied over leadug edges to pro-
vide additional surface protection. On curved surfaces, it
may be difficult to get the tape to lie flat against the sur-
face. In this case, a small amount of heat may be applied
locally with the tip of an iron to get the tape to lie flat.
Finishing
Synthetics can be finished with a number of finishing
systems that are available on the market. The closest
finishing system to conventional dopes is the use of a
primer (typically a nitrate dope that's thinned to pen-
etrate the weave of the material) and a nonshrinking
butyrate dope for successive coats.
Other systems include resins and polyurethanes that
offer many advantages over conventional dope finishes.
Polyurethane f i i h e s , for example, are not temperature
sensitive or moisture sensitive. The temperature does
need to be about 65°F to cure, however.
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 The polyurethane comes as a twepart finish, the
color and a catalyst. You mix them together to apply
them. The number of coats required to f i h the air-
craft will vary, but generally, all that's needed are three
base coats of primer and two topcoats of the color
you choose.
The primer is typically applied in three successive
coats with a few minutes of drying time allowed between
each coat. When the final primer coat is applied, it's
allowed to sit overnight to dry. The next day, joint areas
can then be blended by sandmg with a medium grit wet
or dry paper. If further coats are needed to "bury the
tapes," more coats of primer are added and sanded after
they are dried.
The finish coats are then applied in the desired colors
by spraying a light "tack coat," which is allowed to set
for a few minutes, and then applying a full, wet coat.
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Davis says that the proficiency of the person applying
the finishing system will determine how many coats are
used. Those who are really proficient can produce a
desirable finish by using only two coats of primer/filler
and one cross coat of color.
Davis cautions that there are many fabrics around,
and not all of them are approved for use on aircraft.
There are lighter fabrics around that are used on
ultralights that can be easily confused with the fabrics
certificated for use in general aviation.
Make sure that you're using fabric that's marked with
FAA-PMA markings or other FAA certification markings.
And if you're not using the original materials as speci-
fied in the aircraft's type certification, be sure you
comply with the STC or approval for the system that
you're using. May/June 1993
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 57
Airframe Technology

Aircraft fluorescent lighting systems

By Gerald R. Stoehr

he interior cabin lighting is a system on the

aircraft that presents an interesting problem to
the aircraft technician. Although it is not as
important to the actual airworthiness of the aircraft as
the avionics, flight control or power systems, it's one
of the most visible systems to the actual users of the
aircraft, the passengers. The technician has to make sure
this system is working at its best to assure the complete
satisfaction of those passengers.

Fluorescent lighting systems and benefits

Incandescent lighting was once the choice for aircraft
interior hghting, but fluorescent lighting has become the
preferred alternative. A fluorescent lamp provides the
equivalent amount of hght as a 1Wwatt incandescent
lamp whde using just 20 watts of electricity. Fluorescent
lighting systems also provide s@icant benefits in
reduced weight, heat and power consumption while maxi-
mizing safety and design and installation flexibility.
Within the category of fluorescent lighting there are
choices. The three types of fluorescent lighting that are
used in aircraft are cold cathode, hot cathode and low-
voltage instant start. Cold cathode systems use a sus-
tained high voltage to start and operate the lamps.
These systems require minimum wiring but they need
special wire, connectors and tools to control the high
voltages. Hot cathode systems operate at a lower voltage
but, do have some design and installation constraints.
Low voltage instant start systems offer low operating
voltage and easy installation and maintenance.
All of these systems are made up of an inverter
which changes the 28v DC to AC, and a ballast or power
unit that generates the voltage level required to drive the
lamps. When these elements are contained in the same
component it's referred to as an inverterhallast or
power supply. All of these devices are collectively called
primary components. The other element of the system is
the lamp.
Fluorescent lamps come in a variety of sizes and
shapes. They are usually either cool white or warm white
in color temperature. High color rendering index (CRI)
lamps are also available for use where maximum color
saturation, brightness and clarity are needed. An impor-
tant benefit of fluorescent lamps is that they have a
long life.
Two of the most important lamp life factors are the
voltage applied to the filament and the purity of the
lamp's internal environment. If either of these factors is
not optimized, the lamp life will decrease. If both are not
optimized, lamp life will be very short. As lamps reach
the end of their life, they require a higher operating
voltage and begin to decrease in hght output. This is a
normal function of fluorescent lighting in general, as is a
gradual darkening at the lamp ends near the filaments.
Definlng and achieving optimum installation
Gaining the optimum performance from any fluores-
cent system is a result of proper installation as much as
it is of an effective program of preventive maintenance.
Quite often the lighting system manufacturer's installa-
tion instructions are not followed closely by the comple-
tion center, making it even more difficult for the tech-
nician to obtain the optimum results from the system.
When the aircraft is newly completed or refurbished,
it's a good idea to check the lighting system for some
simple criteria to assure that the system has been d e
signed and installed correctly. Of course, the specific
manufacturer's instructions should be followed, but there
are some general guidelines that should be addressed.
The installation can be easily checked to ensure that
these general guidelines have been followed. Components
of the system that perform the inversion of the 20v DC
to AC should be installed on metal surfaces to allow heat
dissipation. These units typically produce heat as part of
the inversion process.
Lamp holders should be placed so that they support
the entire length of the lamp, not just the ends. The
lamp holder should be constructed of a material that will
allow easy installation and removal of the lamps while
maintaining a tight grip.

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 If the lamp is less than 3 feet long, the lamp holders
should be placed onesixth of the lamp length from the
ends of the lamp. If the lamp is longer than 3 feet in
length, the lamp holders should be placed onequarter of
the lamp length from the ends of the lamp. In all cases,
the lamp holders should never be closer than 2 inches
from the end of the lamp. This will keep them away
from the lamp filaments and will protect the lamp hold-
ers from premature aging.
System wiring should meet the lighting systems
manufacturer's specification and should be in line with
the guidelines contained in FAA advisory circulars for
wire gauges, voltage drops and wiring run lengths.
Documentation that shows which components are
responsible for lighting each section of the system and
where they are located on the aircraft is very important
for subsequent troubleshooting and maintenance. System
controls should be conveniently placed and should be
easy to understand and operate.
Thubleshooting and maintenance
In the late '80s, the FAA instituted a series of
Airworthiness Directives (ADS) for aircraft interior
fluorescent lighting systems. The directives came in
response to a p r e v a h g concern over the high voltages
associated with fluorescent llghting and the possibility
of arcing and its resulting problems. The ADS required
inspection and maintenance of the systems and/or
disabling and placarding the lighting system.
Since those ADS were initiated, there have been
significant strides in fluorescent lighting system design,
both from the standpoint of safety in the form of
engineered solutions that deactivates the system under
certain high voltage conditions, as well as in overall
system performance.
As with any system, certain areas are more prone
to problems than others. By taking basic precautions,
potential faults can be minimized. For instance, making
sure that lamp connections are secure and that the
lamps are connected according to the manufacturer's
instructions will eliminate a major source of problems.
Also, check to ensure that the system has sufficient
input voltage.
Troubleshooting can best be accomplished by starting
at one end of the system and methodically working
toward the other. If a single lamp is out, you would start
a t that lamp and work toward the power unita or ballasts
that are driving that lamp. If all of the lamps in a
section are out, you would start at the lighting controls
and system input power and work toward the individual
power units or ballasts.
The input voltage to a 28v DC system can be easily
measured, and should always be checked at the input
connector. But, the voltage within the system is usually
a hlgh-frequency AC potential and requires a special
meter capable of measuring high-frequency AC voltages.
Usually the best way to work is to replace a suspected
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I Typical lamp connectors 4
'I
3 Ph locks / Lockingtab
Conductor
Conneotor 3
crlmp I
Double cdmp pin / backshell 3
, t '
c Positive lock o o n m r I1 'Y
4
component or lamp with a spare to determine if it's
the problem. You can use the following troubleshooting
sequence to find a fault in most of the lighting systems
in use today.
If a lamp does not light, the odds are pretty good
that it has reached the end of ita life. Changing the lamp
should solve the problem. It's a standard rule of thumb
for fluorescent lamps that are connected in series with a
common power unit or ballast that they should all be
changed at the same time.
It has been proven that the performance of a new
lamp will be adversely affected if it's paired with an old
lamp. Lamps should be replaced according to the lamp
manufacturer's specification, and they should be replaced
before they stop working. When replacing lamps, it's
always important to wear protective eyewear in case
the lamp fractures during the removal or installation
process. It's also a good idea to inspect the lamp holders
and connectors during lamp replacement.
The lamp connectors should be well-maintained and
well-mated. There should be no indication of breakage or
chipping of the connector bodies, and there should be no
broken wire strands where the conductor is crimped at
the connector. Connectors that provide a double crimp,
on the conductor as well as the insulation, will require
less maintenance and will be more reliable over time. If
several lamps are out, but not the entire section of light,
you could be facing one of several problems. If the lamps
are being driven by a common power source such as a
power unit, ballast or inverter ballast, the problem may
be localized in the output circuit of that component.
In the case of a protected system, the problem could
be that one of the lamps is faulty, or there could be
a problem that has caused an excessive voltage and
triggered the protection circuit. In this case, the best
method is to replace the lamps on that circuit, and to
check the wiring and connections visually to determine if
there are any wiring problems.
When an entire section does not light, the problem is
usually In the inverter, inverterhallast or power supply
that drives that section of light. You should check to see
if an input voltage (usually 28v DC) is being provided to
the component. If the correct voltage is present, then the
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 59
component is probably at fault. If there is no voltage or
a very low voltage present, you should check the hghting
system controls and power circuit for problems.
Primary components such as inverters and power
units are designed to work together; therefore, it's not a
good idea to mix and match different manufacturers'
parts. In addition, many of the components produced by
different manufacturers look similar. During mainte
nance, extra care should be taken to make sure that you
have the right part. The manufacturer should be able to
answer any questions you may have. Usually inverters,
inverterhallasts and power supplies are repairable.
Lamps, ballasts and power units are typically not repair-
able. If a component is repairable, the repairs should
only be accomplished by an FAA-authorized repair center
that can perform the appropriate testing and issue a
return-to-serviceabilitytag for the component.
60 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Keeping the interior lighting system operating at its
highest efficiency requires no more effort than any of
the other systems on the aircraft. A system that has
been correctly installed and maintained will give you
long-term, troublefree performance. If a system is not
installed or properly maintained, it will create a multi-
tude of problems for the aircraft technician. It's impor-
tant to keep the lighting system manufacturer in mind
when working on the system, as it is often the best place
to turn for information and help solving lighting system
problems. Dl MarchLApril1993
Gerard R. Stoehr is director of marketing and sales for
Aerospace Lighting Corporation. Prior to joining ALC,
Stoehr spent 16 years in the electro11ics industry.
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 Lead-acid battery servicing tips
by Greg Napert

T here are two types of lead-acid batteries used in

general aviation today: vented cell (also c d e d
dry-charged) and sealed (also referred to as
maintenancefree or recombinant gas batteries).
The options available today combined with the tech-
nological improvements in lead-acid batteries in the last
few years, are resulting in batteries that are more power-
ful and require less maintenance. In fad, many lead-acid
batteries are now being sold to replace nickelcadmium
battery installations in some business jets. The new
Aircraft batteries differ from automobile batteries in
batteries offer decreased maintenance in some cases,
that they are lighter in construction and typically the
along with reduced cost.
active material is higher density which requires a stron-
Although vented cell and sealed lead-acid batteries
ger electrolyte. Aircraft batteries use a 1.285 SG (specific
are similar in appearance, they're quite different
gravity) electrolyte, whereas, automotive uses a 1.265 SG
in terms of storage, maintenance requirements and
electrolyte. This is an important point to consider,
charging.
because it means that handling and servicing are much
Additionally, sealed lead-acid batteries (currently
more critical.
manufactured by Hawker Energy in the United
Aircraft batteries should be kept in a full state of
Kingdom, and Concorde Battery Corporation in West
charge at all times for two reasons: First, the batteries
Covina, CA) have only been available in general aviation
need to be airworthy, and are only so when they can
for about the last five years. Although there are sealed
deliver at least 80 percent of their capacity for emer-
batteries approved for a wide variety of aircraft-to
gency or essential operation. And second, during a
include singles as well as business jets-the manufactur-
normal discharge period, the batteries build up sulfate
ers are still developing the list of approvals for installa-
on the plates. Unless removed through regular charging
tion in various aircraft.
cycles, the sulfate forms on the plates, becomes hard
and crusty, and ultimately reduces the efficiency of
the battery.

Vented cell
Vented cell batteries are drycharged at the factory.
According to Dan Rankin, sales manager for Teledyne
Battery Products, the term drycharged means that the
plates are formed, or charged, at the factory, dried out
in vacuum driers, and then assembled into cells that are
placed into a battery case. Storage seals are placed into
each cell to prevent moisture or condensation from get
ting into the cell that would react with the active mate
rial and degrade the life and performance of the battery.
According to Teledyne, the batteries can be stored
indefinitely if kept in a clean dry place at normal ambi-
ent temperatures. However, the company also says that
the length of time required for charging after activating
with electrolyte will vary with the length of storage time
. . and temperature. Longer storage periods and higher
Negarive Phm Poslrive Plate Highly porous separaw ambient temperature during storage will cause greater
loss of the dry charge.
Cutaway of Hawker SBS 30 showing sealed construction. Probably one of the most critical things that can
affect the life and performance of a battery is how the
battery is initially placed into service.

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charging," he says "because one, it keeps the electrolyte
in the cell where it belongs and two, keeps electrolyte
off the top of the battery which could provide a path
for electrons to flow between terminals and cause self-
discharge. If self-discharge is suspected, take the nega-
tive probe of a voltmeter and place it on the negative
terminal of the battery. Take the positive probe and slide
it around the top of the battery between the cells. If
voltage is present, the battery is selfdischarging."
Heavyduty, hotrshot or fast chargers shouldn't be
used on aircraft batteries, he explains, because aircraft
batteries are built with thin plates to obtain high crank-
ing power. These chargers will destroy the plates and
actually drive the active materials from them. Dark or
brown electrolyte is a sign that this is occurring. If you
notice the electrolyte turning dark, it's a sign that you
should reduce the ampere rate and voltage used to
charge the battery.
"The recommended charger to use is a constant cur-
rent type," says Rankin. This type of charger is equipped
w i t h ampere rate adjusting capability, has a timer and
is capable of charging in constant current, or constant
potential modes.
The best way to determine the state of charge in
a vented lead-acid battery is to measure the specific
gravity of the electrolyte. Automotive or industrial
hydrometers that contain color balls or floats can't be
used, as they are weighted for 1.265 electrolyte. A
hydrometer specifically designed for aircraft batteries
is recommended.
Any time the specific gravity of the battery falls
below 1.260 SG it should be recharged. The battery is
fully charged when the specific gravity stabilizes at or
above 1.285 SG after three consecutive hourly readings.
"Remember," says Rankin, "it'll take time to reach this
point. Never rush a battery into service."
Sealed lead-acid
Skip Koss, vice president marketing for Concorde
Battery Corporation, says that sealed or recombinant gas
(RG) batteries are quickly gaining popularity because of
their low cost and reduced maintenance.
"Conventional vented lead-acid band nickelcadmium
batteries generate hydrogen from the negative plates and
oxygen from the positive plates at the end of the charge
cycle. Problems with these batteries such as corrosive
fumes and electrolyte leakage have been resolved with
the RG battery," he says.
62 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
charge with the RG design is less th& is required for
flammability in air, The design features of the battery
minimize hydrogen generation by maximizing the plate
surface contact, which allows oxygen generated at the
positive plates to diffuse through the glass mat separator
and to recombine efficiently and safely with hydrogen
generated on the negative plates," he explains.
"Also, the RG batteries don't have any free electro-
lyte; the electrolyte is absorbed and immobilized within
the micro-fiberous glass mat separators. This makes the
batteries fully aerobatic," he says.
Although the term "maintenancefree" is used in
connection with sealed lead-acid, the batteries do require
some maintenance, primarily when the batteries are in
storage and when they're low on charge.
In storage, it's recommended that the sealed battery
be boost charged every 90 days.
RG batteries should be charged when their open
circuit voltage is below 2.08 volts per cell (12.5 for
l2volt batteries, or 25.0 for 24volt batteries). Koss says
that the batteries should be charged with a constant
potential or constant voltage charger regulated at 2.35
volts per cell (14.1 volts for 12volt batteries and 28.2
volts for 24volt batteries). The battery is charged when
the charge current diminishes to approximately 0.5
amperes for one hour, he explains.
These batteries also need to be checked periodically
for reserve or emergency capacity if they are kept in
service for more than one year or 600 hours of opera-
tion. The first check should be done after 12 months or
600 hours of operation and every three months or 100
hours of operation after that.
"To test the battery for capacity," says Koss, "you
must first make sure the battery is fully charged. Then,
w i t h the battery temperature above 5g°F, discharge
the battery for one hour according to manufacturer's
recommendations for the model in question.
"The minimum end point after one hour of
discharge," says Koss, "must be 9 volts for l2volt
batteries, and 18 volts for 24-volt batteries. If the end
point voltage is below minimum,emergency or reserve
capacity, the RG batteries are to be "conditioned" with a
constant current charger at the C/10 rate (C is the one
hour capacity as determined by the manufacturer) for 14
to 18 hours. The battery should sit for one hour and
then be retested. If the battery passes the second
capacity test, it should be recharged with a CP charger
that has at least a Grate for three hours.
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 Never jump-start an aircraft from another power source For more information on servicing batteries, contact
for the following two reasons: the following lead-acid battery manufacturers.
First, the battery that's being jumped is not an air-
worthy battery. It takes approximately three hours to Concorde Battery Corp.
recharge a fully discharged battery using the aircraft's 2009 San Bernardino Rd.
generating system. In order for the battery to be airwor- West Covina. CA 91790
thy, it must have the capacity to operate the aircraft
electrical system, avionics, and be able to crank the Hawker Energy
engine in the event of an emergency during fhght. Stephenson St.
Second, active material on the positive plate will Newport, Gwent, NPSOXJ, UK
expand and the fast recharge from the charging source
can damage the adhesion of the active material. This will Teledyne Battery Products
result in premature battery failure. 210 Interstate N. Pkwy.
And finally, aircraft batteries utilize relatively thin 7th Floor
plates to create more surface area for higher perfor- Atlanta, GA 30339
mance. But these thin plates are susceptible to damage
from excessive charging current applied during a typical
jumpstart.

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Helpful tips for handling flexible hose
By Greg Napen

H oses do more than route fluid from one location

to another; they allow hydraulic fluid, oil and
- movement and
fuel to flow while allowing
vibration of various components. And when used in high-
pressure applications, they absorb shock.
It's only when you consider what they're capable of
doing, that you realize hoses need as much attention as
the propeller that drives the aircraft, or the wheels you
rely on for landing. But unfortunately, hoses are an
often neglected item of an aircraft. They tend to be
overlooked in favor of items that are seemingly more
important.
Don Meadows, hose shop supervisor for Superior's
Aeroquip hose shop in Dallas, TX,confirms this common START ONE FLAT
hose neglect when he explains how his facility receives ILLUSTRATION 1
many hoses quite regularly that have been in service
longer than they should have; hoses that have been
exposed to extreme temperatures, kinked, cracked,
corroded and chaffed.
"We also see some hoses in here that were built
I Table I
using industrial hoses," says Meadows. "Often they'll Dash Ske Thrqad Size 'SUnless Aluminum
work just fine, but the fact is that these hoses are Ib. in. Ib. in.
mln./max. minlmax.
non-FAA approved." .-.--- --*---------* - ---- -- ..-... .. ..
.-
-3 W140 70005
General information -4 1351140 1001140
-5 1 70/240 1301180
Most of today's hose assemblies are constructed in- -6 2151280 150/195
ternally of either rubber or Teflon" and are categorized -8 4701550 270l350
in basically three pressure ranges: low pressure (up to -10 620t745 3801430
200 psi), medium pressure (200 to 1,500 psi), and hlgh -12 85511055 480/550
-1 6 114011375 7001840
pressure (1,500 to 3,00 psi). -20 152W1825 860H 020
Hoses are constructed in a variety of ways depending . -24 1000/2280 9001lo80
on the pressure application or opera- environment. -98 2660/2940 1801)12000
All hoses, though, have an inner tube, reinforcement Table 1. FFFT method of calculating torque.
layers and an outer cover to provide protection from
fluids, heat and chaffing. instead of the entire assembly. But don't always assume
Identification markings typically are printed directly that reusable fittings are serviceable. A damaged sealing
on the outer cover or may be printed on an identifica- surface means that they must be removed from service.
tion tag if the cover happens to be stainless. The identifi-
cation marks typically include: the Mil-Spec number, Installation of hose
manufacturer's name, part number, size, date of manu-
facture and hose manufacturer's code. If a hose is not Improper installation of hose can be a major contrib
clearly identified, it shouldn't be used. uting factor in how long a hose will be in service.
Hose fittings can be the reusable type or the com- According to Aeroquip, a flexible hose manufacturer,
pression crimp type. The compression crimp fittings "it's advisable to restrain, protect or guide the hose
require special equipment to crimp the fittings into to protect it from damage by unnecessary flexing,
place, which then become a permanent part of the pressure surges and contact with other components
assembly. The fact that compression crimp fittings are or structures."
not reusable reduces the overall service life, which typi- The first item of concern regarding installation is
cally reduces their value. Reusable fittings can be used the bend radii of the hose. Generally speaking, bends
over and over, making it necessary to only replace a hose should be made as gradual as the installation will allow.

64 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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 Manufacturers recommend that bends do not begin Length of Service
too near a coupling or fitting. The recommendation, Although most hoses
generally, is that the hose should extend at least one and are considered to be "on
onehalf times the hose diameter before starting a bend. condition," meaning that
Other areas of concern: they shouldn't be replaced
Make sure there's a small amount of slack in a line unless the hose shows o b
to allow for growth and contraction in the line due Use a tie wire to secure vious signs of defects,
to temperature and pressure variations. hoses in position before manufacturers suggest
removing, Don't try to shelf lives and operating
Be sure that hose clamps fit snugly around a hose straighten hoses that have lives for certain types
but not so tight as to constrict fluid flow. The hose taken a set. of hoses.
clamps shouldn't restrict travel or cause the hose line For example,
to be subjected to tension, torsion, compression or Stratoflex says that it
sheer stress as it flexes. doesn't allow its rubber
Use abrasion sleeves, support coils and abrasion pads hose to be sold as new
as needed to eliminate chaffii and rubbing. (based on MILSTD1523
Group and clamp hoses together to improve appear- and SAE AS 1933) if the
ance, aid in routing and prevent chaffing, but try to hose is more than eight
avoid clamping high- and low-pressure hoses together, years past the cure date.
as they read differently in operation. Teflon hose, and its sili-
conebased hoses, how-
Be sure that the hose isn't twisted or kinked during ever, are considered to
When ordering hoses that
installation. Most hoses have a "lay line" to aid in have elbows at each end, be "non-aging."
the installation. figure the relative angles The company also rec-
by measuring clockwise ommends a maximum
Torquing from the base of one of the shelf lifeof five years
fittings as shown above. (with extended shelf life
Although many technicians get by with using torque
wrenches and consulting recommended torquing charts based on inspection/test
to tighten fittings, Stratoflex, another hose manufac- or service), and a maximum of seven years in service.
turer, suggests that there may be a more accurate and (FAA AC20(17N recommends five years for general
repeatable way to tighten fittings. aviation inenginecompartment service.)
The method was developed, says the company, If you add these years up, a hose can be up to 20
because variables such as surface f i h e s , material type, years old by the time that it has spent seven years on
surface treatment. lubricants and others do not remain an aircraft! Regardless, Stratoflex says that if hose
constant; therefore, measuring input force is not always continues to pass testing and inspection guidelines per
accurate. ARP1568, it can continue to be used.
A method called Flats From Finger Tght (FFFI') was The company also warns that all hose takes a "set,"
developed by the company to assure repeatable "through- eventually conforming to the installed configuration.
put" force, or the force that's transmitted to the metal-to- This is important to know, because by the simple act of
metal sealing surface. removing a hose for any reason, the hose may become
The FFFT method works as follows: damaged, terminating the life of a hose that could have
otherwise continued operating.
1. Finger tighten the nut (approximately 30 inch-
pounds). Handling Teflon
2. With a marker, make a longitudinal mark on the Although Teflon (a Du Pont trademark for Tetrafluor-
body of the hex and onto the body of the mating ethylene resin) hose offers the advantage of unlimited
Part. service life, ability to withstand virtually all types of
3. Tighten the joint by the number of flats in Table 1. fluids and ability to withstand wide temperature ranges,
the material is somewhat delicate to work with and not
This method, says the company, measures the quite as forgiving as rubber-type hoses.
"throughput" of the torque. The recommended FFFT Teflon hoses should always be handled with extra
values listed in Table 1reflect the force necessary for care to prevent excessive bending, twisting and kinking.
solid, leak-free connections, says the company. Kinking of Teflon hose occurs more easily in larger sizes
and in very short assemblies. It also tends to preform to
the installed position of hot fluid lines. Never step, stand
or set anything on top of Teflon hose.

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Airframe Technology

You should also always permit the assembly to take

its own "lay" when being removed or stored. When
shorter bend radii are required, the assembly may need Usually IS a result ol Tenon' hose becng
mproperly handled FIuld l o r IS
to be preformed at the factory. These factory preforms reduced A break ts m the rnaklr~g
are secured into shape prior to shipping.
It's recommended that any lines that are either \

preformed or have taken a set be handled by using a tie \.-/' /

'Tolkw~s a L)u Ponl lrademark
wire to secure the shape of the hose. --

7 \
'x lnmrrectly Installed easy lo spot Flow
Building hoses IS cU1 down II the hose IS permanently
dabfmed, replace fl at once
Depending on the type of hose, fittings and equip ___1
ment, there are various procedures for cutting, preparing
and assembling hose assemblies.
Three procedures that are common, regardless of the
type of hose or fittings that you're working with, are ' '
"3
Resub from abrasion agalnsl a frame
proper cleaning, inspection and proof testing. - an englrw m m p e n t another hose or
Be careful to assure that all residue, shavings, etc.,
are cleaned thoroughly from the inside of the hose
\ from mcorrect damping Hard to detect
on umleeved wre-braded hose
Sleeved hoses usually exhlbrt evidence
assembly after performing any cutting of hose or install- \
', ' d of wear if thcs problem n present
ing fittings. It's recommended that each assembly be
cleaned with clean, dry compressed air prior to further
inspection or testing.
The assemblies must then be inspected thoroughly to
7 \
'
Rubber hooo Wmt s hardened, no longer
flexlble Feel for stmness Wiggle and
leten for craklng Temperature and
assure that there are no internal cuts or bulges in the
inner tubes, and that there are proper gaps between the
nuts and sockets, or hex and sockets. The nuts should be
u-7
'.--+,'
',
hme produce th~seffect Be sure you
have the m e c t type of hose lor the
Pppllcatlon

free to swivel.
Finally, the hose assembly must be tested at a ratio
of 4to-1. This means that the operating pressure to
which a hose assembly is subjected should not exceed 25
percent of the minimum burst pressure. This is a gen-
eral recommendation, however, and may vary depending
', First appears as a slow leak. Look for
/ wetness on the hose or drlppcng at the
socket. Instead of disappaarlng.
\ leak- win aet worse. lns~ecthose
'\ / routing to e&re that the hose has
, some sbaigM length whefe It exits the

on the type of hose, or the aircraft manufacturer's

m.
recommendations.
' ' Indicated when outer rubber mver is
spm, abraded a cracked. Tliis means
Ordering hose assemblies wlre brad IS corroding ~nsmdeand
cannol be seen Check carefully
For those who choose to order hose assemblies for
a specific application instead of building the hose in-
house, there are a number of hose shops throughout the
country that provide the service of building and testing
hose assemblies. ', Danger signals which can be costly if
' they're mcsaec. Easy lo see il you take
Meadows says that due to the great number of appli-
cations, changes that are made in the field and changes
*2..4 the lime to check carefully. Wear a
kalher glove and run hand lightly along
/ the hose. Broken bra~dscan lead to
that are made during manufacture, the best way to accu- multipl. problems.
rately order a replacement hose is to send in the one --..-
which you wish to replace. This way, he says, the hose
shop can duplicate your hose exactly, without question. Seven ways to spot hose line problems before
If you're ordering a replacement hose and can't send they cause big trouble.
in the original for some reason, there are a few tips that
Meadows offers to help you order the correct part.
When you measure the hose, remember to calculate
the length of the hose to include the portion needed to
attach to the fittings.

66 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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If the nose has an elbow at each end, the angle of
the fittings in relation to each other must be calculated
correctly. This is done by placing one of the angles flat
on a bench and measuring the fitting at the other end
counterclockwise from the surface of the bench. This
angle may already be marked on the identification tag
on the hose, or may be an extension of the part number.
The angle is critical, as many types of hose can't be
flexed enough to make up for errors in the calculation.
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Airframe Technology
Finally, if you order the hose by part number, don't
expect the hose to be exactly like the one you removed.
Many times, the manufacturer of the aircraft will have
changed the routing of the hose during production of the
aircraft and the length of the hose will have changes.
Refer to the maintenance manuals for proper hose rout
ing if you find that there's a problem related to hose
length. NovemberlDecember 1992
Note: Much of this information has been taken from pub
lications and bulletins provided by Aeroquip Corporation
and Stratoflex AerospaceflMilitiuy Connectors Division.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 67
AirframeTechnology
Air five-year landing gear
inspection tips
By Greg Napert
nce every five years, King Air owners roll their
0 aircraft into the hangar for an examination of the
aircraft's landing gear.
The inspection, which is applicable to most all King
Air Series, is due every five years, or within a specified
number of cycles (whichever comes first). It involves
complete disassembly of the main and nose gear shock
absorber strut assemblies, main and nose gear drag
brace assemblies, axle assemblies and torque knees.
Additionally, where applicable, inspection of the retract
gearbox and clutch, and gear actuators is also required.
Dave Fisher, technician for Elliott Beechcraft in Eden
Prairie, MN, says that they approach the inspection by
assigning one technician to each individual gear. That
way, he explains, each gear is removed, disassembled,
assembled and installed by one individual. This speeds
up the process and adds to the quality of the inspection.
After the aircraft is placed up on jacks, the next step
is to perform an operational check. "We perform a
retraction test by operating the gear to make sure that
there aren't any abnormal noises. If we hear any unusual
noises, we can then investigate them right away or note
the problem so that it can be checked during disassem-
bly. Typically, he says, if there are any problems, they
are found in the gearbox, with the actuator assembly, or
with the nose gear retract chain assembly.
Pulling each main and nose gear off of the aircraft
can be a bit tricky, he explains. The first thing that
needs to be done is to retract the gear a bit so that it's
not in the down-and-locked position. "There are two
things that you need to keep in mind at this point,"
he says.
"First, don't disconnect the torque links before releas-
ing the pressure in the cylinder or the pressure will blow
the lower shock absorber assembly off of the aircraft.
These struts don't have a stop mechanism to prevent the
lower and upper shock absorbers from coming apart
once they're dsconnected. The link is the only thing
that's holding the upper and lower cylinders together,"
says Fisher. He explains that it's best to remove both the
upper and lower shock assemblies (essentially the entire
shock strut) from the aircraft as an assembly.
Todd Olson, another technician at the Beech facility,
says that disassembly of the gear, once it's removed, is
a fairly simple process that requires minimum tooling.
"One thing that can make disassembly easier is to
remove the support assembly (metering tube) before
you slide the lower shock absorber assembly out. This is
68 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
because the lower assem-
bly helps guide the
support assembly out of
the upper shock without
cocking and making it
hard to remove."
Fisher says that after
Carefully inspect the nose the gear's disassembled,
gear drag braceto-airframe they dimensionally check
"intercoastal area" for loose the areas out in the
rivets or damage. component maintenance
manual, and inspect for
wear, corrosion and cracks. "The biggest areas to insped
for corrosion are on the top brace assemblies of the
main gear. The inner bore and the bolt holes of this
brace are particularly susceptible to corrosion. This is
because the brace is made of magnesium and is in
contact with dissimilar metal.
"A certain amount of corrosion (in the form of
pitting) is allowed, as long as it can be cleaned up and
remains within limits dimensionally. It's kind of a gray
area, however, and if you find one with corrosion, it
would be wise to call Beech engineering and give them
more detailed information about the extent of corrosion.
They may be able to help you make the call on whether
or not the part is serviceable."
If you've determined that the corrosion is within
limits, you've got to remove the corrosion as best you
can, and treat it with an approved corrosion preventive
compound.
"What we do," says Fisher, "is clean it up with
Scotchbritemuntil all signs of corrosion are removed.
We then treat it (the top brace and upper shock
absorber assembly) with Dow 19, a corrosion preventive
that works well on magnesium." All the other areas of
the top brace are cleaned up as well, treated and then
painted as appropriate.
Areas of the gear that are coated with epoxy aren't
stripped because the coating is too tough. Cracks that
develop under the epoxy will also crack the brittle but
tough epoxy and be visible at the surface so it's not
necessary to strip most of the epoxy-coated components.
Also, you don't want to be putting strippers on some of
these parts because the strippers are corrosive.
One area that does need to be stripped of paint,
however, is the weld bead on the nose gear fork as speci-
fied in AD 87-22-01, R1. According to the AD, the gear
must be inspected around the weld area for cracking by
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removing the paint and then fluorescent penetrant
testing. A small amount of cracking is allowed (with
recurrent inspections) according to the AD, but switch-
ing to the new style nose gear fork that's been
redesigned to eliminate the weld bead precludes the
inspection requirement.
Incidentally, this particular 9OSeries King Air did
have cracks that extended into the surrounding material.
The part was rejected and a new fork installed.
An area that's particularly susceptible to corrosion,
says Jay Mitchell, lead technician at Elliott Beechcraft, is
under the felt pad that lays between the upper and lower
shock absorber assemblies on both main and nose gear.
This felt pad must be adequately oiled prior to assem-
bling the strut. If it isn't, moisture will enter the cylinder
and be absorbed into the felt. This eventually causes
corrosion to form where the felt touches the inner wall
of the upper shock absorber.
Mitchell says that newer designs have eliminated the
felt pad and improved the O-ring seal. This, he says, has
cut down significantly on corrosion.
Look for wear to take place in an egg-shaped manner,
says Mitchell, due to the way that force is applied to the
front of the gear upon landing.
The most common areas for wear are the bushings
and pins that support the landing gear structure.
Particularly, he points to the bushings in the center of
the torque link.
"The torque knee pins are sometimes corroded and
diffidt to remove. We've found that in some cases.
we've got to use a rivet gun to exert enough force to
remove stubborn pins," he says.
The bottom torque knee and the top torque knee
on the King Air are made of different materials. The
bottom is made of steel and the top is made of alumi-
num. Look for dissimilar metal corrosion where the top
and bottom torque knees come into contact.
"The bolt holes that secure that drag brace to the
cylinders are also problem areas because of dissimilar
metal corrosion. We usually inspect these areas carefully
and lubricate them well," he says.
John D'Amato, another technician at Elliott, says that
an important item to pay attention to during assembly
of the nose gear is the installation of the nose gear
straightener assembly (which guides the gear into the
wheel well). D'Amato warns that it's possible to install
the straightener backward.
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Airframe Technology
He explains that if it's installed backward, the gear
won't properly align as it's retracted into the wheel well,
which can result in sign%cant damage. The confusion
usually occurs because the inner shock absorber can be
rotated 180 degrees from its correct orientation and
installed that way. One hint that this has occurred is
that the aircraft will be hard to steer or turn.
The aircraft may operate for a while before anyone
actually notices that there's anything wrong. If the gear
is perfectly centered, he explains, the roller will go into
the guide without causing any problems. But as soon as
the nose gear is retracted with the gear rotated slightly,
it'll tear the guide assembly apart and possibly jam in
the wheel well.
D'Amato says that one area to inspect carefully is the
steering stops on the nose gear. It's common for these to
be damaged as a result of
turning too sharp while
towing the aircraft. Look
for cracks at the base of
the stops, he says. If the
stops are damaged, the
upper shock absorber will
have to be replaced.
On the lower shock
absorber assembly, the
chromed areas must be
dimensionally checked
and inspected for damage. Inspect for cracks around
Grooves in the chrome, or the weld area of the
other types of damage, old-style nose fork per
that allow fluid to leak AD 87-22-01, R1.
out of the cylinder, are
cause for rejection.
"We sometimes try to blend out small scratches if
they're questionable, but maximum allowable wear is
onethousandth of an inch, which doesn't give you much
room for repair," he says.
"When we disassemble the strut," says D'Amato,
"there are certain parts that automatically get replaced,
such as the packings, wiper rings in the cylinder, felt
and valve cores."
D'Amato says that there's a lot of potential damage
that can be done during assembly of the strut that you
won't know has been done until you finish the inspection
and put the weight of the aircraft back on the gear.
For example, he says, the ring at the bottom of the
support tube can be broken when the lower shock
absorber is inserted into the upper shock absorber
assembly. The lower shock assembly must be carefully
centered in the ring during assembly.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 69
Airframe Technology
Care must also be taken to liberally lubricate the
packing. If installed with inadequate lubrication, there's
a chance that it'll roll. The packing will then be twisted
and won't seal properly.
Other pointers
D'Amato says that you should keep a close eye on
anything up in the wheel well that may be exposed to
dirt and moisture.
Inspect the gear actuating mechanisms for proper
operation because they are also exposed. On the
sprocket shaft, which is actuated by the chain on the
nose gear mechanism, there are sprockets that have
needle bearings which require lubrication-this is an
ideal time to service them.
70 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Check the roller bearings on the shaft to the actuator
for freedom of movement.
Carefully inspect the "intercoastal area" (where the
nose gear mounts to the airframe). D'Amato says
that the area has been beefed up on the new King
Airs, but should be inspected closely for loose rivets,
regardless.
This inspection provides a good opportunity to check
the shimmy dampener for proper operation and for
proper fluid level.
Finally, after servicing the struts to manufacturer's
recommendations, perform a retraction check and listen
carefully for sounds that indicate improper operation. If
all is well, the aircraft can be removed from the jacks.
September/Odober 1992
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 Touch-up painting pointers
By Greg Napert
lthough a common sense can prevent most
hangar rash, it's not all that uncommon to end
up with a few scratches and nicks on painted
surfaces during the course of maintenance. Returning
an aircraft to an owner that's free of nicks and scratches
can add a touch of class to any job.
Most of this damage can be eliminated by simple
touch-up techniques. Covering up damage is not only
important for aesthetic reasons, but failure to tend to
damaged paint surfaces can promote corrosion of the
exposed surfaces, making touch-up especially important
when base metal is exposed.
'Fypes of paints
One of the most important aspects of touch-up
painting is making sure that the paint you're using for
touch-up is compatible with the paint that's already on
the aircraft. Certain types of paints cause others to
soften or lift and a d like strippers which can quickly
turn the need for minor touch-up into the need for a
new paint job.
Randall Effinger, owner of Central Aviation Inc., a
paint facility in Watertown, WI, says that lacquer, for
example, will soften and lift existing coats of enamel
or polyurethane.
The simplest way to determine the type of paint on
the aircraft, he says, is to look in the logbook. Many
times, though, nothing's mentioned about the paint that
was used.
If this is the case, you'll have to test the paint on the
aircraft. This can be done by a process of elimination.
You should start, he says, by applying a little drop of
lacquer in an inconspicuous area. If the paint softens or
lifts, you know that it's not a lacquer.
If you suspect that the paint may be a lacquer but
aren't sure, you can apply a small coating of engine oil.
If it's lacquer, the surface of the paint will soften in a
few minutes.
If you've determined that the paint isn't lacquer, it's
probably either an epoxy, acrylic or polyurethane finish.
To determine if it's an epoxy or acrylic, wipe a small
amount of MEK (methyl ethyl ketone) on the surface of
the paint. MEK will pick up the pigment from an acrylic
finish, but will have no effect on an epoxy coating.
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Finishes on fabric aircraft, he says, can be deceiving
also. Some fabric aircraft are doped; then a finish coat
of polyurethane or enamel is applied over the dope. If
you use dope to touch up the polyurethane or enamel,
it will cause the surrounding finish to peel or lift-as
lacquer does with enamels and polyurethanes.
Preparing surfaces
Effinger says that surface preparation for minor
scratches should be minimal. You need to remove any
loose paint first, by scraping with a small knife, razor
blade or similar item.
If you're just touching up very small scratches or
nicks with a brush, there's typically no need to prepare
the surface in any way except to make sure it's clean, he
says. Sanding or any further preparation will only make
the damage larger and more noticeable. Alodine or
chromating the surface will usually stain the surface of
the surrounding paint, he says, and won't allow you to
match the color of the existing paint.
If you're dealing with a fairly large area, however, you
should sand the surface down to bare metal first and
feather the edges of the damaged paint. You then need
to clean it thoroughly to remove any leftover stripper
residue or oils that may be on the surface. The metal
must then be etched, and properly treated before apply-
ing finish coats of paint.
The touch up
Effinger says that most scratches can be handled
quite well using a fine No. 0 or No. 1 artist brush with
soft bristles.
When you're applying small portions of polyurethane,
you need to mix the paint with the appropriate activator
to get proper curing. The paint wiU dry without the acti-
vator but it'll take a long time and won't be as durable.
"We typically use something like a bottle cap to
measure the correct proportions of paint to activator in
small quantities," Effinger says.
On areas that are subject to oil and grease, like
under the cowl or on landing gear, you need to clean the
area thoroughly before you do anything.
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Airframe Technology
The advantages of lacquers become apparent when it
comes time to blend in repairs with existing finishes.
With lacquers, it's very easy to blend it into the sur-
rounding finish by buffing. In fact when you paint an
entire aircraft with lacquer, you typically have to buff it
to produce a smooth finish.
Polyurethanes and enamels are difficult to buff out
and blend in. Typically, the only way to make a touch-up
job unnoticeable is to repaint an entire panel.
The following rules, taken from the Airframe Handbook
AC6515A is a valuable reference in determining the
compatibility of paints.
Old type zinc chromate primer may be used diredly
for touch-up of bare metal surfaces and for use on
interior finishes. It may be overcoated with wash
primers if it is in good condition. Acrylic lacquer
finishes will not adhere to this material.
Modified zinc chromate primer will not adhere satis-
factorily to bare metal. It must never be used over a
dried film of acrylic nitrocellulose lacquer.
Nitrocellulose coatings will adhere to acrylic finishes,
but the reverse is not true. Acrylic nitrocellulose
lacquers may not be used over nitrocellulose finishes.
Acrylic nitrocellulose lacquers will adhere poorly to
both nitrocellulose and epoxy finishes and to bare
metal generally. For best results, the lacquers must
be applied over fresh, successive coatings of wash
primer and modified zinc chromate. They will also
adhere to freshly applied epoxy coatings (dried less
than six hours).
72 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
For making repairs on fabric covering, says Effinger,
scratches down to the fabric need a couple of coats of
silver coat to protect the fabric; then, the color dope can
be applied. Dope buffs out very easily and can be
blended out very nicely.
You've got to be careful here also, he says. Some f a b
ric aircraft are doped and a finish coat of polyurethane
or enamel is applied. You can't apply dope to these fin-
ishes; if you do, the surrounding finish will peel or lift,
as lacquer does with enamels and polyurethanes.
Epoxy topcoats will adhere to all the paint systems
that are in good condition and may be used for
general touch-up, including touch-up of defects in
baked enamel coatings.
Old wash primer coats may be overcoated diredly
with epoxy finishes. A new second coat of wash
primer must be applied if an acrylic finish is to
be applied.
Old acrylic finishes may be refinished with new
acrylic if the old coating is thoroughly softened using
acrylic nitrocellulose thinner before paint touch-up.
Damage to epoxy finishes can best be repaired by
using more epoxy, since neither of the lacquer
finishes will stick to the epoxy surface. In some
instances, air drying enamels may be used for touch-
up of epoxy coatings if edges of damaged areas are
first roughened with abrasive paper.
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 Airframe Technology

- -- - - - -

No respect

By Nick Levy

H
ow many times have you looked over the aircraft
only to find an accumulator or tire needing a
little servicing? Probably once a week in some
flight departments, once a month in others. But how
many times have you looked at the fire extinguishing
system?
Fire detection/extinguishing systems are a little like
Rodney. We don't give them the respect, or in this case
the "inspect" they deserve considering the job these
components perform. Not only do they protect the Lives
of the passengers and crew, they save the flight depart-
ment thousands of dollars in repair costs every time
they effectively put out a fire.
Basics
All corporate aircraft are manufactured with some
sort of fire detection system. But it's pretty safe to say
that most of these aircraft are equipped with either a
"continuous loop" or "pressuresensitive loop" detection
system. While providing the most effective fire detection
coverage for the dollar, these systems provide two totally
different methods of detection.
Continuous loop
While the "continuous loop" system is the easiest to
maintain, it sometimes becomes one of the hardest to
replace. The loop is essentially a thin wall hollow tube
that is connected to ground on both ends. As part of the
manufacturing process, the hollow tube is filled with
small beads which support a fine wire running through
its center. The beads are made of a salt solution and in-
sulate the inner wire from the case. It's these small
beads that determine the operating temperature of the
detection loop.
In the event a fire occurs near the loop, the salt
beads "melt" and allow the voltage in the center wire to
connect to ground. The ground triggers the warning
circuit, and the crew is alerted with a light and aural
warning in most aircraft.
Exceptional care must be taken during the installa-
tion of the loop to assure proper operation. Most impor-
tant is the bend radius of the curves as the loop is
installed in the compartment which is being monitored.
Since the beads are the insulation for the center wire,
a sharp bend will "break" a bead and result in false
indications to the crew.
Englm Fire Detection System
Eumt.m
u-m
-
- --.-..-
1-
LM
arm
Continuous loop detection system.
Primary concern to the technician is the integrity of
the system. This is ensured by attaching both ends of
the center wire to form a "loop." Thus, if the loop breaks
or becomes disconnected within the compartment, either
end still remains connected to the detection circuit. This
assures complete coverage of the area even though a
fault has occurred. In order to provide a valid test, one
end of the loop is electrically disconnected when the
"test" button is depressed in the cockpit. This effectively
tests the total length of the element by providing a
continuity check through the loop.
Pressure-sensitive loop
The second type of detection element used in the
corporate aviation industry is known as the "pressure
sensitive loop." This system provides an equal amount of
coverage in the desired area, but uses a pressurefilled
tube to detect the fire. The tube is filled with an inert
gas (usually helium) and sealed on one end. The other
end is connected to an electrical connector which is
referred to as a responder.
The responder is merely a pressure diaphragm and a
microswitch. As the temperature around the detection
loop increases and the loop warms, the helium gas starts
to expand. At the prescribed temperature, pressure in
the loop closes the switch and the alarm is initiated in
the cockpit.
To provide "spot" detection as well as area detection,
the loop is made with a small core of discrete metal
(usually titanium). This small core will be heated during

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a fire and will release a second gas to activate the
pressure switch. Thus, the loop provides "overheat"
protection as well as "fire" detection.
While operation of the loop depends on a closed tube,
the circuit provides adequate protection in case of fail-
ure. The "test" switch usually checks the pressure within
the tube by using a second switch in the responder. If
the helium gas escapes due to a crack, broken loop or
bad diaphragm the test will show a fault in the system.
However, the loop will s t i l l remain functional. Since the
tube contains the core metal, it will release sufficient
gas pressure in the tube to activate the warning system
should a fire occur. In this case, the detection of a
fire is ensured, while an overheat situation would go
undetected.
Installation of the "pressure loop" is just as critical as
the "continuous loop." Careful attention must be paid to
the bend radius of the detection element and proper
support within the compartment to prevent damage to
the element. Inspection criteria are outlined in the
applicable maintenance manual and must be followed to
the letter. Most of the items are common sense such as
clamps, chafing relief, insulators, connections and visual
inspection. But these are the places where we tend to
overlook the obvious damage.
Particular attention must be paid to the distance
between the clamps. A long unsupported loop will tend
to vibrate and eventually workharden which will soon
result in a failure. Each clamp is also installed with a
plastic or neoprene sleeve which prevents chafing with Pressuresensitive loop detection system.
the clamp. All connections must be secured with safety
wire, and any visual damage to the exterior of the loop The most common type of agent used in corporate
will usually result in replacement. Be sure to consult the aviation is called "halon." This refers to halogenated
aircraft manual or the system manual to determine hydrocarbons, which are made by combining carbon,
allowable limits. fluorine, chlorine and bromine atoms. Currently Halon
1211 and Halon 1301 are the most frequently used fire
Extinguishing systems extinguishing agents in corporate aviation. These agents
All jet aircraft are required to be equipped with an provide excellent fire protection at a reasonable cost.
engine fire extinguisher system. While the number of Most bottles are in the capacity range of 2.5 to 5
engines, size of bottles, type of agent and delivery pounds and require annual weight checks to verify the
methods vary from aircraft to aircraft, all provide a proper quantity of halon. These bottles also require pres-
greatly improved fire extinguishing system. Usually the sure testing to ensure the integrity of the container. This
extinguisher agent is stored in a round or accurnulator- "hydrostatic" inspection is performed at a predetermined
shaped bottle in the aft compartment or nacelle area. interval based upon the inspection cycle of the aircraft.
Most bottles are equipped with a pressure gauge which Since pressure is also of concern, the bottles are
is used to determine proper servicing according to a equipped with an overpressure relief valve or disc. These
temperature chart. Located on the bottom of bottle are valves or discs usually relieve the pressure within the
one or two delivery ports which conned by aluminum bottle if it increases to a dangerous level. At a predeter-
lines to the protected compartment. (Engine extinguish- mined pressure (or temperature) the bottle will be
ing bottles usually have two ports which allow delivery vented automatically and will be indicated to the ground
to either engine.) Within the compartment are "fan-tail" crew. An obvious indication is the loss of pressure on
nozzles made of stainless steel which assure proper the bottle pressure gauge. But, this may not be visible
delivery of the extinguishing agent within the area. without opening compartments or panels on the aircraft.
Since rapid delivery is mandatory, the bottle is Thus the aircraft manufacturers have developed an
delivered by the activation of an electrical cartridge. This easier method.
explosive "squib" will break a ribbed disc which will
allow the bottle to empty in one second or less.

74 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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 Airframe Technolofiy

The most common method is to cover the end of the

vent line with a colored, plastic disc. The disc will be
visible when the aircraft is prefhghted and serves as a
visual indication to the crew. If the bottle has vented its
pressure due to excess heat or pressure, the disc will be
blown away and the inside of the vent line is painted a
high contrasting color to make it easily identifiable.
Remember, the presence of the disc does not ensure
the bottle is serviced correctly. This can only be deter-
mined by the removal and weighing of the suspect bottle.
While much has been written about the advantages
and disadvantages of fire extinguishing systems, one
thing remains true. If a fire occurs while an aircraft is
in-flight, only the little 2.5-pound bottle of halon provides
the protection necessary to save the passengers, crew
and aircraft. LQ May/June 1992

Nick Levy is an aircraft technical instructor for

SimuFlite Training International. He currently teaches
Falcon 10, 20 and 50 and Professional Troubleshooting
Skills courses. Levy has over 25 years of professional
aviation maintenance and technical teaching experience.

Typical fire detection and extinguishing system.

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Magnetic particle inspection
Doing it right

By Douglas Latia

M
agnetic particle inspection, a nondestructive
testing method for locating surface and near-
surface defects in ferromagnetic materials, is
no stranger to the aviation industry. The process was
originally used to locate cracks in the steel engine parts
of reciprocating engines and is still in use today for the
same purpose, along with a host of other applications.
The fundamentals of magnetic particle inspection are
quite basic. Magnetic lines, referred to as "lines of flux,"
travel easily through ferromagnetic materials such as
steel and iron. Flux lines tend to establish themselves
in closed loops which never cross one another. There's
a certain flux density associated with the material's
permeability (the ability to accept magnetism) and with
the amount of magnetizing force applied to the part.
The magnetic lines of flux will route themselves
around defects, frequently referred to as discontinuities,
looking for new paths. Normally the path of least
resistance for flux lines is through the ferromagnetic
material.
However, if the flux density is so great that there is
no room for additional lines in the material, the flux
lines will leave the material at the point of the disconti-
nuity, creating a flux leakage. It's this external magnetic
field formed by the flux leakage that will hold magnetic
particles, making the discontinuity visible. Particles
treated with a fluorescent pigment will make discontinu-
ity indications stand out brilliantly when viewed under a
black light.
Direction of magnetization is important since
discontinuities running parallel to the flux lines will
cause little or no disruption of the paths. Passing
current through the part will generate circular magne
tism, and placing the part in a coil will establish a Al Peterson. technician at Omni Flight Helicopters Inc. in
longitudinal magnetic field. 1 Janesville, WZ, inspects a gear for cracks using magnetic
Successful magnetic particle inspection depends upon 1 particle inspection.
attention to many details. As aircraft technicians, we
know that the particulars of any maintenance operation to create leakage fields a t discontinuities that exist, yet,
can be found in the manufacturers' maintenance manu- not so much magnetism that a confusing background is
als. This is also true for nondestructive tests. formed. Also, exceeding the recommended amperage can
Lycoming, for example, publishes the specifications cause burning of the part at the contact points and over-
for magnetic particle testing of its ferromagnetic engine heating, which may render it unserviceable.
parts in a service instruction. Magnetization can be accomplished with either AC or
The direction of magnetization is given along with DC current. Magnetic particle inspection machines are
the amount and type of amperage. The direction of mag- either AC or DC and in some cases have the capability of
netization is important to provide the greatest sensitivity both. DC current has the capability of penetrating below
to cracks of certain orientation. The optimal amount of the surface of the material, making subsurface discon-
amperage will ensure that there is adequate magnetism tinuities detectable. AC current creates a skin effect and

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 stays at the surface, providing excellent resolution for
fine surface discontinuities. Lycoming specifies that DC
current be used.
Continental and Beechcraft publish similar informa-
tion with the addition of spe~icationsfor types of
particles to be used and method of particle application.
Both manufacturers require the use of wet particles.
Wet and dry type magnetic particles are available;
however, the wet type is used almost exclusively in the
aviation industry.
The particle bath consists of fine particles of iron
oxide material, dyed or treated with a visible color or
fluorescent pigment, suspended in a petroleum vehicle
similar to kerosene. While kerosene has been used for
this purpose, commercially available suspensoids, such as
Magnaflux Carrier 11, are odorless and have flash points
over 200°F. The petroleum vehicle allows particle mobil-
ity necessary for orientation in the areas of flux leakage.
Continental prefers the use of fluorescent particles
while Beechcraft states in its Structural Inspection and
Repair Manual that either fluorescent or visible particles
may be used. The advantage of using visible particles
is that a darkened inspection booth and black light are
not needed. However, indications created by fluorescent
particles are more readily seen when viewed under a
black light.
There are two methods of particle application:
continuous and residual method. The continuous method
requires that the particles be present while the magnetiz-
ing force is being applied to the part.
This method takes advantage of the f a d that the
magnetic field (and associated leakage fields) is strongest
while the magnetizing force is being applied. Therefore,
small discontinuities will cause leakage fields strong
enough to attract particles while the magnetizing current
is flowing. The indication will be formed only while the
current is flowing. It's important that the particle bath
not be flowed over the part after the current has been
removed. or indications of small dkcontinuities will be
washed away.
The residual method relies upon the retentivity
(ability to retain magnetism) of the material. The part is
magnetized first and then the particles are applied. The
leakage fields associated with smaller discontinuities
may disappear when the magnetizing current is removed
and consequently no particles will gather to form an
indication. The continuous provides the greatest test
sensitivitv.
~here-areseveral other factors that affect the sensi-
tivity of a magnetic particle test that may not be men-
tioned in the manufacturer's rsublication.
For example, some of these items which shouldn't be
overlooked when preparing a magnetic particle test are:
concentration and contamination of the particle bath,
intensity of the black light and confirmation of proper
machine operation.
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Proper direction of magnetization i s essentid for successful
magnetic particle inspections.
It is important that the concentration of the particles
in the particle bath is correct. A weak particle concentra-
tion will result in too few particles gathering at a mag-
netic leakage, possibly making detection impossible. A
strong concentration will create a glowing background
which reduces the contrast of the indication.
The concentration is measured by turning on the par-
ticle bath pump and allowing the bath to circulate
through the machine for approximately 30 minutes for
agitation. Fill the centrifuge tube, a special beaker gradu-
ated in milliliters, with 100 milliliters of particle bath.
Let the sample set undisturbed for 30 minutes. The level
of the accumulation of particles is read against the scale
at the bottom of the tube. Normal concentration for the
14A particles is .2 to .25 ML per 100 ML sample.
The particle concentration changes because of e v a p
ration of the carrier and particles being carried out of
the bath on test park. The concentration should be
checked at least once each day that the machine is used
and adjusted when necessary.
Before returning the contents of the centrifiqe tube
to the magnetic particle machine reservoir, examine the
material that has settled in the bottom of the tube care-
fully under the black light. Contaminates will settle on
top of the magnetic particles and will not fluoresce. If
the volume of the contaminates exceeds 30 percent of
the particles, the entire bath should be drained, the
equipment cleaned, and the bath replenished using new
materials.
The black hght typically used in magnetic particle
testing is a 100-watt refledor-type mercury vapor lamp
equipped with a black light f i r . These lamps tend to
lose their effectiveness at the desired light wavelength
with age and use. Therefore, it's necessary to check the
black light intensity on a regular basis.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 77
 This is done with a black light meter which measures
intensity in microwatts per square centimeter. The inten-
sity should be at least 1,000 microwatta per square centi-
meter at 15 inches from the light source. Allow five
minutes from starbup for the mercury vapor lamp to
reach full intensity before performing this check.
In fluorescent applications, the inspection will most
likely be performed in a darkened booth, so allow five to
10 minutes for eye adaptation. This can make the differ-
ence between locating or missing small indications. The
inspection area should also be regularly checked with a
white light meter to ensure that the level of white light
doesn't exceed two footcandles.
Ensuring that the whole system is functioning prop
erly is simple but sometimes overlooked. Either a part
with a defect similar to that which you are looking for,
or a test standard with a manufactured defect, should be
processed in the same manner as the actual part before
proceedmg with the actual test.
Ferromagnetic parts that have been inspected will
retain a certain amount of magnetism. It's essential that
this magnetism be removed before the part is returned
to service. Magnetized engine parts, once inside the
engine, will attract and accumulate microscopic ferre
magnetic wear materials. These particles can get into
small clearances and accelerate wear. Magnetized
airframe parts can have an influence on the magnetic
or electronic compass.
Demagnetizing is accomplished by introducing a
magnetized part to an alternating magnetic field and
then withdrawing it from the influence of the field. A
demagnetizer consists of a large coil energized by AC
current. The magnetizing coil of an AC magnetic particle
inspection machine can also be used. The part is held in
the energized coil and then withdrawn and held at least
an arm's length from the coil before the coil is turned
off. Demagnetizing equipment is available which eledri-
cally reduces the alternating magnetic field to zero,
eliminating the need to physically remove the part from
the coil.
The part is checked for residual magnetism with a
field indicator. If a field indicator isn't available, a small
staple and a 12-inch-long thread will accomplish the
same end. Suspend the staple from the end of the
thread and allow it to contact the vertical side of the
part. Attempt to move the staple away from the part. If
the staple tends to cling to the part, repeat the demagne
tization process. Change the staple from time to time as
it may become magnetized itself.
78 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
So far, the processes described, are in reference to
the wet horizontal stationary unit. This is a relatively
large and expensive piece of equipment and may be diffi-
cult for smaller shops to justrfy. Magnetic particle inspec-
tions can also be performed with the use of a hand-held
yoke. Yokes are available for AC or DC magnetization
and can be operated with ll@volt current.
The legs of the yoke become the poles of a very
strong magnet when energized. It must be kept in mind
that an imaginary line drawn from leg to leg must be
aligned perpendicularly with the discontinuity being
sought for proper direction of magnetization. The par-
ticle bath is also available in aerosol cans, making it
handy to use with the yoke. The yoke has limitations,
but it is very economical.
Flux leakage a t discontinuity.
Perhaps one of the most important components of
any nondestructive test is the inspector. A good working
knowledge of the test method is essential. Procedures
overlooked or improperly performed can defeat the entire
purpose of the test. Overcritical judgment may result in
rejection of serviceable parts, or an inexperienced eye
may allow a critically flawed part to return to service.
There are many aspects of this test that must be
understood by the inspector, but above all, a good inspec-
tor must be properly trained and experienced. Magnetic
particle inspection, as well as other methods of NDT,
when performed properly can provide increased safety
and economical operation. However, performed incor-
rectly, can only serve to create a false sense of security
and lead to disaster. MarcWApriZ 1992
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The VOM and electrical
measurement errors
By Gary Eiff
hen it comes to electrical system fault
analysis, there is no more universally applied
troubleshooting tool than the Volt-ohm Meter
(VOM). This instrument has been used for decades by
aviation maintenance technicians to evaluate and solve a
wide variety of electrical system failures. Despite its
popularity, the proper use of the VOM to make precise
measurements remains largely misunderstood.
The secret of making highly accurate electrical
measurements lies in an understanding of the various
errors which can be made while using the VOM. Once
understood, technicians can take appropriate measures
to minimize these errors and increase the accuracy of
their electrical readings.
Parallax error
According to Webster's New World Dictionary,
parallax is "the apparent change in the position of an
object resulting from the change in the direction or posi-
tion from which it is viewed." Parallax errors in analog
electrical meter readings are caused by the separation
of the meter's needle from the face of the scale of the
instrument. As shown in Figure 1, if the technician is
careless while making a measurement and views the
needle from even a slight angle, an incorrect reading is
realized. In order to assure that a correct reading is
made, technicians must be sure they are reading the
instrument from directly over - that is perpendicular to -
the meter's scale.
Some analog VOMs have a mirror on the surface of
the meter's scale. The purpose of this mirror is to help
the technician reduce errors caused by parallax. To
ensure that the measurement is taken with no parallax
error, technicians must simply move their eyes back and
forth while noting the position of the needle and its
reflection in the mirror. If the needle is viewed from an
angle, both the needle and its reflection will be plainly
visible. By carefully moving the eye until the needle's
reflection disappears under the meter's needle, parallax
error can be eliminated and a true reading achieved.
Scale reading errors
In an effort to make the VOM as versatile as practi-
cal, many types of electrical measurements are possible
with the instrument. Most VOMs can measure several
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Airframe Technology
Figure 1: Parallax Error
ranges of alternating current (AC) and direct current
P C ) voltage, AC and DC current, as well as resistance.
In order to ensure greater accuracy, several different
scales are provided for each of the different types of
electrical measurements possible with the meter. While
there are several ways the scales of a meter may be
misread, they can normally be grouped into two general
categories, incorrect scale errors and scale increment
errors.
With analog meters, using the wrong scale for read-
ing the electrical value is among the most common of
errors made by technicians when reading VOMs. For
example, aircraft technicians most often find it neces-
sary to take measurements of DC voltages. When they
take AC voltage measurements, it is common (with some
meters) for these technicians to mistakenly read an
incorrect value from the DC scale.
Understanding the increment error is a little more
difficult. In order to interpret the meter reading cor-
rectly, technicians must understand what each division
or increment means on each of the ranges of the meter's
scale. If, for example, we are making a measurement on
the 2 . 5 ~AC scale, each division is onefifth of the major
demarcation or 0.1 volt. By comparison, if we choose to
make a measurement on the 10v AC range of the meter,
each increment is onetenth of the major demarcation.
Each increment therefore represents 0.2 volts.
To further complicate the issue, some of the scales
on some meters don't contain a uniform number of
divisions between major marks. This lack of umformity
in incremental representations has led more than one
technician into making inaccurate readings.
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Interpolation error
Technicians often strive to attain greater accuracy
in measurement than the fundamental instrument is
capable of making. Realistically, measurements are
attainable to the nearest increment on the meter. Many
technicians try to presume the capability of making
more accurate measurements by guessing the position of
the needle between the increments and assigning that
position a value in the measurement.
For example, if the technician thinks that the needle
is threequarters of the way between the marks, he or
she might claim that the reading indicated was 1.175
volts. The difference between this "guess" and the actual
value of the measurement is referred to as the interpola-
tion error. When striving for accuracy, the technician
should consider that it is generally agreed the addition
of an interpolated value into a measurement is limited
to one-half of the increment value. In a digital meter,
additional accuracy is attainable only through increasing
the number of digits the meter is capable of presenting.
Thus, a fourdigit meter is presumably more accurate
than a threedigit one.
Loading errors
Probably the least understood of the errors in using a
VOM is that of the loading effect of the meter itself on
the circuit under test. In order to take voltage measure
ments, we must place the meter leads across a source of
electrical potential or a component in a circuit. In doing
so, we have created, through the meter, an additional
path for current and, consequently, affected the total
resistance of the circuit under test. This change in
resistance will cause the voltage being measured also
to change.
Consider the circuit in Figure 2. The voltage mea-
sured across resistor R2 is proportional to the ratio of
the values of the resistors R1 and R2. If resistor R3 is
placed across R2, an additional path for current is
provided through R3. Additionally, the total resistance
represented by the combination of the two resistors
becomes smaller than the value of R2. As a result, the
voltage across the combination of R2 and R3 is reduced.
The value of the total resistance of the R2 and R3
combination and the degree to which the measured
voltage across the resistors is affected is dependent upon
the resistive value of R3. If the value of R3 is very large,
there is little effect on the measured value of the voltage
across the resistors. As the value of resistance R3 is
reduced, the change in the voltage across the resistor
combination becomes greater.
80 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Figure2: L d n g Error
When making voltage measurements with VOMs, it
should be remembered that the meter has finite internal
resistance. This resistance must be considered when
making voltage measurements since, in essence, we are
placing the meter into the circuit as we did R3 in the
previous example.
When selecting a meter for troubleshooting, pay
particular attention to the input impedance of the meter
for the range of measurements to be made. The higher
the input impedance of the meter the less the voltage
under test will be affected and the greater is the
measurement accuracy. The meter's input impedance is
that mysterious "ohms per volt" value given for the
meter. As a general rule, the &her this value the less
the meter will affect the reading.
In addition to consideration of the meter's input
impedance, technicians should also understand the
effecta of circuit resistance on measurement accuracy.
For example, let's evaluate the circuit in Figure 2 where
the voltage source is 12 volts and the voltage across R2
is actually 6 volts. If the value of R2 is 300 ohms and
the value of the meter's input impedance is 300,000
ohms, the measured value is not affected very much. If
the meter is capable, it will actually read 5.997 volts
instead of 6.0 volts because of the meter 'loading effect."
By comparison, if the value of R2 had been 100,000
ohms, the meter would have had a much greater effect
on the reading. The loading effect of the meter would
change the apparent resistance value from the actual
100,000 ohms to a value of 75,000 ohms. This would
result in the meter reading of only 5.143 volts. The
loading effect of the meter introduced an error in the
measurement of almost 1 volt.
As a general rule, as the circuit resistance across
which the readmg is taken increases, the greater is the
error in the measurement due to the loading effect of
the meter. For this reason, extra care must be taken
when making voltage measurements across high-
resistance circuit elements.
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Calibration error
Probably the most familiar error to most technicians
is the calibration error. Meter accuracy is of paramount
importance to accurate troubleshooting and superior
electricaVelectronic maintenance. The ability of the
meter to maintain small, uniform errors across its broad
range of application is a fundamental attribute of a
quality meter. To ensure continued meter accuracy,
meters are required to undergo periodic calibrations.
Calibration errors are deviations between the meter
readings of the instrument and the actual value of
electrical standards. Because of meter circuit uniqueness
and non-linearity of the circuit across the meter's range
of measurements, these errors may not be the same for
all types of electrical measurements or ranges of the
meter. When making measurements which require a
high degree of accuracy, calibration errors must be taken
into account. A properly maintained highquality VOM
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will generally have very small calibration errors. The
need to reduce calibration errors is another testament
for the selection of a highquality meter for most mainte-
nance applications.
Unlike several of the other errors presented, digital
meters are as susceptible as analog meters to calibration
errors. Additionally, regular periodic calibration is
required to minimize these errors because regular use
will affect meter accuracy. Circuit component aging,
rough handling, as well as many other factors, affect the
need for calibration. Meters used extensively or used in
rough-handling environments should be calibrated more
frequently than seldom-used or pampered units. LBl
January/Februw 1992
Gary Eiff is an associate professor at Sou them Lllinois
University in Carbondale, LL.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 81
Fuel Quantity Indicating Systems
By Richard L. Floyd
F
uel Quantity Indicating Systems (FQIS) like most
aircraft systems have evolved over the years. Some
of the earliest systems used a glass tube as a sight
gauge; others had a float attached to a graduated rod to
give an indication of the level in the tanks.
Other systems consisted of a float arm riding the fuel
surface which turned a geared assembly as the fuel level
changed. A magnet was attached at the end of a rod,
and outside the tank, another magnet in the shape of a
pointer would track the movements of the first magnet
to give the fuel level indication.
Floatbased systems were later enhanced with the ad-
dition of an electrical meter movement. In these systems
the float is c o ~ e c t e dto a pivoted assembly to the wiper
arm of a variable resistor. DC voltage is supplied to an
indicator which has two coils. One coil is connected to a
fixed resistor back to ground, while the other is con-
nected to ground through the variable resistor in the
fuel tank as pictured in Figure 1.
Capacitance systems
Capacitancebased indicating systems, overcome some
of the shortcomings common to floattype systems. They
represent the most advanced type of FQIS. Capacitance
systems offer greater accuracy, lack of moving parts in
the tanks, easy summing of multiple sensors, and true
mass or weight indication.
These systems use probes, also called tank units to
sense the fuel level changes. The probes act as variable
capacitors increasing in value as the fuel level rises.
The first of these capacitance systems was twetermi-
nal or "unguarded." This meant that the system values
were directly proportional to the length of the wiring
required to complete the circuits. Thus, the probes them-
selves might make up only a fraction of the overall ca-
pacitance of the system.
Later threeterminal or "guarded capacitance sys-
tems" were developed. These system capacitance values
were now independent of the length of the system wir-
ing. The majority of aircraft have systems of this type.
A drawback guarded systems suffer from is the require
ment for expensive coaxial cabling and connectors.
A capacitor by definition is two conductors separated
by an insulator. Normally the conductors are referred
to as plates and the insulator is called a dielectric as
pictured in Figure 2.
The fuel probes consist of two concentric hollow cylin-
ders held rigidly in space with respect to each other and
form the plates of a capacitor. Since the area of the cyl-
82 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
inders and the distance between them is fixed, only a
change in the dielectric constant can change the probes'
capacitance value.
When the aircraft tanks are empty, air is the dielec-
tric. As the tanks are filled, fuel displaces the air and
the capacitance of the probe increases proportionately.
For example, if we were to measure the capacitance of
an empty tank, then fiU completely and remeasure we
would find the value to be approximately 2.1 times the
empty value as illustrated in Figure 3.
Different fuel types have slightly different dielectric
constants and consequently produce different capacitive
effects. Many systems use a compensator to correct for
such differences. The compensator is a small probe lo-
cated at the lowest point in any tank, or group of tanks,
of a given system. It is usually mounted to and is part of
a probe located at this point.
The volume of fuel is also affected somewhat by tem-
perature, so that the weight for a given fuel level
changes with temperature. Since the dielectric constant
decreases with an increase in fuel temperature, the com-
pensator tends to correct for temperature error also.
The effect of the compensator is directly proportional
to the amount of fuel in the tank. That is, the compensa-
tor has no effect on the indicator when the tanks are
empty, and has a maximum effect when the tanks are
full. This can be seen in Figure 4.
So far, all the capacitance systems discussed have
been what are termed AC capacitance systems. There
are many aircraft which have DC capacitance systems.
These terms (AC and DC) are not related to the system
power requirements, but rather the type of return
current from the fuel probes.
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 PLATES In the systems we
have looked at the probes
were impressed with an
AC sinewave excitation
and returned an AC cur-
rent to the indicator or
DIELECTRIC signal conditioner. In a
DC system the probes are
FIGURE 2 also impressed with an
AC sinewave (some use a
triangular wave); however, the return is rectified by di-
odes on the probes. The negative half wave is returned
to the indicator or signal conditioner for processing. DC
systems don't require expensive coaxial cabling and s p e
cial electrical connectors to maintain the guarding
shield. The DC types of systems have gained wide accep
tance because of this.
System calibration
The most accurate calibration is achieved by remov-
ing all fuel from the tanks and leveling the aircraft. The
EMPTY adjustment is made at this point. Then the
tanks are filled and the FULL adjustment made.
Because it's necessary to empty and fill the tanks
and level the aircraft, and because it may be necessary
to repeat the operation one or more times to ensure
proper calibration, this method ties up the aircraft and
manpower for a considerable length of time.
A more convenient method, and nearly as accurate,
utilizes precalibrated capacitances to simulate the effect
of fuel on the probes and compensator. The preferred
method is to empty the tanks (leveling of aircraft is nor-
mally unnecessary) and make the EMPTY adjustment.
Then, capacitance equivalent to the difference between
the EMPTY and FULL values of the aircraft is added in
parallel with the tank system and the FWLL adjustments
made. This equivalent capacitance is the ADDED value
referred to in maintenance manuals.
The EMPTY calibration may be rechecked by simply
disconnecting or switching out the ADDED capacitance.
The operation may be repeated as many times as r e
quired to ensure an accurate calibration. Since all of the
system's probes and compensator are involved in the
calibration, it results in the greatest accuracy.
An alternate method is accomplished with fuel in the
tanks. This procedure substitutes equivalent capacitances
for both EMPTY and FULL calibration.
First, the capacitance equivalent to an empty tank is
inserted into the system with the actual aircraft probes
disconnected. If the system is equipped with a compensa-
tor, the maintenance manual may specify that the actual
compensator itself be used rather than an equivalent ca-
pacitance. After making the EMPTY adjustment, the ca-
pacitance equivalent to a full tank is inserted and the
FULL calibration is made. EMPTY and FULL may be
repeated as often as necessary by simply changing the
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simulated ca~acitance.The tanks don't have to be
drained. If & tank units are in good condition, this
method has an accuracy which rivals the preferred
method.
Troubleshooting
Some fuel quantity indicating problems can render
the system totally inoperative while others cause errors
of a lesser degree and may not be readily apparent.
Typical sources of problems may include: poor shield-
ing of the HI-Z (high impedance, shielded coax) lead, in-
sulation breakdown, corrosion in the connections,
moisture condensation in the tanks, defective compo-
nents and open or shorted conditions in the system wir-
ing.
With the proper equipment, testing, troubleshooting
and calibration of the system usually become a straight
forward, no-guessing-games-requiredprocedure. The idea
being to divide and conquer. That is to isolate and test
the system elements independently, to determine the
source of the problem, and then to repair or replace as
necessary.
There are typically three tests performed on the sys-
tem prior to attempting a calibration: capacitance mea-
surement, insulation measurement and indicator andlor
signal conditioner testing. If the probe capacitance and
insulation testa prove to be within the allowable toler-
ances, then the problem is with the indicator or signal
conditioner.
Capacitance measurement normally requires that the
tanks be drained of all fuel, and the system is discon-
nected at the indicator interfacing of the test equipment.
It's important to note that the indicator must be isolated
either through switching arrangements or by leaving it
disconnected, and aircraft power (unless specifically ad-
vised otherwise) is always removed. Additionally, if the
system has a compensator, it (the COMP lead) must be
grounded when measuring the tank probes. Conversely,
the tank probes (the LOZ lead) must be grounded to
measure the compensator.
Capacitance values vary considerably from aircraft to
aircraft. Some systems measure less than 20 pf while
others may be greater than 1,000 pf. If the measured
value falls within the allowable tolerance, the technician
may proceed on to the insulation tests. If not, it'll be
necessary to perform additional testing to determine
why. Many systems have a bulkhead connector at which
the probes may be measured individually. This helps to
isolate which probds) or section(s) of wiring are faulty.
For those systems not so equipped, it may be that by
noting the difference between the measured and p r e
scribed values that the source can be determined. Recall-
ing our earlier example of a tank having four probes
with values of 40, 30, 20 and 10 pf, if the tank measured
90 pf instead of the required 100 pf, then the fourth
probe becomes suspect and should be checked.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 83
 I Fuel Indicating System Troubleshooti~g I

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100 pf 155 pf 210 pf
EMPTY HALF FULL
FIGIIRF 3
The insulation measurement also requires fuel drain-
age of the tanks, disconnection of the indicator and in-
terfacing of the test equipment before the actual test.
Again, the indicator must be isolated and aircraft power
(unless advised otherwise) removed.
Insulation values will also vary considerably from air-
craft to aircraft. Some systems require maximum values
of no more than perhaps 1 megohrn while other aircraft
may have requirements in excess of 1,000 megohms. It's
worth mentioning that insulation values always reflect
the minimum acceptable reading. Any indication above
that is for the better. The procedure usually requires
malring several actual insulation measurements. This
typically involves sequencing of a rotary selector switch.
The reason for the multiple testa is that an insulation
breakdown could exist between any two or more of the
normal four points of the system, that is LOZ (low im-
pedance tank lead), HI-Z (high impedance coax lead),
shield and ground. Systems with a compensator will
have additional tests.
If the measured values equal or exceed the listed
minimums, the technician may proceed to the next test.
If not, and the system is equipped with a connector
break, the probes may be measured individually.
For those systems not equipped in this fashion it will
be necessary to begin isolating sections of the system by
disconnecting at the probes and observing when the in-
sulation values increase. Recalling that, the probes are
connected in parallel, LO-Z to LO-Z, and HI-Z to HI-Z
from the inner to the outermost probe. All will be af-
fected if there's an insulation breakdown in one probe or
section of the wiring.
Again, using our earlier example of a four-probe sys-
tem, if we were to break the connections between the
second and third probe and remeasure with good results,
then the problem is in the outer two probes and or asso-
ciated cabling. By repeating this process of subdividing,
we will eventually isolate the cause.
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PROBES
L--
I FlRllRE 4
I ! REF
The indicator test does not require the aircraft to be
drained of fuel. The indicator is disconnected from the
indicating system and the test equipment is connected.
The test equipment will be preconfigured to simulate the
empty capacitance for the system. Power is returned to
the system, and the indicator is adjusted if necessary to
give an exact EMPTY reading. The capacitance simula-
tors of the test equipment will then be set to simulate
the full capacitance requirement, and the indicator is
adjusted as necessary to give an exact FULL reading. If
either EMPTY or FULL cannot be set, then the indicator
must be re~laced.
Many $dicators also require that a linearity test be
performed to ensure proper tracking of the unit and to
check for sticking in the movement. This is accomplished
by simulating incremental values of capacitance and
checking the indicator reading for accuracy. Again, a
failure at any point during the testing is grounds for
rejection.
It's particularly important to point out that the
indicator test doesn't usually constitute an indicator
calibration. After the integrity of all points of the system
has been ensured through testing, the system should be
calibrated to actual aircraft empty conditions.
Richard L. Floyd, who's been in aviation for 12 years,
is a field engineer for Barfield Instrument Corp., head-
quarters in Miami; FL. He is based at the company's
Atlanta, GA, branch.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 85
Non-destructive testing
Penetrant processing: Dispelling the myths

By Joseph Hahn

A
n inspector looks at a turbine blade that has
been tested for defects using the fluorescent
penetrant method of nondestructive testing. A
bright green line jumps out, so the inspector rejects the
part. Obviously, it's cracked.
Later, he puts a similar turbine blade back into
service because no green indication appears during
processing. Obviously, it's not cracked.
The inspector uses penetrant processing to test for
flaws in aircraft parts everyday, trusting the test results
and acting accordingly. But he wonders from time to
time: Does penetrant processing really work... are the
test results really accurate?
The answer to those questions is yes, but only if the
test is performed properly using some simple, fail-safe
guidelines.

Penetrant process compared to other

NDT methods
Penetrant inspection (PI) is a nondestructive testing
(NDT) technique for finding surface cracks and
discontinuities on solid, non-porous parts.
The process is very simple. First, a liquid that
contains either green fluorescent or red visible dye and
possesses penetrating properties, much like familiar
household produds such as WD-40 and Liquid Wrench,
is spread over the surface of a part. Next, excess liquid
is removed from the surface, leaving only the liquid that
has penetrated into any existing cracks. Finally, by
careful observation of these penetrant "indications," you
can locate cracks and determine the s u e and approxi-
mate depth of each one.
In general, penetrant processing offers some very Compared to the ultrasonic method: PI is faster and
important benefits: Penetrant inspection is arguably the more effective for overall scanning of parts, better
best method for finding surface cracks, especially if they in finding shallow or short cracks, unlimited by
are fine, short or shallow. It is also the best method for the shape or size of the part, and less expensive for
early detection of fatigue cracks, which usually start at volume testing.
the surface. In many cases, early detection provides a Compared to the eddy current method: PI can locate
chance to save the part and extend its useful life. a greater variety of cracks that differ in width, depth
However, penetrant processing cannot locate subsurface and direction, and its use is not limited by the shape
discontinuities at all. Here are some other important or s u e of the part. However, the eddy current
performance comparisons to consider when selecting method may be faster for inspecting bars and tubing.
the right NDT method for your application:
Compared to the magnetic particle method: PI is
Compared to the X-ray method: PI is faster, more e q u d y effective in finding open cracks, but not
reliable, less expensive and unlimited by the shape as effective when the cracks are Tied with
or size of the part. contaminants.

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It's a myth that good penetrant inspection results
can be achieved with nothing more than a bucket, rag,
garden hose and black light.
Important process considerations
It can't be emphasized enough that using the process
properly is the key to success. However, there are a num-
ber of process variables to consider, each one of which
requires a decision that's appropriate for the application:
Selecting the right sensitivity level
Determining the right sensitivity level is a fundamen-
tal consideration that depends on the size of the defects
that must be located. The smaller the defect, the higher
the sensitivity level requirement. On aircraft parts,
where very tight defects are critical, a penetrant with
level 3 or level 4 sensitivity should be used. (Level 4 is
the most sensitive penetrant available.) If there is any
doubt, select the higher sensitivity level.
Using a developer
The use of a developer dramatically magnifies the
visibility of indications by drawing the penetrant out of
cracks; visually, this phenomenon "expands" the appar-
ent size of the cracks. Non-aqueous and wet suspendible
developers are made for use with visible penetrants.
With fluorescent penetrants, you can also use dry
powder and wet soluble developers, in addition to the
other types.
Choosing the ideal penetrant method
You can apply penetrant by spraying, brushing or
dipping whichever you prefer. Just be sure the entire
inspection area gets coated and that the surface is clean
and dry before the penetrant is applied. Then, determine
which penetrant method best suits your application-
water wash, lipophilic (PE),hydrophilic (PR) or solvent
removable. A detailed description of each method
follows:
The water wash method involves simple equipment
and procedures, and it's ideal for large parts and high
production rates. However, it is less controllable than
other methods and creates a relatively large volume of
emulsified waste water. The proper procedure is:
Apply penetrant coating
Allow dwell time (at least 10 minutes)
Wash penetrant off with 65OF to 75°F water (30 to
120 seconds according to manufacturer's specs)
Dry the part
Apply developer
Inspect for indications (with fluorescent materials,
use a darkened room)
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Airframe Technology
The lipophilic method offers greater control than any
other penetrant method, but it is more difficult to handle
large parts effectively, it creates more waste water than
any other method, and it is not as appropriate for h g h
production rates. The proper procedure is:
Apply penetrant coating
Allow dwell time (at least 10 minutes)
Remove excess penetrant by dipping in emulsifier
(time duration to comply with manufacturer's specs)
Wash with 65°F to 75OF water (30 to 120 seconds,
according to manufacturer's specs)
Dry the part
Apply developer
Inspect for indications (with fluorescent materials,
use a darkened room)
The hydrophilic method is the most common method
for aircraft applications because of the control and high
production rate it allows. Additionally, it's good for large
parts, and waste water is easily separated from prerinse.
The proper procedure is:
Apply penetrant coating
Allow dwell time (at least 10 minutes)
Prerinse parts (mechanical cleansing with non-
emulsified water)
Apply penetrant remover via spray or dip (use
concentration according to manufacturer's specs)
Wash penetrant off with 65°F to 75OF water (30 to
120 seconds, according to manufacturer's specs)
Dry the part
Apply the developer
Inspect for indications (with fluorescent materials,
use a darkened room)
The solvenbremovable method is ideal for spot inspec-
tions of in%ervice equipment because it's portable and
creates very little waste. However, it requires the use of
solvents that are difficult to apply on large parts. The
proper procedure is:
Apply penetrant coating
Allow dwell time (at least 10 minutes)
Remove penetrant with solvent (use a rag with
solvent sprayed on)
Apply developer
Inspect for indications (with fluorescent materials,
use a darkened room)
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 87
Penetrant method reliability
Penetrant processing is a reliable NDT method as
long as you faithfully follow the procedures outlined
previously, without skipping steps or taking shortcuts.
To be absolutely certain that your test results are
as accurate as possible, here are some things to remem-
ber that wiU eliminate common errors from each
processing step.
1. Thorough precleaning and drying. If the part is not
totally dry, including in the cracks, dirt or water in
the cracks can prohibit the entry of penetrant.
2. Penetrant working condition. Old penetrant that has
been sitting in a tank for a year may not be as sensi-
tive as new penetrant. So, check it regularly and
change it when needed. Penetrants can be effective
for up to five years, but contaminants often shorten
useful life to less than one year.
3. Dwell time adjwbenta. Cold temperatures (less than
40°F)or cold parts will thicken penetrant, so you
should allow more dwell time for the penetrant to
work its way into cracks.
When inspecting aircraft turbine blades, the best way to be
sure your penetrant processing results are accurate is to
test the process against a known standard-preferably an
actual turbine blade that has known flaws of the type for
which you are inspecting.
88 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
4. EmuleiGer d%tivenese. Make sure the concentration
meets specifications by checking it yourself every
shift. But have it professionally evaluated by your
supplier once a month.
6. Wash water temperature. Water that's too hot (more
than 90 I?) thins the penetrant and causes over wash-
ing. Water that's too cold (less than 60°F)thickens
the penetrant and causes too much background. You
can use a black light to check for proper wasting.
6. Air drying blow&. If any pools of penetrant remain
on a part after washing, air blowing can create a lot
of background problems, so be sure to drain or wipe
off all puddles before using air blowing.
7. Drying temperature. If the temperature is too hot
(more than 160°F'), it can thin the penetrant and
cause it to exit from the crack... thus providing no
indication.
8. Developer condition. Contaminated developer can
cause failure (false indications). And, dry developer
that has become wet will probably not provide
good coverage.
9. Tegt etandards. There is no better way to ensure
penetrant processing reliability or to verify accuracy
than testing an actual part with known defects. If
this is impractical, the next best alternative is using
artificial test standards such as cracked aluminum
blocks or TAM panels (Tool Aerospace Manufacturer).
One side of a TAM panel has five star cracks to test
for various sensitivities; another side is sandblasted
for removability.
10. Operator h h h g . The only way to guarantee reliable
interpretation of indications is solid operator train-
ing. Almost every part that's processed will have
some indications, but they shouldn't all be classified
as cracks. To determine whether an "indication" is
real, train inspectors to use the bleed-back technique.
First, wipe away the "indication" with a cotton swab
dabbed in solvent, then reapply some developer. If the
"indication" does not return, it was probably just a
scratch or a false indication (like a hair). Finally, the
best way to make sure that operators don't miss any
indications is to avoid operator fatigue; make sure
inspectors get frequent, short breaks.
Joseph Hahn is senior chemical engineer and marketing
manager for Magnaflux.
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 Penetrant waste water disposal
Environmental consciousness is rising, so companies
using penetrant processing must be more aware of
penetrant waste water disposal issues.
It's a big financial issue because disposal by environ-
mentally safe hauling can cost up to $5 per gallon. It's a
complicated regulatory issue because local sanitation
rules vary widely. And it's a confusing commercial
issue because of the advent in recent years of sc-called
'%iodegradable" penetrants.
What does biodegradable mean?
Simply put, a biodegradable material is one that will
break down organically, or rot.
Technically, all NDT penetrants currently on the
market are biodegradable; they will all decompose in
time. Some of them break down faster than others.
Some of them can be drain disposed in some parts of
the country, but many cannot be poured into the sewer.
Is biodegradable different than
drain disposable?
Although all penetrants are biodegradable, they can't
always be drain disposed. The ability to drain dispose
penetrant rinsings hinges on the rate of biodegradability
and on local sanitation authority requirements which
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vary substantially from one place to another. The safest
course of action is to adopt disposal practices that satisfy
the most stringent requirements.
What's the best way to dispose of
penetrant rinsings?
Pretreatment of penetrant rinsings, prior to disposal,
is the best overall solution. Effective pretreatment
satisfies the toughest regulations, reduces contract waste
hauling and allows for water recycling. It's a win-win-win
solution.
The best pretreatment method is ultrafiltration. This
type of system removes clear water-which accounts for
90 percent of rinse water volume-from waste water.
The equipment is relatively inexpensive, with units avail-
able to handle 50 to 4,000 gallons per day. An automatic
ultrafiiter system can process rinse water for about
$0.03/gallon, so it's much more cost efficient than
hauling all the waste water away.
Best of all, the water that's removed by ultrafiitration
is pure enough to be recycled or drain disposed. And,
unlike conventional filtration, or even carbon filtration,
an ultrafiiter element normally lasts six to 24 months
with periodic cleaning. EEI September/October 1991
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 89
The Art of Welding
By Greg Napert
F
or the average technician, knowing how to weld is
becoming less important as time goes on. The
move to specialize, combined with a more liability
conscious public is resulting in specialty shops through-
out the industry that are concentrating on specific
repairs. These shops make the repair that they specialize
in, tag it serviceable and return the component to the
technician for reinstallation.
For those who choose to weld, the components
being welded are somewhat limited. Among them,
engine mounts, exhaust systems, brackets and some non-
structural components. There are, though, some excep
tions to this rule. Some of the larger repair stations do
keep one or more of their technicians up to speed and
ceM1ed to do some of the more difficult jobs. In fad,
some items require (per maintenance manual instruc-
tions) that weld repairs be made by a certified welder.
If you do choose to make occasional weld repairs,
it's important to keep skills honed by practicing basic
welding techniques.
One repair station that arose as the need for expert
welding grew is Kosola and Associates Inc. of Albany,
GA. Bob Williams, QC manager for Kosola, says that
there are many considerations that have to be taken into
account (when welding) that the occasional welder
doesn't have the expertise or experience to understand.
Kosola specializes in welding engine mounts.
Williams says that among the most persistent
problems that he sees regarding the welding of engine
mounts include the degradation of the strength of the
material, destruction of the metal's corrosion resistance
and overstressing of the mounts as the repairs are made.
Keeping the amount of heat used under control and
localized, he explains, is very important in assuring a
proper weld. In some instances, he says, that can mean
just using a wet rag to assure that the area being heated
is contained. With excessive heat, he says, the corrosion
protection is baked off and corrosion quickly sets up.
"Corrosion inside the tubes surrounding the area of a
field repair is the biggest problem that we see." That's
because this area can't be inspected after the weld repair
and cannot be properly protected either. Kosola also
minimizes the amount of heat. used for the repair by
using an inert gas welding process. This process, says
Williams, reduces distortion and reduces the amount of
inclusions-makingfor a much better weld.
Williams says that if field repairs are attempted, a
coating of some sort should be applied to inhibit corm
sion. In many cases that isn't possible. Kosola doesn't
BO The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
even mess with trying to make a patch repair on tubular
engine mounts. In all cases, he says, they replace the
entire tube if there are any signs of damage.
Another problem with making a field repair, says
Williams.- es~eciallvwhile the mount is still in the
aircraft and engine in place, is the stress that develops
in other areas. When technicians replace a piece of
tubing on the engine mount, the tube is oftentimes
removed and replaced without supporting the rest of the
structure. The result is that the engine mount moves
slightly and places all of the other weld joints and
supports under a highly stressed condition. With the
rest of the mount under stress it fails in a relatively
short period of time.
Williams says that the only way to correctly make
repairs on an engine mount is to entirely remove the
mount from the aircraft. It then must be placed in a
fixture or jig that will hold it in place with respect to the
engine and the firewall.
The only problem with doing this is that a jig must
be made for each model and type of aircraft. Something
that most shops don't have.
Another item commonly welded and seemingly simple
is exhaust system components. Exhaust systems are
usually made from stainless material and because of that
are not easily repaired.
Inert gas welding equipment is preferable when weld-
ing stainless in order to get a weld that's free from weld
inclusions. There are many other considerations to take
into account when welding exhaust systems, most of
which discourage the occasional welder from attempting
to repair them.
Determining whether or not to weld
The most important fador in determining whether
or not welding is applicable is what type of material is
going to be welded. That's why material identification is
absolutely critical prior to attempting a weld. In some
cases, it may be necessary to call the manufacturer to
determine such things as chemical composition, heat
treatment and exactly what alloy the material is.
According to Welding Guidelines, an IAP Inc. train-
ing manual, items that should not be welded, consist of
parts whose proper function depends on strength proper-
ties developed by cold working, such as streamlined
wires and cables. Also included in the "do not weldn
category are aircraft parts such as turnbuckle ends and
aircraft bolts which have been heat-treated to improve
their mechanical properties. Additionally, brazed or
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 soldered parts should not be welded since the brazing
mixture or solder can penetrate the hot steel and weaken
it. Most non-heatheated mild steel (low carbon) parts
are weldable.
The weldable aluminum alloys used in aircraft
construction include 1100, 3003, 4043 and 5052. Alloys
6053, 6061 and 6151 are also used on aircraft but are
heabtreated alloys. If welding is done on these types of
metal, they must be heat-treated again.
The welding process
The three most important factors in making good
welds, regardless of what type of w e l b is used, are
practice, practice and practice. Enough can't be said
of practice because there are so many variations in
equipment, setups, types of metal, etc.
Regardless of which type of welding procedure you
choose to use, proper preparation of the material is
imperative prior to welding. Make sure that bevel angles
and the proper fit of the surfaces to be welded are
accurate enough to result in a clean weld. Also, arrange
T i e s and clamps whenever possible to hold parts in
merit while you're welding. It beats having to start
over again after the item you're welding moves out
of position.
Cleanliness of the weld joint and surrounding area is
also important. Taking the time to remove rust, scale,
paint, grease and other foreign substances will result in
a stronger weld joint that's less likely to fail.
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Generally, it's important to try to minimize the
distortion to the item being welded. This can be done in
a number of ways. One of them is technique. Distortion
can be minimized by making small welding passes with
little or no weaving. Whether this technique is appropri-
ate, however, is determined by the type of equipment
and type of metal. Other methods of reducing distortion
include using f b e s and keeping the area surrounding
the weld cool.
After the part is welded, a thorough inspection of the
weld and weld area should be conducted. If possible, dye
penetrant the weld and surrounding area or use some
other method of nondestructive testing. If the weld
contains voids, it's advisable to remove the weld and
reweld the affected area.
Protection of the weld area after welding is also
critical. The method of protection will depend on the
type of material you're dealing with. For instance, if a
flux is used on aluminum, the flux should be removed
immediately. If it's left on the weld, it will lead to corro-
sion of the aluminum and premature failure of the joint.
Ferrous materials should also be cleaned of the welding
byproduds and protected with a primer or paint.
The art of welding requires a considerable investment
in equipment, practice, education and experience. But if
you decide it's worth it, the investment can save you
considerable .time and expense. EQ! Jdy/August 1991
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 91
Autopilots
How do they know?
By Jim Sparks
bserving today's business aircraft smoothly
negotiating an approach and landing can be an
incredible sight. What's even more incredible
is that there's a good chance that the aircraft is
accomplishing the landing itself. Auto flight has come
a long way.
Autopilot classification
Classification of auto flight systems is determined by
the axis of flight in which they can operate.
For example, some basic autopilots are nothing more
than wing leveling devices. More complex systems bring
in the pitch and turn coordination. These systems are
called threeaxis autopilots. Some two-axis models are
available that have both pitch and roll circuits and can
also interact with a separate yaw damping system.
Most autopilot systems do in fact have some common
points. For example, most are not inherently intelligent.
This means they depend on outside sources for informa-
tion. Even when supplied with a wide variety of naviga-
tional information they aren't smart enough to sort
through and prioritize this available data.
Troubleshooting can be made easier by separating the
auto flight systems into three elements: Sensors which
provide all the necessary raw data pertaining to flight.
A computer, which processes a l l this data and with
the help of a control head or mode selector, can assign
priorities. And systems or loads which receive this
- -
processed information.
Sensors Computers Load
When troubleshooting, it's helpful to recognize that
the sensors supplying the auto flight system also supply
other systems on the aircraft. By observing indications
elsewhere in the flight deck, a reasonably thorough
diagnosis can be made about the validity of raw data.
When attempting to solve autopilot discrepancy, first
take into account the big picture and not just basic a u b
pilot components. The big picture includes the flight
guidance or flight director system. (Some call it the
screening system.) It is, in fad, this system that
possesses the knowledge to command the autopilot in
its tasks. The fhght guidance system observes the same
flight data available to the flight crew, then sets
priorities on how information will be used depending
on flight crew inputs.
92 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
!@pica1 autopilot control panel.
Many of today's aircraft have more than one flight
director. This capability can be of great use when
troubleshooting as the second system usually has a
completely separate set of inputs, and a problem can be
corrected in-flight by changing flight guidance inputs to
the autopilot. This can often save the technician the time
and trouble of analyzing the basic autopilot system.
Most flight director systems also have the capability
to supply a pictorial display of summarized flight data.
This display is commonly found on the attitude direc-
tional indicator (ADI).
Questioning the flight crew about the validity of
flight director indication can lead to information
regarding the integrity of the flight director sensors
and computations.
How the system works
The flight director's primary responsibility is to
correct errors. When the flight crew changes an input
to the flight director, usually an error is sensed between
selected input and actual aircraft position!
Flight guidance can work in two realms. Vertical
and lateral.
The "vertical" situation will deal with pitch and
n
speed while the "lateral mode includes navigation and
pertains to aircraft direction such as the roll and
yaw axis.
These sensors reflect the SHAPE of the aircraft.
Not necessarily geometric shape but, Speed, Heading,
Attitude, Position and Elevation.
The speed function is considered a vertical mode
and depends primarily on the air data system for its
reference. Speed can be activated several ways. On many
flight guidance selector panels there are function
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Autopilot/flight director-simplified diagram.
switches labeled "Airspeed, Vertical Speed and Mach."
In many auto flight systems only one vertical mode can
function at any given time. In other words, the system
could not hold speed and altitude unless a system of
auto throttles was installed to adjust thrust.
Heading data is supplied from a directional sensor
usually a directional gyro (DG). This information is then
displayed on a horizontal situation indicator (HSI). On
most HSIs there is usually an adjustable heading refer-
ence indicator. The fhght director will compare actual
aircraft heading to selected heading. Anytime there is a
disagreement, the system will give a command to change
aircraft situation. This lateral mode also has preset
limits such as m a . turn angles 3 to 4 degrees again
sensed by the DG and roll limits controlled by the
vertical gyro (VG). This system will operate when the
heading (HDG) selector is engaged.
Attitude information can be used in both vertical and
lateral modes and normally requires no additional inputs
on the control panel. The normal source for attitude
information is the vertical gyro (VG).
Position generally means radio navigation. Most
position sensors supply the lateral modes of flight
guidance. In addition to receiving a ground-based radio
station such as a VOR, the pilot has to assign course
information. That is, set the angle of approach to the
station. When selecting the NAV function, the system
will also observe heading information and, in most cases,
will not initiate a turn in reference to a station until it
has captured the preset course. Should the aircraft get
out of NAV radio range, the flight guidance system will
usually maintain present headings. The one vertical
mode of navigation is glideslope and is more often
associated with approach functions.
Elevation is another vertical mode that is usually
supplied by the air data system. When selecting altitude
(ALT) on a flight director mode panel, the system should
hold present aircraft altitude and display varying pitch
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P U W DIRECTOR
OQHPVlER
Typical fight director input/output schematjc.
commands to return the aircraft to this original position.
Altitude Select (ALT SEL) will work with the air data
system and some type of altitude selector. In most cases
after the flight crew enters a selected altitude, it also
needs to tell the aircraft how to get there. That means
engaging another vertical mode meaning IAS, VS or
MACH; and, unless auto throttles are installed, the
pilot will have to adjust engine power. After the system
captures selected altitude, the other vertical modes will
usually disconnect and the aircraft will continue to
hold altitude.
Setting system sensitivity
Automatic flight control system manufacturers also
have different ways to regulate system sensitivity. This is
accomplished by rate sensors (gyros or accelerometers)
aneroid capsules sensing altitude and airspeed informa-
tion. Radio navigation information can also be used
to regulate gains. On many aircraft, when flaps are
extended, this supplies an input to the autopilot saying
more flight control deflection may be required to accom-
plish maneuvers. Even during approach to landing, radio
altitude can be used as a sensitivity control.
When troubleshooting auto flight systems, the best
starting point is a very thorough flight crew debrief.
Problems such as autopilot porpoising (oscillation about
the pitch axis) can be the result of worn flight control
rods, improperly tensioned cables, air data problems,
flight director problems, vertical gyro problems or pitch
trim problems. A pitch trim problem can usually be
recognized by a thorough test of the system including a
timed travel check. The vertical gyro can generally be
diagnosed by observing the operation of the altitude
indicator which can be driven by the same gyro.
Airframe problems can be observed by the flight mew
by disconnecting the autopilot and observing the
trimmed aircraft response. Also simply turning on the
autopilot without any flight guidance input can generally
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 93
be a good starting point. It is important to find out the
aircraft configuration and the result of changing flight
director modes or possibly engaging the secondary flight
director (if installed).
Most manufacturers have developed operating manu-
als illustrating the capabilities of the specific system.
Avionic maintenance involves three levels: Level I is
removing and replacing components, Level I1 involves
the replacement of printed circuits, and Level 111 r e
quires extensive electronics knowledge as it deals in the
repair of components.
Flightline maintenance of autopilot systems can get
down to Level I and in some cases Level 11. Most of the
time removal of the correct black box will be the extent
of the infield repair.
Swapping components can be considered dangerous
as a system with a short circuit may cause a failure in
one box and after installing a substitute box a similar
failure could occur.
94 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Many autopilot manufacturers publish welldetailed
manuals on their products. If time permits very
thorough checks can be made including voltage tests.
If time is an im~ortantfactor or if the technician
does not have a good operational knowledge of the sys-
tem, it is usually beneficial to contact a qualified avionic
technician to assist in the troubleshooting process.
A good way to become familiar with system operation
is to read the operating manual and perhaps spend some
time in the flight deck with a knowledgeable pilot and
have him describe his normal use of the system.
The operation of auto flight is all based on communi-
cations. That is, sensors communicating with computers,
then computers performing tasks and communicating
with their indicators and follow-up devices.
May/June 1991
Jim Sparks is the director o f maintenance traimhg
for FhghtSafety International and is based out of
Houston, TX.
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 Deicer systems
Neglect can lead to early failure

By Greg Napert

egular inspection and cleaning of deicing systems

play a critical role in assuring proper operation.
Additionally, early detection of damage or cracks
to deicer boots or leaks in the pneumatic lines can
make for easy repairs. It's a good idea, therefore, to get
the flight crew involved in regular inspections, because
letting damage go untended can result in having to
replace costly components.

Pneumatic deicers
In order to perform a thorough inspection of pneu-
matic deicers, shop air must be applied so the system
can be cycled. According to BFGoodrich, a pressure
regulator that can be regulated to 18 psi +/-2 for high-
pressure systems and 10 psi +/-2 for low-pressure
systems must be used.
Bart Briggs, shop foreman for Waukesha Flying
Services Inc. in Waukesha, WI, who regularly performs
inspections and preventive maintenance on deicing
systems, says that it's important to eliminate moisture
from entering the system. Make sure shop air is dry
and that the Filter is clean before attaching pressurized
air to the deice system.
When pressurizing the system, cycle the boots and
observe them for proper operation. Venfy that they
inflate and deflate according to the cycle specified in
the maintenance manual. If the cycle doesn't follow the
correct sequence, check the pneumatic tubing for correct
routing or the timer for proper wiring. Keep in mind
that it's not uncommon for a cycling problem to be
caused bv both.
All kspections, says Briggs, should include a check
for leakage. Use mild soap and water solution to check
dl hoses and hose connections. Also, apply a mild soap
and water solution to the entire surface area of the
deicer boots and cycle the boots. As the system cycles,
watch for soap bubbles, which indicate a leak. It's impor-
tant to rinse any soap from the boots and lines with
water to prevent it from reacting with the rubber.
To repair any damage, cold patch repair kits are
available for the repair of scuffs, cuts, tears and any
other damages that result in air leaks. Briggs says that
tiretube patches should not be substituted for original
deice boot patches.
"Tiretube patches don't stretch," he says, "because
they contain a layer of fabric. And when the boots are
inflated, these patches have a tendency to rip off."
Patches manufactured specifically for deicer boots, he
explains, are made of a material that will stretch as the
boot expands. "I've seen guys install a number of tire
tube patches as a temporary repair," says Briggs, "and
they only lasted one or two inflation cycles."
When installing patches, be sure to remove the fabric
b a c k material. "I often find patches peeling from the
boot because the protective backing wasn't removed
when the patch was installed," says Briggs. The backing
can be difficult to remove at times and it is often
mistaken for an integral part of the patch.
BFGoodrich says that patch kits can generally be
considered permanent for the life of the deicer. It's
important, however, to make sure that the correct kit is
used. For example, estane repair kits cannot be used on
neoprene boots and neoprene repair k i t . cannot be used
on estane boots. Estane deicers are rarer than neoprene
and can be identified by the brand located on the boot.
A new method of repairing damaged boots, called
T
Bootsaver M was released in December 1990 by Rapco
Inc. of Hartland, WI. Instead of using a patch, the repair
is done by working a rubber compound into the cracked
or damaged area. The compound, says Rapco, "chemi-
cally crosslinks with the base material during applica-

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 95

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Airframe Technology
Tool for setting slip ring holder.
tion." The material can be worked to the exact contour
of the boot and the surface blended to look like the rest
of the boot. This method of repair eliminates having to
use patches and goes virtually unnoticed.
Resurfacing kits are available through BFGoodrich to
repair scuff damage or severely weathered neoprene
pneumatic deicers. The kits aren't intended to repair
severely damaged deicers or for repairing deicers with
air leaks. Therefore, the boots should always be repaired
prior to resurfacing. It's generally recommended, says
BFGoodrich, that each deicer not be resurfaced more
than twice during its life.
Typically, when it's time to replace one boot, the
rest of the boots on the aircraft are ready for replace
ment. According to BFGoodrich, the boots should be
replaced immediately for damage that occurs in the
following areas.
Matable tube area
Deicers that have cuts, tears or ruptures that exceed
3/4 inch in length or that are within 1/8 inch of a
stitch line (a stitch line is the sewn line that forms
the edges of the inflatable tubes) or that cross a
stitch line.
Boots that have broken or cut threads. Such a condi-
tion can be detected by inflating the deicer. A broken
or cut stitch will cause the deicer to balloon (inflate)
between the adjacent tubes where the stitch is cut.
Separation of the outer neoprene layer in excess of
1 square inch. For smaller areas, BFGoodrich recom-
mends trimming away all loose surface material, then
applying a cold patch kit.
Non-inflatable areas
Cuts, tears or ruptures that exceed 3 inches
in length.
Separation of outer neoprene layer that exceeds
3 square inches.
96 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Addition-, BFGoodrich recommends the following
limitations on patches:
Patches 1 1/4"x 2 1/2"-three per 12-inch square or;
Patch 2 1/2" x 5"-two per 12-inch square or;
Patch 5" x 10"-one per 12-inch square or;
Two patches 1 1/4" x 2 1/2" plus one patch 2 1/2" x
5" per 12-inch square.
These patching limits, says BFGoodrich, are not
absolute. The deicer will still function satisfactorily with
a higher concentration of patches. However, the aircraft
operator should cycle the deicers to assure that inflation
has not been impaired.
The process of stripping the boots from the aircraft
can be time-consuming. It's done by slowly peeling back
the boots from the aircraft and using a solvent to loosen
the adhesive. Placing the boots on the aircraft-
straight-can also be a trick. Briggs explains that many
operators opt to bring their aircraft to a facility that
specializes in boot replacements. One such facility is
the BFGoodrich Service Center at the Akron/Canton
Regional Airport in Ohio.
At this operation, the customer brings the aircraft in
the morning, and receives the aircraft back at the end of
the day-complete with new deice boots. Although the
process appears to be relatively expensive, the excessive
downtime and extra man-hours needed to perform the
operation at an average FBO is enough incentive to pay
extra for the oneday turn-time.
Electrothermal deicers
The first step in inspecting electrothermal deicers is
to ensure that all lead strap clamps, terminal clamps, tie
straps and retainers are secure and properly installed
and that related safety wiring is secure.
The deicing system should then be turned on
and checked for electrical shorts and proper heating
sequences. If possible, use an auxiliary power unit (MU)
to avoid a drain on the batteries. The heating sequence
can be checked by simply fee- the boots for warm
areas.
"Occasionally," says Briggs, "I find the lead wires
swapped and the boots operating in the wrong sequence.
It's easy to swap the wires because the system still
works, but doesn't sequence properly."
Briggs says that prop boots experience a relatively
high failure rate. "Dirt, ice, objects hitting the prop and
people moving the aircraft by grasping the boots can
lead to broken heating elements. Additionally, because
centrifugal forces during operation tend to force the wire
against the prop spinner, it frequently cracks or shorts
out," he says.
Non-operational boots can be observed on the
ammeter in the cockpit, or by feeling for cool boots while
they're operating.
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 1
MANIFOLD CHECK VALVE
I
TAIL BOOTS
Twin
Engine Aircrqft - Deice System - Vacuum Gyro InsCrum~.nEs
COOLINO AIRz 3 GYROS
GYRO
Twk Engine Aimaft - Deice System - Pressure Gym Instruments
Slip rings should be inspected for excessive wear,
roughened surface, cracks, burned or discolored areas
and deposits of oil, grease and dirt. The slip rings and
all associated components should be cleaned with MEK
(methyl ethyl keytone) or equivalent solvent; however,
don't use abrasive cleaners on the clip rings. This will
result in increased brush and slip ring wear.
Uneven wear or wobble of the slip ring may be
repaired if the ring is within proper limits.
Check mounting brackets, brush blocks and modules
for cracks, deformation or other physical damage;
inspect the brushes for excessive wear, chipping or
breakage; and clean all components using MEK or
equivalent solvent.
According to BFGoodrich, each brush needs to ride
fully on its slip ring throughout the 360 degrees of
rotation. Proper alignment between the brush block or
module and the slip ring is critical. The proper position-
ing of the brush block is 1/16 inch from the slip ring
assembly and cocked 2 degrees in the direction of the
propeller rotation. Correct alignment can easily be
obtained using a brush alignment template (see drawing)
that is available from BFGoodrich.
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Electrothermal deicer boots that contain cracked ele
ments cannot be repaired. Indications that the deicer has
an open circuit, the wrong resistance or noticeable dam-
ages, such as tears and nicks, that expose the element
require immediate replacement. Defective brushes and
wire harnesses must be replaced as well.
Extending life
Like any component on the aircraft, the key to
keeping boots for any length of time is to keep them
clean. Wash deicers regularly with a mild soap and water
solution. Oils and contaminants can decompose the
rubber and sidcantly decrease the life of the boots.
It's also a good idea to keep the boots coated with some
kind of preservative, such as BFGoodrich's AgeMaster
Number 1 (for neoprene).
Preservatives can help to preserve deicers by inhibib
ing ozone attack, aging and weathering. For more
information, BFGoodrich has established a technical
information line for deicing systems. It can be reached
by dialing (800) DEICERS (800-334-2377). Customers in
Alaska, Hawaii, Ohio and international locations can
reach the information line by calling (216) 3743706. 5
MarchLApril 1991
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 DonYfuel with it
Fuel cell maintenance tips

By Greg Napert

P
robably one of the least liked jobs in aviation
maintenance is changing a fuel cell. Anyone who
has done it knows that you can plan on at least
two things: Increasing the length of your arms, and
discovering a new use for aviation fuel-cologne. The
work is tedious, dirty and is usually performed without
the benefit of being able to see what you are doing.
The fuel cell is one piece of aviation equipment in
which the old saying "If it ain't broke, don't fix it" does
apply. The less the fuel cell is disrupted, the longer it is
likely to last. Typically, the only time that the fuel cell
should be worked on, is when it begins to leak.
Patrick Manning, general manager for Aviation Fuel
Cells International in Memphis, TN,says that most
damage to a fuel cell is caused by letting the fuel cell sit
in the aircraft without any fuel in it. Tripp Volz, vice
president of sales and marketing and licensed repairman
for Floats and Fuel Cells, also in Memphis, concedes
with this fact. He points to fuel cells in aircraft that
operate in South America. These cells, says Volz, are
probably the most short-lived cells because of the
environmental conditions in that part of the world.
Running a close second, is damage that is caused
from the removal and installation of the cells.
Oftentimes, explains Manning, technicians become frus-
trated during the removal process, pull on the bladder
with excessive force and damage the bladder. This some- through a &inch-wide hole. Before installing it make sure
times resulk in torn fabric, nipples and/or transfer that all metal seams and edges are covered with dud
tubes. The customer then ends up with a higher repair tape. This will prevent the cell from ripping while install-
bill or possibly, the cell is rendered unrepairable. ing it and prevent the cell from wearing on rivets or
Sharp edges on access holes are also a cause of some seams while it is installed in the wing.
of the tears, says Manning. It's a good idea to have a roll One problem that many technicians encounter is that
of dud tape handy to tape up any sharp edges. This will the fuel cell is just too stiff to scrunch through the hole.
not only eliminate damage to the cell, but damage to Manning suggests that the tank should not be unfolded
your hands as well. or installed if the temperature of the fabric is below
After the cell is removed, it should be tested for 65'F. If it's below that, says Manning, take the fuel cell
leaks. This is done by performing a phenolphthalein into a room and warm it up. He suggests either placing
(pronounced pheenol-thalene) test. This test is conducted it in a warm. humid room. such as in a room with a hot
by inserting ammonia gas into the cell, plugging the shower turned on, or leaving it sitting in the sun next to
holes and f i g it with 3/4 psi of air. A white cloth a window until it becomes soft. After it is softened, it
dampened with a chemical solution is placed over should be rolled up immediately to install it into the
the cell. Any leaks appear on the white cloth as pinkish- wing. To assist in getting it through the access hole and
red spots. into position, some technicians tie the fuel cell in the
Although removing the cell from the aircraft is a rolled-up position with rope. Once the cell is roughly in
task, installing it is usually much more difficult. It is position in the wing, the rope can be removed.
literally the equivalent of shoving a 4-foobwide box

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 Some cells, because of sense of feel. You have to feel for where the clamp is
the f a d that they are located, and feel to make sure that it is in position.
older, or simply because The hanger clips that hold the top of the fuel cell to
of how they are construct the top of the wing are also very ~ i c u lto t install. They
ed, are just going to be have to be blindly maneuvered into position and pushed
more difficult to install. into place. Technicians have been known to spend hours
New cells are usually just installing one of these clips. Especially when you
much more pleasant to have to reach far into the tank and push with the tip
This phenolphthalein test, work with, but according of your fingers. in this situation, you don't have any l e
performed at Floats and
Fuel Cells, shows an to Volz, at onequarter to verage and can quickly become fatigued.
indication o f leakage. The onehalf the cost of new, One technician, who wishes to remain nameless,
bright pink mark on the the economic benefits of a suggests that a good way to install a clip in this situation
cloth i s a positive rebuilt cell outweigh the is to use a heavy blunt objed such as a bucking bar.
indication that the installation benefits of a Wrap it with tape, he says, so as not to damage the
ammonia gas i s escaping new cell. rubber, and use it to gently push the clip into position.
from inside o f the fuel cell. Well, you've been work- Make sure, however, that the clip is, in fact, lined up
ing on the cell for a with the hole that it is being pushed into. This method
couple of hours, have should only be used if you have located the hole, but
everything positioned, and cannot muster up enough force to push the clip in.
guess what? it doesn't fit. Repairs can be performed by the individual techni-
There are different rea- cian. Patch kits, sold by Goodyear, are available for
sons for a fuel cell not around $150. However, explains Manning,it doesn't
make much sense to spend all the man-hours removing
and installing a fuel cell to put on a small patch and
Some fuel cells are shipped too cold. Try placing disregard the condition of the rest of the cell. He does
with a warning not to warm, moist towels inside concede however that in an emergency situation, you
unfold the fabric if the cell to try to soften may not have any other choice.
temperatures are below
the rubber. You may be Practically all types of damage to a cell are repair-
65 OF.
able to relax the cell able, ,says Manning. Nipple replacements and repairs to
enough to fit it in place. tears and punctures are all typical repairs. "Where we
According to Volz, the most overlooked reason for run into a problem, however, is where the fabric shows
improper fit is the sequence of hookup. You should signs of dry rot." Dry rot can usually be identified by
always have your interconnects, he says, loosely attached cracking, peeling and a general brittle appearance to
before attempting to align the clips or snaps on your the fabric.
fuel cell. This allows for proper lineup without distorting "A lot of whether a fuel cell is repairable or not is
the position of the tank relative to the cavity it is placed subjective," says Manning. Don't take a chance and
in. Once clips and snaps have been attached, it is then throw a fuel cell away based on your observations unless
possible to go back and torque your clamps to proper you have years of experience looking at them. Repair
settings. stations are accustomed to looking a t fuel cells and can
Working with the clamps and clips inside of the cell easily determine what they can and, cannot repair. if you
is also a joyous occasion. This is where the fit of the think that something is non-repairable, send it to the
cell is critical. This part of the job seems like it should repair station anyway for a second opinion. They may be
be easy, but it is actually the most Wicult part of the able to repair it. January/February 1991
job. Fastening the clamps has to be done using only your

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 Electrical troubleshooting basics
By Gary Eiff
Associate Professor at Southern Illinois University

any maintenance technicians find understand-

ing and troubleshooting electrical circuits to
be somewhat elusive and confusing. Some
technicians have even been heard referring to electrical
circuit function as "magic" and, therefore, totally beyond
their comprehension.
Electrical circuit theory is not nearly as complex as
many other knowledge and skill areas already mastered
by the successful technician. But first it's necessary to
dispel the mystique surrounding electrical troubleshoot
ing and to learn a few fundamental principles and
procedures.

The basic circuit

In order for an electrical circuit to function it must
have three things: An applied potential (voltage), a
complete electntncalpath and circuit resistance.
The basics of effective electrical troubleshooting
center around an understanding of these three circuit
attributes and an ability to evaluate their presence
or absence.
The term "applied potential" refers to the difference
in electromotive force (voltage) between the source and a
point in the circuit. That is, the difference in electrical
pressure, and pressure is what causes electrical energy
to flow and work to be done. Without it, electrical
energy cannot move through the circuit and the circuit
ceases to function. Sources of potential difference
include the aircraft's battery, altimeter and other sources
of voltage.
Basic troubleshooting
A common first step used by technicians when evalu-
ating an electrical circuit malfunction is to determine
if the circuit is "getting power." The loss of applied
potential is a frequent cause of circuit failure and is
easily evaluated.
The most effective tool for evaluating basic electrical
circuit problems is a good quality multimeter. A good
meter will measure several ranges of voltage, resistance
and current and have a high input impedance. High
input impedance means that when the meter leads are
placed on the circuit to test voltage or other electrical
attributes, the meter represents a high resistance to the
circuit under test and does not cause the circuit value
being tested to change.
Figun, 1. Example o f a %neakncircuit.
For any circuit it's important that the test be per-
formed under normal load conditions. The circuit should
be turned "on." Although primary sources may appear to
be fine when checked for nominal voltage without loads
imposed on them, circuits requiring current may fail to
develop the expected nominal voltage once loaded.
The failure of a power source to develop nominal
voltage usually occurs for one of two reasons: The power
source itself has lost its capacity (the ability to produce
its rated current), or there is a high-resistance connec-
tion between the point under test and the power source.
For example, the screws which secure wire terminations
to circuit breakers may loosen slightly causing a high
resistance connection to develop between the terminal
and the circuit breaker binding post. No current is
flowing to the device, but the circuit appears t o have the
required applied voltage. Once the circuit is activated,
however, resistance of the connection drops a significant
portion of the power, reducing voltage delivered to the
system. This is a dangerous condition since high
resistance connections generate excessive amounts of
heat and can result in fire.
Since many aircraft have complex electrical distribu-
tion systems, it may also be necessary to evaluate the
distribution branch specific to the failed system. These
branches, called buses, are normally divided into groups

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Airframe Technology
of systems with similar functions such as the avionics
bus system. These failures are usually easy to identify,
since several systems will fail simultaneously.
A common problem which results in a loss of applied
potential is the failure of the circuit protection device.
Vibration in aircraft may cause fuses to fracture, result-
ing in a loss of power to the circuit. Although less
common, circuit breaker failures can occur.
To determine if power is being delivered to the
circuit, measure the voltage of the distribution source
side (the aircraft's bus bar) and the circuit side of the
protective device. Voltage measured should be that
specified in the manual for the bus and for the circuit.
Measuring the correct voltage on the bus side of the
device and no voltage on the circuit side indicates the
device is "openn and has failed or, in the case of a circuit
breaker, is "tripped." A voltage on the circuit side of the
device which is sigmficantly lower than the bus voltage
indicates an abnormally high internal resistance of the
protective device, a common circuit breaker failure.
Breaks in the electrical path are perhaps the most
common type of failure with electrical circuits. Wires
failing, crimp connectors pulling apart, internal compe
nents of the circuit fracturing and ground wires corrod-
ing are common reasons for incomplete electrical paths.
For an electrical circuit to function, there must be a
continuous path through which electrical energy can
move from one pole of the applied potential... through
the circuit elements... and back to the opposite pole
of the applied potential. To ensure completeness of
the path, it's often necessary to check the circuit for
uninterrupted connections (continuity). Most aircraft
technicians use either a continuity tester or the ohms
function of the multimeter for this test.
There are several dangers in checking circuit continu-
ity when using these methods. If power is not removed
from the system, circuit voltage may damage the conti-
nuity tester, ohmmeter or the circuit under test. Both
continuity testers and ohmmeters use internal voltage
sources to measure continuity. It's possible to damage
some circuits by these voltages if the circuits are sensi-
tive or if the device polarity is not observed. Carefully
evaluate the circuit before attempting a continuity test.
This ensures that the circuit won't be damaged by
the tester.
Continuity tests can produce confusing results. It
used to be quite common to find continuity testers
constructed with electromechanical buzzers. These ' % u z ~
boxes* produce an audible signal when a complete path
is detected. The buzzer which produces the signal causes
the test voltage to change to a pulsating direct current.
However, when checking continuity of shielded wires, the
buzzer may not work even if the circuit is complete.
102 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Additionally, make sure that an alternate path (sneak
circuit) doesn't exist which would give an erroneous
continuity indication. Using the example in Figure 1, it
seems possible that the technician could measure the
completeness of the entire circuit path by measuring
the continuity from the fuse to ground. In this case,
however, the technician could misdiagnose the open
circuit in the system. The f a d that the current used for
testing continuity has an alternate path through the
system fuse, across the aircraft's bus and through a low
resistance path in the audio amplifier to ground, can be
confusing. To eliminate "sneak circuits" and confusing
results, it's often necessary to disconnect the power or
other connections to the system.
There is a lesser-used method for testing continuity
which can be simpler and more effective. Use the
circuit's applied voltage to determine the completeness
of the path. It's often safer, quicker and much more
timesaving to use this method for iden-g circuit
discontinuity.
We can use the system's voltage to determine circuit
continuity through a special application of Kirchhoffs
Law. This law states that in an open circuit, the source
voltage for the circuit will be apparent across the point
of discontinuity. Using the same circuit as before, Figure
2 illustrates how this technique works. The technician
first references a voltmeter to the aircraft's ground.
Using the positive probe of the meter, check various
points throughout the circuit for the applied voltage.
Measurements at points A, B and C show that the
source voltage is present. When a reading is taken at
Point D, no voltage is indicated. This telLs us that we
have passed the "open" point in the circuit. The point
in the circuit where the voltage disappears is the point
of discontinuity.
Technicians who have a good understanding of
electricity would have known immediately that a voltage
reading on the ground side of the lamp (Point C) was
incorrect, and that an open circuit existed in the ground
leg of the circuit. In a functioning circuit, the light, being
the only load in the circuit, should drop all of the applied
voltage. Having a voltage at Point C indicates a complete
path between that point and the source voltage. The only
remaining alternative as to why the circuit is not work-
ing is that the ground or "return pathn for the electrical
energy in the circuit is open.
Open ground circuits are a common cause of failures
in aircraft systems. Because the ground circuit is the
aircraft's structure, it's not perceived as part of the
circuit and is often taken for granted. Broken ground
wires and "bonding straps" for radio racks, instrument
panels and engines mounted on rubber "shock absorb
ers" are a common cause of circuit failure. Corrosion
between wire terminal and structural surfaces also
cause high resistance or open ground circuits.
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 Every functioning circuit has resistance. Lghts,
motors. radios and all other svstem elements exhibit
resistance to the flow of elecGical energy. Malfunctions
of circuit elements will cause changes in their normal
resistance values. Some malfunctions cause resistance
exhibited by a circuit to increase, while others cause it
to decrease. Normally, changes in circuit resistance are
caused by internal malfunctions within circuit compo-
nents. Occasionally, however, high resistance connections
or shorts in wires and connectors may cause changes in
circuit resistance.
Most technicians easily recognize the two extremes
of change in circuit resistance; that is, the open circuit
and the shorted circuit. However, more subtle changes in
circuit resistance may go undetected. If a malfunction
causes the apparent resistance of a circuit component to
change from its normal value to some higher resistance
value, the current in the circuit will decrease. Converse
ly, if the malfunction causes the component resistance to
appear less than its normal value, current in the circuit
will increase. Any substantial deviation from the manu-
facturer's specifications for the current required by
a circuit component indicates that the circuit has a
malfunction.
To accurately check circuit current, it's most often
necessary to open the circuit and place a current meter
in the path of the electrical energy. The need to discon-
nect circuit elements and d i s r u ~wires
t and connections
discourages many technicians from using current mea-
surement as an electrical troubleshooting technique. But
it can provide fault identification and isolation. Consider Figure 2. Measuring the source voltage at Point A means
two things: There is an applied potential presented to the
it when having difficulty isolating electrical troubles. circuit, and continuity exists between Point A and the
While the road to effective troubleshooting may seem voltage source.
arduous, the rewards are many. Starting with basic Measuring the source voltage at Point B indicates that a
concepts and continuing to collect, develop and refine continuous path exists between Point B and the source. The
electrical troubleshooting skills, will in time allow you switch is therefore working.
to identify, isolate and repair even the most complex Measuring source voltage at Point C indicates that a
electrical problem. Ell November/December 1990 complete path exists between the point and the source
voltage. Voltage should not be present on the ground side
of the load in the circuit. The technician knows, therefore,
that an open circuit exists between Point C and ground.
Taking measurements along the ground path, the point at
which the source voltage i s no longer present, is the point
of discontinuity. Since we do not have voltage at Point C,
we have passed the "open circuit" point.

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Alrframe T i n o l o g y

The pressurized window

More than something to look through

By Greg Napert

T ORRANCE, CA-"We go through life looking

through windows, not at them," comments Dave
Crettol. Crettol, general manager of Aircraft
Window Repairs Company, explains that there is a
Razor cuts
Razor cuts are often found on outside edges and
radiuses of the windows where razor blades were used to
cut sealants or used to cut masks that were used during
tendency for the technician to overlook the obvious and painting. Baumann explains that these razor cuts have
take windows for granted. lead to failure of the window because the cuts set up
Inspecting pressurized aircraft windows takes a stress risers where stresses concentrate. Some razor cuts
trained eye, and attention to detail is critical. "It's a are repairable, says Baumann, but it all depends on the
matter of safety," says Crettol. thickness of the window and the depth of the cut. Cuts
There is much more abuse than necessary when that are located in the edge of the window are more
handling and caring for aircraft windows, says Crettol. likely to lead to cracks or panel loss, he explains.
"People just don't realize that it is a structural part of
the aircraft and as critical to the pressure vessel as the Crazing
pressure bulkhead itself. From a maintenance perspec- Crazing is a chemical- or stress-related phenomenon
tive, windows are not just there to look through." that causes the molecular structure of the plastics to
Steve Baumann, quality control manager at Aircraft break down or self-relieve. Crazing can be caused by
Window Repairs, explains that technicians need more unusually high concentrations of stress, paint strippers,
information regarding the handling and care of aircraft adhesives, excessive heat (such as from shorted or
windows. And most, says
Baumann, are really not
equipped with the proper
information to make
repairs. When dealing
with pressurized windows,
there is more to taking
out a small nick or
scratch than simply pol-
ishing away the damage.
Attention must be paid to
dimensional tolerances,
depth of repair and distor-
tion limits, he says.
Baumann says that
approximately 15 percent
of windows that are sent
in for repair need to be
scrapped out. "That's a
shame," he says, "espe-
cially at a cost of roughly
$3,000 to $4,000 and
more per window. And
especially since some of
the most common types
of damage are the most
preventable."

Measurement of the window's thickness is critical after performing any type of repair.

104 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine


improperly used heating elements), oils and even fumes
from chemicals used on or around the aircraft. Telltale
signs of crazing are usually a cloudy or scratched
appearance that is visible but cannot usually be felt on
the surface.
Any type of crazing, says Baumann, should be
removed as soon as possible and should be removed
completely. The nature of crazing damage is such that it
will continue to progress if not removed. Chemicals
actually become trapped beneath the surface layers of
the window and will continue to deteriorate the
window's structural integrity. If the crazing is due to
stress concentrations, the reason for these concentra-
tions should be determined and the window repaired
immediately. The ability to repair crazing damage,
however, depends on the depth of the crazing and the
thickness of the window.
A common problem is damage from strippers that
are used prior to painting. The stripper will seep into
fine sealant voids around the window and begin work-
ing on the plastics. This usually can be prevented by
properly masking the outside of the window assembly so
that strippers cannot penetrate the voids or come into
contact with the window in any way.
Cleaning agents can also be a problem, says
Baumann. Always refer to the manufacturer's mainte
nance manual for acceptable cleaning agents. Certain
non-approved cleaning agents will cause a window to
craze. "Crazing is potentially more damaging to the
window than razor cuts. Even though you cannot feel
it, crazing that appears to be close to the surface often-
times actually penetrates the window up to 30 thou-
sandths deep. It is one of the primary reasons for
scrapping out a window," says Baumann.
Time spent protecting and properly masking windows
while working around aircraft with any chemicals or
cleaning agents is time well spent.
Sometimes, however, crazing damage is not that easy
to prevent. There was one occasion, says Baumann,
where an aircraft was running up its engines in front of
another and happened to be leaking synthetic oil. The
aircraft leaking oil sprayed a fine mist of oil onto the
other aircraft's windshield and caused it to qraze.
Another common type of crazing is something called
volcanic crazing. Volcanic crazing, according to
Baumann, is identified as fine hairline-like diagonal
scratches that can usually be seen in bright sunlight
or under a powerful light. They are usually found on
aircraft that fly at high altitudes. This type of crazing is
distinguishable from scratches in that if you run your
fingernail over it, you cannot feel any grooves. The
crazing is actually beneath the surface layer of the
plastic and continues to penetrate further with each
pressurization cycle. It's theorized, says Baumann, that
these crazing marks result from chemical attack that is
present at high altitude. The chemicals, most heavily
concentrated over the North Atlantic, are reportedly
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Airframe Technology
from volcanic eruptions that have taken place over the
years. Volcanic crazing is not considered to be prevent
able; however, a thorough cleaning after each fhght will
help slow the process.
Removal and installation
Damage from removing and installing windows is an-
other common problem. Damage caused by improper fit,
prying and scraping can easily lead to window failure.
Baumann points to one instance where a technician
filed a small area off of the edge of a window to make it
fit. This particular window had a metal inner layer
around the edge for mounting purposes that was origi-
nally corrosion protected. The modified edge, with no
corrosion protection, began to corrode. And without the
support of the metal edge, the outer ply of the window
began to crack.
Baumann also points to numerous windows that were
perfectly repairable except for cracks that resulted from
improper removal. He suggests that you do not use a
screwdriver or similar device to pry the window from the
aircraft. If there is sealant holding the windshield in
place, he says, use a plastic scraper to remove as much
of the sealant as possible. Baumann suggests that if the
window will still not come loose, use a light gauge safety
wire or fishing line to cut the sealant from around the
window. With one person inside and the other outside
the aircraft, feed the wire through the sealant. With a
technician on each end of the wire or line, move it
back and forth-cutting the sealant as you move along,
says Baumann.
The repair process
Although there are repair kits available on the
market, Baumann recommends not using any of them on
pressurized windows. "Repair kits that are sold commer-
cially should be for use on non-pressurized aircraft only,"
he says. "Such kits only allow you to remove damage
in one specific area and result in distortion and/or
windows that are out of limits with respect to thickness.
We recommend that only qualified repair shops repair
damage to pressurized windows," says Baumann.
The repair process for removing scratches, razor cuts
and other types of idenM~abledamage utilizes a progres
sively coarsebfine grit abrasive sanding process. The
most important criteria of this process is the removal of
all stress risers. With regard to damage caused by vari-
ous types of chemicals, it is important to go beyond the
obvious damage (i.e. crazing or discoloration) to ensure
the chemical contaminant is completely removed from
the transparency. Otherwise, the deterioration process
will begin again and eventually require replacement of
the window.
Repair of a window usually can be more efficiently
accomplished by removing the window from the aircraft.
It's just not practical to attempt to repair most types of
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 105

Damage resulting from razor cut.
windows while they are installed on the aircraft, says
Baumann. However, windshields are a different story.
Because of the level of difficulty and man-hours involved
in removing a windshield, it is usually more cosbeffective
to leave the windshield on the aircraft to repair it. "We
do send technicians on the road to accom~lishthese
types of repairs," says Baumann.
Even if damage is only confined to one tiny location,
material must be removed over the entire surface of the
window or windshield so that the repair limits the
amount of distortion. Although there are a number of
tests to assure straight vision, the normally accepted
practice is to place the window in front of a grid
board. A double exposure photograph is taken and then
measured for "minutes of arc" tolerance. In the case of
windshields this method cannot be used. Instead, the
window is viewed through from the inside looking
outward and the amount of distortion is determined by
viewing straight lines in the hangar.
Measuring thickness
A thorough repair means not only completely remov-
ing the damage-and doing so without distorting the
optical clarity but using equipment to measure the thick-
ness of the window after the repair. Baumann explains
that measuring window thickness is not as easy at it
appears. He suggests that anyone using an ultrasonic
measuring device should be certified to do so.
Equipment must be calibrated properly, says
Baumann. This involves using a known thickness of
material and a known material density. One common
error occurs when a material of one density is used to
calibrate the instrument; then a window of a different
density is measured. This causes false readings and
possibly results in acceptance of a window that should
be rejected or rejection of windows that are acceptable,
he explains.
Debonding
Debonding is another potential problem. Cabin
windows usually consist of two panels. The primary and
secondary window layers are normally bonded together
with an adhesive. Over time, the adhesive will break
down and d o w moisture to seep between the surfaces-
la6 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
fogging up the window,
says Baumann. The only
solution to this ~roblem
is to remove the window
and have it overhauled,
he says. The overhaul pro-
cess includes rebonding of
the panels.
Some sealants or
adhesives are not compat
ible with acrvlics and will
cause crazing. Aircraft
manufacturers must be
consulted for recommended materials prior to bonding
or installing any window. This is critical because any
interaction between the sealant and acrylic is hidden
from view and could cause premature failure of the
window before problems are detected.
Direct vision (DV) windows, located on either side of
the cockpit that can be opened by the flight crew on the
ground, can create even larger problems if debonded.
Debonded DVs allow excessive moisture to enter between
the inner and outer plies-resulting in fogged windows.
Although desiccant systems are installed to absorb
moisture that normally is present, they usually are not
sufficient to handle the excess moisture resulting from
cracked or debonded windows.
Before attempting to repair DVs, however, don't
assume that the window has debonded just because there
are fogging problems. The desiccant may need to be
changed or the tube connecting the desiccant to the
window may be plugged or broken.
Crazing damage caused by chemical attack.
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 Care and cleaning
It is important, says Baumann, to use only tested
cleaning agents on windows. One aircraft operator, he
explains, wiped down all of his cabin windows with a
glass cleaner that was on the market and left the aircraft
in the hot sun. Upon returning the owner found that the
combination of the cleaning agent and the heat caused
all of the windows to craze. The result - all of the
windows had to be removed and sent in for repair. "He
wasn't very happy about it," relates Baumann.
The first step to cleaning windows should be to thor-
oughly flush the surface with water. This removes any
dirt or abrasives that can scratch the windshield. After
flushing the window, use an approved cleaner and gently
wash the window with your bare hands so that you can
feel for and dislodge any abrasives or dirt that remain.
After cleaning, use a soft cloth and pad the moisture
from the window surface. Do not rub the window dry Grid pattern can help determine i f view is distorted. Notice
because this will build up a static charge which will how the edges of the window on right appear distorted.
tend to collect dust and dirt particles. The use of an
approved polish that has an anti-static agent also helps
damage, and inspect the container for protruding nails
to reduce static. or other objects that can damage the window. Also, pack-
age the windows in plastic trash can liners, as plastic
Shipping damage
won't scratch plastic. When boxing, be sure to use
"It's unfortunate," says Baumann, "but some of the enough soft packing material to keep the windows from
damage that we see here is the result of improperly pack- coming into contact with the box or with other windows.
ing the windows for shipment." Use a container that is "There's no need to put more damage in the window
appropriate for the window, he explains. If necessary, than is already in it," he says.
build a container that will protect the window from

Who3 qualified to repair your windows?

Robert Cupery, president of Aircraft Window Repairs
Company recommends using this checklist of "musts" to
determine who's qualified to repair your windows.
Must be NDT certified and must meet ore exceed
the recommendations of ASNT recommended prac-
tice SNT-TClA in accordance with military standard
410D.(Note: Merely havine: an ultrasound unit or
machine does not make that person qualified.)
1 Must be FAA certified and approved.
Must have aircraft manufacturer's approval or certifi-
cation.
Must have capability, knowledge and technical data
sufficient to inspect the entire window assembly.
September/October 1990
1

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 107

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Airframe Technology

Corrosion
How to eliminate the eliminator

By Greg Napert

AKELAND,FL-Corrosion a fairly straightfor-

L ward natural process, whereby metal is converted
into a by-product of that metal. Theoretically, the
process is simple to halt. So why, then, is this ageold
phenomenon claiming so many aircraft in this day
I
METAL
CELLULAR CORROSION

4 CAVITY
~CC@ROSIONBY-PFlODWl (WHITE-POWDER)

1 .PAINT SURFACE
I

and age?
Harry Shannon, service manager for Lakecraft in
Lakeland, FL, believes that corrosion is controllable.
Understanding corrosion is the key to preventing it, says
Shannon. The amphibious aircraft that are cared for at
this facility are regularly exposed to one of the most
corrosive environments possible-saltwater.
/
Prevention begins with quality construction and ELECTROLm- PROVIDES MEDIUM FOR ELECTROLMIC
PRCCESS (CORROSION)KEEPING CEU
quality materials, says Shannon. Most aircraft are manu- ACTIVE
factured without painting the internal structure of the
aircraft. The aluminum is manufactured with a small
protective layer of aluminum Alclad. The Alclad very
slowly oxidizes and this oxidation creates an airlight
layer that protects the base metal. But in reality, says
Shannon. the Alclad continues to deteriorate. Normal
wear and scratches also contribute to exposing the base
metal to the environment, allowing it to corrode.
..
. .

:::
:
,- .. *. "-'..-
:: ; **.L.I:, :.m
. .

, . ..
I
N. ,
,
Lake treats all metal used on the aircraft with a five
6 .
.
-1..

step process before the aircraft is even fabricated. This L . . . I

s

prevents metal-to-metal contact between lap joints, and . , . ,.

C 0

contact between aluminum skin and rivets, fasteners and

other structural components. It also preserves the Alclad
layer and substantially reduces the amount of exposure
of the base metal.
Taking this extra step to prevent the initial corrosion
of the aircraft by preventing metal-to-metal contact and
reducing the exposure to the environment goes a long
way toward extending the life of these aircraft.
But even with this extra step, unless preventive
maintenance practices are employed to reduce exposure
to the environment or corrosive materials, corrosion will
eventually set in and destroy the aircraft.
What is corrosion?
Simply stated, corrosion is the breakdown of metal
by either chemical or electrochemical attack.
According to the Airframe and Powerplant Mechanics
General Handbook (AC65-9A), the two basic classifica-
tions of corrosion which cover most of the specific forms
are direct chemical attack and electrochemical attack.
Both types of corrosion work on the metal in the same
manner, converting metal into a compound such as an
oxide, hydroxide or sulfate.
These illustrations, provided by Corrosion Block@of Allison,
TX,explain how cellular corrosion i s formed and how
ACF-50 works to prevent it.
The basic process, in either direct chemical or electro-
chemical attack, involves the flow of electrons from one
area of the metal (called the anode) to another portion
of the metal (called the cathode), through a liquid or
contaminant (called the electrolite). In direct chemical
attack, anodic and cathodic changes occur simultaneous-
ly at the same point. In electrochemical attack, the
changes usually occur a measurable distance apart.
Some of the more common causes of direct chemical
attack are spilled battery acid, flux deposits from
welding and entrapped caustic cleaning solutions. It's
apparent that the way to avoid direct chemical attack is
to keep the aircraft clean and free from any corrosive
chemicals.

108 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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 Electrochemical attack, however, is more complex.
It involves the exchange of electrons due to dissimilar
metals, stress and fretting. This form of corrosion is
not always readily apparent and can go unnoticed until
the structure fails. Electrochemical attack often cannot
be halted and is usually beyond the control of the
technician.
Causes
Of all factors that affect corrosion, the one that is the
most predominant is the operating environment of the
aircraft. Marine environments that include exposure to
saltwater or other contaminants can rapidly accelerate
the corrosion process. Temperature also influences the
rate of electrochemical attack. This process is accelerated
in a hot, moist climate. Although the technician often
has no control over the operating environment of the
aircraft, it should be a consideration when determining
frequency and extent of cleaning and inspections.
Foreign material such as soil, dust, oil, grease,
exhaust residues, acids and caustic materials can also
rapidly accelerate corrosion. Keeping the aircraft clean
is a major factor in eliminating the onset of corrosion
due to these factors.
Removal and prevention
Once corrosion has set in, removing the corroded
material or replacing parts can be extremely labor inten-
sive and expensive.
Complete corrosion treatment, according to AC6&9A,
is accomplished by completing the following steps:
Clean and strip the corroded area.
Remove as much of the corrosion by-produd as
possible.
Neutralize any residual materials remaining in pits
and crevices.
Restore protective surface films.
Apply temporary or permanent coatings, treatments
or paint finishes.
Theoretically, this seems quite simple, but in reality,
the extent of corrosion usually dictates repair proce
dures. And in many cases, the item that is corroded
requires replacement.
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lbatments
Proper preparation of metal prior to applying treatr
ments, coatings or paint is probably the most important
part of assuring that the aircraft does not continue
to corrode, says Shannon. Make sure that a l l of the
corrosion is thoroughly removed.
Shannon also recommends that if the aircraft is
going to be painted, paint it immediately after preparing
the surface. Many paint jobs that peel prematurely, says
Shannon, are often the result of waiting too long to
paint the aircraft after preparation of the surface. "You
don't wash your car two weeks before the wedding," says
Shannon, "so why wait so long after cleaning the aircraft
to paint it?" Shannon says that dirt and dust build up
rapidly, and that unless it is painted promptly the paint
will not adhere properly.
In addition to traditional methods of surface treatr
ment, rust inhibitors are also quite popular in the avia-
tion industry. Two products, LPS 3 (19s Laboratories
Inc.) and ACF-50 (Corrosion Block) are touted by most
in the industry to be among the most effective.
LPS 3 is a product that, according to Joseph Tarpley,
technical service manager for LPS Laboratories Inc., "is
a water displacing corrosion inhibitor. It penetrates into
seams, lap joints and around rivet heads, displacing wa-
ter and leaving a long-term protective film." This product
has good adhesion characteristics, and because of its
waxy consistency, says Shannon, is best for use in
exposed areas. According to Shannon, "It will not wash
away as readily as ACF-50."
The consistency of ACF-50 is that of 10 weight oil.
"Because of its unique capillary action," says Jim Van
Gilder, chairman of Corrosion Block, the Addison, TX-
based distributor of ACF-50, "this product has a powerful
attraction for metal, causing it to spread over wide
areas, between the tightest skin laps, around rivets and
screws, and cover blind spots not directly touched by a
sprayer." It disputes moisture and, according to Van
Gilder, actually has the ability to stop existing corrosion
without having to remove any of the corroded materials.
Van Gilder says that ACF-50 has proven itself in the
harshest of environments and if retreated as directed
(every 18 months), is most effective in preventing
corrosion.
Despite all of the technical advances made in corro-
sion prevention and treatments, however, the best and
most inexpensive method for preventing corrosion is to
simply keep the aircraft clean.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 109
What the doctor ordered?
Due to an aggressive marketing campaign and wide
spread acceptance of ACF-50, a revolution in corrosion
prevention is slowly taking place. What is ACFSO? And
why is it so different from other produds?
Jim Van Gilder, chairman of Corrosion Block, dis-
tributor of ACFSO, says that ACF-50 is a clear, clean
chemical which effectively stops or prevents corrosion
from forming. The product is a thin compound (the con-
sistency of 10 weight oil) with a strong affinity for
metal. This thin consistency allows the product to be
spread, through capillary action, into minute cracks and
crevices.
"When moisture is present for prolonged periods of
time," says Van Gilder, "corrosion cells are formed.
Through electrolysis, electrons are moved from the skin
or fitting to the surface and a white crusty residue b e
comes apparent. These corrosion cells act as miniature
batteries, feeding the transfer of electrons as long as
oxygen-providing moisture is present. This reaction is
more complete when salt is present because the salt
holds moisture longer and a d s as a catalyst to feed the
abuse." According to Van Gilder, ACF-50 isolates the
moisture from the surface, stopping the process.
110 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
What sets ACF-50 apart from similar products, says
Van Gilder, is that it provides a thin, water-repelling
chemical barrier to the metal substrate, after it has r e
moved moisture from the surface. "ACF-50 then actually
searches out moisture in the smallest seams and lap
joints. If it can't push the moisture off the surface, it has
the unique ability to absorb the moisture, causing an oil-
in-water emulsion to form." LPS 3, says Van Gilder, and
similar produds are strictly one dimensional, passively
repel water, and once the solvents evaporate, they leave
behind a static wax film.
ACFSO is a "nearly perfect insulator," says Van
Gilder, with a dielectric of 38,400 volts. Because of this,
and the f a d that it is also a lubricant, it can be used in
a number of other applications as well. ACF-50 works
well as a penetrant and lubricant, says Van Gilder. Ac-
cording to Van Gilder, it can also be used safely to spray
electrical equipment, including avionics and circuit
boards.
ACF-50 is a sacrificial coating that is "chemically a b
sorbed" and must be reapplied every 18 months.
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 Types of corrosion
Many forms of corrosion exist. But according to
AC659A, the most common forms are as follows:
Surface corrosion-
usually appears as a roughening, etching or pitting on
the surface of a metal. This form of corrosion is accom-
panied by a powdery deposit of corrosion by-product and
may be caused by either direct chemical or electrochemi-
cal attack. Surface corrosion will sometimes spread
under painted or plated surfaces and can go undetected
until the paint or plating begins to lift and bubble.
Dissimilar metal corrosion-
results from contact between dissimilar metals in the
presence of a conductor. This corrosion usually occurs
where the insulation between two dissimilar metals has
broken down. Metals have varying electrical potentials
and when placed in contact with one another, transfer
electrons. According to Shannon, dissimilar metal corro-
sion can also exist when two apparently similar metals
are in contact as well. For example, corrosion can take
place between rivets and the skin. They are both alumi-
num alloys, but the alloys may be slightly different
allowing for a small amount of electron transfer.
Intergranular corrosion-
is an attack along the grain boundaries of an alloy. Lack
or uniformity in the alloy structure caused by internal
changes during heating and cooling is usually the cause
for this form of corrosion. Aluminum alloys and some
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stainless steels are especially susceptible. Intergranular
corrosion is often undetectable; however, ultrasonic and
eddy current inspection methods have been successfully
used to iden@ it. According to AC65-9A, severe inter-
granular corrosion may cause the surface to exfoliate.
This flaking of the surface is due to delamination of the
grain boundaries.
Stress corrosion-
is the result of the combination of sustained tensile
stresses and a corrosive environment. This type of corro-
sion is particularly characteristic of aluminum, copper,
certain stainless steels and high-strength alloy steels and
usually occurs along areas where the metal has been cold
worked. Some examples of components that are suscep
tible to stress corrosion are aluminum alloy bellcranks
with pressed-in bushings, landing gear shock struts with
pipethread-type grease fittings, clevis pin joints, shrink
fits and overstressed tubing Bnuts.
Fretting corrosion-
occurs when two mating surfaces are subjected to
rubbing. Surface pitting is usually accompanied by finely
ground debris. This debris remains entrapped between
surfaces and often results in an extremely localized
abrasion. Small sharp grooves resembling Brinell mark-
ings may be worn into the rubbing surfaces. Bearing
surface corrosion of this type is often referred to as
false Brinelling. July/August 1990
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 111
Airframe Technology

Sheet metal repairs

Canadair Challenger Inc. stresses importance of integrity

By Greg Napert

INDSOR LOCKS, CT-The word "integrity"

resonates from within the walls of Canadair
Challenger's service facility in Windsor Locks,
CT. These technicians, who are working on some of the
most sophisticated aircraft in the industry, have a great
respect for their work, and more importantly, they
practice what they preach.
Lead technician Stephen Drziak, who has 43.13-1A/
2A and a few other technical manuals permanently im-
bedded in his memory banks, serves as a mentor for the
other technicians who enthusiastically follow his lead.
With a great deal of exposure to sheet metal
repair, modifications and alterations, the technicians at
Canadair have become craftsman with a unique perspec-
tive on their trade.
Most technicians use approved techniques when mak-
ing sheet metal repairs, says technician John Mozonslu,
but because they are often rushed, their only goal is to
get the aircraft back in the air. Therefore, the repairs are
usually temporary and serve to keep the aircraft flying
until it is scheduled into the Canadair fackty.
Some of the areas that the technicians a t Canadair
say they see abused most often are as follows:

Bucking a rivet
One of the major problems that technicians have,
says Drziak, is properly bucking a rivet. The bucking bar
not being perfectly parallel to the rivet is the cause of
the problem. And this is quite easy to correct, without
much practice. With the rivet set placed squarely against
the head of the rivet and the bucking bar against the
tail, apply pressure to the bucking bar so that the bar is
resting on the sheet metal. This will align the bucking
bar so that it is perfectly square to the surface. After
the bar is square to the surface, the man on the rivet
gun should push the rivet in and begin riveting. This
technique can be used on flat and curved surfaces.
Tooling marks
Tooling marks are another common problem. There
are ways to reduce the amount of tooling marks, says
Mozonski. The use of improper tools is probably the
most common cause, followed by carelessness.
Make sure that you are using the right size rivet set
for the rivets with which you're working.
Drziak suggests applying nylon tape on the riveting
set to help, eliminate some of the "smiles" that are
caused by not having the rivet set perfectly parallel to
your work. He also suggests placing nylon tape on the
edges and corners of the bucking bar, especially when
the bar is in close proximity to other surfaces.
"Scratches can be a real problem," says Challenger
technician Eric Bennett. Removable panels is one area
where he sees many. When the panels are removed, the
sealant is often cut and scraped with a razor blade. The
blade scratches the surface of the metal and sets up
stress marks that can lead to cracks. Use a plastic
scraper to remove the adhesive. Plastic will not harm the
surface of the metal.
If there are scratches anywhere on the aircraft, they
must be dressed out. If the scratches are located on a
machined surface or on a surface that has previously
been shot peened, the area must be shot peened to
relieve stress. Burnishing, says Drziak, is really not
sufficient. "All you are doing is pushing the clad layer of

112 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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 --

Airframe Technology

material back into the scratched area. This does not

remove the stressed area." You have to remove the
damaged area in order for the repair to be effective. You can tell the material by the head marking
When sanding any aluminum parts, whether dressing
a scratch or preparing the surface for painting, use an
aluminum oxide based sandpaper. Silicone carbide is not
Rivet
Material
Code Head Marking
I
1 Material 1
recommended as it will set up corrosion in the metal.

Blind fasteners
Blind fasteners also present certain problems.
Mozonski says that the proper use of blind rivets takes a
little practice. It's important not to pull the rivet too
quickly. This often results in the skin not being pulled TWO DOTS Monel
tightly against the surface. The rivet then has to be r e
moved. Press the trigger of the rivet gun very lightly and
pull the rivet to the point that the material is together,
then finish peg the rivet.
Also, it's important that the hole be prepared prop
I CODE BREAKDOWN

erly. Use a guide to align the drill perpendicular to

the surface. The blind rivet is not as forgiving as the
standard rivet. If the hole is drilled at an angle, the rivet
head will not seat properly. Oversized holes will cause
the rivet to pull right through the sheet metal. There is
nothing more frustrating than ending up with a hole
that is larger than the largest available oversized rivet.
If it becomes necessary to remove a blind rivet, take
care not to damage the skin surrounding the rivet. Thick
I Type Head Material
'Ode
D~ame~cr
Measured
In 32nds .
Length
Measured
In 16th~
materials are easier to work with. Simply use a center
punch to knock the pin out and remove the lock. The
............................,.,
of an inch 01 an Inch

Length IS measured from the

head should then be easy to remove. Thin materials, top of the flush head and the
however, require that you drill the rivet from the underside of the u n ~ v e mhead.
l
aircraft. Because of the way that the rivet is designed
it's difficult to keep the drill from drifting off of center.

Hole finding methods
Technician Doug Roper suggests that hole finding,
especially on compound curved surfaces, is not always
easy. A strap duplicator helps, but one is not always
available or the best thing to use. He suggests that there
are a couple of methods that work quite well. One is to
use plexiglass, or similar product, as a template. The fact
that it is clear allows you to locate the holes and drill the
plexiglass for use as a template.
Another method that he suggests is to fabricate
metal straps approximately 1 inch wide by 12 inches
long. Drill a hole in one end of the metal strap and
position the strap over the hole with the non-drilled end
of the strap over the surface of the aircraft. Place a
strap at each hole. Place a screw through the hole and
into the nut plate and secure the nondrilled end of the
strap to the aircraft with aluminum tape or duct tape so
that the strap doesn't move. When the new piece of
metal is inserted beneath the strap, the hole in the strap
will provide an exact location for the hole to be drilled.
Drziak claims that most sheet metal repairs don't
take a special talent. Instead, complete knowledge of
the task, and everything associated with it, is the key
to successful repairs.

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 113

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Blind riveting guidelines
By Roger Nikkel

Since its introduction in the 19308, the blind rivet has

evolved from a simple, pull-through, non-structural tack-
ing fastener into a widely used structural fastener. Using
either a wire draw or compressed column concept of
installation in conjunction with a mechanical locking
component, these newer structural blind rivets offer
performance and labor-saving features that truly benefit
general aviation maintenance operations. However, their
proper use is crucial if performance comparable to solid
riveting is to be achieved.
Over 95 percent of the problems associated with
blind riveting stem from the lack of adequate attention
to hole preparation and/or awareness of tooling require
ments. Typical problems that cause rivet failures include
over or undersizing the hole due to worn drill bits, drill
bit wobble, improper bit selection (i.e., reaming the hole
out with an undersized drill), improper sheet thickness
calculation caused by blind side burr protrusion, metal
chips in between the sheets or deformed sheet stack
components. also essential that the tool, hand or air operated, be kept
Sheet stack misalignment due to sheet creep (particu- perpendicular to the work surface. Side loading from
larly critical when working around radiused surfaces) improper tool angle can easily cause premature rivet
and lack of perpendicularity when drilling also frequently stem breaks and/or head gaps. In most cases, maintain-
produce rivet failures. It is recommended that the ing firm steady pressure on the head of the rivet during
installer stay within 1.5 degrees from centerline while the entire installation cycle is recommended.
drilling. It's important to try and save the existing hole if a
Using a liberal number of reusable mechanical fasten- rivet malfunctions. If it is a non-structural fastener, use
ers (clecos) to tightly clamp the sheets together while the original drill size and simply drill down to the radius
drilling and riveting will greatly reduce sheet misalign- under the head until the head is removed; then punch
ment. Using a drill guide with universal headed rivets out the rivet sleeve. If a structural, mechanically locked
andlor a microstop drill cage in conjunction with a fastener is used, it is essential that the locking device be
piloted countersink for countersunk rivets will aid in extracted before punching out the rivet stem. Drill down
preventing countersink depth and hole angle problems. to the locking device until it is free, pick it out, and then
Destacking and deburring after the hole drilling opera- punch out the stem. Next, using the original drill size,
tion will allow for removal of any chips or foreign matter continue drilling until the head comes free; then punch
that may affect the riveting process. out rivet sleeve. Check the hole with a hole gauge to
Be sure that you are using the proper type tooling confirm hole size. If it has become oversized or eccentric
with the rivet you have selected (i.e., some rivets require due to the removal process, go to the next available rivet
shifting or double action tooling, whereas many require diameter. 6Bl May/June 1990
non-shifting or single action tooling). Be sure the rivet
tooling manufacturer's recommended air pressure is Roger Nikkel is president of Fastening Systems
provided in the case of power tools. Too fast or too slow International Inc., Sonoma, CA.
installation cycle can often cause rivet malfunction. It is

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 Oxygen systems
Don't hold your breath wondering if they're going to work

By Greg Napert

0
xygen systems normally don't require an exten-
sive amount of attention, and problems with
oxygen systems actually occur quite infrequently.
But keeping up with servicing requirements and regu-
larly verifying operation greatly improve the safety
margin for those involved in flying the aircraft.

Cylinder savvy
Jack Coloras, director of sales and service for
Tec-Air/Comprogas Services, E. Northport, NY, says that
for the most part, technicians are very dependable and
conscious of servicing requirements as they relate to
oxygen systems. But regulations aren't clear enough
when it comes to explaining how items should be over-
hauled, explains Coloras.
Coloras points to the case of retesting cylinders.
"Most manufacturers," says Coloras, "recommend a
complete overhaul of the cylinder assembly at each cylin-
der retest interval. A complete overhaul would consist
of a cylinder hydro-test and an overhaul of the valve or
regulator. This work must be performed by an authe
rized FAA facility for the cylinder assembly to become
airworthy once again."
In many cases, says Coloras, the cylinder is sent to
a DOT-approved hydro-test facility where the valve or
regulator assembly is removed, the tank is hydro-tested
and the valve or regulator assembly reinstalled, without
overhaul.
Coloras recommends that the entire assembly (cylin-
der, valve and regulator) be sent to a facility that can Maintaining a clean environment free of any oils or grease
handle all components and return the assembly com- is imperative while servicing oxygen systems.
pletely overhauled. According to Coloras, overhauling the
regulator assembly is not something that should be done used in military applications and in some older aircraft.
unless properly equipped. There are too many special Low-pressure portable cylinders are rare, but still used in
tools and various types of testing equipment that are some military applications.
needed to overhaul these components. "Safety concerns Keeping track of when cylinders are due for hydre
and potential problems resulting from attempting test is important, says Coloras. The rating of the
to overhaul the cylinder assembly yourself outweigh cylinder is the key to the frequency of overhaul. If the
any benefits that can be viewed as advantageous," cylinder has a DOT3HT1850 rating, the retest period is
says Coloras. three years. The DOT3HT1850, which is rated for 1,850
psi, is currently the most commonly used cylinder
Types of cylinders for aviation.
The three most commonly used types of cylinders If the cylinder has a DOT3AA1800 or 2100, the retest
today are thin-wall steel (3HT), thick-wall steel (3AA) and period is five years. Additionally, DOT3HT oxygen cylin-
composite. Composite cylinders have been just recently ders have a 24year life limit and the DOT3A.4 oxygen
introduced, and because of their light weight, are becom- cylinders have an unlimited life. Composite cylinders
ing quite popular. Wire wound cylinders are primarily must be reinspected and hydrostatically retested in

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accordance with exemption DOT-E8162-1850. The service
life on composites shall not exceed 15 years with the
retest period being three years.
Think safety
The most important thing to remember when servic-
ing oxygen systems is to think safety. AC65-15A points
out a few good practices:
Tag all repairable cylinders that have leaky valves
or plugs.
Don't use gaseous oxygen to dust off clothing, etc.
Keep oil and grease away from oxygen equipment.
Don't service oxygen systems in a hangar because of
the increased chances for fire.
Valves of an oxygen system or cylinder should not be
opened when a flame, electrical arc or any other
source of ignition is in the immediate area.
Properly secure all oxygen cylinders when they are
in use.
Other precautions such as never attempting mainte-
nance unless the oxygen supply is turned off, purging
the connecting hose before connecting to the aircraft
filler valve, filling the system slowly to avoid overheating,
opening any valves slowly and checking pressures
frequently during servicing should also be kept in mind.
Servicing
Servicing the oxygen system with oxygen is simple
and straightforward, but it is easy to become compla-
cent. It is important, therefore, to stay familiar with and
regularly use the pressure/temperature correction chart
supplied with the aircraft. Ken Krawczyk, technician
for Van Dusen Services in Milwaukee, WI, says that
pressure differences when f i g in cold weather
compared to warm weather can vary as much as 200 psi.
Krawczyk says that it is especially deceiving in cold
weather. Because the cylinder warms up while servicing
and then cools down after servicing, you are left with
less pressure than you thought you had serviced it with.
"In cold weather, I normally service the system with
slightly more oxygen than what the recommended pres-
sure is," says Krawczyk. "That way, after the cylinder
has cooled down, I end up with my desired pressure."
Maintenance
Any time that maintenance is performed on the
oxygen system, the supply cylinder should be turned
off and the system drained of any pressure. Pressure
should be drained slowly so that condensation doesn't
form in the lines.
116 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Three types of oxygen cylinders. From top to bottom: steel,
composite and wire wound.
If any fittings or lines are removed, they should be
removed slowly to allow any residual pressure to drain.
Cap any open lines or fittings immediately to prevent
contamination of the system. When reinstalling fittings
and lines be sure to keep them a minimum of 2 inches
from oil, fuel, hydraulic or other fluid lines, electrical
wiring, and kept clear of all hot ducts, conduit or
equipment.
Leak testing should be performed periodically as
recommended by the manufacturer or every time that
the system is opened for maintenance. A leak test is
performed by completely filling the oxygen system, and
checking the pressure a specified period of time later to
make sure that the pressure has not leaked off.
Corrections for temperature and pressure must be
accounted for by using a chart that is supplied by the
aircraft manufacturer. Keep in mind that at least one
hour should pass to allow the cylinder to cool before
taking pressure or temperature readings after the
system is initially filled.
Purging of the oxygen system is required if it has
been depleted and not recharged within two hours, or if
it is suspected that the system is contaminated.
To purge the oxygen system connect an oxygen, dry
nitrogen or dry air source to the fitting that the system
oxygen cylinder is normally attached to and fill and
drain the system at least three times. According to
AC6515A, systems that have a line connected to each
end of the cylinder (one for F i g and one for distribu-
tion) should be purged by opening all of the regulator
emergency valves, connecting a source of oxygen at the
filler valve and passing oxygen at a pressure of 50 psi
through the system for at least 30 minutes. This job
should be performed in a well-ventilated area.
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Keep it clean
The cleanliness of the environment around any
source of oxygen is of utmost importance, according to
AC6515A, any parts that are exposed to oxygen or tools
that are used to work on oxygen systems should be
cleaned with anhydrous (waterless) ethyl alcohol, isopre
pyl alcohol or any other approved cleaner. If masks to
regulator hoses are contaminated with oil or grease, the
hoses should be replaced.
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Airframe Technology
The basic concept of an oxygen system of any type,
says Coloras, be it fixed or portable, whether continuous
flow, demand or pressure breathing system is to reduce
a highly pressurized source of oxygen to a breathable
pressure for human consumption at various altitudes.
Without periodic inspection of regulators and verlfylng
the operation of the oxygen system, there is no way to
determine if it is actually working. Operate the system
whenever you get the chance. By doing so, you won't
have to hold your breath wondering if it is going to work
when needed. Dl March/April1990
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 117
Composite rotor blade inspection
and repair
Getting over the fear

By Greg Napert

T he latest in high-tech manufacturing materials What's a composite?

and composites offers new challenges to today's According to FlightSafety, uA composite is a combina-
technician. Learning the new technology and tion of two materials: a mass of fibers, the principal
developing skills, much like the men who crafted the load-carrying material and a matrix (commonly epoxy)
wood, dope and fabric airplanes of the past, will be a which bonds the fibers together and gives them lateral
requirement for those who wish to keep up with today's support. The combination of the two leads to a very high
changing technology. strength-to-weight ratio material." Today's advanced com-
Helicopter rotor blades offer an exceptional challenge posites are also referred to as "fiber-reinforced plastics."
to those wishing to make repairs because of the critical Materials that are used in today's composites include
role that the rotor plays in flight. Most technicians today fiberglass, Kevlar, carbon, boron and ceramic fibers.
choose not to make any type of repairs to the rotor in
fear that an incorrect repair might result in disaster. Composite rotor inspection
While these fears are understandable, taking the Many sophisticated methods of inspection are avail-
time to know composites and learn basic preventive able, but the most valuable and economical inspection is
maintenance and minor repairs can actually result in the done with no special tools. The eyes, ears and hands can
prevention of catastrophic failures. give you valuable indications that there are defeds in the
rotor. It is important, however, to refer to manufactur-
Practice makes perfect ers' recommendations for proper inspection techniques.
Prior to attempting any types of repairs on any
composite component, it
is imperative that two
things be done. First,
there must be a thorough
understanding of the
type of material that is
going to be repaired or
inspected. And second,
the technician's skill level
when working with the
material should be devel-
oped by practicing the
repair on practice parts.
It is highly advisable to
attend a composite school
where practical hands-on
experience can be gained
and repair technique,
that can contribute to
an airworthy repair, can
be learned.

Cross sections of rotor blades showing old technology (bottom) vs. new technology (top).

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 "I like to get a mechanic in the habit of touching and
feeling along the trailing edge of the rotor blade for
damage all the way to the tip," says Dana Kerrick of
Composite Technics Inc., Dallas, TX."Many people don't
realize how critical a nick on the trailing edge of a blade
is. It is extremely important to repair it right away."
Kerrick explains that the trailing edge can ultimately
determine the life of the blade. A small nick can set up
stresses that can propagate to the leading edge and
cause blade failures. Kerrick suggests polishing out any
small nicks as soon as they are discovered to relieve
stress in that area.
Kerrick explains that many technicians are reluctant
to remove the rotor from the helicopter for a good
thorough inspection, but it is important to place the
rotor in a position where the entire blade can be
inspected and there is suitable lighting.
According to FlightSafety, a good visual inspection
with the aid of a magnify~ngglass should be the first
step in inspecting a blade.
An acoustic impact (coin tap) should follow to verify
visual indications of damage. The coin tap test is con-
ducted with a special lightweight (1-ounce) hammer, coin
or other object (depending on the manufacturer's recom-
mendation). By simply tapping on suspected areas of the
blade, a change in the sound can indicate delamination,
bond separation or other damage. Becoming proficient at
coin tapping takes practice. Different materials, complex
curves and varying thickness in materials can affect the
sound of the tap, thus, the importance of knowing
the material and composition of the blade that you're
inspecting.
Other methods of inspection that may be spelled out
by the manufacturer include hardness tests, moisture
tests, ultrasonics, X-ray and thermography, to name
a few.
"If technicians have questions regarding damage,"
Kerrick says, "call us-info is free-one of the only
things that's free anymore. Send a photo. We'll give a
reasonable assessment of the damage."
Preventive maintenance
"Practically all damage," says Kerrick, "is due to one
of four things: corrosion, erosion, trees or wires." Of
these four, corrosion and erosion are the only two that
can be addressed by the technician.
To prevent corrosion, Kerrick recommends a daily
washing of the blades with whatever solution is recom-
mended by the manufacturer. "You can't use just any
soap or cleaner," Kerrick says. "There are certain clean-
Damage such as this can be prevented by sealing the joints
where the erosion strips meet on the leading edge of the
rotor blade.
ers that are approved and others that are forbidden."
Some solvents or cleaners may contain chemicals that
will deteriorate the blade.
"Rotor blades should not be waxed," says Kerrick.
"Many technicians wax blades assuming that the blades
will be protected, but the wax can imbed itself in the
composite and prevent paint or adhesives from sticking.
This can make repairs more difficult and possibly
more expensive."
Erosion is an ever present problem and should be
addressed frequently, explains Kerrick. Flying in rain or
in harsh environments, such as near the ocean or in
dusty areas, can quickly erode the blade to the point
of putting it out of service. There are steps that can
be taken to reduce erosion and significantly reduce
operating costs.
Exposed areas where paint has been worn off the
blade should be repainted immediately. It is much
cheaper to wear out paint than to wear the actual blade.
Kerrick also suggests sealing joints where leading
edge erosion strips meet. If this joint is neglected,
explains Kerrick, the original sealant will wear away.
Moisture will then enter into the joint and propagate
from that area, causing the erosion strip to separate
from the rotor. Kerrick says that the manufacturer
usually provides kits to perform this repair and that it
can be done in a couple of hours.
"Technicians don't have to perform these tasks," says
Kerrick, "but they'll realize a much greater blade life if
they do."

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 Repairs
There are actually many repairs that a technician can
comfortably perform in the shop, but the principal factor
that limits the repairs is the manufacturer. Procedures
are clearly spelled out that specify repair limits, tech-
niques and methods. It is important, however, to remem-
ber that if a repair cannot be accomplished based on
manufacturer's specifications, it may still be repairable
by an approved overhaul shop or the manufacturer.
Minor damage such as nicks, scratches and minor
delamination can usually be repaired if the damage is in
a noncritical area.
Kits are available from the manufacturer for specific
repairs and are typically quite easy to use. There are
usually no special tools that are required, but to accom-
plish professional looking repairs, it may be necessary to
purchase special equipment such as vacuum and heating
devices. Januagv'Februaly 1990

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Avionics removal and replacement
Avionics tips for aircraft technicians
By Peter S. Lert
I
t has been said that the job of the aircraft techni-
cian consists of "doing the impossible to the inacces-
sible." Nowhere is this more evident than when it
comes time to get at something behind the instrument
panel, or buried under the center control pedestal, or,
in larger aircraft, somewhere in a nose or aft avionics
compartment.
This article is aimed at the Airframe and Powerplant,
rather than avionics, technician. It's a guide to the safe
and easy removal and replacement of avionics compo-
nents in order to get at general aircraft work that would
otherwise be inaccessible.
Panel-mounted systems
It's usually the panel-mounted systems that cause
the aircraft technician the most trouble. This is partly
because the mass of cabling behind the panel-mounted
radios is often more extensive than that behind the
control heads of remote systems, but also because panel-
mounted systems tend to be found in Lighter aircraft,
where there's less working room.
With newer installations, radio manufacturers
provide Markwidth mounting trays for permanent instal-
lation in the panel. The radios themselves are then
slid into the trays and retained by various locking
arrangements- usually screws.
In older installations, the mounting tray is, in fad,
nothing more than that: the actual electrical connectors
are on the radio itself, and come out with it. Antenna
coax connectors and multipin cable connectors must
be removed.
We'll look first a t the removal of the radios them-
selves. Unfortunately, this often isn't enough; if you have
to get at something behind the radio stack, merely pull-
ing the radio still leaves the tray and all its cabling in
place, so we'll address that next.
NOTE: If you're removing more than one radio, or even
a single one with several cables, make sure you know
which connector goes where for replacement. Many older
navcomm sets, for example, use identical coax connec
tors for the nav and comm antennas; swap them, and
while neither nav nor comm will fail outright, neither
one will work properly (comm antennas are vertically
polm'zed, while nav antennas are horizontal).
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Locking arrangements
In older radios, locking arrangements tend to be
fairly simple, ranging from a slotted or hex-head screw
that runs the full length of the radio (starting at an
inconspicuous hole in the front panel) to a simple Dzus
fastener at the back of the mounting tray.
If you don't have access to the radio manufacturer's
manuals, examine the front and back of the radio care
fully, using a light and mirror as necessary.
Security locks
With the rise in radio theft., some systems may
have more holding them into the panel than just the
normal frontpanel locking screw-for example, tabs that
protrude through the back of the mounting tray to
accept a locking bar or even a small padlock. It doesn't
hurt to ask the aircraft operator if such a provision
is installed.
Out it comes
Once all the connectors are removed and the lock
released, there's nothing holding the older radios in their
trays but fridion, so they should slide out easily. If they
don't, look carefully to see that you haven't forgotten
one last connector-some of the older sets may have
four or more.
Radio removal
Once the radio is unlocked, a reasonable pull should
slide it right out. Unfortunately, this isn't always the
case, particularly if the connectors are stiff and the radio
has been in place for a long time.
The basic rule is NEVER to pull on the knobs. At
best, if the radio is stiff, you'll pull the knob off the
shaft; at worst, you can do all sorts of internal damage.
Ideally, the place to pull is by the side edges of the
front panel.
If it is difficult to grasp the edges of the radio,
remove the adjacent radios as well; it's often easiest to
pull everything in the stack at once. Be sure to note
which radio goes back where.
Another tip is to have a look at the back of the stack;
often, even though the connectors are part of the mount
ing tray, there will be a hole through which you can push
against the back of the radio to at least start it out of
the stack.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 121
Airframe Technology
At worst, you may have to gently pry the radio out
from the front. This is where the most cosmetic, if not
structural, damage occurs; front panels are generally
made out of plastic, and a screwdriver prying at them
doesn't help at all.
Moreover, prying from only one side tends to jam the
radio tighter into its tray. Far better to make a couple
of radiepulling tools by bending a little right angle lip
in some thin metal or shim stock an inch or so wide,
with a finger hole to pull by (see illustration). Work one
behind each side of the radio you need to pull (starting
the tool at the top or bottom of the stack if necessary),
and apply a gentle pull from both sides a t once.
Older rack removal
In a good installation, mounting trays will be
supported from the rear, as well as by the mounting
channels a t the front. In any case, expect lots of screws
(often countersunk to allow the radios to slide in and
out). In general, there will either be nuts with lock-
washers, or metallic or fiber locknuts.
Typical instrument panels have a punched aluminum
angle running down each side of the stack opening in
the panel. Normally, during reinstallation, the punched
holes never quite match the ones in the radio trays! A
good practice, upon removing the trays and retrieving
all the nuts and washers, is to note the location of
the active holes, discard the nuts and washers, and
install Rivnuts.
Removal of modern panel-mounted radios
About 10 years ago, manufacturers started installing
panel-mounted radios in more elaborate mounting trays
in which the tray itself included all the connectors, with
mating connectors on the back of the radio itself.
Theoretically, these radios should have been easier to
remove-just unlock them and out they come. In the real
world, however, things are never quite so simple-now,
in addition to mere friction, you have to overcome the
holding forces of the connectors, which can vary from
nonexistent to pretty stiff.
Modern rack removal
It can be particularly tough to remove factory-
installed radio packages, since these were often put
together before the rest of the panel and have little or no
slack to work with. Bear in mind the many connections
on the cable bundles that are held in place by not much
more than their solder joints.
If you really have to pull the trays, you might con-
sider leaving the connectors themselves in place. The
actual connectors are held into the backs of the trays by
screws or Rivnuta, installed from the back or the front.
A long-bladed screwdriver will help remove the connec-
tors, allowing you to leave all the wiring in place and
122 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
remove only the mounting
tray itself for behind-the
panel access through the
radio stack opening.
Note that in some ra-
dio trays, the connectors
are mounted with "float-
ing" washers or spacers
Radio removal tool (make allowing them
two from shim stock) to move slightly and
align themselves with the
connectors on the radios as they are inserted. Failing to
"float mount" such connectors when you reinstall them
can make the radio impossible to insert-or, worse, hard
to insert and even harder to remove next time!
Modern solid-state radios often require forced-air
cooling, and this can complicate rack removal and
replacement. In some installations, each radio has a
cooling hose connection at the back of its mounting tray;
in others, one or more perforated "piccolo tubes" run up
the sides of the radio stack.
Installationof modern panel-mounted radios
Slide the radio into its rack, using GENTLE pressure
if necessary to seat the connectors, and then lock it in
place. Use FINGER TIGHT FORCE ONLY when tighten-
ing the locking screws. (The reason Narco went to its
spring-lock arrangement was to avoid radios locked
forever in place by hex or Phillips screws with stripped-
out heads!)
One nice touch your customers will come to appreci-
ate is to give the contacts on the mounting tray and
radio connectors a light squirt of a good lubricating-type
contact cleaner-the sort sold in electronics stores as
"TV tuner cleaner" works well. Many avionics problems
can ultimatelv be traced to loose or corroded connec-
tions, and the light lubricant action makes the radios
easier to remove and replace later on.
Removal and replacement of remote radios
Remote radios and their control heads are generally
much easier to remove. The radios sit in racks in the
avionics bay of the airplane (usually, although not
always, in the nose), and their control heads are usually
mounted in the panel or center pedestal, either by
simple screws or the even more convenient standard size
"Dzus rail."
Some remote radio boxes-particularly the larger
airlinestandard AT1 units -have mating connectors
similar to those of panel-mounted units at the rear of
the radio box. Others, such as the more recent Collins
ProLine, have cable connectors at the front of the box.
In either case, a simple locking mechanism-sometimes
safety-wired-must be released before the box can be
removed, usually by a convenient handle. Ell
November/December 1989
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 Accessory Technology

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Woubleshooting aircraft
By Robby Starr
ost aircraft today utilize an alternator system
in combination with a battery to provide elec-
trical power. There are still some planes flying
around with generator systems, but they seem to be few
in number. The alternator and associated components
that make up the "alternator system" is fairly simple to
understand as long as it's working properly. However,
when the system has failed or not quite operating up to
par, it can be something of a nightmare. Several steps
can be taken to help eliminate some confusion when
dealing with alternator or charging problems, but first
let's define some basics about alternator systems.
Type I and I 1 systems
Whether on a singleengine or twinengine aircraft,
there are just two basic types of alternator systems:
Type I and Type 11. The major difference between these
two types is how the wiring between the voltage regula-
tor and the alternator is configured. Also the voltage
regulator for the two systems doesn't operate in the
same manner.
In a Type I system the current controlling element
of the voltage regulator is located in series between the
aircraft bus @C) and the alternator field (Fl). In a Type
I1 alternator system the current controlling element of
the voltage regulator is located in series between the
alternator field 072) and ground. If an alternator has a
single lead brush rack, then it has to be wired as a Type
I system with the appropriate type voltage regulator. If
an alternator has a two lead brush rack, then it can be
used with either type of voltage regulator and can be
wired for either type of system. The alternator and
voltage regulator are by no means the only components
of the charging system, but when it comes to maintain-
ing or troubleshooting, most of the attention seems to be
focused on these two components.
Identifying the system
When beginning to troubleshoot a discrepancy in the
alternator system, the first thing to do is to determine
which type of system the aircraft has. The easiest way to
do this is to take a peek at the rear of the alternator.
The only thing that is to be determined at this point is
whether or not one side of the field coil is grounded. If
the alternator only has one field terminal available, then
the other is internally grounded and we know that it is
a Type I wired system. If the alternator has two field
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connections available, look to see if one of those is
externally grounded. If so, it is also a Type I system. If
neither one is grounded, then the system is a Type 11.
There are a few more basic things to check that will help
get closer to the real problem.
Basic checks
Now that we know which system we are working on,
let us check the voltage at the input to the voltage
regulator with the master switch andlor the alternator
switch on. The engine can be running but it isn't neces-
sary. Most systems incorporate an overvoltage device
that is in series between the alternator switch and the
voltage regulator. An exception is the newer generation
voltage regulators which have the overvolt protection
built into the regulator itself. We now want to measure
the voltage at the input of the voltage regulator on
either type of system, and if we read bus voltage or
battery voltage at this point, we are in good shape. If
the system is a Type I1 system, the voltage at one of
the alternator field terminals should be the same as the
input to the voltage regulator.
In either case, if no voltage is read at the input to
the voltage regulator, go upstream from the voltage
regulator and measure the voltage at the input to the
overvolt relay with the same conditions. If no voltage
can be read at this point, there may be a loose wire, or
more likely, a faulty field switch, alternator switch, or
master switch. Once this is corrected and the proper
voltage is present at the input of the voltage regulator,
the system should work. If not, you have at least elimi-
nated this part of the charging circuit so a more specific
problem can be analyzed.
Again, these are just basic steps to take in the inter-
est of time and money. Under a really tight time table,
it's common to point the finger at the regulator or the
alternator and replace them, when in reality, it may be a
simple problem that you are overlooking. It pays to look
at the simple things first.
Common problems
Some specific types of problems are encountered
with the alternator system on various aircraft. The
explanations to the alternator problems that we are
discussing are the most common problems I field on
a regular basis.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 125
 When replacing a voltage regulator, a common error
is to fail to adjust the regulator at the prescribed bus
voltage. Some regulators on the market cannot be
adjusted, but the ones that can, need to be. Several
technicians have indicated they think voltage regulators
are preset from the factory. This is not true. When the
regulator is tested at the factory for certification, it is
impossible to represent all the different parameters of
an aircraft system in the test. So if the regulator has an
adjustment, always set it when checking the system.
Another problem that often occurs when replacing a
voltage regulator is the shorting of the field output to
ground-especially on a Type I system. When this
happens and the alternator switch is on, the regulator
tries to drive full field current to the airframe around
and the regulator gets fried.
When hooking up the regulator, all the switches
should be left in the "OFF" position, and the field
connection should be made first and isolated before
wiring the rest of the system together. Some of the
newer voltage regulators or ACUs available have builtin
ground fault protection for the field circuit and will
eliminate the effects of accidental grounding of the
field wire. Ground fault protection also will eliminate
a damaged regulator due to a defective rotor coil in
the alternator.
Let's discuss the subject of field grounding problems.
Many times pilots report that when flying, the alternator
drops off line, and after waiting awhile they can recycle
the system by turning off the alternator switch and then
back on. Everything seems to be OK they say, until the
system drops off again. However, when the technician is
testing and adjusting the system on the ground, the
problem doesn't occur. The culprit in this situation is
often the alternator rotor. Under certain conditions, usu-
ally at altitude, it can develop a short in the windings.
Sometimes it is a short to ground and other times
it is a coil-tocoil short. It seems to only happen under
certain engine speeds and thermal conditions which are
present during fhght and not on the ground. We call this
a "flymg short." If it's a short to ground, then either the
field circuit breaker will pop or the regulator will get
toasted. If it's a coil-to-coil short, the output voltage will
rise and the overvolt relay will trip the system off.
This type of alternator problem almost never mani-
fests itself on the test bench. So when replacing a
voltage regulator that has been shorted or toasted, or
when fixing a repeatedly overvoltage tripping problem,
always check the rest of the field circuit for shorts or
low resistance. Never replace just the regulator and
assume all is well. If all checks fine and the problem is
still present, replace the alternator or at least the rotor
in the alternator.
126 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
One specific case that can mean txouble if not
recognized relates to the Prestolite 100-amp alternator,
and this is common to many twinengine aircraft. This
particular alternator has an isolated ground-which
means that its case is not common with the ground
terminal. Therefore, if with this alternator a regulator
is shorted or the field fuse is blown, check for a short
between the field terminal and part of the case that the
rotor shaft is in continuity with. If the continuity is
checked to the output ground terminal, a short may
not reveal itself. Always keep in mind to compensate for
resistance that is present due to brushes and dirty slip
rings in the alternator.
Another often reported problem is severe fluctuations
in the ammeter movement. Assuming that the meter
is good and if it is used with a shunt, the shunt should
be checked for tight and clean connections. If all of
this has been checked and the problem remains, then
check to see if the rate of movement is consistent with
engine rpm.
Also, check to see if the amplitude of the movement
is reduced if more load is added to the system. If the
answer to these is yes, the problem is more than likely
a diode problem in the alternator. Under normal opera-
tion, there's always some ripple voltage at the output of
the alternator and is normally dampened by the capaci-
tance in the battery. But if one or more of the diodes in
the alternator is shorted or not switching properly, the
output will basically be an AC voltage wave riding on top
of a DC signal. If the AC portion is strong enough, the
load current will follow the voltage (partially sine wave),
hence, the ammeter will follow also.
Sometimes the alternator checks good under a load.
If this is the case, then adding some filter caps to the
alternator positive output terminal may help. If not,
replace the diodes in the alternator. This type of problem
will also add noise to the system and can sometimes
be eliminated by adding some capacitance to the alterna-
tor output.
Noise can also come from a voltage regulator if it is a
Type 11 regulator. The main tradeoff between the Type I
and Type I1 regulators is heat vs. noise. Many Type 11
regulators are switching regulators, and the switching
action introduces noise into the system. This is not a
problem with Type I regulators, but switching regulators
will operate much cooler and require less space and ven-
tilation for heat dissipation. This is something to keep in
mind when dealing with a noise problem or when select
ing a regulator for a new aircraft design.
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!&pe I or Type II. This alternator is a Prestolite 100 amp
with isolated ground.
When checking through an electrical charging
system, it's important to keep in mind the requirements
of the components that make up the system. For
example, the voltage regulator only does what it is told
to do. For the regulator to do its job properly, it must
have access to the voltage that is present at the alterna-
tor output. If there is a great difference between these
two voltages (anything greater than half of a volt),
the regulator will deliver incorrect field voltage to the
alternator. Most of the time this will result in an
overvolt situation.
There is a path for current between the alternator
and the input (bus) to the regulator that we call the
regulator feedback circuit. There are several components
in series making up this circuit: components such as
shunts, main output circuit breakers, master switches,
alternator switches, field switches, overvolt relays. These
will vary depending on the type of aircraft. If any of
these components offer more resistance than normal,
they will also contribute a voltage drop across that
particular component, robbing the voltage regulator of
the signal it needs to operate properly.
This happens more often when the aircraft is older
and the panel switches become worn and pitted. There
fore, always check the voltage at the alternator and
compare it with the voltage at the input to the regulator.
If they differ, measure voltages starting at the alternator.
Work toward the regulator and you will find, along the
way, the component giving you the problem.
Finally, one of the most frustrating problems to
technicians is the task of paralleling alternators on twin-
engine aircraft that utilize the paralleling type voltage
regulators.
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Accmsory Technology
Q p e I or !&pe II. A Prestolite 100-amp alternator with
isolated ground.
These are Type I systems and are used extensively
on aircraft made by Cessna, Beech, Piper, Aerostar,
Grumman, Rockwell, and a few others. On these
systems, there are two voltage regulators (one for each
alternator) tied together by a single wire for balancing
purposes. These types of regulators are designed to
balance the load current on the two alternators in the
system. They are designed based on the idea that all
things are equal between the two separate sides of the
electrical system (i.e., alternator internal characteristics,
wiring, engine rpm, etc.).
The regulators balance by means of field voltage
balancing. This is very similar to a water pump that has
one output pressure and is pumping water through
two hoses of equal diameter and length. Under these
conditions, the water flow at the end of the two hoses
will be the same. If anything in one of the hoses changes
so that it is no longer exactly like the other hose, the
flow at the end will no longer be the same. All the while
there is nothing wrong with the pump. The problem the
technician faces occurs when changing a component in
a twinengine system and only replaces the component
on one side; the system wiU no longer be balanced.
This is most apparent when the component changed is
the alternator.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 127
Acc~ssoryTechnology
The left and right alternators will no longer have
equal output. This is not really a problem but rather a
fad that can be dealt with in a limited manner. One of
the first things to do is to make sure that each of the
alternators and its associated components for that side
of the aircraft work fine by themselves as far as voltage
adjustment and load carrying capabilities. Once this has
been established then they should be paralleled as close
as can be.
This will more than likely not be ideal but it is OK.
If one alternator will not come on line at a small load,
check to see at what load demand on the system will
cause it to come on line and share part of the load. The
rule of thumb is 30 to 40 percent of the system load
128 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
capabilities. This may not be acceptable for some people.
If not, replace the brushes and clean the slip ring on the
old alternator.
If this does not quite satisfy the operator, let the new
alternator gather some time on it so that the brushes
will properly seat. The imbalance in the system will
probably improve with time.
All components of the system, such as switches,
connections, circuit breakers, relays, etc., can affect the
balance of the system and should be checked to alleviate
some of these problems. El November/December1995
Robby Starr is an electrical engineer for Aero Electric in
Wichita, KS. He has been with the company since 1980.
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Battery care
Are you aware?

By Joseph E Mibelli

L
et's face it-a battery-even on aircraft, does not
rank high on most people's list of important items
to take care of-until it fails that is. Then, all of a
sudden the failure generates an instant awareness and a
dire need to be educated on the subject of battery care-
this, after first recuperating from the minor shock
caused by the cost of battery overhaul or replacement.
The batteries in an aircraft are part of an overall
system that includes emergency backup for various
items, some of them very critical. The main battery in a
small aircraft is used for engine starting and for main
emergency backup. In larger aircraft, the main battery
is used to start the APU and also for main emergency
backup. Smaller battery packs are also used to provide
emergency illumination and emergency power backup
for avionics.
Battery maintenance, then, has to be considered as
important (more in some cases) as the maintenance
for engines, structure and other vital parts. Improper
battery care can result in problems that range from
nuisance to deadly.
Even if battery problems don't generate lifethreaten-
ing situations, the cost of overhauls or outright replace
ments can be very expensive. Unlike the typical car
battery, the aircraft battery is a precision device and
must be serviced accordingly. The most basic and crucial bench test is the capacity
The main battery in the majority of larger aircraft is test. This test determines if the battery will deliver the
a nickelcadmium type, with sealed lead-acid gradually rated current in the minimum time interval, while main-
gaining acceptance, particularly in the smaller aircraft. taining a terminal voltage above some minimum.
But, regardless of the technology, all batteries are A typical 40A-Hr battery is required to deliver 34A
required to perform the same task: supply current (85 percent), for one hour with a terminal voltage of no
when required. less than 20 volts.
This being the case, how do we know that the battery The currents under real conditions such as engine
will deliver the required amount of power when required? starting are many times higher, or they can be many
Bench testing, under specific conditions, as set forth times lower, such as in backuppower situations.
by the battery manufacturer, is the only reliable way to The bench test, even though not a realistic condition,
determine the condition of a battery. gives us a reliable and uniform method to determine the
There are no simple direct measurements, such as condition of the battery.
placing a voltmeter across the terminals, to determine As with any kind of a test, where the resulting
the condition of the battery. The voltmeter reading may numbers will lead to a pass or fail decision, the equip
tell us something about the state of charge (with an ment used to test the batteries has to be of instrurnenta-
enormous margin of error), but it cannot tell us how well tion quality. The equipment must allow the operator to
the battery will deliver current when demanded. This is program and monitor the test parameters as set by
particularly true for nickelcadmiurn batteries that have a the manufacturer.
very shallow discharge curve, but it is also true for lead- Why do batteries have to be tested in the first place?
acid batteries, even though they have a more pronounced
discharge profile.

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 129

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 Just as with any other part of the aircraft, normal
use wears out the various elements of the battery system
(plates, separators and electrolyte), which slowly reduces
the capacity of the battery.
In addition, normal use under extreme conditions,
abuse and improper maintenance will sigmficantly
shorten the life of the battery. Of these, inadequate
maintenance can become the major cause of short
battery life.
The proper approach for long battery life begins with
periodic maintenance, most of the times at intervals
much shorter than those established by the aircraft
manufacturer.
Test intervals, as given by aircraft manufacturers, are
for reference only. The actual time between tests has to
be established by usage (number of starts) and by the
results of bench tests (water consumption).
Battery abuse
Reducing usage under extreme or abusive conditions
may not be as easy for the pilot as it sounds. The follow-
ing are examples of battery abuse and some ways to
limit the abuse of the battery:
First of all, what constitutes usage under extreme or
abusive conditions?
The starting of engines is the mechanism that rapidly
wears out the main batteries. So you need to cornmuni-
cate to the pilot this point.
The peak discharge current, often exceeds 1,000A
and lasts for several seconds. It is followed by a drain
of several hundred amps, lasting for several tens of
seconds. Finally, as the engine fires up, the battery is
hit with a high recharge current as the starter motors
become generators.
Furthermore, usage of the batteries under extreme
temperature conditions further contributes to the wear-
out mechanism. Multiple short flights (less than 30
minutes) where there is not enough time to replenish
the charge used to start the engines also contribute to
the wear of the battery.
Remember also that the batteries are used to power
other electrical devices, such as air conditioning, while
the aircraft is on the ground. When the engines are
at idle, the rpms are not high enough to allow the
generators to replenish the current consumed by the
equipment.
If the batteries are not properly recharged, they will
have less and less charge reserve every time they are
asked to deliver starting current. If this practice is
continued to the point where one or more of the cells
reach full discharge, subsequent starts will cause those
depleted cells to reverse, severely cutting the overall
available capacity and also reducing their useful life.
The engines will also suffer with batteries in poor
conditions. With a battery that cannot deliver proper
power, the result is a hot start, which results in costly
130 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
engine overhauls (well in excess of the cost of mainte
nance or replacement of the batteries).
The simplest and best solution to this problem is to
use ground power equipment for engine starting. The
next option is to shorten ~ i g n ~ c a n tthe
l y period for
testing of the batteries. If the manufacturer of the
aircraft calls for battery testing every 100 hours, reduce
the interval to 75 hours.
Better yet, alternate electrolyte check and deep cycle
every 50 hours for best performance. This, at least, will
ensure that the batteries are in proper conditions to
meet the heavy demand.
Another condition that can shorten the life of the
battery is overcharging while in flight. Batteries can
be literally cooked when subjected to overcharge by an
improperly set or malfunctioning voltage regulator. This
condition can also lead to catastrophic results. The
battery can go into thermal runaway with heavy release
of toxic fumes, and it can also explode if the charge is
not terminated.
Emergency batteries, such as used to power the
artificial horizon, lights and other types of essential
equipment, are normally not in use. They remain in
standby under continuous charge while the aircraft is
active, and they do not deliver current unless called for
in emergencies or routine equipment tests.
Batteries that are subject to such a state of inactivity
will gradually degrade in capacity and will fail miserably
when called upon to deliver power (such as in case of a
main power failure).
This type of failure is known as capacity fading, and
can be prevented by testing all emergency batteries
(capacity test, deep cycle) as often as the main batteries
are tested.
Failure to do so will result in little or no backup
power under emergency situations (the consequences of
which need no additional reminders).
When such batteries are taken for service after pro-
longed periods of inactivity, the cells may be so degraded
that no amount of deep cycling will restore the required
capacity. Thus resulting in costly overhauls.
Inactive batteries
When an aircraft is brought in for routine service,
the main battery and the many additional batteries on
the aircraft may also be serviced. No problems here.
What constitutes a problem for batteries occurs when
the aircraft is going to be inactive for a prolonged period
of time. Depending on climatic conditions (usually high
temperature), the batteries will begin to selfdischarge,
or worse, experience a severe loss (evaporation) of elec-
trolyte. The time periods could be several months to as
short as a few weeks.
If the time period is short, all that is needed is to
top charge the battery (which includes verification of
electrolyte level).
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 Batteries that have been "abandoned," however, will
require a deep cycle to bring them back to proper levels.
If the evaporation of the electrolyte has exposed the cell
separators, the affected cells may be ruined and thus
require replacement.
It's important, then, to remove and to service the
batteries immediately of any aircraft that are expected
to be inactive for a prolonged period of time.
If this is done, the batteries will be ready for service
when the work on the aircraft is completed. Batteries
that are serviced and are not immediately placed on the
aircraft to be used will require a top charge prior to
installation if they have remained on the shelf for more
than two weeks.
One way to keep batteries in a ready-tc-go state is
to connect them to a trickle charger. Batteries can then
be kept on standby for several months without any
detrimental effects (the low charge current is controlled
to simply offset the loss due to self-discharge).
A new approach to battery maintenance
State-of-the-art documentation
By Scott Marvel
An aircraft technician must keep accurate battery
maintenance records in order to support a battery's
release to service. But who has the time or desire to
babysit batteries?
Does this sound familiar? After making the visual
inspection, you attach the charger/analyzer to the
battery, set the controls and the egg timer, and then wait
until it's time to conduct the cell voltage measurements.
Now, grab the clipboard (where did my pen go?), probe
20 cells with the multimeter, record each cell's voltage,
reset the egg timer and repeat. Is this the best use of
your time?
Or how about this-you're inside the aircraft. Back in
the battery shop, a timer goes off to tell you it's time to
read the cell voltages. Trouble is, you are so far inside
the plane that you can't hear it go off! The result-lost
time while you reset the chargedanalyzer, and lost
efficiency while the battery sits on the bench.
This can be a repetitive and frustrating job. Wouldn't
it be great if it could be automated?
The challenge
The challenge aircraft maintenance technicians face is
that the most common way to measure and record cell
voltages in a nickel-cadmium battery is by hand. With a
multimeter, the technician measures voltage levels cell by
cell during battery servicing.
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Some final points
Test batteries at the intervals given by the aircraft's
manufacturer (the main batteries and the emergency
batteries).
Reduce the time periods if there is a heavy engine
starting demand on the battery, or if prior test
records deem it necessary (i.e., high water consump
tion and loss of capacity).
Reduce the engine starting load on the battery by the
use of ground support equipment (battery carts).
Service and properly store batteries that are not
immediately needed.
Joseph F. Mibelli is president of JFM Engineering Inc.
in Miami, FL.
The technician must also interpret the voltage
measurements to determine if each cell is serviceable,
which is fundamental to flight safety-and vulnerable to
human error.
Don't forget lead-acid batteries. Although the indi-
vidual cells are not accessible, documenting the battery
service data is just as important in determining the
battery's condition.
Manufacturers recommend that you measure and
log cell voltages at the following points during battery
servicing: 1) start of topping charge, 2) end of topping
charge, 3) end of capacity check, and 4) end of final
recharge. Voltages on lead-acid batteries should be
measured at the end of the charge and cap check.
But, these measurements must be taken within a
specific, critical time frame, which requires constant
vigdance that's not always possible in a busy aircraft
maintenance shop.
Furthermore, after the measurements are taken, the
aircraft maintenance technician must evaluate them to
identify faults and take corrective action. If the measure
ments are not taken within the specified time frame, the
technician's ability to identify possible critical faults is
impaired-he just doesn't have the right information
at hand.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 131
Capacity and the four faults
What are these cell voltage measurements used for?
First, they are used to determine the amperehour capac-
ity of the battery, and second, to detect the four most
common fault conditions-gas barrier fault, cell reversal
danger, cell balance fault, and cell overvoltage fault.
For a nickelcadmium battery to be ceMied as air-
worthy, or "serviceable," the battery must yield at least
85 percent of its rated amperehour capacity during
the cap check. Each individual cell must measure at least
1 volt when the battery has delivered 85 percent of its
rated amperehour capacity.
For example: All 20 cells in a 40 amperehour battery
must measure at least 1 volt after being discharged at 40
amperes for 51 minutes (85 percent of one hour).
What are the fault conditions, exactly?
Gas barrier fault (negative slope)
During charge, any cell's voltage that peaks and then
drops by 0.10 volt may have a damaged gas barrier
membrane. This is a nonrepairable condition and the
cell must be idenwied for replacement.
This condition is particularly important to detect
because it could lead to thermal destruction of adjacent
cells, or even catastrophic failure of the entire battery
if charging is allowed to continue. Early detection of
gas barrier damage can sigmficantly reduce battery
maintenance costs.
An example of a currently available battery monitoring system is Christie's DataFX"
aircraft battery measurement and documentation system.
132 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Cell reversal danger
During the capacity check, if any cell drops below 1
volt before the battery has delivered 85 percent of rated
capacity, then that cell has failed the cap check. If no
action is taken, and the voltage is allowed to drop below
zero, the cell can be driven into a reversepolarity condi-
tion that can cause permanent damage. When this fault
condition is identified, the cell or cells should be clipped
off with resistor clips, or shorted out with shorting
straps to prevent cell reversal.
Cell balance fault
Any cell that is not within 0.05 volt of the average
shows that the cell is out of balance. This indicates
the battery may need to be deep-cycled to restore cell
balance. Manufacturers recommend all of the cells be
within 0.05 volt.
Cell overvoltage fault
Any cell that exceeds 1.70 volts during charge may
have a low electrolyte level, or it may be shorted. Contin-
ued charging of this cell wiU cause permanent damage.
When a cell overvoltage fault is detected during the
initial charge, a small amount of distilled water should
be added, and the cell voltage should be measured again.
If the voltage then does not fall below 1.70 volts, that
cell should be identified for replacement.
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 Benefits to automation
Monitoring and recording cell voltages, detecting
fault conditions, and measuring cell voltages at fixed
intervals are naturals for automation. And no matter
how attentive the operator may be, battery measurement
and documentation is subject to human error. Automat
ing the process would not only increase accuracy and
safety, but it would also reduce labor costs.
With an automated battery monitoring system, a
consistent maintenance method can be established.
When this type of system is used, the battery servicing,
data collection and documentation processes all become
standardized, and the variations otherwise inevitable
between different technicians are eliminated.
With an automated battery monitoring system,
charge/discharge rates are documented electronically,
faults identified, amperehours calculated and cell volb
ages recorded for evaluation. This increases credibility
with the FAA, your boss, your customer and the battery
manufacturer when submitting warranty claims.
The question remains, what is the present stateof-
theart in automated battery monitoring systems?
State-of-the-art battery monitoring
An example of existing stateof-theart battery moni-
toring is installed at the Aerospace Energy Systems
Laboratory (AESL) at NASA's Dryden Research Facility,
Edwards Air Force Base, California.
This facility supports a variety of battery types for
Dryden's flight research aircraft, which range from an
SR-71 "Blackbird to a Boeing 747.
The AESL is a computerized aircraft battery servic-
ing facility that utilizes a distributed digital system
which consists of a central computer and battery
servicing stations, connected by a high-speed serial data
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bus. Each battery station contains a digital processor,
data acquisition capability, digital data storage and
operator interfaces.
The central computer provides data archives, man-
ages the data bus, band provides a time share interface
for multiple users.
While this setup is appropriate for flight test work,
it's not commercially available.
Commercially available systems
So what's practical for the commercial market?
Remember, an automated battery monitoring system
should measure amperehour capacity, detect gas barrier
damage, cell reversal danger, cell balance and cell over-
voltage faults and be compatible with all battery types
and charger/analyzers. Ideally, the system should print
out a report tabulating all of the important data about
the battery,
A data interface is also desirable, which opens up
various possibilities for data logging and multipleunit
operation. Several charger/analyzer stations could be
integrated through a PC with software that permits the
operator to view, print or store battery servicing reports.
The next step
So what's in store for the battery shops of tomorrow?
Development of a true integrated battery monitoring
system. This system would consist of stateof-theart
charger/analyzers, real-time battery monitoring, data
gathering, analysis and archiving, and specialized reporb
ing capabilities. It's only a matter of time before we see
systems like this hit the market. Stay tuned!
Scott Marvel is the director of marketing and sales at
Christie Electric, (310) 7151402.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 133
A closer look at inspecting aircraft windows
By Andrew E. Geist

With a recent increase of crazing and other damage to

acrylic aircraft windows, many technicians express con-
cern over what preventive maintenance can be completed
to help their windows last longer, and hopefully avoid
premature costly replacements.
The common question asked is, "What can be done
to increase the serviceable life of our aircraft windows?"
The key is being educated about what to look for, looking
for the warning signs of trouble, and finally following
some simple window maintenance tips:

What to look for

There are many different elements and causes of
window damage. By far, the most common is crazing.
There are numerous types and causes of crazing which
include volcanic, chemical, and age crazing. The most
prevalent type seen at the corporate and airline level is
caused by volcanic crazing. Crazing can be defined as
fine micro-cracks on or extending beneath the surface of
the acrylic. When the combination of the outside applied
forces to the window surface exceeds the tensile strength
of the plastic, the surface cracks and crazing begin. Any
additional forces applied to the window just accelerate
the rate at which the window crazes. Crazing is easily
identifiable as a glaring reflection of light from the
surface of the window.
Possibly the best place to begin this education on
how to inspect for damage is by reading Chapter 56 of
the manufacturer's maintenance manual. Many of the
manufacturers have revised this section recently with
new data regarding what to look for and an explanation
of the damage. Most of the information contained within Several inspection methods including ultrasonic (above) and
this section will describe acceptable damage criteria and optical micrometer below) are used to check window
immediate attention items. I thickness before, during, and after repair.

134 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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 With the manufacturer's description of damage and a
note pad in hand, it is now time to inspect each window
of the aircraft. Remember, the key is to take your time
and not be rushed. The following procedure for inspect
ing for damage works very well:
1. Remove from your person all articles that could
scratch during your inspection (i.e., rings, watches,
buttons, etc.).
2. Use a hlgh intensity light. (500 watt is suggested.)
3. Hold the light at a 45degree angle to the exterior
window surface, or have an assistant do the same
with the inspector sitting on the inside of the aircraft
4. Slowly move your head around to change your vision
perspective and angle.
5. Take your time and look for any reflections of light,
scratches, pits, cuts.
6. Document any damage noting the date and aircraft
time; then consult Chapter 56.
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Once you have started a maintenance tracking log
for your windows, you can check them on periodic
intervals throughout the year to note any changes. An
industry suggestion is to inspect windows at least annu-
ally andlor every 250 hours. The maintenance manual,
of course, takes precedence.
Window maintenance tips
Following these simple guidelines will help save your
organization expensive window replacements and down-
time:
Clean your windows often using water and your hand
to clean off any debris, as this will not scratch.
Polish your windows often using approved products
outlined in Chapter 56.
Findy, repair or have damage repaired as soon as
detected. Waiting will only greatly decrease your
chances of saving a window.
Andrew E. Geist is general manager of AeroScope Inc.
in Broomfield, CO.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 135
4ccessory Technology
Certified vs. qualified welders
If you're welding aircraft parts-you need to know the difference!
By Greg Napert
A
viation maintenance technicians are faced with
new producta and newer technology every day.
With this comes increased responsibility.
The question many face today on the subject of weld-
ing is whether or not they should use their knowledge
and sometimes limited skills to make repairs on aircraft.
As in any profession, there are some talented techni-
cians who have taken it upon themselves to learn the
skill of welding to a degree that is suitable for the
application.
However, for every one of those skilled individuals,
there are dozens of technicians who never have the
opportunity to become proficient at welding. The basic
skills that are taught in A & P school are not meant to
make the technician a professional welder, only to assist
the A & P in identifying welding processes and make
the technician aware of acceptable vs. unacceptable
practices.
There are also regulatory considerations that need to
be taken into account when determining whether or not
to take on the challenge of performing a weld repair. For
instance, if you're performing major repairs, you may
need access to approved data, which may prove difficult
to obtain.
This combined with the skill question often leaves a
technician with two choices: Send the part(s) back to the
manufacturer or manufacturer/FAA-approved facility to
be repaired, or in the case of minor repairs or preap
proved field approvals, bring in a welder who is qualified
to perform the repair.
Qualified vs. certified welders
Certified welder is a loosely used term according
to Ron Scott, director of skill training for the Hobart
Institute of Welding Technology.
Normally, certifications are only good where the
welder is employed. That is because ceMication is not
only based on skill, but on materials and process. In
other words, you are ce-g the results of a welding
process as employed by an individual. Someone who is
certified on titanium is not ceM1ed for cobalt or stain-
less steel, and a welder certified with one process may
not be certified with another process.
That's why most welding ceMications, as a general
rule, are only good at the facility where in use since it
also includes the welder's skill, process and type of
material being welded.
136 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Exceptions are the individuals who have a mobile
company, such as welding equipment mounted on a
truck. Typically these companies are incorporated and
have certification(s) for the type of welding done in
conjunction with the processes and materials used.
Rather than looking for ceMied welders, Scott suggests
companies seek qualified welders who are capable of
being certified and then get those individuals certified
at their facility.
To become certSed, says Jim Collins, ceMied weld-
ing inspector for HIWT, "A welder must undergo recur-
rent training and be part of a program where they are
welding every day to maintain skill levels. Most welders
in the industry are certified to a general specification
called MIL STD1595A which was designed for aircraft.
This ceM1cation requires the welder use the process at
least once every three months in order to keep current.
An eye examination is also required and 20/30 vision
necessary to pass. Reexamination of the eyes every five
years is a requisite. The standard also eliminates the
threemonth requirement if retesting for certification is
performed every two years."
Scott says short of qualifying an individual at your
facility you should be sure of the following items before
contracting someone to perform a weld repair:
The individual is proficient with the specific type of
material being welded and the welding process being
utilized.
The individual has documentation to show they
qualify for the material and process.
The individual has a track record and is currently
using the applicable materials and process.
Scott suggests sending weld samples to a lab for
examination whenever you contract with someone who
has not been certified at your facility. There are several
labs located around the country which will examine weld
samples and determine whether they conform to code.
"The bottom line is if you are using a contractor to
perform a critical weld, you must question their creden-
tials and possibly take the time to have them qualify to
your company standard or other code," explains Scott.
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 Welding processes
Contrary to what you may have heard, the size and/
or cost of a welding machine does not make welding any
easier. Large or small size of machines will not eliminate
the need for excellent welding skills. Scott tells us that
the same basic welding principles and talents are still
required whether using a $3,000 machine or one that
costs $500.
He explains that the primary and preferred process
used in the aviation industry today is gas tungsten arc
welding, more commonly referred to as TIG welding.
VIG stands for tungsten inert gas.) Other brand names
encountered are Heli-arc and Heli-weld. These names
were all derived from the early TIG welding being done
with helium shielding gas. Today argon shielding gas is
used in the majority of applications due to it being less
expensive.
There are many different materials which may be
involved in aircraft weldmg) several of them considered
exotic. Titanium, inconel, stainless steels, monels and
aluminum all require special skills and knowledge com-
pared to welding mild steel.
"You need basic skills to weld any type of material;
however, additional knowledge is necessary when
specialty materials are encountered because of unique
requirements. For instance, if you are working with
titanium, there are special gas purging procedures that
must be used to shield the back side of the item being
welded to prevent oxidation. There are also trailer gas
nozzles that keep the heated titanium shrouded in shield-
ing gas so it does not oxidize. The shielding of titanium
is critical during the cooling phase because it will oxidize
at relatively low temperatures," says Scott.
Aluminum, stainless steel and inconel are particularly
susceptible to oxidation and must be protected by a gas
shield. If the weld penetrates 100 percent through the
parts being welded, then the backside of the joint should
be protected by gas shielding.
"There are certain skills welders doing aircraft repair
welding must have that are entirely different from those
required in other industries," states Scott.
"I cannot emphasize enough how important it is to
know what you are doing. There are so many .persons
who proclaim to be professional welders and perform
inferior welds by not utilizing back purging or the right
process," he explains.
Another good example of knowing what you are
doing involves the use of wirefeed welders which are
quite popular in the industry. Collins says, "The problem
with inexperienced welders using wire feed welders is
the possibility of cold lapping. When cold lapping occurs,
welds may look good, but in reality what happens is
inadequate penetration into the base metal. The puddle
of molten metal just lies on the surface of the base metal
and lacks strength and integrity.
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"These gas metal arc welding machines utilize a con-
tinuous wire feed electrode which is deposited as filler
metal in the joint being welded. Because of the reasons
stated above, these machines require highly skilled
welders who are able to maintain correct travel speed,
'sticka~t'distance, and gun angle and remain on the
leading edge of the molten puddle to prevent insufficient
penetration and cold lap," he says.
Gas tungsten arc on the other hand uses a noncon-
sumable tungsten electrode, and filler metal is added
by hand. This type of welding requires better handeye
coordination since both hands are used, one for holding
the torch, and the other for feeding filler metal into the
puddle. Usually much better welding results are obtained
with gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) due to the
increased control by the welder.
Collins says that "welding titanium with GTAW
process may often require welding with the entire part
enclosed in an inert environment, or with a fixture that
feeds inert gas shielding to the back side of the joint.
Stainless steel and inconel present the same problem
and must be protected by a back purge. If protection is
not provided to the backside of the joint on these materi-
als, carbide precipitation or sugaring will occur causing
the weld to be defective.
"We would also suggest purging of the atmosphere
and other contaminants from the backside of any thin
materials that will have 100 percent penetration. A n
example is thin wall tubing that is completely pen-
etrated. Purge the interior of the tubing during welding
with a shielding gas to assure that oxidation does not
take place," comes as a recommendation from Collins.
Chrome molybdenum (chromemoly) is a commonly
used metal tubing for fuselage trusses. Scott says that
chromemoly tubing is sensitive to cracking and should
be preheated prior to welding. In the past oxyacetylene
welding has been the most common method of joining
this material. However, GTAW does an excellent job and
provides more control with less contamination.
"It's not that you can't do an adequate job with
oxyacetylene," says Scott. "I am a firm believer that
oxyacetylene is the foundation for all welding processes.
Regardless of the type of welding you do, the important
thing is being able to read and control a puddle of
molten metal and oxyacetylene teaches a person to do
that," states Scott.
Scott is very adamant in stating, "Welding is a
science combined with art. To do it properly takes educa-
tion, training, and practice. Unqualified welders perform
a disservice to the ones who are highly skilled and quali-
fied in the industry. In addition to that, they endanger
the lives of people who place their trust in aviation
maintenance technicians."
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 137
Causes and cures of common welding troubles
Porous welds
why
1. Travel speed too fast
2. Welding current too low
whs
1. Emessivelv long or short
arc length
rz-\r?
--- -
-= --
7 1
-
3. Poor joint design and/or 2. Welding current too high
preparation 3. ~nsufficientor damp
4. Electrode diameter too large shielding gas
5. Wrong type of electrode 4. Too fast travel speed
6. Excessively long arc length 5. Base metal surface covered with oil, grease, moisture,
rust, mill scale, etc.
What to do 6. Wet, unclean, or damaged electrode
1.Decrease travel speed
2.Increase welding current What to do
3.Increase root opening or decrease root face 1.Maintain proper arc length
4.Use smaller electrode 2.Use proper welding current
5.Use electrode with deeper penetration characteristics 3.Increase gas flow rate and check gas purity
6.Reduce arc length 4.Reduce travel speed
5.Properly clean base metal prior to welding
Magnetic arc blow 6.Properly maintain and store electrode

1. Unbalanced magnetic
field during welding
2. Excessive magnetism 1. Insufficient weld size
in parts or fixture 2. Excessive joint
restraint
What to do 3. Poor joint design and/
1. Use alternating current or preparation
2. Reduce welding current and arc length 4. Filler metal does not match base metal
3. Change the location of the work connection on the 5. Rapid c o o h g rate
workpiece 6. Base metal surface covered with oil, grease, moisture,
rust, dirt, or mill scale
Inclusion
What to do
whs

I-
1. Incomplete slag removal 1. Adjust weld size to part thickness
2. Reduce joint restraint through proper design
between passes
3. Select the proper joint design
2. Erratic travel speed
4. Use more d u d e filler
3. Too wide a weaving motion
5. Reduce cooling rate through preheat
4. Too large an electrode
6. Properly clean base metal prior to welding
5. Letting slag run ahead of arc
6. Tungsten splitting or sticking

What to do
1. Completely remove slag between passes
2. Use a uniform travel speed
3. Reduce width of weaving technique

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 Acc~ssoryTechnology

Undercutting Lack of fusion -- - - - .

why
1. Improper travel speed
2. Welding current too low
3. Faulty joint preparation
3. Too long an arc length 4. Too large an electrode diameter
4. Too fast travel speed 5. Magnetic arc blow
5. Arc blow 6. Wrong electrode angle

What to do What to do
1. Pause at each side of the weld bead when using a 1. Reduce travel speed
weaving technique 2. Increase welding current
2. Use proper electrode angles 3. Weld design should allow electrode accessibility to all
3. Use proper welding current for electrode size and surfaces within the joint
welding position 4. Reduce electrode diameter
4. Reduce arc length 5. Reduce effects of magnetic arc blow
5. Reduce travel speed 6. Use proper electrode angles
6. Reduce effects of arc blow
Overlapping
Distortion whS
why 1. Too slow travel speed
1. Improper tack welding 2. Incorrect electrode angle
and/or faulty joint 3. Too large an electrode
preparation
2. Improper bead What to do
sequence 1. Increase travel speed
3. Improper setup and fixturing 2. Use proper electrode angles
4. Excessive weld size 3. Use a smaller electrode size

What to do
I. Tack weld parts with allowance for distortion
2. Use proper bead sequencing
3. Tack or clamp parts securely
4. Make welds to specdied size

Spatter

1. Arc blow

3. Too long an arc length

4. Wet, unclean, or
damaged electrode

What to do
1. Attempt to reduce the effect of arc blow
2. Reduce welding current
3. Reduce arc length
4. Properly maintain and store electrodes

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Startercgenerator overhaul
By Greg Napert
T he starter-generator has a tough job to perform.
It must produce no load speeds of 3,500 to 4,500
rpm and produce up to 300 amps during the
entire operating cycle of the engine. In addition, it is
expected to last nearly 1,000 hours of operation, as some
turbine engines are running with TBOs ( t h e before
overhaul) of over 4,000 hours.
Joe Megna, maintenance manager for Jet Air Corp.
in Green Bay, WI, a business jet and general aviation
maintenance facility that has decided to overhaul starter-
generators to service its customers, says that even
though the overhaul intervals run around 1,000 hours,
the brushes won't make a thousand hours. "The brushes
average, depending on what model starter-generator
they're used on, somewhere in the neighborhood of 400
hours-higher if it's turning a free-spooling turbine such
as the Pratt & Whitney PT6. On engines such as the
Garrett 331 engine, however, you're turning the prop,
gearbox, and accessories. This is much harder on the
brushes and on the starter."
Megna says the starting cycle is where most of the
wear and stress is placed upon the starter. And it's here
where technicians should warn pilots to adhere strictly
to manufacturer's start and cooling cycles.
The overhaul process
The primary starter/generator that Jet Air Corp.
overhauls, says Megna, is the Lear/Siegler/Lucas
Aerospace.
"Basically," says Megna, "when we receive a starter-
generator for overhaul andlor repair, we make sure
everything is there and observe the condition for
warranty claims. We completely tear down the unit and
go through the air inlet, the brushes under the cover,
drive shaft, dampner hub., etc. Then we'll look at the
stator subassembly and (if applicable) the rpm pickup;
then we clean, inspect, and test them, prepare all good
components, assemble them, and test and undercut the
commutator. We then balance each and every armature.
Elimination of vibration is critical to the longevity of
the starter.
"Once we're done reassembling the starter, we have
run sheets designed by the manufacturer that we must
follow to run the starter/generator," says Megna.
A typical starter-generator run-in requires a variable
speed test stand capable of driving the starter-generator
at speeds of 6,000 to 12,000 rpm at rated load, and
13,000 rpm at no load. It also needs to be equipped
with suitable instrumentation to measure torque, speed,
140 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
voltage, current and temperature, and the power supply
must have a capacity of not less than 700 amperes
at 10 volts.
Additionally, the ambient temperature must be
controllable, and a means for providing cooling air must
be provided.
Lead technician Jon Perlberg at Jet Air Corp. says,
"Essentially, you're trying to simulate conditions of the
starter-generator when it's in the aircraft. When the
starter-generator is in the aircraft, a cooling duct is
attached and ram air provides cooling. So that's exactly
what we do on the test bench. We also perform tests
with the ducting detached and allow it to self-cool. This
simulates idling conditions where the aircraft is not
being provided with ram air and has to pump air with
its own fan. We have a checklist that we go by and one
of the reauirements is that we run it self-cooled."
Megna says one area where there's a lot of wear and
tear is in the starter drive. Garrett went to a new style
with a TorlonQY insert that doesn't require lubrication.
That way, after so many hours, you just replace the
insert. You don't have to replace the entire starter drive
or the gear on the gearbox of the engine, which some
times requires tearing down the gearbox. Megna says
sometimes you can get the starter-generator drive out
of the engine without tearing down the gearbox, but
not always. There's a bearing into which you install a
puller, but if it locks up at all, you end up tearing down
the gearbox.
Megna says, "Although the company performs the
complete teardown and assembly, there are a couple of
starter-generator components we've found that are more
beneficial to send out for overhaul. We typically send out
the field assemblies to be overhauled individuallv. There
are places that have the equipment to overhaul them
much more efficiently than we ever could.
"We also send out the armature for overhaul. The
armature is always balanced as part of the overhaul pro-
cess, but when we get it back, we always take the time to
rebalance it to ensure that it's perfect. We feel this is a
really critical stage in overhauling the starter-generator.
Balance is too important to make assumptions."
Replacing brushes the right way
Megna says, "There are many people who don't have
the resources to disassemble the unit to replace the
brushes, and they just replace the brushes on the
aircraft. And you don't necessarily want to overhaul the
unit every 400 hours when the brushes wear out.
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 Accessory Technology

"But my feeling on
replacing brushes is you
just can't do it properly
without turning the arma-
ture, which requires disas-
semblv of the starter-
generator. Putting a set of
new brushes on a grooved
armature iust doesn't
make sense. And as long
as you are disassembling
the unit to turn the arma-
ture, you've got to replace
the bearings. Because
using a bearing puller can
damage the bearings, you
don't want to take the
chance of using the old
ones and have it fail.
It's just worth the little
extra time and a couple
hundred dollars to do it
right. The starter may not
seem flight critical to
many people, but if you're
up there flying and you
have an engine failure,
you're going to have to
rely on it as much as
anything else."
He says that the two
bearings in the unit basi-
cally support the whole
armature which is spinning at a speed in excess of Continuous operating speed and equdiziqg voltage
12,000 rpm so they take a lot of abuse. "Many manufac- The unit is operated at 12,000 rpm, 30 volts, and 300
turers recommend that you overhaul at 1,000 hours. amps until stabilized. Once the temperature is stabilized
Everytime our customers need brushes, we change the the output voltage must fall within specified limits. This
bearings. For relatively s m d expense, it's a good move. is the normal speed and maximum output that the
"We had one like that on a Citation. The technician starter-generator runs on the aircraft. Before taking any
put a new set of brushes in but couldn't get it started. measurements, you've got to stabilize the temperature
Well, it was because the brushes weren't making full of the starter-generator. That usually takes about 20
contact. Even if the commutator appears to be smooth, minutes of operation. At this point we should have no
the brushes might lie at a different angle and possibly more than a 2°F rise in for each five-minute period of
don't make full contact," says Megna. time. Also, we've go to make sure that the brushes are
"Also if you're arcing excessively, you end up burning seated with 95 to 99 percent contact, depending on the
the commutator segments and may end up needing an model. We do this by pulling the brushes after a short
armature overhaul," says Megna. run and observing the surface. If the brushes are shiny
over a portion of the brushes, that's the portion that's
The acceptance run making contact. Where they are dull looking, it is
The following is a list of typical acceptance run not contacting.
tests that are performed before an overhauled starter- We can usually achieve full contact just through sand-
generator is returned to service: ing and properly seating the brushes. But sometimes we
run across a generator that requires an extended run-in
Minimum speed for regulation before performing the acceptance test. So, we just run it
The generator is operated a t 13,000 rpm, 30 volts, no till the brushes are seated fully. If it's so critical here,
load, and the field current and voltage are measured to then you could imagine that it's just as critical you get
determine field resistance.

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Accessory Technology
full brush contact in the field also. That's why we don't
recommend just replacing the brushes without anything
else. You put them in, it goes a few turns and arcs and
sparks, and you burn it up and end up paying for the
full price of an overhaul. It just doesn't make any sense.
nhimum a p e d for regulation
The generator is operated at 6,550 rpm, 29.5 volts,
and 150 amps. The field current and voltage should be
within specified limits.
Minimum speed
The generator is operated at 6,100 rpm, 27.0 volts,
150 amps for 15 minutes, and the current and voltage
must fall within limits.
Compounding
The generator is operated at 12,000 rpm, 30 volts,
with loads of zero, 75, 150, 225, and 300 amps applied.
The field current must rise accordingly with each
load applied.
Commutation
Operate the generator at 12,000 rpm, 30 volts, and
300 amps. Commutation shall not exceed pinpoint
sparking when observed.
speed pickup teat
The generator is operated at 6,000 rpm with field
switch open. A 20K ohm f10 percent load an oscillo-
scope is used to observe the out-put Voltage. The peak-to-
peak voltage shall not be less than 2.5 volts nor more
than 4.5 volts.
142 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
The starter shaft i s under heavy load and the drive splines
are often damaged. Inspect the splines carefully for wear,
such as exhibited b y the steps on these splines.
Dielectric test
The terminal block is removed and leads from the
brush box filters are disconnected. With the starter-gen-
erator still hot from the previous operation, a test volt.
age of 220v AC, 6OHz is applied between the stator lead
and the starter-generator frame for one minute. No evi-
dence of insulation breakdown shall occur as a result of
this test.
Locked rotor test
A jumper is installed as specified, and the shaft
is restrained by a suitable torque measuring device.
Increased voltage is applied until output torque is 20
pound-feet. The terminal voltage and line current are
recorded and must be within limits.
Commutator runout
The armature is rotated on its own bearings and the
bar-to-bar runout of the commutator is measured. It
shall be within specified limits. El May/June 1995
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 Phosphate ester-based
hydraulic fluids
Demystiwing Skydrol and HyJet

A
lthough technicians are exposed on practically a
daily basis to phosphate ester-based hydraulic
fluids, many technicians never really understand
the makeup, the reason for, or the consequences of
exposure to this fluid. Skydrol", manufactured by
Monsanto, and HyJetIV-A"', manufactured by Chevron,
are the two most popular synthetic hydraulic fluids. They
are essentially the same in makeup and chemistry, and
the same general precautions should be followed when
using either. The two products, in many cases, can even
be intermixed andlor substituted, one for the other, on
most aircraft.
The following material, obtained from the Skydrol
Hydraulic Fluid Service Manual, is presented in the
interest of giving a full understanding of the reasons
behind using these hydraulic fluids, proper handling,
servicing methods, proper safety precautions and effects
of exposure: Skydrol-compatible safety equipment is a must when working
on or around hydraulic fluid and when servicing equipment.
Brief history of aircraft hydraulics
The first aviation hydraulic systems were used to As the transport industry moved toward jets, Skydrol
apply brake pressure. These systems used a vegetable or 500A fluid was developed to meet the needs of the new
castor oil-based material and natural rubber for seals aircraft. The development of more advanced aircraft
and hoses. As aircraft design produced larger and faster required modification to the formulation of Skydrol
aircraft, greater use of hydraulics was necessary to oper- hydraulic fluids. The changes required by the aircraft
ate landing gear, wing flaps and cowl flaps. This required manufacturers were known as modifications to the
higher pressures (1,000 psi) and improved fluids. fluid specification-or simply as Type I, 11, 111, and now
The industry turned to petroleum-based fluids such as IV fluids.
Mil-03580 to meet these needs. Since the petroleum oil Monsanto Skydrol LD-4 and Skydrol 500B-4 hydraulic
caused the natural rubber system materials to swell, the fluids are Type IV fluids formulated to the rigid specifi-
industry changed to synthetic rubbers such as neoprene cations of the aircraft manufacturers.
and buna N. The newer and faster transport aircraft
required hydraulic systems to work at even higher Likelihood of encountering problems while
pressures (3,000 psi). And the location of hydraulic mixing fluids
equipment exposed the fluid to many points of ignition
within the aircraft. Both airborne and ground fires were All Type IV fluids are miscible and compatible and
traced to the use of this flammable hydraulic fluid. may be used with each other in any and all proportions.
Shortly after World War 11, a growing number of When mixing Type IV fluids with other type fluids
aircraft hydraulic fluid fires drew the collective concern (i.e., Type I, Type I1 or Type III), it's recommended that
a minimum of 20 percent or more of the fluid be
of the aviation industry and public. Operators of com-
mercial transport aircraft had particular cause for alarm. drained and replaced by the Type IV fluids. As only
The loss of life and equipment due to the flammable Type IV fluids have been produced since 1981, this
Mil-H-5606 fluid could not be tolerated. In 1948, Douglas situation is rare today.
Aircraft Co. requested that Monsanto Co. help develop
a fireresistant hydraulic fluid. The new resistant
hydraulic fluid developed was based on phosphate ester
chemistry-and named Monsanto Skydrol 7000 fluid.

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Mixing of fluids Swelling and softening generally
Mixing Type IV with: Recommended Type IV fluids decreases as:
fluid concentration: percent of compounding material (sulfur, carbon
black, zinc oxide, etc.) increases.
Types I, 11, Ill 20 percent minimum
(no longer produced) amount of cut surface decreases (molded surfaces are
more resistant than cut surfaces or buffed surfaces).
Type IV Mixable in all portions
hardness increases.
Shelf life mechanical restraint increases. (Restraint from
If Skydrol fluids are protected from environmental surrounding structures or from fabric incorporated
effects, they do not have a limited shelf life. However, in the rubber will prevent or minimize swelling and
only the quart cans of Skydrol fluids are hermetically softening.)
sealed and not subject to contact with the environment. temperature decreases. (Increased temperature
Therefore, if there is a doubt about the condition of the greatly accelerates the effects of immersion.)
fluid after three years of storage in containers other
mechanical working during immersion decreases.
than the sealed quart cans, we suggest that an analysis
be performed before the fluid is introduced into the These factors make it necessary to test borderline
aircraft. AU fluids should be analyzed when in storage cases, under simulated use conditions.
for up to five years.
Effect of fluids on tires
Proper storage methods AU hydraulic fluids, engine oils and cleaning fluids
The basestocks of Skydrol fluids are blends of phos- have a softening effect on rubber materials used in
phate ester materials which are mildly hygroscopic. Most aircraft tires. Petroleum-based fluids have a more severe
problems associated with storage occur because of poor and permanent effect than Skydrol hydraulic fluids on
environmental conditions such as: natural rubber tread stock, commonly used on new tires.
Storage out of doors-exposure to weather The reverse is true of most retread stock on which
Skydrol hydraulic fluids have a greater softening effect.
Storage in buildings with high humidity levels Both petroleum oils and synthetic fluids may cause soft
spots in tires which will shorten their life. Neither
Storage should be permitted to remain on tires.
recommendations
Skydrol fluid drum Protection of aircraft tires
should be stored horizon- Tires may be covered with polyethylene sheets to
tally whenever possible. protect them from jet turbine oils or hydraulic fluids.
If the drums cannot be In the event fluid gets on the tire, it should be imme
stored on their sides, they diately removed by wiping the excess fluid with dry rags.
should be blocked up and If the tire has soaked in the fluid, it should be cleaned
tilted so that any water with soap and water and rinsed with clear water.
which may collect on Petroleum solvents should not be used for cleaning
the top does not cover tires because the solvents will deteriorate the natural
the bungs. rubber. To remove tackiness, an alcohol may be used
for cleaning.

Factors affecting compatibility with Component cleaning solvents

rubber-like materials
Swelling and softening of rubber compounds
immersed in Skydrol fluids are greatly influenced by
factors other than the type of rubber. Though a particu-
lar type of rubber may swell excessively, the compounded
material may be entirely suitable for a given application.
Skydrol fluid components can be cleaned with
nonhalogenated cleaning solvents. These nonhalogenated
cleaning solvents do not contain chlorine, a serious hy-
draulic fluid contaminant. These solvents should be used
in the cleaning of all critical hydraulic fluid components.
Noncritical hydraulic fluid components can be cleaned
with halogenated solvents. The use of such solvents can
produce a significant hazardous waste disposal problem.
The use of such solvents is discouraged due to the waste
disposal problems and the possibility of hydraulic system
contamination.

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Effect of Skydrol fluids on lubricants Each package shall be legibly marked in accordance
Long experience with Skydrol fluids reveals no prob with procurement specifications.
lems in using standard greases and lubricants in wheel Note: NAS-1611 and 1612 parts should be checked to
bearings or other areas. If a leak occurs, dilution of the ensure that they are of the new EPR material rather
grease or pressure sealant with Skydrol will take place than of the older butyl rubber.
much the same as if mineral oil were used. The effect of
diluting lubricant with Skydrol is comparable to diluting The need for taking fluid samples
lubricant with mineral oil. The performance of the entire aircraft hydraulic
system can be affected by the condition of the hydraulic
Testing and preservation of hydraulic units fluid. If the hydraulic fluid additives are damaged or
Components for use with Skydrol fluids should be depleted, protection provided by the hydraulic fluid
checked in a test stand equipped with Skydrol fluid. is lessened.
Either Skydrol LD-4 or 500B-4 fluid may be used in the Only alter sampling the hydraulic fluid for the
test stand. If the test fluid is not the same as used in purpose of fluid analysis can the condition of the
the aircraft, the unit should be drained and filled with additives be determined and damage to the hydraulic
the proper Skydrol hydraulic fluid before storing or system avoided.
installing. Units tested on other fluids may shorten
the seal life and bring about expensive system contami- Safe handling of Skydrol fluids
nation. It is best to test a unit in the same fluid as used Skydrol fluids should be handled the same way any
in the actual hydraulic system. aviation fluid or lubricant is handled. Care should be
taken in handling Skydrol fluids to keep them from
spilling on certain plastic materials and paints which
Nonhalogenated cleaning solvents might tend to soften. If a small amount of Skydrol is
KfA-L Texaco Co. spilled during handling, it should be wiped up immedi-
(NSN68W264-9039) ately with a dry cloth. When large pools form, an absor-
PD-680 Chewan Intl. Oil Co. bent sweeping compound is recommended.
Safety Kleen Solvent Safety Kleen Corp. The use of Stoddard solvent, denatured alcohol or
Stoddard Solvent** Ashland Chemical Co. MEK to remove traces of the fluid would then follow.
Odorless Mineral Spirits Chevron Intl, Oil Co. Finally, the area should be washed with water and
White Spirits - a detergent.
Safe@Solvent - Tools should not be allowed to soak in Skydrol fluids
Varnoline - if they have painted areas or vinyl chloride plastic
IsopropyI Alcohol - handles. Many nonmetallic materials are resistant to
Skydrol fluids and will not be adversely affected by it.
**A -re of 85 Wcmt nonatle and 15 pment h i m e t h y l b m e .

Halogenated cleaning solvents

Freon TI?
Freon113
lkichloroethylene

O-ring specifications
The following specifications serve as a guide in
obtaining materials for use with Skydrol fluids. National
Aerospace Standards @AS) on seals compatible with
phosphate ester fluids helped to establish guidelines for
the right seal in the right hydraulic system.

NAS-1611-This is the O-ring specification covering

sizes equivalent to M528775.
NAS-1612-This is the boss seal gasket specification
covering sizes equivalent to MS28778.
NAS-1613-This is the procurement specification
for O-rings.

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Accessory Technology
Since it is difficult to visually distinguish between
materials that are resistant and those that are not
resistant, it is h h l y recommended that all materials
wet with Skydrol fluids be wiped off and cleaned as soon
as possible.
146 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technolo~yMagazine
Skydrol fluids will not harm clothing with the excep
tion of a few materials such as rayon acetate. Some
types of rubber-soled shoes may soften and deteriorate
when exposed to Skydrol fluids.
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) available from
the manufacturer should be consulted for all health and
safety concerns.
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Chemicals in Skydrol fluids which may
cause irritation
Skydrol fluids are phosphate ester-based fluids
blended with performance additives. Phosphate ester is a
good solvent, and as such will dissolve away some of the
fatty materials of the skin.
Repeated or prolonged exposure often causes drying
of the skin, and if unattended could result in complica-
tions such as dermatitis or even secondary infection
from bacteria.
Skydrol fluids are not known to cause allergic-type
skin rashes.
Hand protection
To avoid exposure, a worker should wear gloves that
are impervious to Skydrol hydraulic fluids.
Some manufacturers claim "Nitrile" gloves are
suitable for this purpose. Nylon and polyethylene "throw-
aways" are also acceptable.
Monsanto does not recommend the use of protective
barrier creams as they do not provide complete
protection.
Proper first aid treatment for eye exposure
Monsanto is not aware of any case of eye damage
from Skydrol fluid exposure. When the fluid gets into
the eyes, it can cause severe pain, but it has not been
known to cause any damage to the eye. First aid should
consist of washing the fluid from the eye with potable
tap water or a standard eye irrigation fluid (such as
dacriose solution).
We advise copious flushing. Afterward, the installa-
tion of sterile mineral oil or petrolatum is preferred over
unsterile products (such as milk). Any additional treat?
ment would not be considered first aid and should be
administered under the supervision of a physician.
Where splashing or spraying is possible, chemical-
type goggles should be worn.
inhalation of fluids
Upper respiratory irritation, including nose and
throat irritation and tracheitis and/or bronchitis, can
occur from inhalation of a Skydrol fluid mist. People
with asthma may have a more marked reaction. If
through some accident liquid Skydrol fluid is aspirated
directly into the lungs, such as by swallowing a large
amount and breathing it at the same time, or by
breathing in while vomiting, it is possible that chemical
pneurnonitis could occur. This occurs following deep
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aspiration of any foreign material into the lungs. There
is no record of this happening with Skydrol fluids, and
the possibility of this occurring under normal industrial
conditions does not appear to be likely.
When mist or vapor is possible because of high
pressure leaks, or any leak hitting a hot surface, a respi-
rator capable of removing organic vapors and mists
should be worn.
Ingestion
Ingestion of small amounts of Skydrol fluid does not
appear to be highly hazardous. Should ingestion of a full
swallow or more occur, we suggest the immediate inges-
tion of milk or water, followed with hospital supervised
stomach treatment, including several rinses of saline
solution and milk.
Protective materials
Gloves
Where continuous exposure of the hands to Skydrol
hydraulic fluids is required, protective gloves should
be worn. Monsanto does not recommend the use of
protective barrier creams as they do not provide
-
complete protection.
Show
A synthetic sole material resistant to Skydrol should
be worn. Natural rubber compounds will offer no resis-
tance to Skydrol fluids.
Eye and
Eye protection should be worn when splashing or
spraying of Skydrol hydraulic fluid is possible. Chemical-
type goggles are recommended.
Disposable clothing
Disposable clothing materials resistant to Skydrol
hydraulic fluids should always be used. One example
of resistant material is Durafab, made by E.I. dupont
de Nemours.
Clothing manufactured from resistant materials can
be obtained from most safety equipment supply houses.
Protective clothing manufactured from resistant
materials such as cotton, wool, nylon or polyester is
resistant to Skydrol hydraulic fluids.
Reepiwtom
When Skydrol fluid mists or vapors are possible
because of high pressure leaks or any leak hitting a hot
surface, a respirator capable of removing organic vapors
and mists should be worn.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 147
Accessory Technology

Skydrol fluid safe handling summary

Avoid direct exposure to Skydrol fluids. When mist or vapor is possible, a respirator capable
Impervious gloves and chemical-type goggles should of removing organic vapors and mists should
be worm. be worm.
Eye baths should be available when there is potential Consult the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) or
for eye contact. contact Monsanto Chemical Co. for healthlsafety
information.
Ell March/April 1995

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 Accessory Technology

Helicopter rotor track and balance

Advancements offer an interesting selection of
equipment and techniques

A
ccording to John Beach, president of Dynamic
Solutions Systems, since helicopters were first
produced, a variety of methods and techniques
have been used to reduce vibrations produced by their
rotor systems. "Rotor smoothing," he says, "is a term
describing the use of dynamic track and balance to
achieve vibration-free flight."

Main rotor tracking methods

"Theoretically, main rotor blades should all fly in the
same plane and maintain equidistant angular spacing
during flight. Pitch links and trim tabs are adjusted to
compensate for blade differences to keep the blades in
line at all forward speeds. Rotor tracking systems," he
says, "have focused on providing information that can be
used by the mechanic to adjust pitch links and trim tabs
to coax the blades to fly 'perfectly' in track."

Flag tracking
Beach explains that the earliest technique for rotor
tracking was flag tracking, where the tip of each blade
was marked with colored chalk, crayon or grease pencil
and a white strip of cloth mounted to a pole was pushed
into the edge of the operating rotor's blade path. The
marks on the cloth gave a measure of the blade track. In
fact, some helicopter manufacturers still use the color
convention to iden* blades (i.e., blue blade, yellow
blade, etc.).

Electro-optical tracking
In the 19609, an optielectronic method of measuring
rotor track height and lead lag was developed and
patented by Chicago Aerial. Chicago Aerial built a small
single lens system that could be mounted to the aircraft
and measure track in flight, but achieved only very
limited success with it. The system they sold the most
was a large, heavy ground-based dual lendsensor system
that was very accurate but could only measure track on
the ground. This system of tracking was superseded with
the development of strobe tracking.
Strobe light tracking
Then, in the early 1970s Chadwick-Helmuth adapted a
strobe light and retro-reflective tip targets to allow blade
track and lead lag to be measured on the ground and in
flight. This technique requires significant operator skill
and training.
In the early 1980s the U.S. military and helicopter
manufacturers made it clear they were looking for a
system that could measure blade track consistently and
accurately without highly skilled human operators.
Electro-optical tracking revisited
Beach says that shortly thereafter, Stewart Hughes
of the UK revived the method originally developed by
Chicago Aerial and applied upto-date electronics and
packaging methods to make this technique practical for
in-flight tracking. "This system is built under license
by Scientific Atlanta in the United States," he says.
"Chadwick-Helmuth also developed a similar tracker

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which is currently being offered for sale. Helitune Ltd.of
the UK developed a different tracking method using a
line scan video camera."
Tracking using vibration sensors
Beach says that "theoretically, vertical vibrations in
level flight result from asymmetric lift vectors produced
by uneven loading on the rotor blades. Users found the
track conditions of the rotor diredly related to these
vibrations in the airframe." He continues, "Experimen-
tally it was found that vibration information could be
used to adjust pitch links and trim tabs to produce
minimum vibrations at all forward speeds. After this
process was complete, the blade track could be measured
and surprisingly the blades were most frequently not in
perfect track!" Beach says that this lead to a quandary.
Do we want perfect track or minimum vibrations?"
What value is tracking?
He explains that in the process of using these track-
ing methods and measuring the vibrations resulted,
users found "perfect track" rarely produced minimum
vibrations. He savs that "various theories have been
proposed to expl& this effect. One theory is that each
blade has a slightly different shape, twist, flexibility, etc.,
and only by putting them slightly out of track can these
variations in lift be compensated. Another theory is that
each blade produces a 'turbulent wash' the trailing blade
must fly through. If alternating blades are set to fly high
and then low, each blade will have 'calm air' to fly
through resulting in smoother flight. This effect is more
pronounced on aircraft with four or more blades on the
main rotor."
This fact has lead some manufacturers to conclude
blade tracking is of little value and the only purpose of
rotor smoothing should be to minimize vibrations with-
out regard to blade track. This approach has a few draw-
backs however. First, a " bad blade must be put way out
of track to minimize vibrations and can onlv be detected
if a tracking system is used. Second, blade Lack and lag
information may make finding some problems with the
rotor much easier. For example a bad damper may p r e
duce a subtle transient vibration effect during turns, but
a lead lag measurement will show the damper problem
as a blade obviously unstable in angular position.
Jim Fenton, engineer at Scientific Atlanta, says that,
in fact, blade tracking is very important. "Without
acceptable blade tracking, if you do any type of maneu-
ver that places stress on the blades, you can get severe
blade s ~ l i tThe
. distance the blades are a ~ a rwill
t be
exagge;ated in adverse maneuvers, and &is will load
the blades unevenly. Because of this, it's critical to make
sure the track is flat. Also, the smaller the track split,
the less energy it takes to run the helicopter. It puts
more stress on the gearbox, engine, and airframe, and
will burn more fud.It's correct to want to reduce vibra-
150 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Vibration and optical sensor placement depend on
helicopter make and model, and type o f balancing
equipment used.
tion, but if you ignore track, you do it at your peril. You
need to reduce vibrations, but you've got to be sure
you're not doing something detrimental and producing a
big track split."
Rotor balancing methods
Beach explains that early methods of balancing heli-
copter rotors were limited to static "bubble" balancing of
rotor heads and "weighing" blades to be sure the rotor
was symmetrically loaded. In the 1970s maintenance per-
sonnel began attaching vibration sensors and using spin
balancing techniques common in industry on large indus-
trial blowers. Using a strobe flash to establish the phase
of the vibration and a tuned filter to establish the ampli-
tude of the vibration, charts (nomograms) could be used
to determine where to add weight and how much.
Early complex algorithms
With helicopter rotors, however, there is interaction
between mass imbalance and blade track at hover. If one
blade is flying high and producing more lift, it wiU also
lag its normal position due to higher drag force. This
induces an effective mass imbalance. Because of this
and other interactions, users developed procedures or
"algorithms" that allowed the rotor to be smoothed by
performing steps in a particular order. For example,
first, track blades with pitch links on the ground;
second, track the blades with pitch links in hover; third,
spin balance the main rotor at hover; fourth, adjust
tabs based on track data andlor vertical vibration data
in forward flight These procedures required a good deal
of skill and accuracy from the maintenance personnel.
This has led to the industry acknowledging a need for
automated computerized methods that reduce the
workload and skill level needed to accomplish satisfac-
tory rotor smoothing.
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Computer-based algorithms
In the 1980s, hand-held computers were programmed
to perform the rotor smoothing algorithms. In some
cases, the engineers programming the new computer
systems wanted to simplify the algorithms currently in
use. A popular concept was that all helicopters of the
same type were sufficiently similar to allow a single
computer math model to be used.
Track and balance equipment based upon this
concept was subsequently developed and introduced to
the market by Chadwick-HeImuth with its Model 8500
and Scientific Atlanta with its RADS AT (built under
license to Stewart Hughes of the UK).
These units "use customized programs for specific
model aircraft and utilize a single flight method of
balancing. Single flight methods are quick, but a down-
side to the single flight method is it does not lead to any
method of verifyrng the changes recommended were
executed properly. The single flight method requires the
user to make several adjustments at once, and due to
the interaction of these adiustments it is difficult to
determine if adjustments are done correctly."
However, Fenton at Scientific Atlanta says single
flight equipment offers the option of performing the
track and balance in a single flight, but it is not limited
to that. He says, "The technician always has the option
of verifying the solution." In fad, he explains that in
practice, more than one run is usually made. Addition-
ally, he says the more runs that are made, the more you
can reduce vibration levels on the helicopter. It's all up
to how much time the operator and technician has to
spend on balancing and how far they want to go beyond
maintenance manual specifications.
"Single move" method
Beach refers to the rotor smoothing algorithm devel-
oped by Dynamic Solutions Systems @SS) as the "single
move method." Using this method, each flight only
results in instruction to make a single adjustment. The
next flight is used to verify that the change matches
the math model; if it does not match but is within a
tolerance, the math model is corrected to match the
current aircraft
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One advantage of this method will be the first flight
may only consist of pulling the aircraft up into hover for
30 seconds. Forward flight will not be attempted until
hover vertical and lateral vibration is low. This will avoid
the safety hazard of trying to fly an aircraft that is badly
out track or balance in forward flight conditions as could
be the case with the single flight method.
Tail rotor balance
"Helicopter tail rotors can be surprisingly difficult to
balance," says Beach. He explains that this is partially
because their bearings and pivots allow the rotor to tilt
on its axis dynamically. Another problem is tail rotors
are often very sensitive to minute changes in tip weight.
Small changes are normal due to small errors in
weight measurement and location. But larger changes
are indications of large errors in weight placement or
measurement, or they are indications of a defective com-
ponent in the rotor hinge mechanism.
Basic selection criteria
"A very serious and fundamental problem with most
modern helicopter track and balance systems on the
market is in their limited basic analysis capabilities.
Some systems have become so highly applications
specialized they have left out many basic features
required of any good general purpose vibration analyzer/
balancer," he says.
"It's also been my experience the first few things
people look for when they're buying equipment are: what
the equipment capabilities are, if the equipment inter-
faces with a computer, how much the equipment costs,
and what the price includes," says Beach.
But he stresses that probably one of the most impor-
tant things you must often take into account, is even
with the most sophisticated equipment, it's essential the
concepts of balancing be fully understood in order to
accomplish good balancing. And because of this, the
companies supplying this equipment should also offer
computer training support. With the extremely high
costs of helicopter and crew time, computer balance
simulation training for the mechanic is almost a
necessity," says Beach. EQI January/February 1995
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 151
Hydromatic propeller governors
Basic operation and troubleshooting

By Greg Napert

A lthough the reciprocating engine propeller In practice, the action of the pilot via cockpit con-
governor performs a fairly complex task, it's a trols, that raiaes the rack, decreases the compression of
relatively simple device that works on basic the speeder spring and thus reduces the speed at which
principles of motion and mechanics. And although there the flyweights must rotate to return the pilot valve to
are four primary manufacturers of these governors, the desirable "on-speed condition. Conversely, lowering
McCauley, Hartzell, Hamilton Standard, and Woodward, the rack increases the spring force and consequently the
they are all very similar in operation and design. required rotational speed of the flyweights required to
Basically most governors consist of a gear pump return the pilot valve to the on-speed condition.
which takes oil from the
engine lubricating system :=--..---
- -.._
. - _
- - - _
z - -.
and boosts it in pressure --.. .-.':_
to actuate the propeller
pitch change mechanism;
a pilot valve actuated by
spring-balanced flyweights
that controls the flow of
the high-pressure oil to
the prop; a pressure
operated transfer valve
which on some feathering
installations allows high-
pressure oil from an a d -
iary source to feather and
unfeather the prop; and a
relief valve system which
controls the output pres-
sure of the gear pump
within a specific range.
The operating prin-
ciple of these components
is quite simple. Essen-
tially, a set of flyweights
is connected to a pilot
valve. The repositioning of
the pilot valve, via a rack
assembly, affects the
tension on a spring that
opposes the force that the
flyweights generate.
The more force that
opposes the flyweights,
the more engine rpm it
takes to position the pilot
valve so that it is in the
desired position.

ON-SPEED

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 Accessory Technology

In effect, the flyweights are continuously opposing

the force of the speeder spring and seeking a point of
balance related to the tension on the spring.
John DeJoris, president and co-owner of Aircraft
Propeller Service Inc. in Wheeling) IL,says that gover-
nors, in general, are pretty forgiving and for the most
part are maintenancefree. He explains that technicians
in the field often have questions related to one of three
categories: a prematurely feathering prop (on feathering-
type aircraft) the surging engine, and various oil leaks O-ring seals can become
brittle over time and result
that may occur on the governor.
in ledage.
The relief valve seat has
Premature feathering pounded into the housing
Most small engines supply oil to the propeller which wears a groove in
through the front main bearing journal. DeJoris says if
that journal clearance gets too great, it dumps more oil
back into the case than what's going to the propeller,
and servo pressure to the governor is lost.
the drive gear.
I
"The end result on a twin," he explains, "is that the
prop will move into feather on or before shutdown." And
on singleengine aircraft with noncounterweighted props,
the prop goes into low blade angle. On twinengine air-
craft, it can progress to the point where you just throttle
back and the prop goes into feather prematurely. "This
gets critical in flight, particularly in a go-around situa-
tion-you don't want the engine going into feather; you
could be in real trouble."
Hinge pin wear, as with It's not uncommon for
DeJoris says that the governor must get a nominal @ring wear in the control
this pin, can cause the fly-
50 psi of input pressure from the engine, and the gover- weights to hang and result shaft area to result in
nor typically boosts that pressure to 290 to 300 psi. "If in erratic governor leakage.
you don't have the nominal 50 psi of input pressure," he opera tion.
says, "it won't be able to boost it to 290.
"Under normal conditions with counterweinhted underspeed condition. Wear can also cause fluctuations
props, when you pull the throttles back, the bides as the flyweights will have a tendency to hang up.
should go to the low stop with servo pressure. The coun- "I've also seen situations where a hinge pin has
terweights are trying to pull the prop into the high pitch
broken and has torn up the housing. On twinengine
range and ultimately feather, and you've got oil servo aircraft, this will cause a prop to feather," he says.
pressure driving the piston to the low stop. But with oil "If the governor is found to be OK, the surging
bypassing back to the engine, there won't be enough
problem is probably related to the propeller pitch change
pressure to hold it against the low stop. If the propeller
mechanism."
piston isn't pushed lower than the latch angle, feather
will occur on shutdown."
Leaks
DeJoria continues, "This also can cause a split in
the engine rpm on a twinengine aircraft under certain Lazar says that common areas of leakage are with
conditions." the O-ring in the control shaft area, or the seal on the
pump body.
Surging problems "In most situations," he says, "there's really nothing
you can do to replace seals in the field unless you have
Ken Lazar, accessory shop supervisor for Aircraft
a test bench. Replacing the seals means having to disas-
Propeller Service, says that "surge problems related to
semble major components that will require testing upon
the governor are commonly a result of wear in the
reassembly.
flyweight area of the governor. More specifically) surging
"The best bet with any leak," Lazar says, "is to return
is usually a result of wear of the flyweight hinge pins.
it to an overhaul facility capable of venfylng the proper
Wear of these pins," he continues, "can result in the operation of the pump.
weights moving further to the outside of the housing and
"Also," he says, "with the pump body seal, splitting
resulting in an overspeed condition, or, can prevent the
the pump body (on some models) requires a bit of force,
weights from moving all the way out and result in an
and you risk sliding the pilot valve and speeder spring

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Accessory Technology

Typical Propeller Governor Troubleshooting Chart

TROUBLE PROBABLE CAUSE
LeAKAGE
S$1w$en centro.1 shaft pooJdng nut and
head

B6tweeo (elia! va:ve housing and reliffi

valve plug

and prassur& CUI-

,NABILITY TO ATTAII4 TAKEOFF

RPM ON THE BLOCKS.

NOTE: With takeo'l manifold pressU'e, i1

is impossibt9, in some installations, 10
obtain takeoff rpm on !he blocks.

Remove head, clean pilot valve With crocus cloth. Check for straightness of pliot valve, and II bent
replace.
FauJ·y aircraH eiect,",al system on elecfric Check elOOric head cilcuils. check potential 01 battery, and check control Wifing to efectric head.
head installation.

adjustment rack shaft to the position where it disengages Contamination factors

the control shaft. You'll then need to start from scratch
and completely disassemble the unit and reassemble it in
a sequential manner.
"One of the big ironies with the regulations," Lazar
continues, "is that we can't keep an a-ring or seal on
our shelf in dry/protected storage for more than four
years, but yet, you can have one on your Part 91
airplane that's in your propeller or governor indefinitely.
There's no requirement to ever look at it or change it
under Part 91."
DeJoris says that another problem that's not thought
about is that the oil supply is from the engine. "Engine
oil maintenance is critical to the longevity of the pump.
In fact, Woodward has a flat policy that any metal -
contamination found in the engine oil necessitates over-
haul of the governor.
"McCauley and Hartzell, however, don't specify any
actions, and so we recommend taking them apart and
performing a flushing and visual inspection.

154 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

 Accessory Technology

Typical Propeller Governor Troubleshooting Ch~rt

Contmued
PO08 sYNCHRONIZATION

EXCESSIVE OVERSPEEDING ON
TAKEOFF

Advance throttle evenly and slowl •.

Install corfect new gasket.

Oisas$emble, clean, and check lor burrs. Replace pilot valves illound bent.
Calibrate Of replace Instromenls.

FAII.URE TO FEATHER

"Many technicians will send in the propeller to have
it flushed out and inspected, but they don't remember to
send in the governor. They forget that the oil's got to go
through the governor to get to the propeller.
"The only time that you won't have any contamina-
tion is if you have an engine failure where the oil stops
circulating, or an oil leak where all of the oil drains out
of the engine and it is shut down before any damage
occurs and there's no chance to circulate debris. But
Other areas of concern
Lazar explains there are other areas of concern
related to removal, installation, and inspection of gover-
nor systems: "A problem we see out in the field occasion-
ally is the prop governors adhering themselves to the
case. A technician uses a hammer or heavy item on the
governor and damages it. In fact, we see hammer marks
on the housings all the time, and there's really no excuse

that's not very common."
He explains, "Typically, we don't like to put governors
that aren't running correctly on our test benches be-
cause if they are making metal or are contaminated with
something, it will get into our test bench fluid supply.
"Instead, we prefer to tear down the prop governor
and inspect the individual components for evidence
of damage."
-
for this.
"First of all, when installing a governor, you really
need to spray a little release agent on the gasket for easy
removal because the governor is probably going to be
on there for a while. And then with a governor that's
actually stuck, you should be sure to use a soft enough
medium (such as a plastic mallet) to break it loose so
that you don't damage the housing.

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 155

Accessory Technology
"With aircraft that have external oil lines to the
prop, you've got to pay particularly close attention to
proper installation and condition. If the output line of
the governor breaks, you're going to dump oil just like
that. The governor is pumping approximately 8 quarts
a minute, and it will empty the entire contents of the
engine almost instantaneously."
DeJoris says that one of the big problems in the
industry is overhaulers that don't comply with all of the
service bulletins recommended by the manufacturer.
156 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
"Our position on overhauling the governor is that if you
do an overhaul, you need to bring it up to the latest
manufacturer's specs, and that includes all Service
Bulletins and ADS. Some shops only do the ADS, but
to us that's not right.
"We feel that if you haven't complied with all bulle-
tins at overhaul, you haven't overhauled the product.
"Anythmgless is a repair and not an overhaul." k l l
November/December 1994
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 Tire care and maintenance
Everything you need to know

By Greg Napert

T
he aircraft tire is capable of withstanding high
speeds, intense loads, sudden impads, extremely
abrasive surfaces, and is expected to perform
until worn to its limits without sacrificing any of its
properties.
Although it may seem that little can be done to
assure long life and proper operation of tires, there is
much that can be done.
The ingredients to proper tire maintenance begin
with understanding its construction. Add a pinch of
understanding about proper tire inflation, a handful of
knowledge about tire balance, and a few miscellaneous
pieces of information related to operating temperatures
and tire replacement, and you have a well-baked scheme
for keeping tires in top shape.
The following ingredients for understanding and
maintaining tires is edited information taken from
Goodyear's Tire Care and Maintenance Manual.
Although the information in this text was written for
The inflation pressure recommended by the air-frame
Goodyear tires, it is applicable to all aircraft tires.
manufacturer should be used for each tire. Be particu-
larly careful to determine if "loaded" or "unloadedn
Preventive maintenance
inflation pressures are specified.
Keeping aircraft tires at their correct inflation When a tire is under load, the gas chamber volume
pressures is the most important factor in any preventive is reduced due to tire deflection. Generally, if unloaded
maintenance program. The problems caused by under- pressure has been specified, that number should be
inflation can be particularly severe. increased by 4 percent to obtain the equivalent loaded
Underinflation produces uneven tread wear and inflation pressure.
shortens tire life because of excessive flex heating. Over-
inflation can cause uneven tread wear, reduce traction, Adjusting for temperature
make the tread more susceptible to cutting and increase
When tires will be subjected to ground temperature
stress on aircraft wheels. It is recommended that only
changes in excess of 50°F (27°C) because of flight to a
dry nitrogen be used for tire inflation as nitrogen will
different climate, inflation pressures should be adjusted
not sustain combustion and will reduce degradation of
for the worst case prior to takeoff. The minimum
the inner-liner material due to oxidation.
required inflation must be maintained for the cooler
climate; pressure can be adjusted in the warmer climate.
Inflation pressure
Before returning to the cooler climate, adjust inflation
Ideally, tire pressures should be checked with an pressure for the lower temperature. An ambient tempera-
accurate gauge on a dally basis. Pressures on high ture change of 5°F (3°C) produces approximately 1
performance aircraft should be checked before each percent pressure change.
flight. Check only cool tires-at least two to three hours Keep in mind that excess inflation pressure should
after a flight. never be bled off from hot tires. All adjustments to
Use an accurate gauge, preferably the more precise inflation pressure should be performed on tires cooled to
dial type. Inaccurate gauges are a major source of ambient temperature.
improper inflation pressures. It's important, although
rarely accomplished in practice, to check tire pressure
gauges periodically and to calibrate them on a regu-
lar basis.

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Cold pressure setting
The following recommendations apply to cold infla-
tion pressure setting:
1. "Minimum pressure" for safe aircraft operation is
the cold inflation pressure necessary to support the
operational loads as determined by the formula under
"Unloaded Inflation" or as specified by the airframe
manufacturer.
2. The loaded inflation must be specified 4 percent
higher than the unloaded inflation.
3. A tolerance of minus zero to plus 5 percent of the
minimum pressure is the recommended operating
range.
4. Consult the table if in-service pressure is checked and
found to be less than the minimum pressure.
Mounted tube-type tires
A tubetype tire that has been newly mounted and
installed should be closely monitored during the first
week of operation, ideally before every takeoff. Air
trapped between the tire and the tube at the time of
mounting could seep out under the beads, through side
wall vents or around the valve stem, and result in an
underinflated assembly.
Mounted tubeless tires
A slight amount of gas diffusion through the casing
of tubeless tires is normal. The sidewalls are purposely
vented in the lower sidewall area to bleed off trapped
gases, preventing separation or blisters.
A tire can lose as much as 5 percent of the initial
inflation pressure in a 24hour period and still be consid-
ered normal.
Tire stretch
The initial stretch or growth of a tire results in a
pressure drop after mounting. Consequently, tires should
not be placed in service until they have been inflated a
minimum of 12 hours, pressures rechecked, and tires
reinflated if necessary.
Nylon flat-spotting
Nylon tires on aircraft left stationary for any length
of time will develop temporary flat spots. The degree of
this flatspotting depends upon the load, tire deflection,
and temperature. Flatspotting is more severe and more
difficult to work out during cold weather.
Occasionally aircraft can lessen this condition. If
possible, an aircraft parked for long periods (30 days or
more) should be jacked up to remove weight from the
tires. Under normal conditions, a flat spot will disappear
by the end of the taxi run.
158 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Cold weather precautionary hints
Aircraft parked and exposed to cold soak for a period
of time (one hour or more) should have tire pressure
checked and adjusted accordingly. Tires will have taken a
nylon "set" and experienced a pressure drop.
Additionally, high-speed taxis and sharp turns should
be avoided to prevent excessive sideloading.
An important fact to remember is that every 50°F
(30 C ) change in temperature will result in a correspond-
ing 1 percent change in tire pressure.
Special procedures after a rejected takeoff
Goodyear recommends that tires subjected to above
normal braking energies during a rejected takeoff should
be removed and scrapped.
Even though visual inspection may show no apparent
damage, tires may have sustained internal structural
damage that could result in premature failure. Also,
all wheels must be checked in accordance with the
applicable wheel overhaul or maintenance manual after a
rejected takeoff.
Matching dual tires
When new andlor retreaded tires are installed on the
same landing gear axle, the diameters should be
matched within the Tire and Rim Association inflated
dimensional tolerances for new and grown tires to en-
sure that both tires will carry an equal share of the load.
Protecting tires from chemicals and exposure
Tires should be kept clean and free of contaminants
such as oil, brake fluid, grease, tar, and degreasing
agents which have a deteriorating effect on rubber. In
the event of exposure to any of these contaminants, wipe
with denatured alcohol; then wash tire with soap and
water immediately.
Aircraft tires, like other rubber products, are affected
to some degree by sunlight and extremes of weather.
While weatherchecking doesn't impair performance,
it can be reduced by protective covers. These covers
(ideally with light color or aluminized surface to reflect
sunlight) should be placed over tires when the aircraft is
tied down outside.
Chevron cutting
Many major airports throughout the world have
modified their runway surfaces by cutting cross grooves
in the touchdown and rollout areas to improve water
runoff. Cross grooves vary in size and shape.
This type of runway surface can cause a pattern of
chevron-shaped cuts in the center of the tread. As long
as this condition doesn't cause chunking or cuts into the
fabric, the tire is suitable for continued service.
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 Safety precautions with split wheels
An inflated tire is a potentially explosive device.
Mounting and demounting of aircraft tires is a special-
ized job that is best done with the correct equipment.
The following precautions are advisable in handling both
tubetype and tubeless tires, especially those with high
inflation pressures.
Inspect fusible plugs. Fusible plugs are used on the
tubeless wheels of high-performance aircraft to
relieve excessive pressure created by excessive brake
heat These plugs are generally not removed during a
routine tire change unless defective or if the wheel is
subjected to degreasing and cleaning. The plugs, how-
ever, are always removed and inspected during wheel
assembly overhaul. The wheel manufacturer's mainte
nance/overhaul manual typically offers directions for
inspection, removal, and installation of fusible plugs.
Prior to removing the wheel/tire assembly from the
aircraft, completely deflate the tire with a deflation
cap. It is good practice to deflate the tire before
removing the axle nut. When all pressure has been
relieved, remove the valve core. Valve cores under
pressure can be ejected like a bullet. If wheel or tire
damage is suspected, approach the tire from the
front or rear, not from the side (facing the wheel).
A tire/wheel assembly that has been damaged in
service should be deflated by a remote means. If
this isn't possible, the tire/wheel assembly should be
allowed to cool for a minimum of three hours before
the tire is deflated.
Take special care when encountering Wiculty in
freeing tire beads from wheel flanges. Even with tire
tools, care must be taken to prevent damage to beads
or wheel flanges. On small tires, successive pressing
with a 2-foot length of wood close to the bead or
tapping with a rubber mallet is generally sufficient.
On large tires, hydraulic or mechanical bead-breaking
press may be required. If using a "bead breaking"
press, take care to prevent further movement of
the tire bead after it is broken away from the bead
seat area.
I Tke Pressure Recommended Action
100 lo 95 p m n t of service pressure Retnflak? to. spec~fiedserv~cepressure
" Nylon tires on aircraft left stationary for any length
95 to 85 peroent of service pressure Remtlale and record tfl @bmk
Remove tife d pressure loss a greater Ulan
5% and reoccurs mYhln 24 hours
85 lo 70 percent of servce pressure Remove hre from a~rcraft(See note)
70 percent or less Remove tire and axle mate from aircraft
1% me)
Blewn fuse plug Scrap tire If Mown whde ~nservice
(roLng), scrapaxbe maw llloa
Nelr Amy ltm waaud beww dlou idah8na-rr d m l d be rnspcclnl by (resulhonzd
rdmader M um/y that the casrw kor nut sxaizinrd rslemal drpadalr~m &'if kns. At ttrr
sko& ba scmppnl
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Bead lubrication in mounting both tubeless
and tube-type tires
It is often desirable to lubricate the toes or inner
edges of the beads of a tire to facilitate mounting and
seating of the beads against the wheel flanges. A light
coat of talcum powder or approved liquid bead lubricant
can be used.
Wheel and tire assembly balancingllanding
gear vibration
It is important that aircraft wheels and tires be as
well balanced as possible. Vibration, shimmy, or out of
balance is a major complaint. However, in most cases,
tire balance is not the cause.
Other items affecting balance and vibration are:
installation of wheel assembly before full tire growth,
improperly torqued axle nut, improperly installed tube,
improperly assembled tubeless tire, out of balance wheel
halves, poor gear alignment, bent wheel, worn or loose
gear components, or flat spotted tire.
In addition, pressure differences in dual-mounted
tires and incorrectly matched diameters of tires mounted
on the same axle may cause vibrations or shimmy. The
following points should be paid attention to with regard
to wheel balance.
Balance marks are placed on many tubes to indicate
the heavy spot of the tube. These marks are often paint
stripes about 1/2 inch (1 cm) wide by 2 inches (5 cm)
long. When a tube is installed, this balance mark must
be aligned with the "light spot" balance mark of the tire
(red dot). If the tube has no balance mark, place tube
valve adjacent to the tire balance mark (red dot). When
mounting tubeless tires, the balance mark on the tire
should be aligned with the wheel valve, unless otherwise
specified by the manufacturer. If a tire has no balance
mark, place tire serial number at the wheel valve.
With some split wheels, the light spot of the wheel
halves is indicated with an "L," stamped on the flange. In
assembling these wheels, position the "L's" 180 degrees
apart. If additional dynamic or static balancing is
required after tire mounting, many wheels have provi-
sions for attaching accessory balance weights around the
circumference of the flange.
Nylon flat-spotting
of time will develop temporary flat spots. The degree of
this flatspotting depends upon the load, tire deflection,
and temperature. Flatrspotting is more severe and more
W ~ c u lto
t work out during cold weather.
Typically, however, under normal conditions, a flat
spot will disappear by the end of the taxi.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 159
Tread wear
Inspect treads visually and check remaining tread.
Tires should be removed when tread has worn to the
base of any groove at any spot, or to a minimum depth
as specified in aircraft manuals. Tires worn to fabric in
the tread area should be removed regardless of the
amount of tread remaining.
Uneven wear
If tread wear is excessive on one side, the tire can be
demounted and turned around, providing there is no
exposed fabric. Landing gear misalignment causing this
condition should be corrected.
Inflation pressure loss in tubeless assemblies
Since there are many causes for inflation pressure
loss with a tubeless assembly, a systematic trouble
shooting approach is advisable for minimum mainte
nance costs.
Moreover, when chronic but not excessive inflation
pressure loss exists, other factors such as inaccurate
gauges, air temperature fluctuations, changes in mainte
nance personnel, etc., may be the source. If a definite
physical fault is indicated, a troubleshooting procedure
similar to the one outlined below is recommended:
valve
Before deflating and removing tire, check the valve.
Put a drop of water on the end of the valve and watch
for bubbles indicating escaping air. Tighten the valve
core if loose. Replace valve core if defective and repeat
leak test to check. Check the valve stem and its mounb
ing for leaks with a soap solution. If a leak is detected,
wheel must be disassembled and a new valve stem
installed.
If valve stem threads are damaged, stems can usually
-
be rethreaded, inside or outside, by use of a valve repair
tool without demounting tire. Make certain that every
valve has a cap to prevent dirt, oil, and moisture from
damaging the core.
The fusible plug may also be defective or improperly
installed. Use a soap solution to check fusible plugs
for leaks before removing tire. Leaks can usually be
pinpointed to the plug itself (a poor bond between the
fusible material and the plug body)... or to the sealing
gasket used. Be sure the gasket is one specified by the
manufacturer... and that it is clean and free of cuts and
distortion.
If excessive heat has caused a fusible plug to blow,
the tire may be damaged and should be replaced. After a
fuse plug in a wheel blows, the wheel should be checked
for soundness and hardness in accordance with the
applicable wheel maintenance/overhaul manual.
160 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Rd- plug
The inboard wheel half may contain a pressure
release plug, a safety device that prevents accidental
overinflation of the tire. If the tire is overinflated, the
pressure release plug will rupture and release the tire
pressure. A soap solution can be used to check a release
plug to determine whether or not it is defective.
Wheel base
Gas escaping through a cracked or porous wheel base
is usually visible in an immersion test. Consult the wheel
manufacturer's manual for rim maintenance and repair.
Oring aeal
A defective seal between the wheel halves can usually
be detected in an immersion test by bubbles emerging
through the center of the wheel. Check to see that wheel
bolts are properly torqued.
Bead and flangee
Check the bead and flange areas of a tire for leaks
before demounting. This can be done either by immer-
sion or by using a soap solution. Any of the following
factors can cause gas loss:
1. Cracks or scratches in wheel bead ledge or
flange area.
2. Exceptionally dirty or corroded surface on wheel beaa
seating surfaces.
3. Damaged or improperly seated tire bead.
Tire and inner liner
Before demounting, use a n immersion test to
determine if the tire itself has a puncture. If a puncture
is found in the tread or sidewall, mark it before
demounting tire.
Carcaes venta
All tubeless tires, &ply rating and above, have been
vented in the lower sidewall area. These vents prevent
separation by relieving pressure buildup in the carcass
plies and under the sidewall rubber. These vent holes
(marked by green colored dots) will not cause undue air
loss. Covering them with water or a soap solution may
show an intermittent bubbling, which is normal.
Air retention teat
When no leaks can be found on the prior checks,
an air retention test must be performed. The tire should
be inflated to operating pressure for at least 12 hours
before starting the test. This allows sufficient time for
the casing to stretch, but can result in apparent air loss.
The tire must be reinflated after the stretch period to
operating pressure. Allow the tire to stand at constant
temperature for a 24hour period and recheck pressure.
A small amount of diffusion is considered normal. How-
ever, an inflation pressure drop of more than 5 percent
of operating pressure indicates excessive vent leaking.
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 Tbbe inspection and repair
Since there are only two reasons 1 ryplcal treaa weal
for air loss in a tubetype-a hole in
the tube or a defective valve or valve
core-finding an air leak is usually
simple.
As with a tubeless tire, the first
step is to check the valve and replace
the core if it is defective. If the valve
is airtight, demount the tire, remove
the tube, locate the leak fiy immersion Even tread wear on this tire indicates that it has been ~ r o ~ e r l v
if necessary), and repair or replace maintained and run at carrect inflation pressure.
the tube.
When inspecting a tube to decide
whether or not it is the cause of the
leak, use only enough pressure to
round out the tube. Excessive inflation
strains splices and may cause fabric
separation on reinforced tubes.

Reuse of tubes
A new tube should be used when
installing in a new tire. Tubes, like
tires, grow in service, taking a perma-
nent set of about 25 percent larger.
This makes a used tube too large to
use in a new tire which would cause a
wrinkle and lead to a leak.

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A few tire definitions to keep you straight
Tread
Made of rubber, compounded for toughness and durabil-
ity. The tread pattern is designed in accordance with air-
craft operational requirements. The circumferential
ribbed tread is widely used today to provide good trac-
tion under varying runway conditions.
Sidewall
A protective layer of flexible, weather-resistant rubber
covering the outer carcass ply, extending from tread
edge to bead area.
Tread reinforcement
One or more layers of nylon fabric that strengthen and
stabilize the tread area for high-speed operation. Also
serves as a reference for the buffing process in
retreadable tires.
Beads
High-tensile strength steel wires embedded in rubber, the
beads anchor the carcass plies and provide firm mounti
ing surfaces on the wheel.
Apex strip
A wedge of rubber affixed to the top of the bead bundle,
serving as a filler.
Flippers
These layers of rubberized fabric help anchor the bead
wires to the carcass and improve the durability of the
tire.
Chafers
Protective layer of rubber and/or fabric located between
the carcass plies and wheel to prevent chafing.

Breakers Bead toe

Reinforcing plies of nylon or ararnid fabric placed under
the tread rubber to protect carcass plies and strengthen
and stabilize tread area. They are considered an integral
part of the carcass construction.
Plies
Alternate layers or rubbercoated nylon fabric (running
at opposite angles to one another) provide the strength
of tire. Completely encompassing the tire body, the car-
cass plies are wrapped around the wire beads and back
against the tire sidewalls (ply turnups).
The inner bead edge closest to the tire center line.
Bead heel
The outer bead edge that fits against the wheel flange.
Innerliner
In tubeless tires, this inner layer of low permeability
rubber a d s as a builbin tube and prevents gas from
seeping through casing plies. For tubetype tires a
thinner rubber liner is used to prevent tube chafing
against the inside ply.

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 Tire inspection criteria
m a d conditions
Cuts
Penetration by a foreign
object. Remove the tire for
further inspection for any
cuts into the carcass ply or
for cuts extending more
than half of the width of a
rib and being deeper than
50 percent of the remaining
groove depth.
Tread chunking
A pock mark condition in
the wearing portion of
tread... usually due to rough
or unimproved runways.
Remove if fabric is visible.
Spiral wrap
Some retreads have reinforc-
ing cords wound into the
tread which become visible
as the tire wears. This is an
acceptable condition and not
cause for removal. The wrap
reduces chevron cutting and
tread chunking.
Tread separation
A rather large area of sepa-
ration or void between com-
ponents in the tread area
due to loss of adhesion.
Usually caused by excessive
loads or flex heating from
underinflation. Remove
immediately.
Groove cracging
A circumferential cracking
at the base of a tread
groove; remove if fabric is
visible. Can result from
underinflated or overloaded
operation.
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Pealed rib
Usually begins with a cut in
tread, resulting in a circum-
ferential delamination of a
tread rib, partially or totally
to tread fabric ply. Remove
and replace.
I
Rib undercutting
An extension of groove
cracking progressing under
a tread rib; remove from
aircraft. Can lead to tread
chunking, peeled rib or
( thrown tread.
Thrown h a d
Partial or complete loss of
tread down to tread fabric
ply, undertread layer or
carcass plies. Remove and
replace.
Tread rubber revereion
An oval-shaped area in the
tread similar to a skid, but
where rubber shows burning
due to hydroplaning during
landing. Usually caused by
wet or icecovered runways.
Remove if balance is
affected.
Blirrter
A void within the tread or
sidewall rubber. Remove and
inspect. I '1
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 163
Cheaon cutting Bead conditions
Tread damage caused by Brake heat damage
running and/or braking on A deterioration of the bead
cross-grooved runways. R e face from toe to wheel
move if chunking to fabric flange area; minor to severe
occurs, or tread cut removal blistering of rubber in this
criteria are exceeded. area; melted or soliM1ed
nylon fabric if temperatures
were excessive; very hard,
Sidewall conditions brittle surface rubber. Tire
Cut or anag is to be scrapped.
Penetration by a foreign
object on runways and Kinked bead
ramps; in shops, or storage An obvious deformation of
areas. Remove and replace the bead wire in the bead
if injury extends into fabric. toe, face or heel area. Can
result from improper mounb
Ourne or w e a k ing or demounting andlor
excessive spreading for
Random pattern of shallow inspection purposes. Tire is
sidewall cracks. Usually to be scrapped.
caused by age deterioration,
prolonged exposure to Carcass conditions
weather or improper Inner tire breakdown
storage. Remove if fabric Deterioration (distorted/
is visible. wrinkled rubber of tubeless
tire inner liner or fabric
Radial or circumferential frayinghroken cords in
era* tubetype tires) in the shoul-
Cracking condition found in der area-usually caused by
the sidewWshoulder area; underinflated or overloaded
remove and replace if down operation. Tire is to be
to fabric. Can result from scrapped.
underinflated or overloaded
operation. Impact break
Rupture of tire carcass in
Sidewall eeparation tread or sidewall area, usu-
Sidewall rubber separated ally from extreme hard
from the carcass fabric. R e handing or penetration by
move immediately. foreign object. Tire is to be
scrapped.

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 Aviation ignition exciters
Construction, operation, and maintenance

By Ted Wilmot

he exciter is the heart of the ignition system. former. The exciter receives input voltage from a DC
It provides the necessary energy in sufficient source (battery) in the 10- to 30-volt range or from an
quantity to allow reliable lighhff of the fuel-air AC source (Permanent Magnetic Alternator) in the 3@
mixture. to 700-volt range. By the time an electrical pulse is
Exciters are extremely rugged and specialized power discharged from the exciter, through the leads and to the
supplies with a number of unique design features igniter, voltage may range from 3,000 to 30,000 volts,
designed for the hostile engine environment. depending upon conditions such as igniter plug wear and
An exciter is one of four primary components in spark gap width.
most modern ignition systems. The input power supply, One important note: Peak output voltage from
either DC or AC, depending upon the design of the ignition exciters never exceeds the value necessary to
individual aircraft, supplies current to the exciter, which jump the igniter gap and create spark. In other words,
fulfii the same role as the coil in an automobile engine. an exciter capable of delivering 30kV may only have to
Most modern exciters are DC powered due to deliver 15kV when using a new (small-gap) igniter plug,
airframe/Eledronic Engine Control (EEC) integration. or if combustor pressure is low, such as when the engine
The EEC monitors many engine parameters, including is idling.
the ignition process, and
regulates such items as
aidfuel mixture and
spark discharge. Low CAPACITOR
ASSEMBLY
voltage DC is easier to
control with EEC circuits
than the relatively high
voltage alternating
current supplied on PMA
(Permanent Magnetic Al-
ternator) AC applications.
Exciters are also clas-
BASE
sified into Low Tension EMl'lTER , CIRCUfT BOAR0
0 and High Tension /I > ASSEMBLY

categories. Those TRANSISTOR

II
2 2 ,
with output voltages
below 10 kilovolts 110,000
. .
volts) are generally
considered Low Tension.
Typical output voltages
for these exciters are FILTER ASSEMBLY
SPARK QAP A S S E W Y RESISTOR ASSEMBLY
in the 3 to 5kV range.
Voltages above lOkV are
considered High Tension,
with typical output ioniza-
tion voltages in the 15 to
1 POWER
TRANSFORMER

30kV range for an igniter PULSE CAPACITOR

plug with a O.OB@inch
gap.
To best understand
INPUT DIODEASSEMBLY
7 ASSEMBLY

FILTER CAPACITOR '

how an exciter works,
think of it as a trans-
ASSEMELY
-7'
PULSE TRANSFORMER
BOX ASSEMBLY

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 All exciters are designed with four basic circuit
function blocks:
Electromagnetic Interference @MI) Filter
High Voltage Power Supply
Energy Storage and Switching
Output Pulse Forming Network (PFN).
Each functional block of exciter design and its
purpose is as follows:
EM1 filter- Exciters, and more specifically aviation
ignition systems, are notorious generators of radio
waves, a result of the high magnitude and high-frequency
currents and voltages produced. The emissions can
interfere with the normal operation of avionics, EEC,
and other sensitive electronic instrumentation outside
the ignition system. Therefore, such emissions must be
minimized and contained within the exciter and other
ignition components.
Also, since ignition systems employ sensitive
electronic circuits, EM1 generated from outside sources
must be prohibited from entering and interfering with
exciter operation. Therefore, the first block in exciter
design is an EMI Filter.
EM1 Filters are generally built into separate metallic
compartments or enclosures within the exciter case.
This provides increased protection between the internal
exciter components that may be susceptible to o u t
side noise.
Likewise, the frlter protects systems external to the
exciter from radiated and conducted emissions generated
by the exciter circuitry. Radiated noise is contained
within the exciter by effectively creating a short circuit
to ground within the exciter case. Since the exciter en-
closure is a completely sealed metallic structure, radio
emissions are shorted out by the exciter case. In es-
sence, the exciter case acts as a single conductor that is
short circuited to itself.
-
High voltage power eupply stage The high voltage
power supply is the heart of every exciter. The circuit
converts input energy into hlgh-voltage direct current,
which is stored in the main storage capacitor.
High voltage energy storage offers several distinct
advantages: First, if the tank voltage is at least 3kV,
minimal output wave shaping components are required
for low tension operation. This means the electrical pulse
generated by a low tension exciter will directly fulfill
low tension igniter plug [surface coating (engobe) or
homogeneous semiconductor pellets (such as silicon
carbide)] spark generating requirements without need for
additional pulse forming circuitry. Second, volumetric
efficiency of the energy storage capacitor is improved at
high voltages.
Because stored energy is proportional to the square
of the voltage, a twofold increase in stored voltage will
yield a fourfold increase in stored energy for a given
capacitance.
166 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
All exciters use magnetic components (transformers)
to accomplish voltage transformation. Circuit design and
construction are dependent upon input voltage-AC or
DC. AC exciters rely on transformers and voltage dou-
blers to transform voltage, while DC exciters use DGDC
converter units,or choppers, to achieve high voltage
generation. DGDC converters are required since trans-
formers, by definition, operate on AC voltage only. The
converter "chops" the input power to simulate an AC
electrical wave.
Energy &rage and ewitching- This stage is the
business end of every exciter. The energy storage and
switchmg section stores the incremental charge provided
by the transformer or DGDC converter. This allows a
large amount of energy to be accumulated for rapid
discharge at the igniter plug.
A tank capacitor is used to store energy. The energy
storage and switching components include the tank
(storage) capacitor and a switching device.
Most exciters use mica capacitors for energy storage.
Mica capacitors are capable of working voltages in the
order of 20kV. However, most exciter circuits use capaci-
tors capable of approximately 3kV storage potential.
Three kilovolt storage, or tank voltage, is considered
an optimum number for several reasons. Among these:
spark gap and semiconductor switching components
generally cannot tolerate higher voltages in compact
aviation-oriented packages. Also, the energy storage
(volumetric) efficiency of compact aviation-type mica
capacitors is at a maximum (with a reasonable life
expectancy) at 3 to 3.5kV. Also, the operational tempera-
ture range of mica is compatible with aviation-grade
exciter environmental conditions - -55 to 121°C (-67
to 25O0F.)
Conventional exciters use spark gaps to accomplish
the switching function. Spark gaps are very resilient
devices, capable of withstanding extreme environmental
fluctuations, but have relatively short operational lives of
about 30 million sparks. Spark gaps are relatively insen-
sitive to temperature, making the exciter more tolerant
of high temperature environments. However, because of
their limited life, relatively bulky size, and inefficiency,
gaps are being replaced with solid state semiconductor
switching devices called thyristors. Unlike spark gaps,
semiconductor switching devices are not lifelimited
when used within their design limits.
Output wave ahaping- The output stage performs a
vital function: shaping the discharge current waveform.
By shaping the discharge waveform, peak power and
delivered energy can be tailored to meet specific engine
requirements and protect the energy storage/switching
components.
By controlling the rate of energy delivery, plasma
(spark) achieved at the igniter plug gap may be short in
duration but have extremely high peak power (heat). Or
the spark may have a long (burn) duration. With a long
burn, peak power is diminished-but delivered energy
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 with respect to time is actually increased slightly because
of lower losses in the ignition system. As a rule of
thumb, output durations on the order of 50 to 150
microseconds are desirable and are considered average.
The duration will vary depending upon ignition lead
length, igniter plug design and engine requirements such
as fuel atomization, mass airflow, combustor geometry
and operating altitude.
Of course, regardless of the design of the exciter, its
sole mission is to supply the ignition system with proper
power to begin the combustion process. The ideal exciter
would deliver infinite energy at an infinitely high spark
rate, but in the real world issues such as power handling,
thermal management and igniter wear rates must be
considered.
Spark rate is the number of sparks over a unit of
time. The number of sparks per second required for
ignition varies greatly depending on engine design.
Small turbine engines that accelerate quickly require
higher spark rates-2 to 6 sparks per second; larger
turbine engines only require 1 to 2 sparks per second to
ensure lightoff within the ignition window.

General maintenance tips for

turbine ignition systems
Exciters are usually the most expensive component of
the turbine ignition system, so it's important that posi-
tive steps be taken at regularly scheduled maintenance
intervals to ensure maximum exciter life.
The exciter is only one of the three major compo-
nents of the ignition system; however, all three compo-
nents must be in good condition to prevent adverse or
rapid wear of the other two.
For example, an igniter that has exceeded its recom-
mended wear limits may still spark, but its increased
voltage requirements will unnecessarily stress the lead
and exciter, shortening the useful lives of both compo-
nents. A lead that can no longer maintain solid contact
with the igniter or exciter connector will eventually
cause voltage to arc internally due to excess contact
wear-thus welding the connectors and leading to rejec-
tion of otherwise good parts. In order to obtain maxi-
mum ignition component life, tips as outlined below
should be followed.

Exciters Igniter connectors and leads should be free of dirt, oil,

1. Exciters can store a lethal dose of electrical energy.
Always wait several minutes after ignition system
shutdown before handling any turbine ignition compo-
nents.
2. Make sure connectors are clean and free to grease,
oil or thread lubricant. AU of these compounds are
highly conductive and can lead to flashover.
3. Never attempt to open or repair an exciter without
reference to the specific component maintenance
manual for the unit. These manuals are available
from the exciter or engine manufacturer.
grease, and lubricants. All of these compounds are highly
conductive and can lead to flashover.
Leads
1. Inspect the braided lead conduit for broken or cut
wire strands, especially in areas where routed around
sharp surfaces. The conduit provides protection
against radio frequency interference (RFD as well as
a path to ground for expended electrical energy. The
lead should be repaired or replaced if the conduit is
cut, or if there are more than about four broken
strands.
2. Lead connectors should be free of dirt, oil, grease,
and lubricants. Additionally, operators should ensure
proper spring tension is maintained by lead sockets.

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3. Weld and braze joints on connector elbows should be
inspected for cracks, which sometimes are the result
of vibration caused by cowling impingement. Should
this condition be noted, check appropriate application
data (manufacturer's catalog or engine IPC) to make
sure the proper lead is installed.
Igniter8
I
1. Check to make sure the igniter is within recom-
mended wear limits by using an erosion gauge. If not,
the igniter should be replaced to protect against
flame-out, to maintain structural integrity and to
lengthen exciter life.
2. Igniter connectors should be free of dirt, oil and
grease, and anti-seize lubricants. Connector pins or
terminals that show obvious pitting probably have
168 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
experienced arcing because of insufficient lead
contact. Severe pitting requires igniter replacement
and a close inspection of the lead for possible replace
ment. Continued operation in this condition will
result in premature exciter failure.
3. Do not attempt to reinstall a dropped igniter. The
ceramic insulator will have cracked internally, leading
to flashover and severe ignition system stress.
Ted Wilmot is manager of Electrical Product Devdop
ment at Champion Aviation Products, Cooper Industries,
in Liberty, SC. He has been actively involved in the
turbine engine component and accessom business for
over seven years.
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 Lubricants as
By Eric Kornaw
M
ost aircraft technicians recognize that having
the right tool for a particular job is of para-
mount importance. As a result, many techni-
cians have toolboxes the size of mini-vans packed with
every conceivable type of hand tool.
An A&P wouldn't even think about installing an MS
or AN fastener with a set of vicegrips (vice-grips do
have their place). But when it comes to selecting a lubri-
cant for use on an aircraft, these same technicians will
select an aerosol of "general purpose" lube and expect it
to be suitable for every purpose. It just isn't so. Just as
wrenches come in various shapes and sizes, the lubes
and compounds we use have specific properties and uses.
Specifications
Specifications are used by aircraft manufacturers as
means of denoting what types of products are suitable
for use on aircraft. If specifications did not exist, mainte
nance manuals would have to list the trade name and
vendor for each product authorized for use on an air-
craft. Anyone who has tried to track down a product
whose maker has changed its name or gone out of busi-
ness knows what a problem this can be.
A specification is nothing more than a document
listing minimum conditions which a product must meet.
Rarely do specifications for lubricants speclfy formula-
tions. Usually consumable material specs list required
properties such as viscosity, corrosion resistance, oxida-
tion resistance, rubber swell, etc. The specification may
require that products which meet these minimums be
compatible with each other... then again, they may not.
That's why mixing lubes from different manufacturers is
not recommended.
Wpes of specifications
Consumable Materials (oils, greases, hydraulic fluids,
sealers, etc.) are generally described by military, federal,
industry, or aircraft manufacturer's standard.
Military 8t federal epees
The basic identification for these documents is the
spec number, i.e., MILG-81322, W-P-236. The symbol
"DOD" replaces the symbol "MIL" in new and revised
specifications and standards covering "hard metic"
or "hard converted items (for all you metric system
aficionados).
Revisions are indicated by a suffii letter to the basic
number, except for AN standards and Qualified Products
lists (QPL) which indicate revisions by a suffix number
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(e.g., MILG-81322D, W-P236A). Amendments are
indicated by a s d 3 i number in parenthesis to the basic
number (e.g., MILG-81322D(2) indicates Amendment #2
to revision D of MILG-81322).
In general, revisions are issued when circumstances
dictate changes or adjustments to the properties, mini-
mum attributes, or test procedures. Amendments are
issued to correct or clarity language in the existing
publication. For government use, the latest revision or
amendment always supersedes prior issues.
With few exceptions, most producers of consumable
materials manufacture products only to the current
revision. There are, however, some civilian applications
where products are manufactured to superseded stan-
dards acceptable to or preferred by the aircraft builder.
I n d e spece
Industry specifications are those which are issued by
groups such as the Society for Automotive Engineering
(SAE) and carry numbers with prefixes such as AMS
or NAS. Aircraft and engine manufacturers are also
involved in issuing specifications for materials used on
their aircraft. Boeing, for instance, prefixes its specs
with the letters "BMSn (Boeing Material Specification).
QuaWed vs. conforming specs
Some military and federal specifications require that
products purchased to spec by the government be
included on that specification's Qualified Product List.
The identifier for a Qualified Product List (QPL) consists
of the letters "QPL," the basic number of the specifica-
tion to which it is related, and a dash number to
indicate the revision status (e.g., QPL-81322-15 is the
15th revision of the QPL for MILG-81322).
To quality for inclusion on a QPL, a product must be
tested and passed by the agency designated in the speci-
fication. These products are referred to as "qualified."
Qualification ensures that the government has tested
representative material and that the product meets the
specification requirements. Many, but certainly not all,
aircraft category specifications have Qualified Products
Listings.
Those specifications which do not require QPLs
generally leave the process of testing and certification to
the manufacturer of the product. These products are sold
to conform to the specification and are usually referred
to as "conforming products." When using conforming
products, you are relying on the integrity of the
product's manufacturer when it says that its lube or
sealer conforms to the specification.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 169
 There are also instances where a material manufac-
turer will certify that its product meets the performance
requirements of a specification where a QPL exists, even
though its product is not included on the QPL. These too
are sometimes referred to as conforming products.
There may be good reasons why a manufacturer does
not submit a product for qualification. In some cases the
cost of qualification is prohibitive or the manufacturer
may be concerned over the loss of trade secrets during
testing. Some products may meet the composition and
performance criteria, but may not meet the specific pack-
aging criteria of a specification. For example, there are
specifications for hydraulic fluids (MIL-H-5606) which
make no provisions for packaging in 1-gallon screw-top
containers. A fluid packaged this way would not techni-
cally meet the spec, while the same fluid packaged in
hermetically sealed quart containers would qualify.
Remember, though, when you accept a conforming
product instead of qualified product, you are accepting
the responsibility for its suitability for use on the
aircraft.
Equipping the consumable material toolbox
Below, are some of the chemical "tools" which are
commonly specified for use on aircraft. This list isn't
meant to be all inclusive, but it's a starting point for
someone starting to equip his box with the basics.
M g r e a e e s
There are four or five greases commonly specified
for use on aircraft. In addition, there are a number of
specialty greases used in special situations such as
oxygen lines and trim actuators. Greases are generally
not required to be compatible by specification, so it's not
a good idea to mix brands from different manufacturers
or products made to different specifications.
Greases are mostly oil with a thickener added to hold
it in place. The oil does the lubricating; the thickener
keeps it in place. Greases are used when the weight or
complexity of a pressure lubrication system is not
practical. Greases can also seal, cushion, and absorb
shock loads.
Compatibility problems can arise between base oils,
or the thickening systems used. Most aviation greases
are composed of synthetic oils thickened with inorganic
thickeners such as bentonite clay. They are generally not
compatible with the soapthickened greases in general
automotive use. If you inadvertently mix greases, it is
good practice to disassemble the components and clean
out the mixture. When this is not practical, purge the
fitting with grease until it appears clean, and decrease
the interval between lubrication.
170 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
MU-GS1322-grease, aircraft, general purpose, wide
temp range-The most widely used grease on aircraft
today. Good heat resistance. Mobilgrease 28 (red in
color), Aeroshell22 (caramel to brown), and Royco 22
(dark brown) are commonly available qualified products.
Supersedes MIL-G-3545, MILG-7711, and MILG-25760.
MIGG-81827-grease, aircraft, high load capacity,
wide temp range-Usually manufactured by adding m e
lybdenum disulfide to MILG-81322. For high load situa-
tions. Black in color. Mobilgrease 29 and Royco 22MS
are qualified products.
MIM23827-grease, aircraft and instrument, gear
and actuator screw-These greases are required to
have better low temp performance than MILG-81322.
Aeroshell 7 and Royco 27 are commonly available.
Supersedes MILGT-3278.
MlLG21164D-grease, molybdenum disulfide. For
low and high temperatures-Usually manufactured by
adding molybdenum disulfide to MILG-23827 greases.
Aeroshell 17 and Royco 64 are commonly available.
M I . 3 5 4 5 (obs)-grease, aircraft, high tempera-
ture-Here's a case where a specification that has techni-
-
cally been superseded by MILG-81322 is preferred by
some aircraft manufacturers for use as a wheel bearing
grease. Aeroshell Grease 5 is the easiest to find.
0th-
Other greases that you might want to include on your
list are as follows:
MIW25537-for helicopter oscillating bearings
MLG;6032-for fuel system valves and gaskets (Plug
Valve Grease)
MIU3-4343-pneumatic system grease
MIL-G-83261-extreme pressure, anti-wear (This one's
expensive so unless you need it, forget it)
MLG-27617-fuel and oxidizer resistant grease
(oxygen system use)
Oils
Remember that the most important property of an
oil is its viscosity. There are some lubricants which are
"slippery" but do not have the viscosity to adequately
cushion and protect moving surfaces. Many of the
penetrating oils fall in this category.
These products can free up components, but unless
they leave behind an adequate film of the proper viscos-
ity, they actually lead to increased wear. A number of the
products commonly found in the hangar are not actually
qualified as lubricants, but as corrosion preventive
compounds.
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 MILL7870-general purpose lubricating oil with
good low temperature performance. Has a very low
evaporation rate and good rust protective properties.
The most commonly specified general purpose oil. Has a
viscosity of about 10 cs. (a little thicker than turbine oil).
W-P-800-general purpose oil similar to MIL-L-7870,
specified by some aircraft manufacturers instead of
MIL-L-7870. This oil is also water displacing. Its viscosity
is slightly hlgher than 7870.
Other oile
The other products commonly specified by airframe
manufacturers include mineral oils in various viscosities
such as SAE 10, 20, and 30 weight. In addition some
manufacturers include corrosion preventive compounds
as recommended lubricants.
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Summing it up
Most aircraft manufacturers approve lubricants and
consumable materials by specification. Many of the
chemical produds touted for use on aircraft do not meet
any particular specification. Some products which do
meet the specs are tested and qualified to the specifica-
tion. Other products are not q u ~ i e but
d conform to the
specification. It comes down to reading the maintenance
manual, determining what the aircraft manufacturer
specifies, and then choosing the correct material for the
application. Check the can the next time you pick up a
lubricant. You may be surprised that the product you've
been using doesn't meet the spec31cation called out in
the maintenance manual. W! May/June 1994
Eric Kornaw is an aviation maintenance instructor at
Cincinnati Technical College and is president of ACI
(Aviation Consumables, Inc.) in Cincinnati, OH.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 171
Slip sliding away
Escape slides are misunderstood

By Greg Napert

E scape slides are a critical item that have a large

potential for saving lives in the event of an
aircraft accident. Too often, however, they are
open to abuse that should be cause or concern. Escape
slides have got to work at that critical moment. And it's
the technician's responsibility to assure that all systems
are go when the slides are needed most.
Technicians at BFGoodrich Aerospace, Aircraft
Evacuation Systems in Ontario, CA, a repair station
that repairs and overhauls escape slides and rafts, say
there are many incidences where rafts are mistreated in
handling, servicing, and shipping.
Often, they say, these items are subjected to abuse by
people servicing the aircraft. Service trucks or catering
people pounding items against the door and damaging
the valve and/or gauge or pulling and tugging at the girt
bar (the bar that locks the slide in place for deployment
prior to takeoff) are all too common. So it's important to
perform regular inspections of these areas to assure that
no damage has taken place between overhaul cycles.
The girt and the girt bar are subject to considerable
amount of wear and tear. The bar is constantly being
installed and removed, so there's wear and tear on the
bar and the fabric. It's a good idea to keep an eye on the
fabric to make sure that it's not excessively worn or that
fasteners aren't excessively corroded. Also, make sure
the release latch cable that secures the slide to the
aircraft is in good condition. If you see any problems
developing in these areas, the slide should be pulled
and inspected by an approved facility or the airlines
slide shop. Many of these escape slides cost upwards of $60,000.
If one is moved, it should be lifted off the ground and
Accidental deployment protected in a fashion that will preserve the integrity of
It's not uncommon for escape slides to be accidentally the slide. The preference would be to lift the slide off the
deployed. When this happens, the slides must be discon- ground or to deflate the slide prior to moving it.
nected from the aircraft so that another unit can be in- Damage is also inflicted to the escape slides during
stalled. The deployed slide must then be overhauled and the deflation process.
inspected. An avoidable mistake that happens when The best method for releasing the air is by opening
many of these slides are removed is that the slides are the flapper valve on the aspirator when possible. Some
often dropped onto the ground without any concern for aspirators, such as the 747 BFGoodrich slide, however,
the C02 cylinders, valves and gauges, which often results will not allow this. In that case, the best method would
in damage. be by opening the inflate/deflate valve. A shop vac or
Further, the inflated slide typically needs to be other vacuum source will speed up the deflation process.
moved to an area where it can be packed for shipping. Remove the aspirator or pressure relief valves only as a
In a hurry, ground crews drag the slide to the nearest last resort due to the increased chance of parts loss
hangar for repair and deflation. This dragging often and/or damage.
results in severe damage to the slide.

172 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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 The aspirator exists to allow ambient air to mix
with the C02 and nitrogen from the cylinder to more
quickly inflate the slide/raft. The C02 and nitrogen by
themselves don't produce enough volume to inflate the
slide. Some of the slides inflate in as little as three to
four seconds.
BFGoodrich technicians say that they have seen
instances where airline maintenance personnel had
diffkulty deflating the slides and used a knife to slit the
slide open.
Although most any type of damage to these slides
can be repaired through replacement of complete panels,
the additional cost of repair for this type of damage !!'!he girt takes the most abuse and should be inspected
is unnecessary. often.

The overhaul/inspection process

An escape slide requires a complete overhaul every
three years despite its condition.
At the time of overhaul, the slide is unraveled and
inflated to inspect for any damage, wear, or seam separa-
tion. The C02/nitrogen cylinders are life limited so dates
are checked to determine whether or not they need to be
taken out of service.
Usable C02/nitrogen cylinders are hydrostatically
tested, the valves and regulators inspected, overhauled
and tested, and mechanical restraints (frangible links)
are inspected. Additionally, any emergency supplies are
inspected and replaced.

Folding and other tips
A critical step in the overhaul process is the proper
folding of the slide. Folding has a direct impact on
proper deployment of the slide. Improper deployment
can mean total ineffectiveness of the slide, particularly if
the slide fails to inflate straight out from the aircraft. If
it deflates beneath the aircraft, or against the ground,
it's as useless as not inflating at all.
Folding methods are very dependent on the overhaul
manual and the design of the slide.
It's important that all of the wrinkles are taken out
and that the air is completely removed so that the folded
slide fits into the compartment in the door. This is
accomplished by maintaining a vacuum on the slide to
continue to remove any existing air.
Although the best method for releasing air on most slides i s
b y opening the flapper valve on the aspirator, there are
some models, such as this 747, that won't allow it.
One final thing to be cognizant of at all times is the
danger of activating one of the gas cylinders. The rafts
can inflate with explosive force and, if activated at
the wrong time, could mean damage to equipment or
bodily injury.
The cylinders should have a safety pin installed when
possible during handling and shipping of the escape
slides (some systems are not equipped with safety pins).
The company says it often finds safety pins aren't
installed incorrectly on slides that are received, and that
these are the equivalent of a loaded gun ready to fire.
A good habit to develop is to check and double check
the safety pin prior to packing and/or shipping the
slides. MarUApril1994

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 173

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 The composite propeller
Accepted but misunderstood
By Greg Napert
omposite propellers were initially introduced in
C the '40s. The blade was a phenolic, ground adjust
able propeller that offered a weight savings to
aircraft owners.
But the widespread utilization of composite technol-
ogy didn't take off until the current decade with the
development of new materials such as KevlaF and
carbon fibers. Today, composite propeller blades are
quite common, particularly for applications on larger
propellerdriven aircraft where weight savings can result
in reduced fuel consumption, lower horsepower require
ments and better overall performance.
These propellers are not only a weight-savings propo-
sition; composite blades are a horsepower-saving proposi-
tion as well. Instead of swinging around metal propellers
with higher horsepower engines, lower horsepower
engines can be utilized to produce the same thrust,
and, therefore, an aircraft can be designed with smaller
engines.
However, composite propeller blades are understood
by few technicians in the aircraft maintenance field.
LEADING
EDGE
SPAR
FOAM
CORE
LLL.
FACE
LAMINATIONS
BALANCE
TUBE
Gross section ot typical composite propeller blade.
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Jeffery Slattery, superintendent of the composites
division of Hartzell Propeller Inc., in Piqua, OH, says
that "we have seen things as crazy as someone applying
a coating of Bondomto their blades. We caught it
because the blades weighed 2 1/2 pounds more when
they came in than when they went out. When we peeled
the paint off, we found layers of primer and Bondo on
the blades."
The skills and equipment needed for performing
maintenance and repairs to composites are fairly simple,
and don't require a great amount of experience, but
some basic knowledge and understanding is needed
before repairs are attempted.
First. the technician must understand that the tech-
nology is completely different from aluminum blades.
You can't apply any of your maintenance and repair
knowledge of aluminum propeller blades to composite
propeller blades.
Next, you've got to learn the makeup and structure of
the particular blade that you're working on. Composite
blades vary from model to model, and different repair
and inspection criteria may apply from blade to blade.
If you don't know what you're doing, it's best to get
some expert advice. Call the factory or an approved
service center for information, or ship the blades out for
repair. Composite blades are very expensive, so it's not
worth risking a guess at a repair scheme.
How the blade is manufactured
Understanding how the blade is manufactured is
,
important to understanding its makeup and how to
repair it. Hartzell, for example, begins the manufacturing
process with an alumintudtitanium plug at the root end.
They then pour a high temperature urethane foam core
to support the materials (Kevlar or carbon) which are
then layed up over the foam core. Each blade, says
Slattery, consists of laminates on both the face and
camber and composite or metal spars (depending on the
manufacturer) on the leading and trailing edges of the
blade. After layup, the blade is cured in a close tolerance
metal mold. After molding and inspection, an electro-
plated nickel erosion shield is bonded to the blade.
One of the reasons that composite blades are so
expensive is because of how labor intensive the manufac-
turing process is. The materials are typically layed up by
hand and can require up to 80 layers of fabric that are
each individually cut and trimmed. Vacuum bagging or
compression techniques are required at various stages
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 175
for debulking (getting the air out between layers); then
four to six hours of curing time are required as it's
heated and pressed in the finish mold.
And even after the blade is cured, it requires trim-
ming, sanding, inspection, erosion edges, painting and
final machining of the root-all hand labor that con-
sumes hours of time. The Kevlar, carbon and electre
formed nickel lead edges are also very expensive, which
also adds to the final cost of the blade.
Hartzell recommends 3,000-hour TBOs on its propel-
lers, but different operators will get extensions from
the FAA based on their operating experience. If you do
everything you need to get an extension and you main-
tain it properly, the manufacturer will typically support
the operator. In general how the operator treats the
blades and its history with them will determine how
often the blades need to be overhauled.
"So much of the damage that you find brings a great
deal of panic to the operator because they don't really
understand what they're seeing, and these damages are
usually very easily fixed," says Slattery.
Typical damage
He offers an example of a typical damage. "Here is
an example of tip damage due to a bird strike. This
blade has had the tips wiped out. On a metal blade,
you'd have to grind it down and you might come out
below the minimum dimensions and have to scrap it.
With this composite blade, you simply rebuild the
damaged area by removing some of the damage and
laminate' in a patch to take up the area that's missing."
The one thing that you've got to keep in mind when
making composite repairs is that every layer of material
has its own unique fiber orientation. The fibers are
oriented to provide whatever structural support is
needed for that direction. So when you develop a repair
scheme that involves an- that is structural,
engineering has to get involved to incorporate fiber
orientation. Those laminates have a reason for being
aligned the way they are.
Repair schemes vary depending on where it is on the
blade. If you have a deep gouge in the root area of the
blade, where it's a high stress area, the repairability goes
down quite a bit. At the tip, the repairability goes up
because it's not as critical.
"Layered repairs are typically in a category that only
the factory or an approved repair center can do. It
means that the prop is being rebuilt structurally and the
strand orientation is important," he says.
Slattery says that it's impossible to design and
develop a manual that covers every possible type of
damage, so if something is outside of normal limits,
the damage must be evaluated on a bladeby-blade basis.
From an economical standpoint, explains Slattery, it
always makes sense to repair a composite blade vs.
scrapping it. If you add up the high materials cost and
the high amount of labor involved, it's an expensive
176 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
A large washer or similar object is a valuable tool for
detecting debonds in the propeller. Variations in the sound,
produced by tapping firmly with the washer, provide clues
as to the soundness of the blade.
blade, and if there's anyway that you can put a few
hours of labor and save the blade, it's worth it.
In fact, he says, engineering says that many repairs
are actually stronger than the original blade after the
repair is complete. So it's not like you have to live with a
less structurally sound blade afterward. After a repair,
the blade should be as good as new or better.
Due to the nature of the erosion shield on the leading
edge, it's quite common to have to replace it. It's
designed with a 40- to 6O.thousandths thickness at its
midpoint, and when it gets to the point where it has
worn out or is damaged beyond limits, you simply pull
it off, throw it away, and install a brand-new one. This
restores the prop to a likenew condition, and you're
ready for another two to three overhauls. Minor repairs
are allowed in the field, but replacement must be done
by an authorized service center.
The edge is typically removed at the service center
by applying heat very sparingly and moving the torch
rapidly along the edge until the adhesive softens and the
edge comes loose. "It's very easy to scorch the material
and damage the propeller doing this, so you've got to
have some experience or proper training before you
attempt it. I've seen leading edges where technicians
stopdrilled the cracks. This is not an appropriate repair.
In fact, you may not have to do anyth~~-~g at all with
cracks in the erosion shield, depending on the crack,"
he says.
Field maintenance
"General maintenance is very important to the
blades," says Slattery. "If you see a little damage,
address it right away; don't let a small delamination
grow into a larger one and get out of hand so that the
repair costs get out of hand."
Joe T. Hahn, senior technical support representative
for Hartzell, says that "the most important thing with
a composite propeller is to do an accurate inspection.
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 Really examine what type
of damage there is, and at
the same time make sure
you understand: what
kind of damage you have,
how large it is, how long
it is, the extent of it, the
nature of it. Is it a com-
pressed area or sheared
area where material has
been cut away? That's the
first step, inspecting the
damage you have."
Slattery says "We've
seen several things out in
the field that kind of
make us nervous, but one
of the big ones is when
someone soaks a deice
boot in solvent to remove
Trailing edge damage is quite common as well, he
explains. "If you have damage on the trailing edge, you
need to inspect it closely, remove the damage, and repair
it by applying successive layers of material as specified
in the repair manual, until it is rebuilt to above its
original dimension. You then place a piece of plastic
over it and apply pressure by either using a vacuum
bag or by placing two flat surfaces over the repair and
clamping it together."
Pressure is applied to remove any of the entrapped
air as the adhesi ves cure. "There's some room for
creativity with these repairs; applying pressure is the
objective, and any way that you can do that will suffice.
You then sand it to restore its original shape," he says.
"You need to use the a ~ ~ l i c a bmaintenance
le manual
to determine if damaged areas are airworthy or unair-
worthy."
Hahn says that one of the most important tools that
the technician should use to inspect the propeller is a
big coin or a roundedged steel washer. This is used to

U d
Preparation of trailing edge
it. You can do that with
metal blades, but on com-
posite blades, you basi-
damage involves removing cally have pee' them
the damage- and sanding off using a knife to break
the surface to accept layers the bond.
of fabric. "The problem with
soaking it," he says, "in
anything is that you're allowing the chemical to break
down the paint, or more importantly, flow up into the
foam core through the balance tube. When the solvent
enters the foam core, it begins to eat away at the lamina-
tions and delaminate the blade. The balance tube is
supposed to be sealed, but it isn't always perfectly sealed.
The solvent is thrown out toward the tip and usually
begins to delaminate the tip first."
Most solvents that are applied to the outside painted
surface won't harm the blade. Slattery recommends
using things like acetone, or solvents that evaporate
quickly so that they have little or no effect on the
surface.
Hahn says that another thing to "keep an eye out for
are any dark areas that appear as a dark brown or black
spot that appear to be heated. These are often the result
of lightning strikes. A way to verlfy that it's a lightning
strike is to check the hub for magnetization by placing a
compass or gaussmeter nearby. If the hub is magnetized,
you can be pretty sure that it is.
"We've also seen cases where grease leaks from the
hub and into the balance tube, then into the core of the
propeller, and this results in the prop delaminating from
the inside of the blade and working its way out. Again,
the inspection for this is a tap test for bad spots."
perform tap tests to search for delamination. The tap
test may not pick up every problem, but it'll show you
the ones that need immediate attention.
Hahn says that there are fancy tap hammers that you
can buy for this purpose, but they're not necessary. A
good size washer or similar object will do. "This is about
the best test that you can do. When you run into a
structurally deficient area, you hear it. Sometimes
debonds are visible and sometimes not, but they're
almost always audible."
For minor repairs, the tools that you'll need are quite
basic. Kahn says that they should include: sanding
blocks, files, sandpaper, scrapers, and a dremrnel tool
with various attachments, and a drum sander is handy
(hobby tools lend themselves well to these repairs);
plastic bowls, mixing sticks, tongue depressors, a scale
for weighing the materials, chopped fibers, tools for
measuring damage areas, etc. Also various clamps are
handy for applying pressure.
An important point to remember is to make sure that
you're using proper materials to make repairs, he says.
One of the ways to assure that is to use the correct
manufacturer's maintenance manual and order supplies
from the manufacturer only. Materials from other
sources probably haven't been tested properly and are
probably not approved for use. Kahn says that by order-
ing from the factory, you also ensure these materials are
fresh as well.
Many of the materials have shelf lives, and you need
to make sure that this material hasn't exceeded its shelf
life. Depending on how often you make repairs, it's a
good idea to order only what you need from the factory
as it's needed. That way you don't waste any by letting it
age beyond its service life.

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 177

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 "Remember that for mixing purposes, repair materi-
als are measured by weight," he says, "not volume. This
is very critical for attaining the correct mixtures. If you
don't mix it correctly, it won't cure properly and you've
wasted your time. You need to have a good accurate
(preferably dgital) scale to weigh these adhesives."
In the manual, there's an abbreviated procedure for
spot touch-up. It involves a primer-filler to fill in small
types of damage, pinholes and irregularities. You then let
it dry and sand it off so that it's level with the rest of
the area. You then apply your finish coat as specified in
the manual which may be polyurethane, vinyl, etc., and if
it has a pstatic (anti-static) coat, it wiU need that applied
as well.
"Try to avoid the temptation to use unapproved Example o f tip damage that will require a special repair
finishing products that won't last and keep in mind that designed b y the factory. Essentially, multiple layers of
you may affect the balance by performing a repair. If you material will need to be removed and the tip will be
paint one blade, paint all the blades on the propeller so completely rebuilt.
it remains balanced," he says.
Erosion shield repairs are a common requirement,
he says. There's actually an allowable amount of debond Reducing the cost of maintenance
of the leading edge erosion shield as long as there are Slattery says that there are some things that you can
no cracks. do to reduce the cost of maintaining composite props.
He explains that erosion shield debonds are some For instance, if an operator has a group of pilots that
times repairable. One type of repair for this is to care love reverse, they're going to add a lot of overhaul costs
fully drill a small hole in the shield over the debonded to the propeller because the leading edge is not going to
area so it just penetrates the shield. The leading edge last and need frequent repair.
is a very beefy area so if you do drill slightly into the If you see this type of abuse, you should feed this
composites, it won't affect it structurally. You then apply information back to the pilots or the person in charge of
a vacuum source to the hole and draw adhesive in from the operation and tell them that they can bring down
the debonded edge of the shield. This ensures that the their overhaul costs by proper operation. Just for
adhesive is entirely under the debond. You then apply example, the approximate cost of replacing the leading
pressure to the shield with a clamp until it dries. edge on a Beech 1900 blade is $625. Multiply this times
"What you don't want to do is continue to operate four blades per engine and two engines and that's an
the airplane with a debond in the area of the crack. additional $5,000 added to the overhaul costs.
There is a certain amount of debond that's allowable, There are many customers that have learned that
but if it's tied in with a crack, that's an unairworthy they can save significant dollars on overhaul costs
condition," he says. and have changed their operating procedures to accom-
plish this. OE3 January/February 1994

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 fuel control system
By Dennis Dryden

w hile all problems associated with the Bendix

DP fuel system, used on Allison 250 Series
engines, can't be resolved in the field, a better
understanding of the systems and some simple trouble
shooting tips can help save the customer valuable down-
time and expenses.
The following is a brief description of the operation
of the DP fuel control system and a few items of trouble
shooting in areas where technicians seem to have the
most trouble.
Operation
Regardless of the airfrarne/engine installation, all
Bendix pneumatic control systems used on helicopters
operate on essentially the same principles.
The fuel control is primarily a gas producer control
which controls the engine during starting, idling,
acceleration, deceleration and shutdown.
During starting, the fuel control schedules a rate of
fuel flow increase in direct proportion to the compressor
discharge pressure increase. Loss of, or restriction to,
the compressor discharge pressure signal to the control
will cause a starting problem.
At idle, the fuel control runs the engine at a
requested N1 (gas producer) speed. The power turbine
governor is normally not allowed to override (exception
is the CIS).
On all Allison 250 engines except the C18, the
governor reset function is deactivated by the Pr-Pg valve
at N1 throttle angles up to approximately 10 degrees
above idle. This is a mechanical valve actuated by a
plunger, which rides an external cam on the fuel control
throttle shaft.
During acceleration, the fuel control again schedules
a rate of fuel flow increase according to compressor
discharge pressure increase, until the power turbine and

'UEL
O.,ILL'
P~

.
FUEL PRESSURE
-0 B Y P A S S rUEl D R E S S L R i
CON-PCL W E 7 PWJSLRE

"I 'IE'DOEO r .EL

POWER TURBIYE 2
T+ROTTLE L E v ~ R I • PM ' l el. 0 , T . t -

AIR PRESSURE
0 P. wttNr P*L3S"SE

3 % CQWRESSOR 0 SCllnRGt P m E L 9 u I C
h or A t C E ~ F r l b ~ l BELLOWS
m PI1CSSURE

b PI GGrLQNOI BELLOWS PRESSURC

'G 00-R*0R RCSET F a i l J V I t

pl. 9 f G l i i A T E D I111 P 9 6 0 5 . * F
P O W TUREIWE
OOYeRtIOR

Fuel control system schematic for the Allison A250-C20.

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 179

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Accessory Technology

rotor reach a speed which the power turbine governor

recognizes as its area of responsibility. The governor Problem: Engine will not start
then effectively begins to control the N1 speed by modi- ~ o ~ bC
laew R-+
fying the N1 speed requested input from the operator Air in the gas pradwor Purge alr from system at fuel
fuel control and lines. n o a h and by a ssoond slan.
(twist grip or N1 throttle).
The pilot's input to the fuel control will still be Faulty circuit to ignition unl. h t e n for ignltion OpWUtlon.
Observe for fuel vapor coming out
requesting something in excess of 100 percent N1 speed. of the exhaust. Check input powr
to Ignition unit. LeolPlo snd -lace
This request is established by the max N 1 speed stop on defaclh W.
the fuel control and is the N1 topping limit. The gover-
Faulty ignition exclter Linen lor igniter operaion.
nor will continue to mod& that request so that fuel flow Obse~etor fuelvapor arming oul
is regulated to meet the requirements to hold the power oi exhaust. Replm wtth known
sotidadmy unit.
turbine and rotor at the required speed for the operating
Fuel norrle valve stuak. Raplacc fuel n a a .
condition, whether on the ground, in hover or in flight.
If collective pitch angle is increased, the governor Fuel pump lnopershve. (Fuel Check pump for shmred drive6 or
vapu wil not be obaewed imernal dam-. Check for alr balds
coordinating linkage in the aircraft moves the governor leaving the exhaust.) at inld or flud leak at oUM.
throttle lever to a higher angle. This changes the reset Fuel n a u h odiicm clQ00nl. Replaa nozzle.
signal to the fuel control and schedules more fuel flow to
Water or 0Wer wntaminan! Check a aampb d fud from the bottom
support the increased load and prevent the reduction of in I d . of the tank.
N2 and rotor speed.
During deceleration, the fuel control reduces the fuel
flow to a set schedule which will allow for the most rapid
reduction of N1 rpm without allowing the engine to Start problems
flame out. Hot starts
At shutdown, the cutoff valve is closed by the twist With "hot starting" situations, if the peak turbine
grip movement to the cutoff position. On Bendix operating temperature (TOT) occurred suddenly after
controls, it's not necessary for the fuel pointer to be lighboff at low N1 rpm (20 percent range), the cause
indicating zero degrees. Cutoff angle will normally be may be due to fuel pressure disturbances generated in
between 10 degrees and zero. On an aircraft the only the fuel pump.
important rigging points to check are idle and the mini- A rapid rise in TOT following a delayed lighboff could
mum and maximum throttle stops. indicate a faulty ignition component allowing fuel to
The governor is primarily a power turbine speed collect in the combustion chamber between throttle
control. It compares power turbine speed (N2) to a load movement and ignition spark. High TOT just after hght
requirement (collective pitch) and produces a signal off with slow acceleration uo to 30 to 35 ~ e r c e nN1
t can
which resets the fuel control accordingly. It controls the be caused by a low battery or starter problem. The
engine in flight by constantly varying the reset signal to difference in TOT between a good battery/starter combi-
the fuel control so that it can deliver the correct fuel nation and a weak one can be as much as 100 C . High "
flow to maintain the power turbine and rotor at the TOT at a steady state rpm indicates internal engine or
required speed for flight regardless of load change air leak problems.
(collective pitch for example). The fuel control schedule can be checked by motoring
The fuel control and governor respond to only four the engine and catching the fuel control output in a
inputs: throttle position, engine rpm (gas producer and beaker (baby bottle) for 15 seconds. Compare the amount
power turbine), engine compressor discharge pressure captured to a known standard (ref. customer service
and engine torque oil pressure on some twinengine in- letter CSL1049). Such a standard can be established for
stallations. They don't recognize or respond to engine any engine model by accomplishing this check on a
combustion temperature. number of known "good starting" engines, and recording
It's important, especially when troubleshooting, to the results.
keep in mind that the fuel control and governor are two
separate units that are pneumatically interconnected. Slow etarts
Leaks or restrictions in these pneumatic lines, or In slow start situations, TOT and N1 relations, again,
circuits, may cause a reduction in performance to either go a long way toward defining the problem. Slow starts
or both units. and low TOT in the light-off (to 20 percent) can be
caused by leaking PC air line, blocked PCfilter or low
fuel control schedule.

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Slow starts between 35 percent and idle can be caus-
ed by contamination in the fuel control air circuits or
low fuel control schedule. If normal starting adjustments,
i.e., start derich and start/acceleration adjustment on
the 250 engine have no effect, a great probability of air
leaks or contamination exists. In some cases, the adjust
ments should be returned to their nominal settings and
a fuel flow schedule check (baby bottle) should be made
to find a new starting point.
Another possibility is a faulty power turbine gover-
nor. To determine if this is the problem, cap off Py line
at the fuel control unit to isolate the problem.
No etarts
Failure to start can be caused by a number of prob
lems, the above chart covers most situations related to
no starts.
Drooping and topping problems
Problems in this area are generally described as an
inability to reach, or to hold, the maximum allowable Nl
rpm with a resulting decrease in N2/Nr at lower than
maximum allowable TOT or torque.
There are three primary limiting factors which inde-
pendently relate to this regime of engine operation.
(1) N1 (or Ng) rpm. The maximum allowable limit. It is
adjustable in the field at the fuel control maximum
throttle stop screw.
(2) TOT, EGT, TIT, MGT. Different engine manufacturers
use different designations. All refer to the tempera-
ture at the station in the turbine section which each
manufacturer uses as his limiting reference. It's not
adjustable and is not the fuel control responsibility
except during acceleration.
(3) Output torque or horsepower. On most helicopters,
this limit is imposed by the aircraft manufacturer
and relates to the maximum safe power level which
the transmission gear train/rotor system can toler-
ate. It's also not adjustable. The maximum fuel flow
stop setting on the fuel control is intended to prevent
inadvertently exceeding this acceleration.
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Accessory Technology
There are several reasons for an engine not able to
reach the maximum allowable limit. There are three
parameters which apply to the engine's operating mode.
Some of these are:
Pneumatic leaks in the Pc/Px/b/Pg plumbing con-
necting the engine fuel control and governor systems.
Contamination partially blocking one of the screens,
channels, bleeds or orifices in the fuel control, gover-
nor pneumatic circuits.
Improper adjustment of the fuel control maximum
throttle stop, or the throttle lever not reaching the
stop because of rigging error, linkage wear, etc.
Internal wear or malfunction in the fuel control or
governor, resulting in reduced maximum fuel output
capability.
Low fuel pump output.
And finally, partially clogged fuel manifold (discharge
nozzles).
Fluctuations
There are two areas where fluctuations occur: rpm
and toraue.
On any problems related to fluctuations or oscilla-
tions, the first suspect is the indicators. Remove the
indicators and substitute a known gauge to verify proper
operation.
With rpm fluctuations, the governor should be
checked first. Deactivate the governor by disconnecting
the Pr line. Note, however, that because of the physical
location of the N1 throttle, deactivation of the power
turbine governor on the AS350D is not recommended.
However, if it's done, the pilot must be aware that you
are doing a test run and the engine must be controlled
with the N1 throttle. If the problem still is present, it's
probably fuel control related. If the problem is isolated
to the fuel control or the governor, certain areas on
these units can be field cleaned.
If field cleaning or adjustment doesn't correct the
problem, replacement will be necessary.
Although these are the most common problems
associated with the system, other situations may occur
with which you may need assistance. If so, feel free to
call AUiedSignal Controls and Accessories, West Coast
Support at (213) 8433961. November/December 1993
Dennis Dqyden is the program manager for fuel
metering at AlliedSignal Controls and Accessories, West
Coast Support Operations in Burbank, CA.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 181
Accessory Technology

Carbon brake repair

Plenty of attention and wise maintenance programs are
required for performance and economy

By Greg Napert

uring the '70s, aircraft manufacturers introduced

carbon brakes as an option over conventional
steel brakes. Introduction into the marketplace
moved quite slowly at first; however, in the late '80s
carbon began appearing on a variety of corporate com-
muter and corporate aircraft.
Today, carbon is being introduced on new aircraft
brakes because, according to the manufacturers, it offers
a weight savings over steel, the wear rate is slower, and
performance at high temperatures is better than steel.
However, progress in the application, performance
and resulting acceptance of carbon has been slow prima-
rily due to the relative high cost of carbon. There were
also some initial problems from a technical standpoint
that have affected the acceptance of carbon by many
operators.
Nonetheless, manufacturers stiU maintain that with
improving manufacturing processes, solutions that have
been designed to iron out the problems, and mainte
Two-for-one refurbishing of brake discs (left) results i n a
nance programs that have been implemented to extend disc that is the same thickness as a new disc (right).
the life of carbon discs, carbon brakes are a smart,
economical and safe option.
Paul Bureau, general Money-saving programs
manager for ~ ~ d e r In spite of the f a d that carbon brakes are more
Aviall's Wheel and Brake expensive upfront than steel, manufacturers have intro-
Shop in Atlanta, which duced programs over the past few years to get more life
provide repair services for out of existing carbon brakes, thereby, making them
carbon brakes, says that more affordable.
you've got to measure the Among the programs are: two-for-one where two
value of the increased carbon discs that are worn beyond service limits are
performance against sanded to onehalf the thickness of a new &sc and
the increased cost. He clipped together to create a disc that is the thickness
explains that "a benefit of a new one; carbon redeposition, in which carbon is
of carbon over steel is redeposited onto worn discs to rebuild them to new
Chattering brakes can that it does not fade. The dimensions (this program is only offered by brake manu-
result i n battering o f the hotter the carbon gets, facturers at this time); and reclassification programs,
channel clips. the less it wears. It where discs that are only partially worn are combined
actually becomes harder with other discs that have a significant amount of life
at higher temperatures. The exact opposite of steel." left to produce a serviceable brake stack that will yield
Bob Hansen, production manager for Aero Tire & more life.
Tank, Inc. in Dallas, TX,similarly says that "for commer- Bureau suggests that the most economical way of
cial use, carbon is probably the best thing that ever came operating is to incorporate as many of the options (new,
out. The landings and the extended life of the carbon refurbished, reclassification, etc.) on an aircraft as
brakes are a benefit to commercial airlines, mainly possible as components wear. There are many aircraft,
because they can take advantage of refurbishment and
two-for-one refurbishment programs."

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for instance, particularly in airline operations, where
you have one aircraft with one or two brakes that are
refurbished, one brake that's reclassified and another
that's new.
He says that there are a few things to keep in mind
when looking at these programs. For one, don't expect
two-for-one refurbished brakes to last as long as new.
The nature of carbon discs is such that the material on
the outside of the disc is more dense. The dense carbon
which exists on new discs is removed when the discs are
sanded to 50 percent of the original. Bureau says that
after grinding off half of the disc, the material that
you're left with is more porous than the original
material.
Because of this, even though the two-for-one disc is
dimensionally the same as a new one, it's not going to
yield you as many landings. It's going to give you some
where in the area of 50 to 60 percent as many landings
as a new disc, even though it's dimensionally the same.
Reclassification, however, incorporates discs that have
70 to 80 percent of life remaining, and the only material
removed may be what's required to true them up. This
leaves you with a disc stack that will give you as many
or more landings than a two-for-one refurbishment.
Hansen explains that it's his opinion that "refurbish-
ment really only works well on the commercial side of
the business due to the fact that they have many times
more aircraft from which they are salvaging carbon, and
with which they can build overhauled brake stacks or use
in reclassification programs. If you're a corporate opera-
tor, though, and you have one airplane with carbon
brakes, say a GIV or GIII, you only have two brakes on
that aircraft, and a two-for-one's really not going to do
you much good.
"You've got to understand that there is a rejection
rate; some of that carbon will not be able to be used due
to the rejection rate. And even without rejecting any of
the discs, the best you could hope for is to end up with
one refurbished brake stack, and you still have to buy a
new brake stack for the other side."
Working out the bugs
One of the main squawks when carbon was first in-
troduced was severe chattering. The chattering problem
has been reduced, however, as operators have been
educated on the care and maintenance of carbon and as
new technology is being introduced into the design of
the brakes.
Hansen says that the least expensive solution to
chattering is to simply retrue the surface of the discs.
"Uneven wear results chattering, and uneven wear can
be caused by a piston or pistons dragging. Don't assume
that the carbon is the problem, you've got to look a little
farther than just the carbon," he says.
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Circumferential grooves are
machined into the outside
diameter of the rotors
and the inside diameter
of the stators to prevent
chattering.
He says that another common cause for chattering is
the design of the rotors and stators. "The rotors are
allowed to float, and this floating," he says, "results in
chatter because the discs are not tracking properly.
"To fix this problem, a circumferential groove repair
has been introduced. The grooves are machined into the
outside diameter of the rotors and the inside diameter of
the stators. And as the discs start to wear, a groove and
slot is worn into the inside diameter and outside diam-
eter of the rotors and this keeps the rotors in line with
the stators essentially creating a pocket that the stators
and rotors run in which keeps them perfectly aligned."
Maintenance wise
Bureau says that there are a number of items that
you need to keep an eye on in order to get the maximum
use out of a set of carbon discs. Among them, make a
regular habit of checking the clips and rivets on the
discs for looseness or wear. Chattering can result in
these loosening up and if loose, they will beat the slots
until the corners break or something falls off. Any metal
that comes loose and lodges between the rotors and
stators will really tear up the carbon.
If aluminum clips on the discs are worn through, the
channels in the discs can become destroyed quite quickly,
he explains. Some of the discs have a relocation option
for the channel and clips. Gulfstream, he says, has a
repair that allows for remachining of new channels
between the existing channels. The old channels are then
covered with aluminum covers as a safety precaution so
that the wheel is installed correctly on the aircraft.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 183
 Cracks in the carbon are another thing that you need
to look for, he says. "You're not likely to see them on a
new disc, but it's not uncommon to see them on refur-
bished discs that aren't machined correctly. The two
surfaces of the two-for-one discs which are mated against
each other have to be perfectly flat. And if they aren't,
you end up with cracks. Unevenness on the mating
surface of the two discs will more than likely cause the
discs to crack."
Hansen says he sees quite a bit of cracking on the
discs that he's involved with. "On the 767, right now,
you're looking at approximately a 25 percent rejection
rate out of a set of discs. In the manuals there's a
requirement to check each disc for what they call linear
faults,' " he says, "which is nothing but a fancy word for
a crack. No doubt that we do see cracks."
Hansen says that 'linear faults" can exist in any
direction and at any place on the disc, and they must be
inspected visually to determine that there are no cracks.
Cracks are especially common in the drive slot face, but
you have to take off the clips that line the channels and
look in behind them in the drive face area. There again,
we have to go in and do a dimensional inspection.
Another thing to be concerned with is corrosion.
"Corrosion appears as a white powder and if allowed
to get bad enough, the disks will actually start
delaminating.
"If you notice just a small amount of white powder,
keep an eye on it to make sure that it doesn't progress.
If it looks like it's progressing in any way, get the heat
stack off of there and insped it, because something is
fixing to break loose."
184 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Cleaning can cost you
Hansen says that they have a hard time getting
through to customers the idea that carbon brakes need
to be covered up when washing the aircraft. Soap can be
very detrimental to the performance of the brakes.
"What happens is the soap itself gets into the carbon
and makes the carbon quite sticky after the heat is
applied and it causes violent chattering. At that point
you've got to remove the brake stack and clean them out
with alcohol or whatever's recommended in the mainte
nance manual.
"Deicing fluid and Skydrola can also cause problems,"
he says. The deicing liquid or Skyclrol gets to the brakes
and causes the very same effect, and you'll have to pull
the discs and clean them to stop them from chattering.
He says, "Bendiu requires us to do a cleaning with
isopropyl alcohol or ethyl alcohol and scrub each
individual disc surface; then we take the discs and bake
the alcohol out of the carbon at 500°F for seven hours.
"If you want to clean the brakes and brake housings,
I recommend using a cloth dampened with alcohol and
wipe them down as best you can, or if you have to you
can use a toothbrush with alcohol to scrub out the
cracks and such. Just try not to get anythmg on the
carbon-don't let the carbon absorb anything."
September/October 1993
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 A few D.C. generator basics
By Greg Napert

P
roper care and maintenance of D.C. generators is
even more critical today than it has ever been.
The reason: Parts for these older power supplies
are becoming scarce, and along with that the cost of
replacement parts for generators is on the rise.
In fad, even though it's possible to purchase many of
the internal replacement components such as brushes,
brush holders and related components such as voltage
regulators, it's actually impossible to purchase a new
housing or armature assembly, and it follows that
completely new generator units aren't available either.
Aside from the option of switching the aircraft's
generator to a modernday alternator power source, the
technician can only keep up with a good maintenance Carefully inspect the mounting flange areas for cracks.
program designed to extend the life of the generator as
long as possible. Many technicians comment that following that logic,
Mike Strickland, chief inspector for Electrosystems the bearings would be damaged during installation as
Inc. in Fort Deposit, AL, says there are a few items that well. But contrary to this thinking, Strickland explains
are often overlooked by the technician. One of them, he that when you press the bearing on properly, you're
says, is the buildup of carbon between the commutator pressing on the inner race and the outer race simply
segments due to brush wear. moves with it. However, when you remove the housing
"What happens is over a period of h e , the carbon with a puller, you're pulling on the outer race, and the
from the brushes cakes up between the commutator inner race resists movement because of the press fit on
segments, and this causes a failure of the armature the armature shaft.
because of the commutator segments shorting together. With the unit open, Strickland says, the insulation on
"Most people check the bearings and brushes, but the field coils should also be looked at closely, especially
they're not checking to see how clean the commutator on older units where it has become drv and brittle.
segments are. We've received many cores and all that If there's insulation missing, you need to inspect the
was wrong with the generator is that the commutator windings for signs of shorts. Shorted coils will typically
wasn't properly cleaned. be evident by a dark burned looking area. Also, check
"The armature can't always be saved during the for any kind of nicks, or if insulation has been worn off
rebuild," he says. "Some of the older generators, have any of the wires. If this happens, the field coils must
had the commutator overhauled so many times that it's be replaced. Coils showing no sign of damage can be
below limits and needs to be replaced." rewrapped with insulation, tested and reused.
Strickland says that another item that should be Burned insulation and premature failure of a genera-
inspected regularly is the brush holders. "The insula- tor can sometimes be because of improper cooling. On
tion," he says, "on the positive side can sometimes crack
units that are equipped with cooling shrouds, Strickland
and the brush holder can short against the housing. If says to be careful when installing the cooling shroud
this insulation is cracked in any way, you'll have a direct on the end of the generator. "It is possible," he says,
short, and the unit won't work at all." "to line up the cooling shroud onto the unit so that the
cooling holes in the frame don't line up. This restrids
Opening it up
proper airflow. Always verify that the shroud is lined
Strickland says that repairs done out in the field up correctly."
often require pulling the end housings from the alterna-
tor to replace, clean or repair components. Any time the
end housings are removed, he says, the bearings should
be replaced. The reason, he explains is that when you
pull the housing, you put a side load on the bearings
with the puller, and you can distort the side of the
bearing race, which can cause premature failure.

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 185

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Proper belt tension
Extending the useful life of the generator can be as
simple as assuring that the drive belt is tensioned prop
erly. If the belt tension isn't sufficient, it can slip and
wear and not produce the proper output, and if it's too
tight, it can place an excessive side load on the bearings
and cause premature failure.
"The bearings," says Strickland, "just aren't made for
some of the side loads that are placed on the unit as a
result of overtensioning."
"As an overhaul facility, we often see generators
come in with the bearing on the drive end of the unit
completely destroyed, and the other bearing's perfect."
Units that are overtensioned, explains Steve Inabinet,
director of technical services for Electrosystems, are also
more susceptible to cracking in the mounting flange
areas. If you find that a bearing has failed on a genera-
tor unit, take a close look at the mounting flanges to
make sure that they are not damaged.
Voltage regulators
The voltage regulator, in most cases, is a separate
unit from the generator; without it, the generator could
not properly do its job. Besides controlling voltage output
of the generator, the regulator prevents reverse current
flow, provides overvoltage protection and, dependmg
on the sophistication of the regulator, can perform a
number of other functions as well.
Many of the regulators that are currently on the
market are units that are built with a number of relays
186 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
and points that open and close as necessary. Points are
susceptible to wear and tear, so it's not uncommon to
see voltage regulator failures as a result of burnt or
worn points.
Inabinet says that "typically, the voltage regulator is
replaced more often than the generator itself." He
doesn't recommend any field repairs to these types
of voltage regulators, because of the nature of the
construction.
Tip Poorman, general manager for Electrosystems,
says another problem that is sometimes created as a
result of the voltage regulator failing or with units that
aren't properly reverse current protected, is that reverse
current can reverse the polarity of the field. If this
happens, the generator will not produce voltage and you
may need to "flash the field. Flashing is a process
by which you run current through the generator to
correctly polarize the field.
Poorman explains that some technicians flash the
field as a matter of practice every time they install a
generator to assure that it's correctly polarized and that
the unit has residual magnetism.
Finally, Poorman says that it's also important for the
battery to be in good shape for proper operation of the
entire electrical system. "The voltage regulator doesn't
always do its job. The battery serves as a large capacitor
and can absorb spikes in the electrical system and
protect the avionics and other components. If it isn't
in top condition, it may fail to protect the electrical
system," he says.
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 The price and availability of replacement parts for
generators can sometimes warrant investigating upgrad-
ing the aircraft's electrical system from a generator to
an alternator.
Not only does upgrading make sense from a cost
standpoint, but there's also an advantage in using alter-
nator power in terms of weight savings and increased
power output. Additionally, due to fewer moving parts,
and its solid-state nature, the alternator is simply more
reliable than the generator.
Tip Poorman, general manager of Electrosystems,
explains that currently, "it's particularly common in the
aircraft refurbishing business to convert to alternators.
Especially if they are upgrading the lighting and avionics
systems. This results in a requirement for more electri-
cal power, which in many cases can only be obtained
from an alternator."
He says that "with an alternator, you can get a 30
percent increase in power output with a 30 percent
decrease in weight."
He also says that there are some difficulties to con-
sider when upgrading to an alternator; among them are:
"The FAA requirements to approve a new accessory to a
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particular engine. They usually require 15CLhour test for
operational characteristics, cooling studies and so forth.
It also will require different bracketry, ring gear, etc. It's
not just a matter of swapping one for the other," he says.
"The other part of the picture can be the difference
in the shape of the alternator. Sometimes you have to
make modifications to the cowling because of the shape.
You'll need to fit it into the space available, and provide
the proper cooling to the alternator.
Poorman explains "that there are STCs available, but
they're typically held by companies that specialize in
overhauling certain types of aircraft that they see as
being economically feasible.
"The engine manufacturers have made new brackets
and component kits to adapt alternators.
"If there is an existing STC or the engine manufac-
turer has a bracket or service kit available, the cost of
doing the conversion can be very attractive. In fact, I
think it makes a lot of sense.
"Eventually, operators are going to be forced to
convert to an alternator because the availability of
repairable generators is dwindling." EDI July/August 1993
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 187
Raw data
A basic understanding of avionic inputs

By Jim Sparks

A vionics. The word alone has been known to

cause great anxiety especially when accompanied
by discrepancy. Even the simplest definition,
electronics as applied to aviation, doesn't inspire a high
Air temperature is another component that requires
monitoring. George Simon Ohm stated that voltage used
by a circuit is proportional to the circuit's resistance
multiplied by the amperage or current flow. By applying
degree of confidence. Ohm's law and sending a constant current through a
Basic flight instruments supply raw data to the flight temperaturesensitive resistor (thermistor), the voltage
crew as well as autoflight systems. To successfully drop across this resistor will be directly related to the
troubleshoot complex flight systems, it's important to temperature.
understand the processing of raw data. There are several things that can alter the accuracy
In the early days of navigating aircraft, the major or temperature. As the aircraft moves, in many cases at
instrument used for determining a course was the extremely high speed, the air molecules contacting the
"IRON Compass," more commonly known as railroad thermistor become compressed. As air is compressed,
tracks. In today's world, where visual reference cannot temperature increases. Moisture content will also have a
always be utilized, other inputs must be used to calculate noticeable effect. Special probes have been designed to
aircraft position. Nature supplies many devices to allow compensate for compression and moisture so that an
those calculations to take place. accurate Static Air Temperature can be referenced. Many
of today's aircraft are equipped with Air Data Computers
Air data (ADCs). These units are plumbed into the pitat and
Air data is a term that can be broken down into static systems and also supply the output current for the
three areas; static pressure, pitot pressure and tempera- air temperature sensors.
ture. Static pressure by definition is exerting force by By observing these three inputs, the ADC can supply
reason of weight alone-without motion. The weight of very accurate electrical signals to drive altimeters, air-
air at sea level during standard day conditions is 14.7 psi. speed indicators and vertical speed gauges. It can also
As altitude increases, the weight of air decreases compute true airspeed and calculate Mach numbers.
because there's less air pushing down. By incorporating In addition ADCs can communicate with other
a sealed flexible aneroid capsule with a specific internal aircraft computers like fhght guidance or autopilot. It
pressure (14.7 psi), surrounding air pressure is reduced can be a primary input for auto throttles and eledronic
and the capsule expands. A s pressure on the outside pressurization systems and can even supply altitude
increases, the aneroid gets progressively smaller, so with signals for transponders.
a calibrated mechanical linkage this expansion and
contraction can be accurately displayed as distance above
sea level. This type of device is known as an altimeter. 1 Remote Vertical Gyro Sche
Of course altimeters of today may not incorporate
much mechanical linkage, but, instead, use an electronic
correction for pressure change. The rate of change in
static pressure can be monitored by an aneroid device
incorporating a restridor which allows pressure to equal-
ize inside the aneroid. Compared to outside, this rate of
change is displayed as vertical velocity or vertical speed.
A physical property of air is that it can be com-
pressed. By strategically locating an air-sensing probe on
the external fuselage airframe, manufacturers can attain
an accurate ram-air pressure by using a calibrated aner-
oid; this pressure can be displayed as airspeed. Since air
pressure requires an altitude compensation, the ram-air
bellows is surrounded by atmospheric pressure, and the
housing of the airspeed indicator is connected to the
aircraft static system.

188 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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 Directional information
Directional information is another requirement for
flight. Since the earth is a large permanent magnet with
a continuously flowing magnetic field, a permanent
magnet that has freedom of movement will try to align
with the earth's field. By orienting this free magnet with
a compass card, direction can be determined relative to
the earth's magnetic poles.
This means a sensing heading can be quite accurate
at the magnetic equator, but as latitude increases,
heading accuracy decreases. At the magnetic North and
South Poles a compass system is of little help.
A flux sensor can be installed in a remote area of an
aircraft such as a wingtip or stabilizer. This device
consists of a threelegged inductive core with a coil of
wire wrapped around each leg. This core is also divided
into an upper and lower segment. The segments are
joined by a center post wrapped with a coil.
Depending on the orientation of this flux sensor to
the earth's magnetic field, the flux flow through the
three legs will be different. By applying a low voltage
alternating current to the coil around the center post,
the three secondary coils will have an induced voltage
proportional to the flux flow through that segment. This
threephase low-voltage output signal is then supplied for
reference to adjust compass display instruments.
The Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) and the
Radio Magnetic Indicator @MI) are the two most
common displays for compass information. However, in
many cases the flux valve does not directly supply these
instruments.
Both HSI and RMI can be considered gyro instru-
ments. A gyro is a spinning mass. Once rotation has
begun and speed reaches operating levels, it becomes
quite difficult to move the gyro from its original plane of
rotation. This spinning mass is housed in a framework
which has full freedom of movement.
As the aircraft changes position, the gyro tries to
remain stationary. The aircraft actually moves about the
gyro. The position of the framework is electrically sensed
by a synchro circuit. The output from the gyro unit is
then supplied to the HSI and RMI. The spinning mass
has no way of determining where it is; all it can do is
spin relative to the direction from which it was started.
It's the job of the flux valve to supply information
regarding heading to align the gyro initially and keep it
slewed to the earth's magnetic field. Most systems incor-
porating a magnetically slaved gyro also have a means of
breaking this communication line. The Freeslaved or
DGMAG switch, as it is commonly identified, can be
used in areas of magnetic disturbance or around the
earth's magnetic poles to allow the directional gyro alone
to run the heading instruments. Once out of these polar
realms the switch can be returned to the mag or slaved
position, allowing the flux sensor to automatically
reposition the directional gyro.
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Gyro slaving is required periodically during flight
due to gyro precess; that is, gyros tend to travel in the
direction of rotation, which makes their uncorrected
information accurate for, at best, one hour, but in most
cases only 20 minutes.
Welleontrolled air pressure and filtration is critical to
maintain proper gyro operating speed. Particle contami-
nation can be very detrimental to operating mechanisms
in an air gyro, so proper maintenance on air fitration
and moisture removal systems are required. Manufac-
tured maintenance procedures and operational tests are
essential to maximum gyro life.
A remote gyro (that is, one not contained within the
instrument) can be used to drive an electrical ADI. This
type device is more accurate and typically requires less
maintenance than an air-driven unit. Electrical gyros
most commonly use AC electric power to drive the
spinning mass, and these Vertical Gyros (VGs) utilize a
synchro output (threewire AC) to drive a follow-up
synchro housed within the ADI. A VG can be used to
sense movement around roll, pitch and the yaw axis. A
gyro flag found in the ADI, when in view, sgnifles the
gyro is not up to operational speed or the displayed
information does not agree with gyro information.
A test switch that may be found on some indicators
will usually introduce a pitch and roll command to the
AD1 display. When the display does not agree with the
gyro, the gyro flag comes into view. Operational speeds
of an electrically driven spinning mass can be in excess
of 20,000 rpm and generally require several minutes to
become oriented. Also, a coastdown time that may be in
excess of 10 minutes might be required before the gyro
will cage (become mechanically supported after aircraft
shutdown).
This coastdown time is important to observe prior to
repositioning the aircraft, as gyro tumble could lead to
mechanical damage. If immediate aircraft movement is
required, it might be better to restore gyro power. In
addition to supplying the ADI, a VG can also communi-
cate with autoflight systems (flight director and auto-
pilot) as well as provide stabilization for radar systems.
Attitude Heading Reference Systems (AHRS) is a
means of locating a VG, DG and associated components
in a stand-alone container. Installation of an AHRS unit
requires a leveled platform. Location and power require
ments are varied by manufacturer.
Laser gyros are becoming widespread in airline and
corporate aviation. These devices eliminate the spinning
mass. The ring laser compares the relationshp of two
light beams. As aircraft position changes, the phasing of
the hght beams will shift. With no moving parts the
basic laser gyro is very reliable.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 189
I Tmical CADC inwts and outnuts
The Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs) incorporate
procedures to ensure accurate display of raw data. Alti-
meter systems require certification every 24 months.
This is documented in FAR 91.411. The procedures to
accomplish this check is in FAR 43, appendix E. In addi-
tion to altimeter certification, it's also required that the
static port and area surrounding must be free of defects
190 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
1 heating circuit also requires an operational test. Com-
pass systems as well as altitude indication usually
require functional tests at an annual interval.
Troubleshooting raw data systems can be facilitated
by understanding display. When flags are in view, it's
imperative to realize these advisories can indicate lack
of Dower or erroneous information. Communication
with the flight crew and a thorough description of the
fault can lead to a quick, accurate and cost-effective fault
evaluation.
Black box avionics systems, even though highly
sophisticated, have no capability of observing what goes
on in or around the aircraft. These black boxes d e ~ e n d
on external sensors to supply all required data to
perform required tasks. When a discrepancy occurs and
a black box appears to be at fault, all inputs or sensors
to that box need to be checked. Without valid inputs,
displayed information or loads won't be accurate. E!l
May/June 1993
Jim Sparks is an instructor for Flightsafety
International in Little Rock, AR. He has over 12
years of maintenance instruction and holds an A&P
and an FCC certificate.
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 Accessory Technology

Ultrasonic testing basics

By Greg Napert

lthough ultrasonic testing has been around for a

long time, its use in general aviation has gained
great popularity over the last 10 years. Manufac-
turers are more commonly recommending ultrasonics as
a method of monitoring cracks, inspecting for corrosion
and thickness testing as a more economical means of
maintaining aircraft.
Dan Nichols, NDT manager for KC Aviation in
Appleton, WI, says that "there is not one aircraft that
I work on that does not require some type of ultrasonic
testing for some part or component on the aircraft.
Nichols explains that in theory, "ultrasonics is simply
measuring the time that it takes for sound to travel
through a material. And that time can be expressed in
anything, inches, millimeters, feet, or can be shown as a
graphic representation."
The transducer. used to transmit ultrasonic vibra-
tions, is no more than a crystal that's been cut to a
specific thickness. The thickness of the crystal deter-
mines its frequency, and the frequency determines the
depth of the penetration and the sensitivity of the test.
According to FAA AC 43-7, crystals, when subjected
to an alternating electric charge, expand and contract
under the influence of these charges.
Conversely, these materials, when subjected to
alternating compression and tension, develop alternating
electric charges on their faces. This is referred to as the
piezoelectric effect.
Ultrasonics, explains Nichols, is used for very specific
applications on an aircraft. If there are large areas that
need to be inspected, ultrasonics is typically not a KC Aviation NDT technician Mark Peters calibrates
method of choice. equipment and performs inspection on a Gulfstream G-N.

Wave forms
There are basically two wave forms for ultrasonic
testing that are commonly employed in aviation: longitu-
dinal and shear. Longitudinal or compressional waves
are used for thickness gauging, or for defects that are
known to be parallel to the surface. These waves are
sent directly into the material and are reflected directly
back to the transducer.
"A second method called shear waves," says Nichols,
"sends sound waves into the material at an angle,
typically 4 5 to 70-degree angles. Shear waves are used
for inspecting weld joints, or areas where the transducer
cannot be positioned directly over the area to be
inspected because there's a rib or stringer or something
in the way.
"By using shear waves, we can bounce the waves off
of the defect so that they return to the instrument and
are displayed.
"Typically, we inspect with more than one angle to
cover various defects. The waves are typically sent out in
a broad enough pattern so that they will catch a return
signal even if the defect isn't exactly perpendicular to
the wave. A wide band of waves is sent out so it's forgiv-
ing enough that you don't have to be totally accurate in
sending out the waves," he says.
"In some cases, shear waves are inappropriate. In the
case of corrosion, we want to use compression waves.
Especially if the corrosion is intergranular or exfoliation.
Exfoliation or intergranular causes a layering effect, and
if shear waves are used, the sound wiU bounce between
the layers of corrosion and won't be returned to the
transmitter."

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Reference blocks
Reference or calibrating blocks are a required item
for ultrasonic testing. There are several different types of
basic reference blocks, says Nichols.
"You have to make sure that you're actually calibrat-
ing for the type of material you're working on. You're
actually calibrating for a characteristic of the material,
which is the velocity that the sound travels through the
material. Plastics, particularly, can vary widely from type
to type so it's important to have the same exact type of
plastic for reference," he says.
Aluminum is not so critical. The velocity of aluminum
is the same for all intents and purposes, and the differ-
ent types of aluminum won't alter the reading enough
to matter.
"One of the features that modern ultrasonic units
have is the ability to place a numeric value on the
velocity. So if you know what the velocity of the material
is that you're measuring, you can set that into the
equipment to calibrate it. It's still good to calibrate this
equipment using standards also, because you are verify-
ing that the equipment is accurate," he says.
Practical use
Besides testing for defects, cracks or inclusions, ultra-
sonics is also used for thickness gauging of aluminum,
plastics, windows, etc. One application that's quite
common is where you clean up corrosion or scratches
on critical surfaces and use ultrasonics to determine if
the material is still within limits, Nichols explains.
"For thickness test-
ing," he says, "we use a
special ultrasonic thick-
ness gauge. It's designed
specifically for testing
thickness and that's all
we use it for. The same
gauge is used for all
Typical application of shear materials that require
waves to detect flaw or dimensional testing.
damage.
192 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
"There are some materiah that you can't use ultra-
sonics on. Very porous materials, such as Kevlar for
exam~le,are not able to be tested.
a .
"Honeycomb structures, however, are very easy to
test for disbonds," says Nichols. "We use a very low f r e
quency, typically a 1 MHz transducer, and as long as it's
not a Kevlar skin, we couple the transducer to the skin.
We're not only able to get through the composite, or the
aluminum skin, we're also able to penetrate through the
honeycomb part.
"You can tell if the honevcomb is either broken down
or disbanded from the surf;dce material because the
signal will change drastically. You either get a signal, or
no signal at all. With a 1 MHz transducer, if there's a
disbond, the skin and the disbond are too thin for any
measurement to take place so there will be no signal
(clean screen presentation). Conversely, if it's bonded,
the screen will be filled with echos, repeat echos from
the honeycomb core. So a clean screen is no go, and
a screen full of echos is go-a very basic go/no-go
inspection.
"Air leak detection is another application of ultra-
sonics. A leak of air creates a pressure Merential. And
every time you have a pressure differential, you have
sound. And this differential creates ultrasonic waves.
The instruments for detecting this sound simply convert
these ultrasonic waves into audible sounds."
Equipment considerations
Nichols says that with ultrasonic equipment, "the
latest technology is dqital technology. Additionally, the
equipment really needs to have a damping control,
especially if you're planning on testing composites. We
find that a lot of equipment doesn't have it. A damping
control dampens the signal from the transducer going
into the amplifier. It acts like a filter that filters
the signal."
AC 43-7 says that there are several methods of
observing and recording ultrasonic response patterns
such as: CRT, indicating lights, alarm lights, alarm
devices (bells, buzzers, etc.), go/nego monitors and
others. These methods may be used in combination to
suit a particular need. EQI Mardu'April1993
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 Accessory Tichnology

A look inside the Bell 206L

transmission
1,500-hour inspection

By Greg Napert

0
ne of the most popular, yet simple transmissions
that exists on today's light helicopters is on the
Bell 206L.
Emile Mouton, overhaul shop supervisor for
Petroleum Helicopters Inc. (PHI), in Lafayette, LA, says
that the number of Bell 206L transmissions that PHI
inspects and overhauls on a day-tcday basis is why the
company knows what to keep an eye on during a typical
inspection.
Pat Clay, technician for PHI, says that there are
basically two 1,500-hour inspections performed during
the service life of the 206L transmission, and an over-
haul at 4,500 hours. At each 1,500-hour inspection, the
main points of concern during the inspection are the
splines on the inside of the top case, and wear/or
damage to sun gear splines.

Disassembly
Before splitting the transmission, you've got to be
sure to remove the main oil jet and oil filter. Once the
top case is removed, you have complete access to the
ring gear and planetary assembly.
The teeth on the upper case, Clay says, have a
tendency to crack to the point where you can just grab
a piece of a tooth and break it off. You've got to look - -
- --

closely at these teeth. There are a certain number of
teeth that are allowed to break, he says, depending on
how many are broken within a given area and the extent
of the damage on each individual tooth (not more than
six damaged teeth in any 180degree segment of the
splined area, no more than three damaged teeth within
any group of 15 consecutive teeth).
Clay says that Bell provides information specifically
on the extent of damage allowed on individual teeth and
other criteria. "What's interesting," he says, "is that the
teeth in this area seem to break within the first 1,500
hours if they're going to break; then there are no further
breaks during the life of the transmission.
"The teeth on the ring gear and planetary/sun gear
occasionally are damaged, but it's not that common,"
Clay says. "These Bell gears are made pretty well, and
there are not many problems with them. We typically
give the gears a good onceover inspection to be sure
that there's nothing that's obviously wrong and then set
them aside for reinstallation."
the top case half must be inspected
closely for damage.
Most of the gears in this transmission are made with
a black-oxide coating. The coating makes it somewhat
difficult to inspect because of the minimal reflection of
hght. A tip that Clay says is important to follow when
inspecting the surface of these gears is to use a white
piece of paper and place it between each gear tooth to
reflect light onto the adjacent tooth. The mirrorlike
surface of the gears reflects the white of the paper and
allows you to more easily view wear patterns, scratches
and other damage that may exist.
Another area that has to be examined closely is
where the sun gear fits into the bevel gear shaft. "Bell
has had a few problems with the sun gear and the bevel
gear," Clay says. "Basically the tolerance was too great,
and the gears would bang together when the engine
started up."

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 To resolve this. Bell went from an oil-lubricated sun
gear, to a greaselubricated gear with two O-rings and
silver coating on the splines of the gears. Because the
silver is soft, it's common for it to flake off and get into
the oil. This isn't a problem, Clay explains, because
according to Bell, the silver is soft enough that it won't
cause damage to the gears. It will simply work ita way
through and around the gears without any consequence.
Loose plating should be removed with Scotchbritem,
however, and no type of chemical removal or cleaning of
the silver is allowed. Clay says that Bell recommends if
you notice any silver flakes or slivers in the oil, you need
to change the oil, change filter, clean oil screens, flush
the transmission and refill the transmission with oil.
The newest revision to the sun gear is the use of
improved materials and tighter tolerances. Bell also
eliminated the O-rings and grease and went with oil
lubrication again. The older sun gears that still have the
grease lubrication may be difficult to remove due to the
holding power of the grease and O-rings. "If you grab
the sun gear with your hand and can't pull it out, you're
going to have to remove the lower mast bearing support
and press the sun gear out from the bottom," Clay says.
The area of the sun gear that has the silver plating
must be checked carefullv for minimum dimensions and
A piece of paper will reflect the light to more ei.,,dvely
the corresponding gears on the main or input gearshaft inspect the gear teeth.
also need to be carefully checked.
All of the gear spline wear measurements are taken
by placing gauge pins 180 degrees apart and measuring hours. Also, the oil pump drive coupling, which is
from one pin to the other. You've got to be careful, Clay removed with the oil pump, is known to wear. So the
says, when measuring with gauge pins to be sure of two splines should be inspected closely."
things. First, you want to make sure that you're measur-
ing exactly 180 degrees apart. To ensure this, always Assembly
count the number of teeth in either direction. Also, you "You've got to be careful when you're pressing any of
want to be sure that you're using the correct size gauge the assemblies back together," Clay says. For example,
pin as recommended by Bell. If you're using a gauge pin Clay explains, when you're pressing the input gear shaft
that's three thousandths off, you may get a reading back into the case, you need to make sure that the gears
that's below minimums and reject a part that's good. are properly mating with the bevel gear. If you don't, it's
"Since we remove the sun gear during this inspec- easy to snap one of the gear teeth off.
tion, we also take the time to check the external dimen- The best way to ensure that the teeth are mating
sion of the splines on the sun gear and the inside properly is to continuously rock the bevel gear back and
diameter of the internal splined gear shaft where the forth. "When you're pressing the input gear shaft in, the
sun gear contacts," Clay says. "It's not required as part ring gear will contact the bevel gear shaft first," he says,
of the inspection, but we like to make sure that the parts "so you've got to rock that gear back and forth, then as
are still sufficiently within limits to make it another you continue to press it down, it will contact the oil
1,500 hours, particularly since we've seen problems with pump drive gear."
wear in this area." InstaIling the greasepacked sun gear into the input
Another item that is taken care of during the 1,50@ shaft can be quite tricky. A means of releasing the
hour inspection, Clay says, is the oil pump drive. The excess grease is needed; otherwise, you'll never be able
drive has a rubber seal that frequently leaks a s m d to press it into the proper position. This is done by using
amount of oil. If there are any signs of leakage, it's a a couple of pieces of safety wire and placing them
good time to replace the seal. To do this,the oil pump between the O-rings and the input gear shaft to release
has to be removed. the excess grease.
"Some people change this seal regardless of whether "Any O--gs that are disrupted during the inspection
it's leaking or not," Clay says, "because there's a good must be replaced with new," Clay says. "To eliminate
chance that it'll start leaking within the next 1,500 leaks, we like to apply a small amount of sealant

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 (MILS-8802) on the O-rings to help seal the case. Bell
recommends installing the O-ring dry, but we've found
that the sealant helps ensure that the case doesn't leak.
"For most shops, it's fairly common for these trans-
missions to leak after assembly," he says, "but we ensure
that they don't by pressurizing the case. If any leaks are
found, they're corrected before the transmission is put
back into service."
Measuring backlash is necessary on all drives. A
couple of special tools are required to accomplish this.
Make sure to take the measurement at the exact point
specified on the tool. "In the event that you have a
larger backlash than allowed, you should check to be
sure that the bevel gear is seated properly and that the
shaft is seated in the bearings well, then you've got to
make sure that you have the correct shim behind the
bevel gear. You may be able to adjust this shim .0005
according to a formula in the manual.
"The other shim that may be adjusted, within certain
limits, is the shim under the duplex bearings. If you look
on the case, there are some readings; then you are given
Gulf Coast corrosion protection is part
of PH19smaintenance program
Emile Mouton, component overhaul supervisor for PHI,
says that the company is particularly challenged with its
helicopter maintenance because of the severely corrosive
operating environment that most of its helicopters
operate in.
The corrosive environment offers many challenges
that aren't normally encountered, so many steps have
to be taken to avoid corrosion like putting a sealant
(MILS-8802) on everything.
But the company has an advantage as well; that is,
the number of helicopters that it operates provides
the opportunity to work with OEMs on corrosion preven-
tion methods.
"We need to take a few extra steps to protect these
transmissions," Mouton says. "For example, we put a
transmission varnish available from Sikorsky on the
through bolts and dip them to the bottom of the threads
to protect them from corrosion.
"We also use a two-part sealant to seal all mating
surfaces on the outside, all boltheads and anywhere
water can collect and remain. The sealant does a great
job of protecting the transmission against the environ-
ment but it creates a little additional work during inspec-
tion and overhaul."
Pat Clay, technician for the company, says, "You've
got to scrape the sealant off of the boltheads and away
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a formula in the book and if you fall within a specific
range of shims you may be able to adjust it," he says.
Clay explains that some of the backlash readings
may come out close to the maximum allowable, but the
important thing is that the wear isn't progressing. If
you have a reading that's marginal, and the wear shows
signs of progressing, you may want to consider making
further repairs.
Saving time
One thing that some shops don't realize is that
Bell allows you to run slightly over the inspection inter-
val (100 hours over, so long as you don't exceed 1,600
hours) so that you get the maximum time out of the
transmission.
If you perform the inspection before the 1,500hour
time limit, you could potentially lose 20 to 30 hours on
the transmission over its life.
Since the overrun is allowed, and there are very few
problems with this transmission, it's wise to use the
additional time that Bell allows.
from the parting surfaces in order to split the case. Be
careful, however, when removing it. Use a plastic or
plexiglass scraper to remove it; use of a steel knife, razor
or other metal instrument will scratch the case and set
up stress areas that may cause cracking."
Clay explains that a common area to see corrosion of
the Bell 206L transmission is in the flange area between
the top case half and the gear shaft case. The reason, he
says, is largely because of dissimilar metals-the top case
half is aluminum and the gear shaft case is magnesium.
Clay says that Bell provides a coating to spray on the
magnesium surface of the gear shaft case to prevent
corrosion. "We've found that it's not very effedive and
through experimentation have found that a product
provided by Aerospatiale called Graphoil-D (P/N 148)
works much better," he says. "As a matter of fact, we
haven't noticed any corrosion in this area when
Graphoil-D is used; it's a kind of slippery Teflon coating
that remains on the part and protects it quite well."
"We're very corrosion minded," Mouton says, "we're
in the worst environment you could ask for. If we can't
paint it, we seal it-everything has got to be sealed when
operating in the Gulf.We've got to take additional steps
to protect our equipment beyond what the manufacturer
recommends as adequate for most environments."
January/February 1993
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 1!?5
Accessory Technology

Safety wiring basics

By Greg Napert

E
veryone who makes their living as a technician
has experienced "breaking-in" their hands on Double-twist safety wiring
safety wire. You either learn quickly to respect its
razor-sharp edges, or lose enough blood to supply a small
blood bank for a year.
Once you get the hang of it, however, it's quite
common to gain a sense of pride over your safety wiring
skills. Besides contributing to aesthetics, a good safety
wiring job can add to safety and reduce hazards for
those who tread in the same territory during future
maintenance andlor inspections.
Unfortunately, human nature tends to make people
complacent when people become too farmliar with some
thing-this can result in skipping over basics and form-
ing bad habits.
For instance, how many of you use the automatic
twisting feature of safety wire pliers when twisting the
end tail on a safety? Safety wlring oil caps, drain cocks and valves
If you go back to Basic Safety Wiring 101, you'll
remember that the tail of the safety should be twisted
counterclockwise in order to assure that the loop around
the bolthead remains in place-while the portion
between the fasteners is twisted clockwise. Safety wire
pliers will always twist the wires in the clockwise direc-
tion. So when you get to the tail of the safety, you've
got to reverse the direction of the twist-which means
getting the 01' wrists into the act and reversing the
direction of the twist.
Another item commonly overlooked is the recom- Single-twkt safety wlring dwtrlcal connectom
mended number of twists per inch. Too many twists per
inch results in the safety wire being too tight, which
means the wire is overstressed and therefore weakened;
not enough twists, and the wire is too loose, which may
allow the fastener to release. The recommendation is
four to five complete revolutions of the pliers per inch,
or eight peaks per inch. Take a look at your typical
twists, and see if they conform to this recommendation;
you may want to ease up a bit on the number of twists,
or tighten up if not enough.
In any case, an occasional brush-up of some of the
basics is a good way to iden* problems and prevent
you from developing bad habits. must be bent back or under to prevent it from b e
Here's a quick overview of some basic rules for coming a snag.
safety wiring: When castellated nuts are to be secured with safety
Double-wrap method is preferred over the singlewrap wire, tighten the nut to the low side of the selected
method for wiring turnbuckles. torque range, unless otherwise specified, and if
necessary, continue tightening until a slot aligns with
A pigtail of 1/4 to 1/2 inch (three to six twists)
the hole.
should be made at the end of the wiring. This pigtail

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 All safety wires must be tight after installation, but
not under such tension that normal handling or
vibration will break the wire.
The wire must be applied so that all pull exerted by
the wire tends to tighten the nut.
Twists should be tight and even, and the wire
between the nuts as taut as possible without
overtwisting.
The safety wire should always be installed and
twisted so that the loop around the head stays down
and does not tend to come up over the bolthead,
causing a slack loop.
Inside diameter snap rings may be safety wired;
inside diameter snap rings must never be safetied.
Before any screw, nut, plug, etc. is wired, check for
proper torque.
Never reuse safety wire.
Use the size and type safety wire called for in
applicable specifications.
Whenever possible, use the doubletwist safety wiring
method. Limit single twist to small screws located in
closely spaced, closed geometric patterns, or parts in
electrical systems or parts that are difficult to reach.
Avoid kinks, nicks or stretching in the wire.
Always recheck the fastener to assure that the pull
exerted by the wire will tend to tighten the nut.
(The wire should leave the fastener in a clockwise
direction for right hand threads.)

New technology in safety wiring

Recently, a company called Bergen Cable Technologies the cable into the crimp-
introduced a system for safetying nuts and bolts. ing tool, applies tension
The principle, developed in cooperation with G.E. to the cable, and squeezes
Aircraft Engines (GEAA), essentially utilizes the same the tool to crimp the
principle of applying a wire to one or more fasteners ferrule and cut the excess
in such a way, that if the fastener begins to loosen, cable.
the wire tightens and prevents the fastener from The company says
backing out. that the Terminator is
The difference with this new system, though, is that designed to minimize
it eliminates the need for twisting wire, which can be operator training and is
both timeconsuming and produce inconsistent results. equipped with a "cycle
The patented safety cable system consists of three lockout" to ensure that g
basic components: the ferrule is fully q

crimped before the tool 9

Safety cable-which is available in two diameters,
.021 and .032 inch, and various lengths from 9 to 24
inches, in stainless steel and Inconel. The assemblies
come with a fitting swaged at one end and the opposite
end fused to prevent the cable from fraying prior to
installation.
Safety cable ferrules-which are designed to lock
the cable in position. They are prepackaged in a spring-
loaded disposable magazine.
n
Bergen Terminator ' crimping tool-available in
various diameters and lengths. The crimping pressure is
factory preset for consistency. The tool tensions the
cable, crimps the ferrule and cuts the cable flush with
the ferrule.
To safety a bolt pattern, the operator simply slides
the cable through the bolts in the correct fashion, inserts
5
will release. Should the b
4
user stop midcycle, the
cable will not release from
the tool until the cycle is completed (or cuts the cable
away). The company also says that the tool is ideal for
use in tight places where accessibility is minimal.
Bergen says that this system recently received FAA
approval as a standard part based on SAE specification
(AS4536). Approval for use on an installation that
currently calls for standard safety wire, however, must be
obtained on a casebycase basis from the FAA. Compara-
tive data w i l l be available in the near future, explains
Paul Messina, product manager for Bergen, that will aid
in expediting these approvals.
November/December 1992

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Accessory Technology

Do you know Eddy? Current, that is

Basic principles behind an underutilized NDT method

By Greg Napert

0
ne of the simplest, yet misunderstood methods of
NDT (nondestructive testing) in aviation is eddy
current testing. The process, which involves gen-
erating a magnetic field at the tip of a probe to detect
flaws in metals is one that has become highly developed
in the last decade.
Although it's a simple process, the procedure does
require a good basic understan* of the principles
behind the test. Also, due to its level of sophistication,
eddy current equipment is now applied in more ways
than ever; therefore, more skill is required to interpret
results and to screen out erroneous readmgs.
If you think that eddy current is used only to test for
cracks-think again. The testing processes have been In order to determine that there's actually something
developed so that the equipment can also be used to test wrong with a particular indication or reading, you need
for material thickness, hardness, corrosion and more. a standard to test the object against. This can be done in
And the areas that it can be applied to are limited only various ways. The most basic equipment employs a
by the ability to access the area. single coil at the tip of a probe. This arrangement is
referred to as "absolute."
Basic principles In order to determine deficiencies in materials, a
reading from a calibration standard must be taken first.
Troy Woller, instructor at Zetec, an eddy current
The reading obtained from standard is noted and then is
equipment manufacturer and training school in Issaquah,
used as a comparison for the test piece.
WA, explains that conventional eddy current testing uses
A more complex arrangement of coils, known as
alternating current sent through a tiny coil at the end of
"differential," consists of two or more coils electrically
a probe to produce an alternately expanding and collaps-
connected to oppose each other. According to Woller, the
ing magnetic field.
result of placing opposing coils on identical test objects
This magnetic field, referred to as the primary field,
when placed near a conductive object, generates small
is a net output of zero, or no indication.
currents in the object called eddy currents-the same The arrangement of the coils in a differential setup
depends on the application. It's desirable, in some cases,
principle behind the generation of electricity.
to rearrange the coils in a setup known as "selfcompari-
The eddy currents in this object, in turn, (using the
son." With this setup, the coils are physically located
rightrhand rule, a basic law of electricity) produce a
next to each other at the end of a probe.
small magnetic field of their own, called the secondary
As the probe is passed along a surface, each coil
field, which opposes the primary field.
It's thia opposition to the primary field that produces continuously produces a signal that opposes the other.
Inconsistencies in the material are indicated when one
an impedance, or opposition to flow in the test coil. This
of the coil's signals is altered due to a flaw in the
opposition is then monitored and the results interpreted.
Variations in test materials including: type of material. This arrangement is insensitive to test objed
variables that occur gradually, such as slowly changing
material, thickness, hardness, permeability, cracks and
wall thickness, diameter or conductivity.
corrosion affect the conductivity of the material and s u b
sequently, the amount of eddy current flow. For example,
A more common variation of the differential arrange
says Woller, "if we have a break in a material, the eddy ment, known as "external reference differential," also
uses two or more coils electrically connected to oppose
currents experience more resistance to flow. This, in
each other. However, one of the coils in this setup is
turn, reduces the amount of secondary magnetic field,
used simultaneously on a reference object, while the
which in turn reduces the impedance of the coil. It's this
other is used on the test object.
change in impedance which tells us something about the
materials that we're testing."

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 Because this arrangement is used to detect diifer-
ences between a standard object and test object, it's
best for use in comparing conductivity, permeability and
dimensional measurements.
Woller says that most of the equipment on the
market today uses the external reference differential coil
arrangement to achieve accurate readings.
Test equipment
The most simple eddy current test equipment, com-
monly referred to as metered instruments, depends on
only the impedance (one value) to evaluate materials.
Even though this equipment is valuable, its use is
limited. Woller explains that "metered equipment can
only tell you that there's something wrong with an
object. It doesn't tell you specifically what's wrong."
More sophisticated eddy current equipment, referred
to as "impedance planen devices, takes eddy current
testing a few steps further. In addition to monitoring the
impedance of the coil, these instruments also monitor
another variable-the time that it takes for the magnetic
field to penetrate the test object. This additional informa-
tion provides a critical variable to the eddy current
equipment known as the "phase angle."
In order to display this information you need to have
a display that's capable of displaying two values, in other
words, an instrument that will graph or plot the informa-
tion on a twodhensional surface.
Impedance plane instruments display and define
variables that provide information such as depth of
penetration, and allow the user to separate and define
variables present in the test object that could not be
seen using metered equipment.
In addition to allowing the user to determine things
such as skin thickness and depth of penetration, the
impedance plane device also minimizes the potential for
erroneous errors in readings.
For example, Gary Davis, instructor for Trans World
Airlines says that "impedance plane devices give you one
reading when you unintentionally lift a probe off the
surface. This is referred to as W f f and is indicated on
the instrument panel by a straight line to the left. If you
This is the plot as shown on the screen of an impedance
plane display. Cracks are shown at 1.0, 0.4 and 0.2mm deep.
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run across a crack, however, the reading is portrayed
as a line in a different direction. With a metered instru-
ment, he explains, you wouldn't know the difference and
may assume that there is a crack in a part when there
really isn't. It allows you to discriminate between actual
cracks and human error."
Applications
Generally speaking, the application of eddy current
testing to large surface areas is impractical. The cost of
equipment needed to scan large surface areas makes it
ideal for testing small surface areas only.
Additionally, most of today's equipment is designed
to be used on non-ferrous materials. Woller explains
that although it's possible in some cases to apply eddy
current to ferrous materials, the power requirements
needed to effectively use it for ferrous test objects
preclude most equipment from being used.
However, an example of one piece of eddy current
equipment, that is designed specifically for detecting
cracks in ferrous welds, is available from KrautKramer
Branson. The company's WeldScan is designed for
detection of surfacebreaking cracks in ferrous welds.
This wheel testing system is only one of many special
application probes designed for use in aviation.
Test probe development has allowed application
of eddy current to areas that previously couldn't be
inspected. Special probes have been developed for scan-
ning the inside diameter of holes, including bolt holes.
Zetec, for instance, makes a special probe coil that
spins as it is withdrawn from the hole at a uniform rate.
The probe is capable of being indexed so that any flaws
that are found can be located and identified.
Another eddy current equipment manufacturer,
Foerster Instruments Inc., has developed a universal
wheel testing system for testing wheel rims (bead seat
area) of aircraft. A gear mechanism design makes it
possible to accurately inspect the radius and adjacent
areas of wheel hubs.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 199
Accessory T8chnolofly
For testing bolt holes, probes have been developed
that are essentially a miniature coil mounted on a single
thread of a plastic rod that's machined to the specifica-
tions of the threads being inspected.
Some of the basic probe designs available include:
Probe coils-also referred to as surface coils, probe
coils, flat coils or pancake coils. As the name implies,
these coils are used to scan the surface of test
objects. They are available in various shapes to aid in
inspecting irregular areas. Pencil-shaped probes are
common to overcome a variety of obstacles. Probe
coils are also used where high resolution is required
because of the ability to shield the coil. A desirable
trait for probe coils is to be spring-mounted so that
a preload is placed on the tip of the probe as the
scanning is performed. This makes it less likely that
the user will unintentionally lift the probe off the
surface of the test object.
Encircling mile- also referred to as OD coil and
feed-through coil. This type of coil is used to inspect
tubular and bar-shaped products that are fed through
the coil at a high rate of speed. It's important, says
Woller, to keep objects centered in this type of coil.
Because a larger area is examined (the entire circum-
ference at any given point) at one time, the sensitiv-
ity is lowered, and uniform readings are difficult
to obtain.
Bobbin m h - also called ID coils and inside probes.
These coils are used to inspect the inside diameter or
bore of tubular test objects. These coils are inserted
with semiflexible cables or blown in with air and
retrieved with an attached cable.
Selecting equipment
Of the many different manufacturers of eddy current
equipment, most provide two basic types of equipment,
metered and impedance plane. However, Bill Chevalier,
marketing director for Zetec, says that there are many
differences to consider when selecting equipment, some
subtle and some not so subtle.
Some of the important items to look for when pur-
chasing or selecting equipment to use, he says, include:
Suitable frequency range- The frequency range af-
fects the depth of penetration of the test equipment.
A wide range to select from will allow you to be
selective in the penetration of various test objects.
200 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Resolution of the equipment-This affects the ability
to discriminate between signals of interest and
unwanted signals, such as noise, and affects the
accuracy of the tests. The resolution is affected by
many factors such as instrumentation design, ability
to filter the data and signal mixing of data.
Availabiliity and variety of probee- For the widest
variety of applications it's desirable to have a wide
range of probes to select from. Typically, one
manufacturer's probes are capable of being used on
a different manufacturer's equipment with adapters.
Type of monitor -Manufacturers incorporate various
types of monitors such as CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
which have good resolution but can be easily dam-
aged, and LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) which are
harder to damage and also provide good resolution.
Chevalier says to make sure that the LCD displays
are equipped with a heater so that they perform
reliably in cold temperatures.
Field adaptable-Check to see if equipment is
portable, rugged, batteryaperated, comes with a
detachable battery pack (so that depletion of the
battery doesn't take the tester out of service) and is
UL listed (which assures the unit is safe for use in
hazardous environments such as inside a fuel cell).
Memory- Many manufacturers are adding the
capability to their equipment to store programs for
easy recall.
Customer service- Look for a manufacturer who'll
provide you with support and loaner equipment in
the event that your equipment needs to be sent out
for servicing.
It's important to note that there is a big difference
in price between the metered and impedance plane
equipment. This price disparity makes understandmg
the application of the equipment very important when
determining the type of equipment you need.
Finally, purchasing the equipment is useless unless
you learn how to use it properly. Therefore plan on an
investment in training, as well as an investment in the
equipment. Not only do most of the manufacturers offer
courses on their equipment, but there are many schools
throughout the country that offer the courses as part of
their NDT curriculum. September/October 1992
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 More than meets the eye
Today's borescope can be an important timesaving and
money-saving tool, but know what's out there before you buy

By Greg Napert

T
oday's borescope can be a very versatile tool when
it comes to engine inspection. In some cases,
the cost savings that can be realized make the
instrument a necessity.
Recent advancements in borescope technology have
given the instrument additional value. Besides having
the ability to aid in visual inspection of internal compo-
nents, the borescope can also be used as a tool for
retrieval of lost parts, eliminating the need for engine
disassembly in the event of a mishap.
Additionally, advancements in video borescope
(videoscope) technology have given the technician the
ability to document inspections and share this informa-
tion long distance through the use of computers,
telephones and other communication equipment. There
are still some limitations, however, and it's important
that a good amount of consideration be given to what
equipment is purchased before you're stuck with some
thing that can't be used.
Among some of the questions that you should ask
when making purchases are: Does the manufacturer
supply specialized inspection equipment for the model(s)
of engines that you work on? Is the resolution of the
equipment good enough to detect the type of damage
you're looking for? Is the equipment versatile enough to
be used for other types of inspections? Does the manu-
facturer provide support for its equipment?
Basically, borescopes can be broken down into three
categories: rigid borescopes, flexible fiberscopes and
videoscopes.
around obstacles. Typical application includes inspection
of cylinder walls, inspection of the internal diameters of
straight shafts or assuring the proper seating of turbine
assemblies during assembly.
Rigid borescopes are available as a single length bore
scope, or with telescoping or extender sections to accom-
modate varying depths. Also, various viewing heads are
available to allow you to see objects at multiple angles or
various maflications.
Flexible borescopes
Flexible fiber-optic borescopes, also known as
fiberscopes, utilize a flexible fiber-optic image bundle to
transmit an image to the eye.
The image bundle is composed of thousands of glass-
fiber strands capable of snaking into hard-to-reach areas.
The resolution of this image bundle is dependent on its
construction. Alignment, tightness of packing and
amount of fiber breakage can all affect the transmission
of the image and typically, the higher the quality, the
higher the price.
Because of the fiberscope's flexibility, the ability to
articulate (bend) the tip of the instrument is necessary
to manipulate the probe for viewing and for guiding it
into position. Most fiberscopes have the ability to be
articulated in at least one plane (up and down) and some
can be articulated in two planes which makes it possible
to rotate the tip in a complete 36Megree arc.

Rigid borescopes
Because of their rela-
tive simplicity (straight
tubular design incorporab
ing relay lenses), rigid
borescopes are capable of
giving you the highest
quality resolution. They
are also the least expen-
sive, but their use is
somewhat limited. Thev
can only be used where
there's no need to maneu-
ver the instrument

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Examples of the power of working channel borescopes and samples of the different tools available. The tips provide a set of
tools to be used at the tip of the borescope.

To assist in working the borescope into critical areas One example of efficient use of the workingchannel-
of jet engines, some manufacturers supply sheathes, type borescope, according to Olympus Corporation, is in
which are prebent tubes that guide the borescope into inspecting the Pratt & Whitney FlOO engine. "A hook is
a predetermined area. The sheathes are available for placed onto the tip of the borescope," says the company,
specific engine models and for various inspection areas "and instead of entering the engine from the rear and
on these engine models. Additionally, some fiberscopes going through the third
have focusing capability, and some don't. &d fourth stages-a long,
Accessories and attachments are available for the tedious process-the
fiberscope that include camera adapters, corner sensors, inspector enters through
various light sources and more. the first stage and hooks
Workingchannel scopes, which are flexible the scope on the trailing
borescopes with a hollow channel into which an instru- edge of a firsbstage blade.
ment can be inserted, can be extremely helpful when Then, the turbine is
working with engines. Various working tips, retrieval manually rotated and the
tools, cutters and magnets can help in the retrieval of scope tip is pulled into
nuts and bolts that would otherwise require the disas- the engine. This elimi-
sembly of an engine. nates 29 separate inser-
tions and many hours
of work."
In addition to working-
channel borescopes,
measuring fiberscopes are
available which allow you
to accurately measure
damage and make deter-
minations on continued
operation.
Another type of fiber-
scope is the ultraviolet
0fiberscope. The UV Single plane articulation
(top) and dual plane
scope is used in conjunc- articulation (bottom) allow
tion with dye penetrant the user to maneuver the
to test components borescope into otherwise
for cracks. hard-breach areas.

'
Tools such as the four-prong retriever (top) and the retrieval
hook (bottom) can be invaluable timesaving devices.
Videoscopes
The videoscope, which essentially consists of a minia-
ture TV camera at the end of the insertion tube, sends
an image to the eyepiece, or monitor, through a wire-
instead of through fiber optics or a series of lenses.
The advantage with the videoscope is that length of
the insertion tube isn't limited by the quality of the
image or the cost of the optics. At a certain length, fiber
optics become economically impractical to manufacture.

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 Alignment of the fibers is critical to good resolution of the
image. Photo on right is example of poorly aligned fibers;
note the indistinct edges of the image.

There are a number of light sources, however, and

there are some that are considered brighter than others.
Keep in mind that videoscopes and video systems used
Although videoscopes haven't been considered appro- in conjunction with fiberscopes or rigid scopes will
priate for engine inspection in the past, the quality of require more light than the human eye.
the image and reduction in the size of the electronics Among the brightest
have made them more compatible for this task. sources of light, though
In addition, advances in positioning methods have not the most common,
added to the flexibility of the videoscope. For example, are the xenon and the
Welch-Allyn recently released the "Flying-Probe," that metal halide lamps. Both
incorporates a jet microthruster to aid in the positioning of these are discharge
of the probe tip. The jet force at the tip of the probe type lamps. Incandescent 8
quickly pulls the instrument through cavities to loca- lamps are more popular, 5
tions previously unreachable by traditional borescope however, typically generab B
techniques. ing an average of 150 Guide tubes, such as the
The potential length of the videoprobe (up to 70 feet) watts through a fiber- one pictured above for the
makes it ideal for use in areas such as inside fuel cells optic light guide to the tip PT6, are available for
and underneath floor panels. of the borescope. various engine models.
Around aircraft, it's
Illumination also a good idea to make sure that the light source
Despite the quality of the borescope you're using, you're using is rated as an explosion-proof light source,
any borescope is virtually useless without a good particularly if you're using it near fuel tanks. Another
light source. consideration is the portability of the light source. If you
According to Olympus Corporation, "the true perfor- require a battery-powered light source, the intensity of
mance of a light source is the result of all of the compo- the light will not be as great as a plug-in model.
nents in the illumination system: the type of lamp used Other light sources available include W, for perform-
in the light source, its effective reflection and concentra- ing dye penetrant inspections, and strobe lighting
tion of light on the light guide plug, the efficiency of the sources, for freezing motion.
scope's illumination system, including the light guide Regardless of type of borescope that you're consider-
bundle and the windows that bring the light to bear on ing, it's important to talk to as many sources as possible
the subject and finally, the ability of the scope to trans- prior to making any selection. It's also wise to contact
mit the reflected hght from the subject into a bright the manufacturers and get as much detailed information
image at the eyepiece... In other words, the scope and as possible on the type of equipment that they offer. W
the light must work together as an efficient system." July/August 1992

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Precision bearing inspection
By Don Ross

F
rom the turn of the century, anti-friction bearings disassembly, cleaning and
have become an important part of almost every inspection in order to cer-
mechanical device developed by man. Their tify them for continued
importance is particularly evident in modern aircraft service.
where thousands of different sizes and types of bearings Bearing integrity is
are utilized. very important. Specific
In an effort to extend bearing life and achieve the serial numbered bearing
highest reliability, stateof-theart bearings require the components must be main-
best materials and lubricants, exacting tolerances and tained as a unit. During
rigid inspection procedures. disassembly, identify and
Too often, precision high-speed bearings don't make tag matched items for pro-
it to their full design life. They're prematurely removed cessing. Don't commingle
from service for reasons that are preventable. Part of matched items with other
the problem lies in not recognizing the importance of like items.
bearing workmanship, proper inspection techniques and Although it's not neces-
sound decision-making. sary to return individual
An engine's expected service life depends on the rollers to the exact cage
thoroughness and accuracy of a quality bearing inspec- pocket they were removed
tion program. from. it is critical to main-
The purpose of this article is to help standardize the Color change due to specific tain proper thrust posi-
interpretation of discrepancies found during bearing temperature application on
tions usually marked on
two types o f bearing
inspections and reduce the rejection rate of precision material. raceways.
bearings based on maintenance manual and standard
practice procedures. Demagnetization
Before bearings can be cleaned or inspected they
Removal/installation need to be demagnetized. Bearings become magnetized
The greatest single source of unnecessary bearing over a period of time due to general rotation, w e l w
damage occurs during bearing removal and installation. without proper grounding, aircraft radar operation and
Using adequate care during these operations can't be even lightning strikes.
overstressed. Most bearings, manufactured of steel alloys, accumu-
Whenever possible, welldefied bearing removal late a certain amount of residual magnetism during use
areas should be established. These areas must be kept and tend to retain steel chips and particles during the
clean and protected against exposure to moisture, cleaning process.
abrasive materials and corrosive fumes.
Proper tools that are clean and in good condition Cleaning
must be available. Worn or broken tooling or improper The success of any bearing processing program
removal techniques can lead to bearing rejection or depends on the effectiveness of the cleaning procedures.
failure. Bearings must be cleaned before inspection and relub
Along with keeping a clean shop it's important to rication. Individual bearings vary widely in the type and
compile complete and accurate inspection records. Such amount of contamination present. The cleaning results
records expedite inspecting or reworking and lend assur- obtained by a given cleaning procedure will also vary,
ances to a thorough and carefully monitored bearing and close control of the process and evaluation of clean-
inspection program. ing results must be maintained.
In some cases, access during unrelated repair, for A solvent bath and rinse can usually clean cold
instance, a visual integrity inspection, is all that's section bearings. However, chlorinated solvents tend to
required. A visual inspection should be accomplished absorb water and form harmful acids that may corrode
without magnification, except where indicated to further bearings. Hot soapy water with a soft b r i d e brush works
define a suspected defect. well on silver cages. A sonic cleaner is best used for non-
A scheduled inspection most often requires bearing separable bearings.
removal and replacement with new bearings or complete

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 Bearings that have been cleaned of all protective
films are particularly susceptible to corrosive attack. To
protect these bearings from finger acids, it's important
to wear clean latex gloves. It's also essential to handle
and store unprotected bearings and assemblies in low
humidity environments.
During engine operation, bearings can take on differ-
ent color changes due to staining, overtemperature,
chemicals or oxidation. In most cases, the colors are due
to oil staining. This is seen frequently on bearings that
operate in the engine's hotter zones. An oil-stained
bearing is acceptable and doesn't need to be cleaned to
its original condition. The colors that are of greatest
concern are those that are due to overtemp.
Discoloration or bluing of the bearing's exterior
usually indicates overheating. Likewise, bubbling or
flaking of the silver plating on the cage also indicates
excessive operating temperatures.
If an overtemp condition is suspected, clean the bear-
ing in a caustic solution to determine if a true overtemp
condition exists.
Heat discoloration of bearing surfaces ranges from
light straw to blue or purple. Purple or blue discoloration
which still exists after the bearing is properly cleaned in
a caustic solution is cause for rejection.
Use care when evaluating discolored bearings.
Inspection
Bearing inspections should be conducted in a clean
room, well-lit and humiditycontrolled. Careful inspection
techniques will detect most all normal surface defects or
material decomposition.
Some bearings don't have to be disassembled. These
"non-separable" bearings may vary from engine to
engine. For instance, the same exact bearing part
number used in several locations has different loading
characteristics in different environments. What may be a
"throw away" or "time change" item in one engine may
be an "oncondition" item in another.
For non-separable bearings, a detailed visual inspec-
tion must be performed to ensure the cage is free of
cracks and loose or missing rivets. A bearing analyzer
can be used to amp@ the vibration noises that rolling
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elements generate when there's a surface defect or
obstruction on the contacting active surface.
Properly understanding the bearing analyzer's read-
ings can help you determine if the problem is an outer
raceway defect, an inner raceway defect, a ball defect or
a combination of the three.
Depending on maintenance manual criteria, the
bearing is thoroughly examined with the aid of a 6 to 20
power microscope, for early stages of bearing distress,
damage and defects. During the inspection, you must
identify the defect, determine the cause and recommend
the necessary corrective action to be taken.
A specific radius ball-tipped stylus or scriber is used
to help determine the acceptability of a visual defect.
When used correctly, a stylus of known radius can
be used to accept or reject bearings with various
surface defects.
A lightweight, aluminum-handled stylus should be
used. The stylus should not be firmly grasped but guided
with the finger and thumb over the area to be inspected.
The only pressure exerted on the defect to be checked
should be the weight of the stylus.
In order to help standardize the interpretation of
discrepancies found during a bearing inspection, it's
mandatory to follow correct maintenance manual
procedures appropriate for your engine.
Preservation
After inspection, bearings must be given immediate
protection by applying either a lubricant or preservative
coating prior to use or storage. The type of lubricant
used is dependent on the application, bearing design and
operating conditions that will be encountered.
To avoid potential corrosion damage, don't store bear-
ings in an area cooled by an evaporative cooler. Also, to
prevent the possibility of magnetizing bearings, never
store bearings near electrical equipment.
Bearings are extremely vulnerable in a clean and dry
condition and must be handled and preserved properly.
Remember, clean and dry bearings plus humidity and
fingerprints equals corrosion, pitting and etching.
Don Ross is a training instructor a t Garrett General
Aviation Services Division in Phoenix, AZ.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 205
'Fypical bearing defects
The following are inspection criteria for bearing compo-
nent defects:
Pits are small, irregular-shaped cavities in a surface
from which material has been removed by corrosive
action such as chemical or electrolytic attack or metal
fatigue.
Nicks and dents are slight depressions or hollows on
the surface made by mechanical injury to the material
such as blows or pressure caused by hard objects contact
ing the finished surface.
Scoring is deep, multiple scratches caused by sliding
at the rolling contact surface in the presence of foreign
particles usually found on ball, roller and raceway
surfaces.
Roller end wear may appear as circular scratches,
burnishing, scuffing, frosting or pitting. Qpical examples of, from left to right: scoring, brinefling,
Scratches and scuffs are narrow, shallow linear abra- pitting and spalling.
sions caused by moving sharp objects or particles across
a surface. Arcing results in a round, pibshaped cavity in a
True brinelling is a plastic flow of metal charader- surface from which metal has been removed by an
ized by smooth, shiny bottomed indentations in raceways electrical arc, causing a temper change in the metal
and rolling elements usually equally spaced correspond- around the pit-shaped cavity. Arcing is caused by light.
ing to rolling element spacing. ning strikes, welding without proper grounding, etc.
False brineling is characterized by surface marks or Cracke and fractures are separations, fissures or
blemishes on balls, rollers or raceways that normally ruptures characterized by sharp edges and/or sharp
have a polished or satin finish appearance. changes in direction.
Corrosion on surface areas is characterized by a Skidding is excessive slipping between balls or rollers
broken, pitted or discolored appearance. Corroded and raceways. Skidding is evidenced on roller bearings
surface areas will exhibit an orange color. by a burnished or frosted ring around the rollers andlor
GaIling is a more severe condition of fretting where raceways... on ball bearings by a speckled wear pattern
there's a significant transfer of material between or by a burnished or frosted ring on balk and by
surfaces due to welding and breakaway of particles. burnished or irregular frosted or smeared areas on the
Cage defeds which are cause for rejection include: inner race.
silverplate flakmg from base metal, peeling and blister- Spalling is exhibited by irregular-shaped cavities
ing; grossly uneven silverplate wear on the pilot surface; of flakedaut metal from a raceway or rolling element
cage pocket wear that has worn through the silverplate; surface with jagged bottoms caused by r o b contact
and cracked, bent or broken cages. fatigue.
May/June 1992

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 Accessory Technology

The neglected E L '

Up to 40 percent currently in use may be inoperable

By Greg Napeft

J ust about everythmg ever taught to the student

A&P about the emergency locator transmitter
(ELT) is contained on about half a page in the
Airframe and Powerplant Mechanics Airframe Hand-
book. The information covered is just enough to know
that the unit operates on 121.5 MHz, can be tested, and
must have the battery replaced at a specific interval.
There's much more to this instrument, though, which
when properly functioning can be a lifesaving device.
Unfortunately, however, inadequate service and poor
training have resulted in many non-functional ELTs and
there are aircraft flying around at this moment with
these inoperable ELTs.
According to the Radio Technical Committee on
Avionics (RTCA) Document DO-182, 97 percent of all
ELT activations are false alarms (40 percent of those
false alarms are at airports with towers, 37 percent at
airports without towers), and the non-activation rate of
ELTs in actual crashes is 70 percent. A more common
problem, though, is the inadvertent activation of ELTs
and subsequent unnecessary search and rescue missions
carried out every year. This very problem was probably
the most significant factor in prompting the FAA to
propose new specifications for the manufacture and
installation of ELTs.
According to the FAA's Notice of Proposed
Rulemaking (NF'RM), issued April 2, 1990, nearly $3.5
million in federal, state and Civil Air Patrol resources
are expended every year on ELT false alarm missions.
Fortunately for all involved, the laws that regulate ELTs
are in the process of changing.
Bob Chambers, chief executive officer of Artex Inc.,
a company that repairs, sells and manufactures ELTs,
says that new legislation will go into effect by April of
this year. These new regulations, which will hclude a
new manufacturing specification (TS069la) will affect
the manufacturing, installation and maintenance of ELTs
in the future.
But even with the final rule going into effect in April,
manufacturers don't have to comply until six months
later, and owner/operators will have until 1995 before
they're forced to replace existing ELTs.
Design changes
Many of the problems associated with false activation
and inadequate maintenance are related to the design of
the ELT under the old regulations. The most important
changes required by TS0691a are modifications to
the G-switch and recommended improvements for
installation.
Problems with current G-switches range from the
switch being too easy to actuate, thereby triggering
numerous false alarms, to not actuating when necessary.
The new design addresses inadvertent activation by
changing from an *instant on" switch to one that must
be held on continuously for a brief period. A pulse of 100
milliseconds or l/lOth of a second of contact is required
before it will come on.
With these new switches, you can't just activate the
unit by bumping it with a jolt on a desktop, for instance.
You have to more closely simulate the G-forces that take
place during a crash. This can be done by pushing it
away from your body then pulling it back quickly. The
new style reduces the likelihood of activation due to
such things as hard jolts, hard landings, touch-and-go
maneuvers and quick stops.
Chambers says that many of the G-switches that
are activated too easily do so because the springs are
actually worn or weakened.

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Accessory Technology
Another reason that Gswitches stop working is due
to corrosion. ELTs that don't conform to new specifica-
tions contain switches that aren't protected from the
environment and are exposed to humidity and condensa-
tion. Over time, contacts and pivot points corrode and
the switch becomes more Wicult or impossible to
activate. TSOC9la attempts to alleviate this problem by
requiring G-switches that are hermetically sealed which
reduces the likelihood of corrosion.
Installation
Another problem with current regulations is that
installation standards aren't good enough. Chambers
says that most mounting brackets leave a lot to be
desired and that many ELTs have killed pilots because
of not being securely attached to the airframe.
"They break loose and just shoot right through the
cockpit. The six to eight batteries enclosed in the ELT
are a concentrated source of weight, and that mass can
penetrate just
about anything,"
he says.
Because of
the many appro-
priate installa-
tions that exist,
TSOC91a will
require mounting
brackets to be
made to with-
stand 100 G's of
shock and still
hold the ELT
securely.
"The ideal
thing," says
Chambers, "is to
have the ELT in
a-good solid
Preferred installation of ELT in mounting frame
helicopters. in the same bulk-
head as that of
the antenna. Then at least in a crash situation, you have
a much better chance of survivability because of the
reduced chance of the antenna cable and related c o m p
nents becoming severed from the system." He also says
that it's important that the ELTs are positioned cor-
rectly. The unit must be mounted so that the Gswitch
will activate in the event of a crash. Keep in mind also
that ELTs installed in helicopters should be mounted
according to manufacturer's instructions.
The new rules may also require that a remote cockpit
switch be apart of every installation. This would inform
pilots of the ELT being activated and give them the
ability to switch the unit off. Another option would be
a remote audible alarm that would be installed in
the cockpit.
W8 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Maintenance
Probably the most important changes to the new
specifications have to do with maintenance require
ments. Chambers says that the new TSO will require
aircraft andlor ELT manufacturers to develop new
maintenance and inspection criteria. These criteria will
address removal of the ELT, inspection of battery, activa-
tion of G-switch, possible testing and evaluation of
condition of Gswitch, and power output of the antenna.
Current inspection requirements simply require the
ELT to be checked for battery expiration dates and to
switch it on to see if it works. But there's more that can
and should be done, says Chambers. "You have to make
sure that the unit is functional in terms of its Gswitch
integrity, its on/off, its power output and that all aspeds
of the ELT are operational."
The G-switch on TSOC91 ELTs can be checked by
removing it from its mounting and giving it a quick rap
against the palm of your hand. When you're testing
TSOC9la units, however, you can only activate it by
p u s h it away from your body and pulling it back in
one swift motion.
Chambers says that, by using this method, you're
applying about a 5 to 7 G shock force. But he empha-
sizes that this is a rather primitive way to check the
operation of the switch and that it really should be
benchchecked using the proper equipment. Unfortu-
nately, the equipment to check the switches is not
readily available to most repair shops.
Besides testing the operation of the switch, Chambers
says that the ELT should always be opened up so that
the battery can be inspected for leakage. Current produo
tion methods for making batteries are pretty good, he
says, but it's impossible to guarantee that they won't
leak. Also, they may go a year without leaking and then
suddenly begin to leak, so it's important to continue to
check the batteries, even if they appear OK.
In the event you find a leaking battery, clean up and
neutralize the spill as soon as possible and replace the
battery. Lealung battery acid will corrode the electronics
inside of the ELT and any metal that it comes in contact
with. Depending on the type of ELT, it may need to be
sent back to the factory for battery replacement.
In addition to checking for leakage, check the battery
expiration date on the outside of the housing. FAA regu-
lations require that the expiration date placed on all ELT
batteries be onehalf of the cell manufacturer's battery
life. If it's expired, or if the battery has more than one
hour of use on it, the FAA requires that the battery
be replaced.
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 Chambers says to be aware of the remaining life on
new batteries and new ELTs when purchasing them.
ELTs that have been sitting at the distributor for
extended periods of time have a reduced lifespan. We try
to encourage all of the distributors to keep only a 30-day
stock of ELTs so that they aren't sitting around for long,
he explains.
Hopefully, expresses Chambers, the new regulations
will help improve current problems with ELTs. But the
problems probably won't be totally alleviated until
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tougher maintenance requirements are imposed. As
a matter of fact, he says, other countries don't have
these same problems. Canada, for instance, requires
maintenance on the ELT annually, and has the situation
under control.
"Eventually," says Chambers, "I think that the United
States should reauire the technician to send the ELT to
an avionics shop at each annual to venfy its operation.
Canada currently operates this way and has established
a good safety record with ELTs." March/April1992
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 209
--
Accessory Technology
Rotor track and balance
By Greg Napert
P
ROVO, UT-Nineteen years of experience as a
helicopter technician stand behind the unwavering
voice of someone trying to get a point across.
The man-Larry Boyer, maintenance training instructor
for Rocky Mountain Helicopters. "There are so many
technicians who don't understand the basics of balancing
and just go through the motions," comments Boyer.
"If you're going to effectively troubleshoot vibration
problems out in the field, you've got to understand the
basic theory behind electxonic balancing."
What causes vibration
In simple terms, vibration is caused by the uneven
distribution of mass around the center of rotation.
However, the complexity of the rotor system is such that
the distribution of mass can be affected by numerous
factors. Aerodynamic forces, for example, can cause an
imbalance to occur and lead to unacceptable vibrations.
Some of these forces are outside of the control of the
technician so it's impossible to completely eliminate
all vibration.
In order to systematically troubleshoot the rotor
system, you need to understand the items that can be
controlled to affect the balance of the rotor system.
These include adjusting blade sweep, tracking, adding
and subtracting weight, and controlling wear.
It's also important to know what types of vibrations
are the most damaging to the helicopter. Boyer explains
that high-frequency tail rotor vibrations cause much
more damage to the helicopter than the low-frequency
vibrations caused by the main rotor. "High-frequency
vibes are the Achilles' heel of helicopter maintenance,"
Boyer says. "They're not always easy to detect or
eliminate, and if they're left unattended, can greatly
accelerate the failure rate of bearings, cause bushings
to quickly wear, and cause components all over the
airframe to fail."
Main rotor vibrations, on the other hand, can cause
the greatest discomfort to those flying on the aircraft,
but the frequency (three to eight cycles per second) is
such that they cause little harm to the helicopter.
Chadwick-Helmuth a manufacturer of balancing
equipment for helicopters classifies correctable vibrations
as: oneper-rev vibrations in the plane of the rotor disc,
and oneper-rev vibrations perpendicular to the plane of
the rotor disc. "Vibrations in the plane of the rotor disc,"
says Chadwick, "are induced by mass imbalance. This is
correctable by adding (or subtracting) the right amount
of weight at the correct locations, or by sweeping blades
210 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
M . Balance weights on a Bell 206 JetRanger are added in
the blade attach bolts. Other helicopters use different
methods for attaching weights.
Rkht. Worn or incorrectly installed bushings on the hub of
a BK117 tail rotor can make balancing difficult and result
in severe vibrations.
(on some models). Vibrations perpendicular to the plane
of the rotor disc are caused by faulty track, which can be
corrected in-flight."
Tracking basics
Because it's very difficult to distinguish which type of
vibrations are affecting the helicopter (it may be a combi-
nation of both), it makes sense to first be sure that the
rotor assembly is tracking correctly before attempting to
balance the rotor.
There are a number of methods that can be used to
determine if track is correct, but regardless of which one
you use, the idea is the same-to get an indication of
where the blades are flying in relation to each other. Old
methods include the use of a stretched out piece of tape
(flag) mounted on a pole. Prussian blue, water-based
paints, grease pencils or crayons are used to mark the
tips of the blades.
As the helicopter's running, the flag's moved to the
blade tips until the blades make contact with the tape.
Marks on the flag indicate the track of the blades, and
the pitch links are adjusted accordingly. New methods
involve using a strobe to freeze the motion of the blades
so that you can visualize where the blades are tracking
while the helicopter's running. The advantage of the
strobe tracking systems is that the rotor can be tracked
while the helicopter's in flight and in different flight
configurations.
Some helicopters have provisions for mounting
mirrors on the tips of the blades. With this system a
light is then directed at the mirrors, and its reflections
indicate the position of each blade.
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Trim tabs also affect the track of the blades. They
finetune the track of the blades in forward flight and
are used to correct a climbing or diving blade. If you're
making adjustments to the trim tabs, make sure that you
don't bend them beyond the limits specified by the
manufacturer.
Additionally, keep in mind that not all rotor blades
will give the smoothest ride in a tracked situation. Some
times the blades must be slightly out of track to give the
most comfortable ride.
Static balancing
Balancing of the rotor system really starts in the
shop with a static balance before it's installed on the
helicopter. This is particularly true in cases where it's
difficult to balance dynamically, or the rotor head is
removed for overhaul.
At Rocky Mountain, a Marvel balancer, manufactured
by the Marvel Manufacturing Company, is employed to
balance tail and main rotor assemblies. The Marvel is
a balancing tool with which the rotor assembly is
suspended from a fixture that indicates a balanced
condition. To achieve balance, weights are added or
subtracted in locations specified by the manufacturer or
the blades are swept fore or aft.
Boyer says that static balancing can also be done
with a knifeedge balancer, provided that you have the
correct cures to support the rotor. "It's still a proven
method," he says.
But the static balance doesn't take into account
aerodynamic forces that affect the rotor while in flight.
You still have to perform a dynamic balance to "fine
tune" the rotor.
Dynamic balancing
The fundamentals of electronic dynamic balancing,
says Boyer, start w i t h understanding that vibration is
caused by the uneven distribution of mass around the
center of rotation. Additionally, you need to understand
that the amount of imbalance is a function of the distri-
bution of weight, the relative position of this weight and
the speed at which it's traveling.
Simply put, your task is to find the heavy spot on the
rotor assembly, and add weight opposite the heavy spot
to achieve an equal amount of weight on opposite sides
of the center of rotation. Sounds like
static balancing, but you're doing it with the rotor head
spinning and the effects of aerodynamics influencing the
condition of the rotor.
In an unbalanced condition, the rotor causes a vibra-
tion in the helicopter. When using an electronic balancer,
this vibration is sensed with a device called an acceler-
ometer. The accelerometer sends an electronic signal to
the balancing unit as it vibrates. The signal is used to
determine the amount of weight in inches-per-second,
and the position that the weight needs to be added.
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Accessory Technolofly
Although many vibrations are picked up from different
parts of the helicopter, the accelerometer can be elec-
tronically filtered or "tuned" to eliminate all vibrations
except the one you're interested in tuning in. Tuning is
done by setting the balancing unit to the rpm of the
item that you're balancing.
The filtered signal, sent when the heavy spot on the
rotor passes the accelerometer, triggers a device which
helps the technician determine the position of the rotor.
The device for determining the position of the rotor
depends on the type of equipment used.
Chadwick-Helmuth, for example, manufactures a
balancing unit that uses a strobe to freeze the motion of
TM
the blades called a Strobex . It also can use a magnetic
pickup, called a Phazor"" that senses the position of the
blade and illuminates the blade angle on a ring of 24
lights. The indicated angle of the blade from these
devices, called "clock angle," indicates the position where
the weight needs to be added.
Positioning the rotor to the clock angle places the
heavy spot next to the accelerometer. Theoretically,
weight needs to be added opposite the accelerometer.
But there's very rarely a blade exactly opposite the heavy
spot. So weights have to be added to two or more blades
so that the net effect is placing the weight exactly oppo-
site the indicated "heavy" position. This procedure
usually needs to be repeated a few times before an
acceptable level of vibration is achieved.
You'll know when you're approaching a near balanced
condition, says Boyer, because the clock angles will
become erratic-the image of the blade wiU not be
able to be held in a fixed position during the balance
procedure.
The latest balancing equipment consists of computer-
ized balancers that are capable of achieving track and
balance in as few as two flights. A typical track and
balance using Chadwick's Model 8500C, for instance,
requires a test flight consisting of hover, forward flight
at 130 knots and return to land. During this flight, says
the company, the equipment gathers data, determines
corrective action and displays the solution. Changes to
weight, sweep, pitch link and tab are made as indicated.
Finally, a second flight is made to verify the results.
Tips
Difficulty in achieving balance, even when you're
properly using your equipment can be caused by a
number of factors, says Boyer. Worn bushmgs and/or
bearings are probably the biggest culprit, he says. An
indication that an item may be worn is that the clock
angles observed during balancing are inconsistent. In
other words, every time you stop and start the helicop
ter, the clock angle will change and the assembly will
appear out of balance again.
Excessive wear can make the rotor assembly nearly
impossible to balance if not corrected.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 211
 Boyer points out that vibration is something that
typically develops gradually. One of the most valuable
things that you can do is develop good communication
with the pilot. The pilot can continually monitor the
condition of the helicopter and make you aware of devel-
oping vibrations.
It helps, he says, when different pilots fly the same
helicopter. If the same pilot operates the helicopter all
the time, the changes in the condition of the aircraft
are so gradual that he can't always tell that there's
a problem.
It's also important to develop a good feel for the
bushings and bearings during daily inspections. Grab
bing the blades by hand and wiggling them around can
clue you in to impending failure. This is where experi-
ence pays off. Experienced technicians know what the
bushings and bearings feel like when they're new and
can judge that feel against the deteriorating condition.
Manufacturers typically give limits and methods of
checking bearings in their maintenance manuals.
Boyer also points out that balancing should be
performed on a fairly regular basis to provide continual
smooth operation. Erosion of the blade during normal
use can contribute to vibration problems. "Remember,"
The 4200/6200 Series Slick magnetos have been around
for over 10 years and have remained relatively
unchanged. Recently, however, Slick decided to respond
to input from technicians and redesigned the magneto.
According to the company, engineers compiled a "wish
list" of product improvements based on customer input.
As a result of this input, Slick introduced the 4300/
6300 Series of magnetos.
The primary feature of the new line is the frame
mounted distributor block and gear assembly. Now, when
the distributor is removed, the magneto internals are
exposed without altering the timing.
The rotor gear, which slides onto the end of the
rotor shaft, features more pronounced alignment marks.
A new feature is an alignment mark added to the
distributor block. When the block and gear is installed
on the frame and properly matched with the rotor gear,
the mark on the block and on the rotor gear will align-
assuring proper magneto timing.
A unique feature of the rotor is the slots cast into the
face of the magneto head. The slots are marked " R and
212 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
he says, "that because of the length of the arm you're
dealing with, it doesn't take the loss of much weight to
si&icantly affect the balance of the rotor."
Other items he points to are improper lubrication
and improper handling. For example, permitting the
blade grips to twist on the Bell 206 Series can cause the
blade retention straps to stretch. This results in a longer
blade and throws the assembly out of balance.
Also, says Boyer, track and balance will be much
easier if you run the helicopter in low wind conditions.
Boyer says that "high winds can adversely affect your
results. You'll also have problems when performing bal-
ancing near a building on a windy day. Air flowing over
and around the building will give you extra problems."
Finally, he says, you don't want to be standmg inside
the arc in which the tail rotor boom swings. Control of
the helicopter may be lost during the balance procedure.
"I've seen cases where we've lost control momentarily
and the helicopter's swung around-balancing equipment
and all."
Balancing isn't an easy concept to learn, explains
Boyer. You've got to sit down and practice, even if it's
only with a desk fan-and eventually, it'll sink in.
"L" rotation. With the coil oriented in the 12 o'clock
position, Slick's T-150 E-Gap gauge is inserted into the
slot that corresponds to magneto rotation. The rotor is
turned to hold the tool against the left side of the frame
for leftrhand rotation, and to the right side for righbhand
rotation. The points are then adjusted to where they just
open-E-Gap, in other words.
A new housing and frame assembly encase the
magneto, says Slick. The mating surface of the two
halves is wider for better seals and reduced EM1 (electre
magnetic interference). The result is better radio noise
suppression. Cast into the housing is a groove for an
O-ring used for pressurized applications. The new O-ring
seals are better and less troublesome to service than
earlier gaskets, says the company.
Also, for Lycoming applications, a new solid block
clamp is supplied to ensure secure mounting of the
magneto to the engine.
Slick recommends inspecting the new 4300/6300
magnetos every 500 hours, and replacing or overhauling
them at engine TBO. E l January/Februiuy 1992
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 Accessory Technology

Nickel-cadmium battery maintenance

By Greg Napert

T
he nickelcadmium battery came into existence
as higher-power, longer-life batteries with short
recharge cycles were needed for business and
commercial turbine aircraft.
Although similar to the lead-acid battery, in that it
consists of cells with positive and negative plates, separa-
tors, electrolyte and a similarly shaped container, the
nickelcadmium (referred to as "&ad" by most techni-
cians) battery uses different materials in the construe
tion of the cells.
The plates used in the cells are basically two groups
of porous nickel plates or mesh screen. These plates are
impregnated with nickel-hydroxide for the positive plates
and cadmium-hydroxide for the negative plates. The
plates are separated with a synthetic material to prevent
shorting. The electrolyte, which allows transfer of ions
between the positive and negative plates, is a solution of
potassium hydroxide and distilled water.
Unlike the lead acid battery, the specific gravity of
the electrolyte remains relatively constant. Therefore, the
state of charge of the nickelcadmium battery cannot be
determined by using a hydrometer. The only way to
measure the state of charge is to observe a measured
discharge. The specific gravity of the electrolyte, how-
ever, should be checked periodically to ensure that a
proper mixture of potassium hydroxide and water exists.
The specific gravity typically should remain between
1.24 and 1.32.
The frequency of maintenance intervals for the
nickelcadmium battery varies from installation to
installation and climate to climate. Factors that affect
this interval, says Paul Scardaville, director of engineer-
ing for SAJT America Inc., one of the manufacturers
of nickelcadrnium batteries for the aviation industry,
include the environmental conditions that the battery
is used in, the frequency of use, the aircraft condition, Scardaville says that you should use extreme care in
etc. The best way, says Scardaville, to determine how making sure not to excessively overcharge the battery on
frequently to service the battery is to start with frequent the aircraft. "Probably what has the most impact on the
inspections, and then cut them back until you are battery is not the method that's used to charge it, but
comfortable with the f a d that they are being properly the amount of overcharge that the battery receives.
serviced. Overcharging causes the electrolyte level to decrease-
Many people make the mistake of waiting until resulting in shortened battery life."
there's a noticeable decrease in the capacity before tend-
ing to the battery. At that point, the electrolyte level has Servicing
probably been diminished and there is already damage Cleaning of the nickelcadmiurn battery should be
done to the cells. It's important, he says, to maintain the done only after removing all metal articles from your
battery before the allowable decrease in electrolyte level hands and wrists such as jewelry, watch bands and
is exceeded. Running low on electrolyte exposes the bracelets to avoid severe burns or electrical shock. Then
separator material in the cells allowing them to break wipe all surfaces clean using a dry, clean cloth. The hard-
down. This diminishes the overall life of the battery. ware should then be inspected for any obvious damage

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 213

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such as loose connectors or flaking nickel coating.
Scardaville says that most of the connectors are made of
copper with nickel plating. Any hardware that has
chipped or missing plating should be replaced with new.
The battery should also be inspected for other
damage such as a dented case, damaged vent tubes or
damaged latches. Be sure to retorque any hardware per
instructions in the manufacturer's maintenance manual.
If no damage is found, the next step is to give the
battery a "top charge" which will prepare it for adding
electrolyte and get it ready for further testing. To top
charge the battery, a current of C ("C" being the rated
capacity of battery per hour) divided by 5, for Marathon,
and C divided by 10 for SAFl' or GE should be applied
until the battery voltage reaches an average of 1.50 to
1.60 volts per cell. Don't exceed more than 1.75 volts
per cell.
At this point, the electrolyte level should be checked
and distilled, deionized or demineralized water added.
SAFI' recommends checking the level and filling accord-
ing to its maintenance manual just prior to the end of
the charge. Marathon, on the other hand, recommends
adjusting the water level immediately after the charge,
and GE has more complex instructions on checking the Cutaway view o f typical Marathon nickel-cadmium vented cell.
levels. In any case, the electrolyte should be adjusted
using the appropriate tools per the instructions provided
contain a 1.0 ohm, %watt resistor. This allows any
in the manuals. Overfiirr the cells won't allow for
remaining voltage to discharge without overheating the
expansion of the electrol& and results in spillage into
leads. These shorting clips should remain attached for a
the battery compartment.
minimum of three hours before recharging the battery.
After the electrolyte level has been adjusted, the
Scardaville says that a common mistake made by
battery must be checked for leakage from the battery
many technicians is to deep cycle every battery that
terminals to the case. A reading should be taken from
comes into the shop. This isn't necessary, he says. In
the positive terminal to the case and from the negative
fact, it's actually detrimental to the life of the battery.
terminal to the case; in either instance, the current
"The more deep cycles you give it, the shorter the life.
shouldn't exceed 50MA. Currents of over 50MA can be
Durvlg cycling, the positive plate (nickel hydroxide) has a
the result of leaking or cracked cells, but a thorough
tendency to expand (grow) with the cycling, and as it
cleaning may be all that's needed to eliminate the flow
expands, the active material becomes less available. Even
of current.
though it's necessary to deep cycle to restore the
To determine the capacity of the battery, it's neces-
battery's capacity, you're breaking some of the bonds in
sary to discharge the battery for a specific period of
the sintered material. The result is loss of conductivity
time. The idea is to discharge the battery to see if it in
and an increase in internal plate resistance," he says.
fact can deliver its rated capacity before the individual
"Therefore, deep cycle only when necessary."
cells reach 1.00 volt. A typical example being a 36AH
battery discharged at 18 amps for two hours. At the end
Charging
of the twehour period, the individual cell voltage should
be above 1.00 volt. If the cell voltages fall below 1.00, the After deep cycling of the battery, you're now ready to
battery needs to be reconditioned or deep cycled. charge it. There are a number of methods for recharging
To accomplish this, continue discharging the battery. and normally, manufacturers offer a number of options.
While monitoring the battery, as each battery drops Typically, however, they recommend a two-step charge:
below 0.5 volt, place a shorting clip (Marathon recom- The first step being a high rate of charge, and the
mends using a cinch &gauge minimum insulated wire second step being a low rate charge. The battery is
with alligator clips at both ends) across the terminals to charged to full capacity at a low rate to avoid separator
stabilize the voltage of the cells. The cells should not be damage and reduce the possibility of overheating and
allowed to go to zero or negative voltages. excessive gassing.
This procedure should be done to approximately 75 Aero Quality, an inspection equipment manufacturer
percent of the cells. The last 25 percent of the cells and distributor for aircraft batteries, says that during
(three or four cells) should be shorted with clips that the charge cycle, the cell voltages should be monitored at

214 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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15-minute intervals starting 30 minutes prior to the end
of the charge. This is important because any cells that
are decreasing in voltage near the end of the charge
should be removed from service. Those cells that don't
rise to the manufacturer's recommended voltage should
be top charged for an additional 30 minutes. Cells that
fail to reach f d potential or rise above the manufactur-
er's recommended voltages, should be removed from
service.
The battery should then be checked for capacity by
performing a capacity test. Any battery that fails to pass
this test can be deep cycled up to three more times. If
the battery cannot be recovered by deep cycling, it's time
for a new battery.
Scardadle says that automatic chargers are OK, but
he hghly recommends constant current-type chargers.
He says that the automatic type of charger is incapable
of reacting to problems with the individual cells because
it measures the overall voltage. If a cell begins to heat
up early in a charge, for instance, the charger won't
detect it and will continue to apply power. If you do
choose to use this type of a charger, he recommends
placing the battery on a constant current charger for
15 minutes prior to placing it on the automatic charger.
This allows the battery to accept the high rate of charge
without early overheating.
Thermal runaway
Under certain conditions during the constant poten-
tial charging, some nickelcadmium batteries have been
known to overheat, and sometimes undergo a phenom-
enon called "thermal runaway." This process, character-
ized by high currents and battery temperatures, is a
result of the failure of the membranes between the
plates within the cells, says Scardaville.
"Nineteencell batteries draw more current as they
near the bus potential and thus, dry out faster. Twenty-
cell batteries draw less current as they near the bus p e
tential, and operate at cell voltages below the full gassing
point. As a result," says Scardaville, "they are less likely
to experience thermal runaway."
Thermal runaway, he explains, is simply the result of
oxygen generated on the positive plates recombining on
the negative plates. The cell is designed for this not to
occur. The membrane (cellophane or polypropylene) is
supposed to be a gas barrier, but when this membrane
breaks down, thermal runaway occurs. When it begins to
occur, the temperature of the cell heats up, and as the
temperature rises the cell voltage falls and the current
increases. As the current increases, the temperature
rises, and the whole process continues in a vicious cycle
until the cell is destroyed.
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Accessory Technology
Construction o f cell consists o f nickel-hydroxide and
cadmium-hydroxide plates separated by layers of synthetic
matel+ials.This example is a SAFT cell.
Due to the possibility of this happening, it has been
made mandatory to have some kind of indicating device
in aircraft in the form of a temperature or current
indicator. However. the highest possibility of thermal
runaway exists during an overcharge condition in the
shop. Because of this, it's recommended that the
battery be closely monitored while charging. It's also
recommended that charging not be attempted when the
battery's internal temperature exceeds 145"F, as this is
detrimental to the separator membranes.
A few extra pointers
Scardaville says that it is possible to install a cell
incorrectly if one needs to be replaced, even though i t
is clearly marked as to the positive and negative posts.
If one of the cells is installed backward, he says, and
charged in the reverse direction, then the cell should be
taken out of service. "The material in the cells at this
point has been disturbed to the point where its future
performance becomes unreliable," he says.
He also recommends occasionally rotating the posi-
tion of the individual cells; moving the cells from the
center of the battery to the outside of the battery and
vice versa. The reason for this is that heat is concen-
trated in the center of the battery, and the cells located
in the center are subjected to higher heat for longer
periods of time. Make sure, however, that the cells are
arranged in series and that all hardware is installed as
directed by the maintenance manual.
Finally, nickel-cadmium batteries can be stored, says
Scardaville, for extended periods of time in either the
charged or discharged state. In either case, the ideal
temperature for storage is between 32°F and 86°F. These
batteries, he says, also lose charge over an extended
period of time. so applying a trickle charge a t a rate of
1 milliampere per ampere-hour of capacity should keep
the battery in a fully charged state. El
November/December 1991
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 215
Recip engine synchronization
By Jeff Rogers
P eople r e a d in different ways to the physical sensa-
tions of flying. Whether they find flying fnghten-
ing or fun, passengers become concerned at the
slightest suggestion that something is wrong with the
airplane. A common culprit which may alarm even an
experienced flier is the throbbing growl of
unsynchronized engines.
Regardless of engine type, multiengine aircraft are
prone to undesirable vibrations generated by engines
operating at unequal speeds (rpms). Unsynchronized
propellers produce one "beat" per blade per revolution of
speed. The effect is most noticeable when the engines
are turning within a few rpm of each other.
As engine speeds are brought closer together the
throbbing slows, until it diminishes altogether when the
engines reach synchronization. Although it poses no
siflicant structural problem, the blending of normal
vibrations and noise from each engine can make pilots
and passengers very uncomfortable unless the resultant
vibration and noise are virtually nil.
Synchronization methods
Early efforts toward keeping engines synchronized
relied on pilot technique. Pilots learned to manually limit
the duration of the ouhf-sync condition by matching
propeller speeds with the throttles and prop controls.
Eventually, increasingly complex powerplant technologies
and expanding pilot workloads made it desirable to d e
velop an automatic means of synchronization.
Many engine synchronization systems used in Beech-
craft twins, Gulfstream IVs, Cessna Citations, DG9s and
other aircraft types are produced by the Woodward Gov-
ernor Company. The theory of synchronization is not
complex, and the various Woodward systems provide
effective examples of the process.
The Woodward Type I electronic synchronizer desig-
nates one engine as the "master." The other engine b e
comes its "slave." The synchronizing system increases or
decreases the speed of the slave engine, over a limited
range, until it matches the speed of the master engine.
The limited adjustment range is a safeguard against ex-
cessive power loss. Without this limit, in the event of
master engine rpm drop or complete failure, the slave
engine would also lose power as it tried to follow the
master engine.
The system consists of a control box, a speed setting
actuator, a propeller trimmer assembly, a flexible rotary
shaft which connects the actuator and the trimmer, and
two synchronizer-type propeller governors. The control
216 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
box is the brain of the system. It is fully solid state and
operates on 28v DC power. Current draw is less than 1
amp. The only required control is the on-off switch, as
the system is automatic. The prop governors have built-
in electromagnetic speed pickups. The electric signals
produced by the rotating propellers are fed into the con-
trol box, where they are compared. Any difference in f r e
quency will cause a control command to be sent to the
actuator in the slave engine nacelle. The trimmer assem-
bly on the slave engine prop governor will increase pro-
peller pitch to slow the engine or will decrease propeller
pitch to speed up the engine. When the propellers are
turning at the same speed, the control box removes the
control command to the actuator.
The system's secret of success lies in the "steptype"
actuator drive motor. The steptype motor turns in small
steps, rather than in a continuous rotation. It advances
or retracts the propeller trimmer in increments until the
speed comparator in the control box removes the signal
to the actuator. Then, the actuator remains at that
"step" until the next control command is received. This
eliminates the need for a constant current motor (servo)
to hold the trimmer in position and reduces system
weight and electrical load.
The actuator is built with mechanical stops which
prevent actuator over-rotation from damaging the flex-
ible shaft or trimmer rod end by trying to force the trim-
mer beyond its limit of travel.
Limit switches in the actuator housing tell the con-
trol box when the actuator is out of center, and in which
direction. When system power is turned off, the control
box automatically provides the correct rotation command
needed to center the actuator. This prevents the trimmer
from affecting slave propeller pitch when the system is
not on.
Operation
The synchronization system operates independently
of the pilobcontrolled propeller governors and throttles.
For safety reasons, it is not used on takeoff or landing.
When power is reduced after takeoff, the engines must
be manually synchronized to within the "holding range"
of the sync system (approximately plus or minus 50
rpms for the Woodward Type 1).
When the engines are roughly in sync, the system is
turned on. Slave engine speed will automatically be ad-
justed to match the master engine. To change rpm s e t
tings for desired flight maneuvers and still maintain
synchronization, the pilot should move both prop control
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levers together. This is intended to keep any rpm
difference which may occur during the speed change
from falling outside the system's holding range.
If, after an intentional speed change, the synchre
nizer can't bring the rpm indications back to equal, the
actuator is at either limit of its travel. The system must
be turned off, the engines manually resynchronized
and the system turned back on. The synchronizer will
continuously monitor and adjust slave engine speed
as required.
If it becomes necessary to feather either propeller,
the synchronizer should be turned off. If the system is
left on, and the master prop is feathered, the slave
engine will experience a decrease in rprn as the master
engine stops. If the slave is feathered, the actuator/
trimmer will be uselessly trying to speed it up by adjust
ing an inert prop governor. The sync system should also
be off when unfeathering a propeller. If left on, when
unfeathering the master prop, the slave prop rprn
will drop until the master comes up to speed. When
unfeathering the slave, the system will command
reduced pitch until it speeds up. Any of these situations
will needlessly '%ottom out" the actuator. Unintended
propeller response could also complicate an already
critical situation.
Propeller blade synchronization
An additional source of vibration and noise is the
action of the propeller blades themselves. Although a
synchronization system will adjust the props to turn at
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Accessory Technology
equal rpms, the phases OL
propeller rotation may
still be out of sync. One
revolution of a three
bladed propeller produces
three noise "spikes" and
three noise ''lulls." The
desirable phase relation-
ship between the two pro-
pellers will allow the lulls
of one blade to cancel out
the spike of the other.
The correct phase offsets
(relative propeller blade
positions that provide
noise cancellation) depend
on fuselage shape and
engine/propeller combina-
tion. Phase offsets are
specified by the aircraft
manufacturer.
The Woodward Type I synchrophaser performs identi-
cally to the synchronizer, with the additional capability of
maintaining the desired phase offsets. The synchrophaser
uses the same components as the synchronizer, but adds
a set of phase sensors to each prop shaft. Prop phase
signals are sent to an additional circuit in the control
box. If the phases are out of sync, a corrective phasing
signal is sent to the actuator. This same signal tempo-
rarily overrides the synchronizing function of the system.
The actuator pulses the slave propeller to momentarily
speed it up. Each successive phasing pulse causes the
slave propeller phase to move closer to the master prop
phase. When the props are in phase, the phasing signal
is removed from the actuator, and the synchronizing
function of the system is reactivated.
Flight procedures for synchrophaser operation are
identical to the synchronizer, but several requirements
must be met to achieve maximum synchrophaser perfor-
mance. The propellers must be very responsive to prop
governor pressure changes. This allows the slave propel-
ler to effectively respond to the subtle phasing pulses.
The prop governors must be well-maintained. There can
be no "slop" in the squared or splined ends of the flex-
ible shaft linking the actuator to the trimmer. Without a
mechanically sound propeller/governor combination and
flex shaft, the phasing band (the possible propeller blade
positions that register as being in phase) widens. An
excessively wide phasing band may give the impression
that the synchrophaser is not working properly, when the
problem is really mechanical.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 217
 The Woodward Type I1 synchrophaser eliminates the
actuator, flex shaft and trimmer by using a specially
designed, electrically adjusted prop governor. A single
pickup in each engine senses both speed and phase. The
pickups can be mounted on the prop deice brush blocks,
with the phase targets on the aft spinner bulkhead or on
the prop deice slip rings.
Testing and troubleshooting
Synchronizer operational checks must be performed
in flight. It is not practical to ground-run engines at
cruise speeds long enough to complete the tests, and
small aircraft will bounce around too much. The flight
tests can verify system holding range and automatic
actuator centering.
Manually synchronize the props at cruise speed and
note engine rpms. Turn the system on. Steadily increase
master engine speed. Watch the tachometers to verlfy
that rpms increase together. When the slave engine
speed stops increasing, the actuator is at its "speed up"
travel limit. Note the slave engine's speed. The rpm
increase from cruise speed is the plus follow range. Slow
the master engine back to cruise speed. Observe that the
slave engine follows. Now, slowly reduce master engine
speed below the speed at which the slave engine speed
stops decreasing. The actuator is now at its "slow down"
travel limit. This rpm change is the minus follow
range. Return to cruise speed to perform the actuator
centering test.
With the synchronizer on, increase the master engine
speed until it is close to the "speed up" limit established
in the range test. The slave engine should follow. Next,
turn the system off. Slave engine speed should drop back
to cruise rpm as the actuator automatically centers.
Turn the system back on. Slave engine speed should
increase to resynchronize with the master.
The Woodward system manuals describe test proce
dures using Woodward test equipment to check wiring
continuity and resistance values. Troubleshooting flow-
charts and symptom/cause tables are provided, but
218 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
according to Mark Rein, Woodward synchronizer/
synchrophaser programs manager, the best troubleshook
ing tools are a strong working knowledge of the system
and sound troubleshooting procedures.
"Most of the control boxes sent back to us have
nothing wrong with them," Rein observes. "Many
technicians use a shotgun approach to troubleshoot
ing and overlook the more frequent mechanical
problems." Rein suggests a common-sense approach
and offers these insights:
Many of the Woodward systems are old, up to 25
years. Enginemounted components get dirty. The
flex shafts can bind without periodic lubrication.
Woodward recommends a mixture of 30W oil and
MolykoteG. Hold the flex shaft vertically and
introduce the lubricant at the top end. Spin the
shaft with your fingers until the oil drips through.
A word of warning about lubrication: Never oil the
trimmer rod end. Oil w i l l attack the baked-on lubri-
cant coating, causing it to break off in chunks. Many
technicians have oiled these and thought they were
doing the customer a favor, when they were actually
dooming the parts to failure.
The system control boxes generally last the longest,
as they are mounted inside the cabin. A Type I
system component that is prone to failure is the
four-pole on-off switch, due to fatigue buildup over
the years. Just because the switch lights up doesn't
mean the system is turned on.
Remember that if the props are swapped side to
side, the system will still sense and adjust, but d
maintain a phase relationship other than that
specified by Beechcraft.
Rein concludes that with conscientious and informed
maintenance practices, the synchronizer system can
provide troublefree operation for a long time.
Jeff Rogers is a freelance writer and avionics technician
based at K-C Aviation in Appleton, W7.
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Tbrbine engine synchronization
By Jim Sparks
T he vibration of turbine engines can be described
as a back-and-forth motion in relation to a central
point. Anytime an engine or propeller is produc-
ing thrust, both aerodynamic and mechanical forces are
present and result in blade vibration. Anytime two
objects have the same natural vibrational frequency,
resonance can occur. This is the transmission of vibra-
tion from one molecule to another at a greatly amplified
level. By synchronizing propellers or engines, the result
ing vibration of one powerplant can be used to offset
the other. The concept is really the same as with recip
synchronizers, but the technology is slightly different.
For an engine synchronizer to perform, it has to
be able to observe the rpm of all powerplants. When
engines utilize more than one rotating section (N1, N2,
propeller), provisions are generally made so synchroniza-
tion can work with any group. As with recip engines, a
master engine must be designated to supply the stan-
dard for the remaining engines. On aircraft incorporab
ing four or more powerplants, an alternate may be
designated so if the master engine fails, synchronization
between the remaining engines is still possible.
Synchronizer systems typically consist of a control
box which receives speed signals from the engines,
processes this information, then supplies an output to
the slave engine to match the rpm of the master.
The speed signal for the control box is of great
importance. In many cases, turbine engines obtain this
signal from the engine tachometer generators. These
generators usually provide a threephase alternating
current output. This output may also be used for the
engine speed indicator in the flight deck. The synchro-
nizer control box observes tach generator output voltage
(typically 10 to 21 volts), but is more concerned with the
output frequency (cycles per second).
As engine speed increases, so do the CPS. The valid-
ity of this signal is very important to obtain proper
synchronizer operation. Many conditions exist that can
modify the speed signal resulting in synchronizer
malfunction.
A very simple, yet effective test is to remove the
electrical connector from the tach generator and with
the engine shut down, do a resistance check of all three
generator windings. These values should all be approxi-
mately equal. Probing points can usually be determined
by using the applicable wiring diagram. This check might
be duplicated while applying a heat gun to the generator.
Make sure, however, not to use excessive temperatures.
The idea is to duplicate those found in the nacelle under
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normal operation. A bleed air leak directed onto the
generator could cause a weak voltage output at higher
power settings.
Signal loss can also be caused by wiring problems. A
breakdown in insulation used on a tach generator wire
may sufficiently reduce the output of one phase and can
make the synchronizer operation erratic.
After performing a resistance check on the generator
wiring, it's worthwhile to disconnect the tach indicator
and the input wires to the synchronizer and then do a
complete continuity check followed by a resistance break-
down test of the entire wiring harness.
High-voltage wiring in the proximity of the synchro-
nizer components may also interfere with synchronizer
operation. Stray signals from systems such as strobes or
fluorescent lighting may get induced in the sync system.
This induction will tend to cause erratic sync operation.
Once it is determined that the control box input is
valid from both slave and master tachometer generators,
a response is issued to a mechanical actuator. This actua-
tor is best described as a stepping motor installed on the
slave engine. Opposing solenoids connected to a rotary
device provide the drive. One solenoid is energized
repeatedly, or in steps, to running the unit one way or
increase rpm. The other solenoid is used for the reverse
direction or rpm reduction.
The mechanical response from the actuator is trans-
mitted to the throttle using a flexible cable. Any exces-
sive force required to drive this cable may be sufficient
to null& or desensitize the sync response. This trans-
mission cable is usually maintenance free and any
binding usually requires cable replacement.
Lack of synchronizer response at altitude may be an
indication of moisture in the cable. When this water
freezes, all sync operation stops. In some cases, this
moisture may be purged and the cable relubricated.
Synchronizer systems have a limited range. The usual
operating range is about 1.5 percent rpm on a turbine
engine. These systems also incorporate a self-centering
capability. In normal operation, anytime the sync control
switch is selected "off," the centering system operates
allowing the slave engine throttle linkage to return to its
normal position.
During takeoff and landing, synchronization is
selected "off." This way if the master engine fails, the
slave should not experience a power reduction. Once the
aircraft has been stabilized in climb, the pilot makes
the initial power reduction and engines are manually
matched; then the synchronizer is turned on and will
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 219
adjust the speed of the slave engine to match the master
within its 1.5 percent tolerance.
During ground testing of turbine engines' sync
system, it's usually advisable to do so with engines at
mid-power, then follow specific system manufacturers'
recommendations.
Maintenance on most sync systems is limited to
electrical inspection and checking for condition and
freedom of movement in the mechanical components.
When diagnosing a synchronizer malfunction, a good
pilot debrief is essential. A variable AC frequency genera-
tor is a great help when troubleshooting this system. It
enables speed simulation to the sync box and allows out
put checks to be completed with the engine shutdown.
Many manufacturers supply plans to build additional
test equipment.
220 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Thorough electrical checks are essential when trouble
shooting. A shorted output wire to an actuator may
cause an internal failure in the control box. Replacing a
control box without a complete system check could result
in a second failed box.
It is important to refer to a current Airframe Mainte
nance Manual as well as a specific synchronizer system
manual. Most sync manufacturers publish manuals
complete with wiring diagrams and troubleshooting
flowcharts. Wi September/October 1991
Jim Sparks is the director of maintenance training
for Flightsafety International and is based out of
Houston, TX.
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 Braking tradition
Minnesota shop puts "more" into its brake overhauls

By Greg Napert

T he business jet is in a category all by itself when

it comes to brakes. Unlike smaller light aircraft,
the business aircraft uses braking systems that
are much more complex.
In fact, there aren't that many special tools required
to overhaul the brake assembly, and most of them can be
manufactured very easily. The manufacturer's overhaul
manuals contain drawings and instructions for making
Typically, these brake assemblies consist of a number the tools required. One tool, for instance, for setting the
of plates, called stators and rotors, stacked together like gripper assemblies on the Westwind brake, consists of a
pancakes between a pressure plate and a back plate 1/4inch washer welded to a metal block and a bushing
which contain wear pads. The stators are keyed to a to set the gripper height. This tool allows the proper
component called the torque tube, that is attached to the running clearance to be preset into the overhauled
landing gear, and the rotors are keyed and turn with the brake. Although it's a simple tool, it performs a
wheel. When hydraulic pressure is applied to the pres- critical job.
sure plates, the friction created as a result of the layers
pressing together stops the wheel from turning. Overhaul
Stators and rotors aren't made from the same When the brakes are received into the shop, they are
material. This is critical as steel can't rub against steel broken down into their various components. All parts
or the discs would gall and fuse together. To prevent are stripped of any paint or primer and cleaned up. Any
this, the rotors are typically manufactured with a layer ferrous parts are magnetic particle inspected, and any
of tri-metallic material on their surface which serves as non-ferrous parts such as aluminum or magnesium are
a wear layer. dyepenetrant inspected.
Overhaul of the assembly at first appears to be quite "One of the components," says Sawyer, "that we
simple, but trying to overhaul them without any previous replace regardless of their condition, is the wear pads
knowledge can result, at best, in a shorblived brake, and that are located on the pressure plate and back plate
at worst, disaster. assemblies." These pads, he says, are the primary wear
Lester Sawyer, aircraft technician for Page Avjet surface for the brakes and should always be replaced if
Airport Services Inc. at the Minneapolis/St. Paul you want the full life out of the brakes.
airport, has been overhauling these types of brakes for Many people remove the pads by pressing the rivets
over 13 years. In fad, Page's elaborate shop is set up out of the assembly, but Sawyer says that this practice
specifically for light corporate jet brake overhaul. can damage the back plate and pressure plates.
Sawyer says they've
seen more than one
instance where shops
have tried to overhaul the
brake assembly them-
selves, installed the brake
in the aircraft without
properly testing it and
have had the brake over-
heat the first time the
aircraft is taken out. This
can be prevented if the
overhaul manual is
followed and if you're
familiar with using the
special tools required to
overhaul the brake.

All pads and reused stators are ground to perfect flatness on a surface grinder.

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Pads are drilled from plates instead of pressed. This
prevents damage to the plate.
"Instead," he says, "we drill the rivets out. This assures
us that no additional stress is placed on or damage is
done to the plates."
After the pads are removed, the plates are bead
blasted, magnetic particle inspected and inspected
dimensionally and visually. It's important to remove any
burrs, sharp edges or ridges around the rivet holes, he
says. Ridges around the rivet holes can prevent the new
pads from seating properly and cause warping of the
new pads.
Typically, there isn't much damage to these plates,
says Sawyer. "They're pretty beefy and hold up to a lot
of abuse. As does the brake housing and the torque tube.
We usually don't see any damage at all to the brake
housing," he says. The torque tube does see some
amount of wear at the lugs, where the stators engage it.
These lugs should be checked dimensionally. There tends
to be more wear toward the outside of the tube because
there is more movement, he says, so inspect these areas
carefully to ensure that they're within limits.
The pressure return springs are another item that
should be inspected carefully. The first thing to keep in
mind with them is that they shouldn't be bead blasted.
They're specially coated, he says, and blasting them will
remove the coating. Instead, use a brass brush to brush
any dirt or minor corrosion off of them. They then must
be inspected with a calibrated spring tester to assure
that they aren't too weak. Weak springs should be
discarded and replaced with new.
"The steel stator assemblies often need replacement,"
says Sawyer, "as do the tri-metallic coated rotor assem-
blies. We always replace the rotors because all of the
wear material is worn off. There are limits that should
be observed in the overhaul manual but they usually
don't make it for a second run. And if you did reuse
them they wouldn't last very long. We have the opportu-
nity, however, to save some of the steel stator assem-
blies. If they're within limits,we will reflatten them by
heating them in an oven between two steel plates, then
222 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Ail parts are dimensionally checked and nondestructive
tested (NDT'd) before returning to service.
regrind them flat. Pressure and backplates are then
coated with a primer to prevent rusting."
After all components are inspected and dimensionally
checked, new pads are riveted onto the pressure plate
and back plate. This procedure requires some experience
in setting up the riveting machine. The correct pressure
must be used to set the rivets-too much pressure and
the pads warp-too little and they won't be held tight
enough. The correct setup should result in a pad that
can be moved when between 200 and 100 footrpounds
of torque are placed on it. This check can be done, says
Sawyer, by simply placing a screwdriver between the
pads and twisting. If you can't move the pads by twisting
the screwdriver, they're set too tight. And if they move
with little or no effort, they're not riveted tight enough.
A check should then be made for warping by trying
to slide a .015 feeler gauge between the outer edges of
the pad and the plate where the pads make contact.
If you're able to force the feeler gauge more than 50
percent of the way across the pad, they're either curled
too much or the rivets aren't set tight enough. This
should be determined and corrected.
After the pads are riveted, they are ground so that
they're perfedly flat. "You don't have to remove much
material, just a couple of thousandths, to make them
1 perfectly flat," says Sawyer. "The overhaul manual does
say that you don't have to grind them at all if they are
I all within .010 of each other, but we find that if they9re
not ground flat, the brakes will chatter and squeal
during the initial break-in," he explains. "We've found
that we get much better performance out of them if
they're ground."
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 After all subassemblies are properly rebuilt and
inspected, it's time to recoat them to prevent corrosion.
Page has found that protecting all parts can significantly
extend the life of the brake components. Some of the
OEMs don't place any protection on them at all, and
some overhaulers don't use a good enough product to
protect them. "For instance, we've found that red-oxide
primer is far superior in protecting the steel components
to zinc chromate primer," says Sawyer. "We see our
brakes come back in good condition, complete with
primer still on them, while those parts that aren't
properly protected oftentimes have to be replaced."
Also, when repainting the brake housing, it's impor-
tant that you follow the manufacturer's specifications Pads are riveted and c h e c ~ e aror secunty ay Inserting a
when selecting the type of paint to use. Brake assemblies screwdriver to check for movement, and a feeler gauge to
that will be exposed to Skydrolm,for instance, must be check for warpage.
painted with an epoxy-based paint. Other hydraulic fluids
typically can be painted with lacquer-based paints. assures that there's a significant running clearance. You
After all of the components are reassembled and should be able to turn the rotors in the assembly. If you
torqued per overhaul manual instructions, it's time to can't, either the grippers are set incorrectly, are worn or
test the assembly. the return springs are too weak and should be replaced.
The test basically consists of attaching a hydraulic This problem must be investigated before you proceed or
pressure line to the brake assembly and actuating it on the brakes will drag and overheat when they're first
the bench. One thing to keep in mind before performing used. During the high-pressure check, the brakes should
the check is to make sure that you're using the correct be inspected carefully for leaks.
hydraulic fluid. Depending on the type of brake, it will "Simply following the overhaul manual is usually
either require Skydrol", Braco" or MIL-M-5606 fluid. sufficient when overhauling brakes," says Sawyer, "but
Once the correct fluid has been determined, the we feel that it's important to take the overhaul one step
brake needs to be tested according to the manufacturer's further-adding a few of our own touches so that the
instructions. Typically, this means testing it at a prede brake assembly is sure to make it to its next overhaul
termined low and high pressure. The low pressure without premature failure." 6Dl July/August 1991

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 223

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Accessory nolo& lo&
Rotor head inspection tips
By Greg Napeti
estled in the small community of West Chester,
PA, sits a somewhat unexpected sight. It's easy
to forget that all airfields are not located in wide
open flatland areas, taking up a minimum of 8 to 10
square miles. For Keystone Helicopters, space isn't a
major requirement; expert technicians are.
Typical semirigid rotor troubleshooting chart.
224 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Keystone technicians regularly repair, overhaul and
maintain a fleet of helicopters for corporate and Emer-
gency Medical Services(EMS) and others around the
area. And with helicopter maintenance, it's imperative
that you perform maintenance tasks and operations by
the book with no shortcuts.
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 Like anything else in aviation, it's the small things
that get you. Washing the rotor assembly, for example, if
not done correctly, can be one of the most destructive
things to the mechanism, says Mark Gould, component
shop manager for Keystone. Water that seeps into bear-
ings can lead to corrosion and cause premature damage.
Also, some soaps may not be compatible with the materi-
als used in the rotor assembly. It's imperative, he says,
to make sure that whatever soap is used is approved by
the manufacturer of the aircraft.
Jim Malarsie, director of maintenance for another
helicopter operation, Rocky Mountain Helicopters in
Provo, UT,agrees with this point. Malarsie adds that
pressure washers can be very damaging to bearings and
rubber seals. If pressure washers are used, he says, it
should be done judiciously.
Lubrication and inspection for damage is the crux
of the maintenance performed on the helicopter rotor
assembly. It's important, says Gould, to maintain a
regular program of inspection and lubrication for the
helicopter. Most of the damage seen in the overhaul shop
is due to insufficient lubrication. The lubrication interval
should be adjusted for environmental conditions, he
explains. If a helicopter is flown in sandy or dusty
conditions, for instance, it's a good idea to grease the
bearings more often to force the contamination out of
the bearing areas.
There are some helicopters (one example being the
Aerospatiale Lama), says Malarsie, that have to be
meased with caution. In this model. if the seals between
the grip and the rotor head are damaged, it's possible to
pump grease into the grip without knowing it. If this is
done, the grease will be slung out to the end of the grip
and create an imbalance that cannot be corrected. "If
they tell you to put 4 ounces of grease," says Malarsie,
"put 4 ounces-not 8. Some people think that if some
grease is good, more is better. But that isn't necessarily
the case."
He adds that it's important to keep the area clean.
"Many technicians never clean the grease off of the head
and you end up not being able to see anythmg. Cleaning
the rotor head area thoroughly allows us to perform
inspections without missing anything."
The technician's job doesn't stop at lubrication.
Component inspection, disassembly and replacement
are important parts of preventive maintenance. Gould
explains that you can never be too careful when inspect
ing components. If you suspect a crack in a certain area
and dye penetrant doesn't show anything, you may want
to consider having that part X-rayed.
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Cross section o f elastomeric bearing used on a Sikorsky
S-76 helicopter.
During overhaul of the rotor head assembly, all
components are NDT'd (Non-Destructive Tested) for
cracks and all components tracked for time limits. There
are a number of components, Gould says, that are life
limited on the helicopter rotor assembly, and a number
of them that are on condition. Keeping track of which
components are to be removed from service is a major
part of the job.
An abundance of new technology has emerged in the
past decade. While rotor head systems are becoming
more advanced and contain fewer parts, inspection of
these components is still critical. Pam Tressler, lead tech-
nician for the component shop at Keystone, explains that
elastomeric bearings, a laminated assembly consisting of
layers of rubber and metal, must be inspected regularly.
Deterioration of the rubber due to its flexing action
results in flaking of the surfaces and separation of the
laminations. "It's kind of like residue from an eraser,"
says Tressler. "The manufacturer usually specifies
certain limits that they are allowed to deteriorate. If
they exceed those limits,they've got to be replaced."
These bearings, she says, are very sensitive to hydraulic
fluid and oils. "If any oil or hydraulic oil accidentally
comes into contact with them, make sure that it is
washed off immediately, or it'll eat away at the rubber."
The same goes for composite components. For
example, the composite straps that secure the rotor
blades to the rotor head should be very delicately
handled. Don't use any solvents to clean this material,
she says.
Another material, says Gould, that's becoming more
and more common is the Teflon bearing. These bearings
don't require any grease or oil, which can damage or
adversely affect the operation of these bearings. Surgical
gloves should also be worn when handling any rotor
components. Many of the components used in the rotor
assembly are hlghly polished metals that are affected by
the acid and oils naturally present on your hands.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 225
 Some rotor heads, instead of being greased, are oil-
filled. Leakage on oil-filled heads is not that common;
rather, it is more common for them to leak during cold
weather operation. Once a seal starts lealung, it usually
continues to leak, says Gould. The only option is to
replace the offending seal.
An area that commonly requires attention, says
Gould, is the leadllag dampener assembly. The leadllag
dampener on the Sikorsky S-76, for instance, is a shock
absorber that dampens the action of the blade as it
moves fore and aft. Some dampeners are elastomeric,
some are multiple disc, and some are hydraulic. If
a dampener is bad, it can cause unusual vibration
problems.
The elastomeric dampener is a removeand-replace
item. The multiple disc works on a braking principle:
a series of discs dampen the motion of the blade.
The hydraulic dampener is probably the type that
most commonly fails and should be checked regularly.
Checking them is quite easy, Gould explains. Simply
grab the end of the blade and move it back and forth
comparing all of the dampeners to each other. You'll be
able to tell, by feel, if the dampener is not functioning.
Either the dampener will have a spongy feeling, or a
dead spot (area of no resistance) will be felt. A bad
dampener will also show up during tracking as an outr
of-phase blade.
226 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Usually a bad dampener is the result of something
worn or damaged internally, such as a shaft or seal. But
it may be that the dampener is in need of adjustment,
says Gould. There is an internal valve that can be
adjusted in the overhaul shop. Also, he says, the hydrau-
lic dampeners usually have a reservoir that feeds
hydraulic oil to the assembly. Make sure that this
reservoir has a sufficient supply of oil at all times and
that the oil is getting to the dampener.
It's also important to inspect flap stops on helicop
ters which use them. Flap stops work on usually small
arms that work with spring force and centrifugal force
and move into position as the rotor assembly spools
down. Their function is to prevent the rotor blades from
flapping around too much when the rotor falls below a
certain speed. If the stops are not functioning properly,
says Gould, it's possible for the blade to flap enough that
it'll damage the helicopter by striking the tail boom, or
could endanger passengers while exiting the helicopter.
Gould cautions that the rotor assembly is a balanced
assembly, and that whatever components are removed
should be put back in the same position. EE3
May/June 1991
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 Recip engine oil
What's the difference?
0
il... is oil... is oil. Or is it?
Many in the maintenance industry are
concerned with oil only to the extent that it
provides customers with a reasonable level of satisfac-
tion. We don't spend much time worrying about getting
a few extra hours out of engines with oils that may only
provide a marginal level of improvement. We don't have
time for it.
But our customers, who have invested heavily into
their aircraft, are concerned with squeezing those addi-
tional hours. Those hours convert directly to improved
margins of safety, decreased wear and reduced costs.
And because of this, we should be concerned.
The development of aviation oil over the story of
aviation has certainly not been overly impressive. It
wasn't until the '50s that the first improvements in oil
were seen with ashless dispersant technology (used to
prevent the buildup of sludge and varnish) introduced
and not until the '70s when multiviscosity oils were in-
troduced. Synthetics came on the scene in the late '70s.
Acceptance of new oils has historically been slow
in this industry and continues to be even with the intro-
duction of synthetics.
Ashless dispersants
According to Dennis Boggs, technical director of
lubricants for Phillips 66 Company, ashless (meaning
non-metallic) dispersant packages were first introduced
by Shell Oil Company in 1958.
The automotive industry had already introduced
detergent oils (which was an additive package containing
metallic compounds) that were successful in protecting
automotive engines from sludge and varnish buildups.
But when these oils were used in aviation, they created
problems. Many aircraft engines, says Boggs, were
coated heavily with sludge and varnish, and when deter-
gent oils were added, the sludge and varnish would
break loose and clog oil journals and occasionally cause
engine seizures.
This prompted Shell Oil to introduce an ashless
dispersant package. "The ashless dispersants did not
remove already existing engine deposits," says Boggs,
'%ut merely prevented new ones from forming. Residues
were dispersed throughout the oil system and held in
suspension, preventing buildups. They then could be
drained off when the oil was changed. And because these
additives were ashless (or non-metallic), they did not
form combustion chamber deposits."
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Ashless dispersant packages were made available to
other manufacturers shortly thereafter and these oils
became the standard until the late '70s, says Boggs.
Many of today's most popular oils continue to use
ashless dispersant packages as the primary means for
holding contaminants in suspension. Phillips uses them
in its multiviscosity X/C 20W-50 oil, Shell uses them in
its multiviscosity AeroShellmW and single grade oils,
and Mobil uses them in its multiviscosity mineral oils.
Viscosity index
Probably the most confusing property of aviation oil
and the most important is its viscosity-its resistance to
flow. The confusion lies in that the ideal oil should resist
flow enough to prevent the oil from easily flowing out
from between gear teeth and bearing journals, but
should also be fluid enough to flow readily into areas
that require constant lubrication and cooling.
According to John Schwaner, president of
Sacramento Sky Ranch Inc. and author of the Sky
Ranch Engineering Manual, "There is no ideal viscosity
for oil. Since oil viscosity influences fuel consumption,
automakers want lower viscosity oils. Lower viscosity oils
mean lower film thicknesses and more wear. The proper
oil viscosity for the engine is a compromise. Everything
wouldn't be too bad but the oil's viscosity changes
with temperature. Ideally, aircraft oil should have the
viscosity of a 20-weight oil at low temperatures and
the viscosity of a 5@weightoil at high temperatures." To
achieve this, manufacturers developed multiviscosity oils.
The first multiviscosity aviation oils were introduced
during the '709, says Boggs. The increasing number of
owners of recreational aircraft during the '70s were
putting few man-hours on their aircraft in a given year.
Because of this, oil that was poured into engines during
the summer months remained in the crankcase into the
winter months. This further supported the need for mul-
tiviscosity oils and resulted in the widespread acceptance
of these oils, he says.
To make a multigrade oil, says Ben Visser, engineer
for Shell Oil, polymers are added to straight weight oils.
These are complex molecules, says Visser, that expand as
temperatures increase and contract as temperatures fall.
The result is an oil that remains relatively thin at cooler
temperatures-preventing damage and undue wear
during cold temperature starting and also thickens up
slightly at higher temperatures.
Viscosity ratings, according to John Esser, chief
engineer at Mob& are based on the rate of flow of oil
at 212°F. At this temperature, oils are measured for
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 227
viscosity and are classified accordingly; for instance, lL,
20 or 30 weight. Multiviscosity oils have an additional
number associated with the rating. The 15W in a
15W-50 oil, for instance, is a winter rating (the W
stands for winter) and means that the oil has a viscosity
of 15 at a specific temperature as recommended by
SAE. The -50 means that it has a specific viscosity, as
recommended by SAE, at a temperature of 212OF. This
rating system applies to all oils in the industry, including
minerals, synthetics and semisynthetics.
Multiviscosity development
Because of the increase in recreational flying during
the '709, engine manufacturers encouraged oil manufac-
turers to look into the development of new and improved
multiviscosity oils. In the late '70s, Phillips 66 Company
introduced a multiviscosity oil X/C SAE 20W-50. This
oil continues to this day to be the only mineral-based
multiviscosity oil available.
This oil was produced by adding a VI (viscosity-index)
improver to a base stock of mineral oil.
"Multigrade oil," says Boggs, "is not limited to only
cold weather advantages. When operating under high
heat conditions, oil consumption rates can be improved
in most aircraft."
Shortly after the release of Phillips X/C oil, Shell
introduced an oil that was a combination of mineral oil
and synthetic oils. According to Ben Visser of Shell, the
development of its multigrade oil for aviation began with
a look at oils that were based on pure mineral oil. "We
added polymers to mineral oils to turn them into a
multiviscosity oil and found that the thin base stock used
to develop these oils did not give us enough anti-wear
protection to the cam and lifters," he says. The polymers
could not provide the protection because of the f a d that
they tended to break down after a period of time.
The breakdown of the polymers in multiviscosity, says
Schwaner, is due to two things: The mechanical shear
loads that deform the molecular structure and thermal
oxidation degradation (due to turbocharging). Because of
this, says Schwaner, "Regular oil changes, especially
under severe thermmxidation conditions, (turbocharg-
ing) are important. Any decrease in oil viscosity will in-
crease wear rates and oil consumption. If you are
changing your oil at 50 hours and you notice that your
oil consumption is less during the first 25 hours than
the second 25 hours, you know that this oil is only
viscosity stable for 25 hours and you should adjust your
oil change interval accordingly, or switch to a different
brand of oil," he says.
Visser says because of this viscosity breakdown Shell
began experimenting with synthetics. It found that the
synthetics would serve well as a multigrade oil without
the addition of polymers. This meant that the oil was
less likely to break down. However, he adds, it found
through testing that pure synthetics would not absorb
228 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
the lead salts that were produced in the process of
combustion. It was found that the lead would form
deposits in the engine over a period of time.
"So in order to provide the ability to wash out the
lead, we decided to combine the mineral oils with
synthetics. This gives us the base oil viscosity of a single
grade," says Visser, "yet provides us with enough lead
solvency to sufficiently clean the engine."
In 1985, Phillips made an attempt to further the
development of multiviscosity oils. It introduced an oil
called X/C 11. This oil contained an additive package
that, according to Boggs, increased the anti-wear charac-
teristics of the oil. As there was no provision for evaluab
ing the performance of anti-wear additives in the
Mil-L-22851C (which was the guideline for acceptance by
the engine manufacturers) and engine manufacturers did
not support this new technology oil development and
discontinued testing on it, says Boggs, Phillips 66
removed X/C 11 from the market making X/C 20W-50
available.
Synthetic oil
Although synthetic oils had been used in aircraft
turbine engines for some time (due to their performance
characteristics in high temperatures), Mobil Oil didn't
begin testing and doing proof-of-performance work on
using synthetics on aircraft recips until 1981. And it
wasn't until 1988 that it introduced Mobil AV 1 to the
market. In 1989, with the flight of the Voyager I (non-
stop around-theworld flight), Mobil launched a campaign
to market its product.
Specifically, Mobil says that synthetics offer the fol-
lowing advantages over conventional mineral-based oils:
Better resistance to oxidation, extended oil drain inter-
vals (up to 200 hours), reduced evaporation and less
internal friction, up to 30 percent less oil consumption,
fuel savings of up to 5 percent, and a pour point as low
as minus 60°F.
According to John Esser, Mobil originally had to get
an STC on the oil because Textron Lycoming would not
approve it for use in its engines. Textron Lycoming, at
the time, required oil manufacturers to meet its already
established specifications, and one of the requirements
was that the oil be a mineral-based oil, says Esser. How-
ever AV l did meet all of the physical test requirements.
Eventually, after reviewing a great deal of proof-of-
performance data, Textron Lycoming approved the use
of Mobil AV-1 in its engines, he says. Mobil has also
received an STC from the FAA, says Esser, for a
2OCkhour oil drain interval.
Engine manufacturers still recommend a 5@hour oil
drain interval. If you wish to conform to the STC, you
are within your legal rights to do so. Keep in mind, how-
ever, that because the engine manufacturers recommend
5Ckhour oil drain intervals, you may end up voiding the
warranty on the engine if something goes wrong. "We
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 are going to try to get the engine manufacturers to raise
their recommended oil change intervals," says Esser,
"but I don't know if it will happen at this point."
Esser says that synthetics-offer the greatest amount
of protection in extreme environments. "Whether you
are flying in a hot environment where the high tempera-
ture capabilities of the oil help protect the engine and
form less carbon, or whether you're flying in a cold
environment where cold starting and immediate flow
of oil to the bearings is important, synthetics provide
obvious benefits," he says. "In mild temperature ranges,
the benefits that you get are not as dramatic as they are
at the extremes."
Dennis Boggs at Phillips says that engines should not
be operated at extreme temperatures. In cold tempera-
tures, the engine should be preheated prior to starting.
Even if the engine can be easily started when cold, says
Boggs, the coefficient of expansion of the different
metals in the engine can cause damage to bearing areas.
Similarly, the engine should not be run at extremely high
temperatures. Crankcase temperatures normally run
below 220°F and, at these temperatures, mineral oils are
stable offering as much protection as synthetics, he says.
Break-in and the importance of wear
Practically all of the oil manufacturers agree that the
break-in process involves wear at the rings to seat them
against the cylinder walls. But there is some disagree
ment over how to go about it.
Both Esser at Mobil and Visser at Shell say that a
straight mineral oil with no additives should be used for
the break-in process. The reason, says Visser, is that this
type of mineral oil allows the rings to wear during this
critical period. Additionally, the lack of ashless dispers-
ants allows metal particles and combustion products to
build up in the ring area, creating a sort of lapping
compound. This allows the rings to seat quickly. As
soon as the rings are seated and oil consumption and
temperatures drop off, go to an oil with an additive that
will keep the engine clean.
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Phillips 66 does not agree with this procedure. It
claims that its multiviscosity, ashless dispersant X/C
should be used even for break-in. The reason, says Bill
Coleman of G&A Communications (an agency f i r
Phillips 66), is that the oil does break down in the ring
area enough to allow the rings to quickly seat. The ash-
less dispersants suspend the contaminates and keep the
area clean. He adds that because the material produced
by the break-in is held in suspension, the dispersants are
prevented from getting into other areas of the engine,
eliminating unnecessary wear.
Frequent oil changes
John Schwaner, in the Sky Ranch Engineering
Manual, says that oil must do the following: Lubricate,
clean, protect, seal and cool the engine; allow easy start
ing a t cold temperatures; and provide lubrication to
parts under extreme pressure.
It's clear that Phillips X/C 20W-50, AeroShell W
15W-50, and Mobil AV 1 successfully accomplish all of
these-to varying degrees.
It's also apparent that salts, condensates, combustion
produds and wear metals accumulate to varying
degrees, regardless of which oil is used. Therefore,
frequency of use, the environment and the care that
the aircraft receives should all be factors in determining
type of oil.
"There's them that care and them that don't care."
responded one technician who was asked about oils.
"Them that don't care," he says, "will dump whatever
they can find at the cheapest price in the engine without
paying any attention to how the oil performs. Them that
care will track oil consumption, perform oil analysis,
evaluate the condition of the engine periodically and
come up with the best oil to use for their situation."
March/April 1991
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 229
Accessory Technology
Hot cooler tips
T
he engine oil cooler is key to proper oil tempera-
ture and pressure. Should it fail during operation,
it can cause major damage to the engine and can
contribute to unscheduled landings. This can occur from
a leak during flight (causing loss of oil pressure) or from
excessive oil temperature due to poor airflow or malfunc-
tioning vernatherm valve.
Maintenance of the oil cooler is im~ortant.Over
time, oil circuits of the cooler become ^clogged, contribub
ing to excessive pressure to the unit. This, in turn,
causes premature failure of the cooler in the form of
leaks. Also, particles such as dust, grass, carbon, etc. can
build up on the outside surfaces causing poor airflow,
which can lead to overheating of both oil and cooler. If
these conditions continue, the cooler will eventually fail.
Dave Campbell, a co-owner of Drake Air Inc., an oil
cooler repair/overhaul facility in Tulsa, OK, says that oil
coolers are often neglected, at times to the point that
they fail in flight.
With few exceptions, oil coolers are used on most
engines to keep oil temperatures within the limits recom-
mended by the engine manufacturer. The coolers are
either enginemounted (forward and rear) or remote
mounted. Some use outside air to support cooling in
addition to fanhlower-generated air. Others use the
aircraft's fuel to support the cooling process (i.e., fueVoil
coolers). No matter what type configuration, the coolers
all have one thing in common: They are pressure
vessels that lead to serious consequences if they fail.
Oil cooler operation is similar to that of a car radia-
tor. Oil passes through the inner circuits of the cooler
while outside air flows across the air fin (or tubes, in
some cases). Airflow coupled with the fin provides the
cooling, or "heat rejection." If the flow of air or oil is
restricted, cooling is negatively affected. Again, since the
cooler is exposed to the elements, particles can easily
restrict airflow, leading to an internal buildup of carbon
and subsequent overpressurization.
Campbell of Drake Air recommends removal and
cleaning of the cooler-both inside and out-at every
lO@hour inspection. Typically, he says, internal buildup
is a result of carbon deposits, or metal generated from
a failing engine. To properly remove these deposits,
230 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
thoroughly clean and flush the cooler with a series of
chemicals designed to free up the oil passages. Before
putting the unit back into service, test to determine if
the cooler is free of blockage. This is an added measure
which helps ensure proper operation.
Another common airflow problem that leads to over-
heating is bent fins, usually caused by flying in inclem-
ent weather or from foreign object damage (FOD).
Straightening fins is a tedious process, according to
Campbell, but shape can be restored by carefully using a
thin, blunt piece of metal on each side of the fin. Care
must be taken to avoid damaging the cooling tubes or
tearing the fin material, he says.
Other common causes of oil cooler damage are the
result of improper installation or poor maintenance,
Campbell adds. There may be damage due to cross-
threading. Or, there may be cracks in the inletloutlet
area because of overtightening of hose fittings (since the
inletloutlet porting is brazed or welded onto relatively
thin material, it's easy to damage).
Cracking (especially on enginemounted coolers) can
also occur from improper torquing of the mounting
bolts. This, in conjunction with engine vibration, can
lead to cracking of the mounting flange and a subse
quent oil leak.
Campbell also recommends that if an oil cooler is
experiencing repeating cracking, even after proper instal-
lation, it may be time to balance the propeller. A smooth-
running engine not only reduces vibration but can
also help extend the service life of the cooler and other
components.
According to Campbell, some aircraft owners seem to
have the misconception that a leaking oil cooler must be
replaced with a new unit. On the contrary, he says, most
coolers can be overhauled and returned to service, at a
fraction of the cost. Some exceptions: An obviously
deformed cooler, due to crash or sudden impact; severe
FOD; or excessive fin erosion.
Adhering to a maintenance program pays dividends
in extended oil cooler life. Cleaning, checking for loose
fittings and mounting bolts, and straightening bent fins
are good measures to follow.
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The basic overhaul process
Dave Campbell of Drake Air Inc. outlines the steps his
company uses when overhauling most oil coolers:
Preinspection, checking for the obvious which might
call for scrapping the unit.
If the unit appears repairable, cleaning and flushing.
This includes stripping, high pressure decarbonizing,
etching (inside and out), deoxidizing, sonic cleaning
for copper units, chromacoating (corrosion inhibitor),
and high pressure flushing of vibrating filter.
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Acc~ssoryTechnology
Once unit is free of contaminants, it's hydrostatically
tested with nitrogen for leaks.
Any leaks are repaired, valves are tested, fin damage
is repaired, flanges are straightened, stripped threads
are repaired, mounting surfaces are machined and
pressure tested, and the unit is finaled, tagged and
cerMed.
Campbell says the process can be performed indefi-
nitely. He estimates the cost of a typical overhaul
at $140. Dl JanuazylFebruaqy 1991
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 231
The combustion heater
Servicing solutions

By Greg Napert

T here have been two companies that have been the

primary manufacturers of combustion heaters
over the years. And because of this, competition
for service and sales in this market has not been
exactly fierce.
The two companies, Southwind (a division of Stewarb
Warner and now owned by FL Aerospace) and Janitrol
(a division of Midland Ross Corporation) have pretty
much been able to name their price on heaters and
replacement parts and, according to sources in the
marketplace, have not been pressured into providing
exactly the highest level of customer service.
To make matters worse, because of the decreased
production of aircraft over the last 12 or so years,
aviation has become a relatively small portion of these
companies' business. These companies, which thrived on
providing new heaters for production aircraft in the past,
no longer make their primary income from the sale of
new heaters.
Southwind continues to provide parts for repair and
overhaul of its heaters. However, service is provided
through a network of distributors that's approved for
overhaul of its heaters. Sources at Southwind say that
its primary sales of combustion heaters and components
are to the military, for ground units such as tanks.
Janitrol has been a bit more aggressive in providing
service and support for its heaters. It has continued to
provide support and service for its customers, even
though its primary source of income comes from supply-
ing heater-related products to other industries. Like An exception to this rule is a company in Buchanan,
Southwind, it has also established a network of distribu- MI, called C&D Airmotive Products Inc. The company
tors for parts and service. employs around 30 people who repair, overhaul and
Regardless of the fact that the demand for new heat. manufacture components for heaters. Recently, it has
ers is sigmficantly down, service and parts to support begun to manufacture complete heaters and has posi-
the tens of thousands of combustion heaters currently in tioned itself to compete with the original manufacturers.
use are in high demand.
Many technicians choose to repair and overhaul their Heater ADS
own heaters. However, knowledge of where to get parts, Dennis Sandmann, owner and president of C&D
costs of parts and the convenience of having replacement Airmotive, explains that basically two ADS have had a
heaters available are major deterrents in doing so. strong impact on maintenance that has been performed
According to Norman Gress, technician for Herold over the last 10 years-one on Janitrol heaters and
Haskins, a heater repair and overhaul facility in Dothan, one on Southwind heaters. These ADS required that
AL, and an approved Southwind distributor, there practically all of the existing heaters on the market be
are only about a hall a dozen repair shops in the United overhauled and inspected on a regular basis. Both ADS
States that are actively repairing and servicing still apply.
combustion heaters. And most of these are two- or Specifically, AD 82-07-03 applies to Janitrol Aero
threeman shops. Division heater models B1500, B2030, B3040 and B4050.
This AD calls out for the mandatory inspection of the

232 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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heater once the aircraft has accumulated 500 hours
since new, or since it was zero-timed. It also requires a
pressure decay test and inspection every 100 hours of
operation thereafter or two years, whichever comes first.
This AD applies to just about all of the general aviation
hght aircraft, "possibly up to 80 percent of aircraft that
have combustion heaters," says Sandmann.
AD 814949, applies to StewarbWarner (Southwind
division) heaters model Series 8240, 8253, 8259 and
8472. This AD is different from the Janitrol AD in that it
does not require any pressure decay test or time limit
for this test. The AD does require an inspection of all
heaters having 250 hours or more timein-service and at
intervals not to exceed 250 hours. For combustion heat-
ers having 1,000 hours or more on them, it requires that
they be overhauled.
"I consider this AD to be dangerous in that it exposes
the A&P to liability," says Sandmann.
The reason, he explains, is that the AD only requires
an overhaul at 1,000 hours, with no way of accurately
determining the condition of the combustion tube in b e
tween that overhaul interval. Both manufacturers, says
Sandmann, claim that the combustion tube is designed
to last around 1,300 hours. So, obviously, if you place a
serviceable combustion tube back into service with 1,000
hours on it, you do so knowing that it will fail at around
1,300 hours.
"Based on our experience," says Sandmann, "I would
recommend that the Southwind heater be pressure decay
tested everv 100 hours after the initial 500 hours of
operation since new." He explains that all heaters should
be pressure decay tested at regular intervals and also
recommends that the combustion tube in the Southwind
heaters be replaced at the 1,000-hour overhaul as they
will never make another 1,000 hours. Other overhaulers,
such as Herold Haskins, do not recommend replacement
if the unit is serviceable; however, they do recommend
keeping a close eye on the combustion tubes by perform-
ing periodic pressure decay tests.
Keep in mind, however, that the pressure decay test
should not be a substitute for the AD. Legally, the A&P
is bound to perform the maintenance that is c d e d for
in the AD.
Why the ADS?
According to Sandmann, these ADS were the result of
accidents that involved combustion heaters. An example
of this,says Sandmann, was in 1978 when the National
Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) sent out a letter
about a Beech 18 that was on a ferry flight to Lansing,
M1. The letter described the pilot's conversation to the
tower prior to the fatal crash. The pilot stated that he
had a fire in the left wing. He then reported that the
entire wing was on fire-and that was the last contact
they had with him.
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Upon investigation, said Sandmann, the NTSB found
the Southwind combustion heater thrown from the
airplane. It was discovered that the heater had never
been removed from the aircraft for maintenance. The
shroud of the heater was dark blue (indicating an
overtemperature), the combustion air switch had been
stuck in the half-way open position, and the combustion
tube had a large opened crack in it. These findings
indicated that the fire was the result of fuel pouring
out of the crack in the heater, into the wing and come
quently igniting.
In short, says Sandmann, the ADS were issued as
a result of in-flght fires. But in addition, numerous
Malfunction and Defect (M&D) reports that were being
submitted also contributed to the ADS being issued.
People often assume that the ADS and resulting
inspection requirements were designed to prevent carbon
monoxide poisoning, according to Sandmann. In fact,
such danger is minimal.
He explains, "Because of the way that the combustion
heater is designed, the ram air pressure for the cabin air
is greater than the pressure inside of the combustion
tube. So if a crack would develop in fhght, the ram air
pressure would force the cabin air to leak into the
combustion chamber-not the other way around. It is
possible, however, while sitting on the ground, for some
of the exhaust gases to leak into the cabin. But the
volume of gases would not be enough to harm anyone.
The worst that could happen is that someone would
get a headache."
The pressure decay test
The most timesaving inspection technique for the
combustion heater is the pressure decay check, which
consists of blocking off all openings in the combustion
tube and pressurizing with compressed air. The rate of
leakage determines if the tube has deteriorated to the
point that it needs to be replaced. Some leakage is
allowed, to account for screws and gaskets not fully
seated and to allow sllghtly damaged or deteriorated
combustion tubes to pass the test.
The beauty of this test is that it can be performed
while the heater is installed in the aircraft. Without
the aid of the pressure decay test, the heater has to be
removed and fully disassembled. A thorough explanation
of the pressure decay test and operational inspection
can be found in the Janitrol Maintenance and Overhaul
Manual P/N 24325-1. This manual is available from
C&D Airmotive as P/N 4030.
Common problems
Spark plug problems are common with the combus
tion heater. Consequently, Sandmann recommends plug
replacement every 12 months, even after only 50 hours.
"Coatings will form on the electrode of the spark plug
during the summer months while the heater is inactive,"
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 233
 . Ignition unit
he explains, "and these coatings, along with other depos-
its remaining on the plug from the previous season can
lead to a fouled plug. In addition, spark plugs that
appear to be operational on the ground may short out
at altitude, due to the difference in barometric pressure.
"I don't recommend cleaning the spark plug with any
types of abrasive either. Cleaning it with abrasive will
remove the coating from the ceramic and make it more
likely to fail. Replacing a $50 to $60 dollar spark plug
once a year is an inexpensive way to prevent heater
failure."
Spark plugs, of course, don't last forever; electrodes
become coated, ceramic wears. Discolorations or brown
spots on ceramic indicate arcing.
The vibrator, or voltage regulator, is another potential
fault point. However, due to the f a d that it is now manu-
factured with solid-state components, failure is less likely,
according to Sandmann. Older vibrators, constructed of
mechanical switches and points, were more suspect.
Another component that can fail is the coil.
Sandmann explains that an oily film on top of the heater
or a weak spark indicates coil failure.
Safety switches can also be troublesome. Two
switches control the operation of the heater; another two
switches act as safety switches. Failure of any one of
these switches can render the heater non-functional, fail-
ing to protect the heater from damage. Understanding
the operation and relationship between these switches is
critical for troubleshooting.
234 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Vibrator
Plugged nozzles can be another problem area, says
Sandmann, but usually only on turbinefueled aircraft
since jet fuel is more likely to clog nozzles than gasoline.
This means that the nozzles should be cleaned more
frequently, usually at 500-hour intervals. "Nozzles do
wear out," he says, "because if a nozzle is not operating
properly, it may require replacement."
Jet fuel is quite sensitive to operating pressures. The
fuel pressure at the nozzle must be between 95 and 105
psi; once outside this range, there can be difficulty in
keeping the heater lit at high altitudes. "This is a prob-
lem that is difficult to troubleshoot," says Sandmann,
"because it only happens at altitude and can't be
simulated on the ground."
Troubleshooting
Troubleshooting, in most cases, is quite simple, says
Sandmann, and is made easy by understanding that the
combustion heater requires three things to operate: fuel,
ignition and air. Take away any one of these compo-
nents, and the heater will not operate.
He adds that much can be discovered by advancing
this logic-for instance, placing your hand (using caution
not to burn yourself) near the exhaust pipe of the heater
and attempting to start the heater signals if there is
ignition. If you feel air blowing, the combustion air
blower is working. If you smell fuel on your hand, you
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know that you have fuel and that it's not igniting. You
can also tell if the spark plug is operational by simply
listening for the snapping of the plug.
Observing heater components for signs such as
discoloration on the spark plug or oil leakage on ignition
components can be clues to the condition of these
components.
At times, however, the logic is not so simple. For
instance, it is quite common for the overheat switch to
pop after shutting the heater down. This is not due to
a defective switch, but from excessive residual heat
that results when the heater is shut down abruptly
without allowing it to cool. The switch can usually be
manually reset.
Run your heater on a HobbsTM
Russ Bargo, director of maintenance for Wisconsin Avia-
tion in Watertown, WI, claims that the company has
saved considerable expense and time by running its com-
bustion heaters on separate Hobbs meters.
The reason-the ADS require that the heaters are
overhauled at specific time intervals. Without any way to
document the time on the heater, the actual aircraft time
Check Mate@expedites troubleshooting
to helr, emedite the troubleshooting. of aircraft combus-
tion heaters. The troubleshooting kit, called Check
MateB, is a selfcontained unit that includes gauges and
instruments needed to check individual components on
the heater. The kit also incorporates what C&D says is
the only ignition vibrator tester in the industry.
The kit incorporates a harness that connects directly
to the heater ele&cal bus. This allows you to monitor-
switches and heater controls on the ground, or if neces-
sary, in flight. The unit also includes a clip that allows
the operator to sense spark plug operation. El
NovembedDecember 1990
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There are actually two categories of troubleshooting
problems related to the ignition heater: ones that occur
on the ground that are repeatable, and others that
occur only at altitude which are intermittent. "It is the
intermittent problems that can become very troublesome
and can cause the technician to change parts without
actually knowing that they are bad," says Sandmann.
Whatever the problem or the solution, he explains,
the technician must assure that the problem is dealt
with properly. Trial and error doesn't set well with a
pilot who has to operate the aircraft in subzero tempera-
tures. Failure of the heater can mean failure of other
systems that are dependent upon operation in tem-
peratures above freezing.
"The heater is not just a luxury," says Sandmann, "it
is critical to the operation of the aircraft."
must be used. Heaters, especially during the summer
months, accumulate much fewer hours on them than the
aircraft. "If we followed the aircraft time, we would be
inspecting heaters all summer long," says Bargo.
Placing the Hobbs meter on the heater gives you an
accurate indication of how much the heater is being used
and is a much more practical way to track time.
I
I
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology ~a'gazine 235

I / AIR RESTRICTOR
I FUELiU; RESTRICTOR FUEL RESTRICTOR
Internal view o f old style nozzle. Do not damage this
calibrated restrictor with safety wire.
site the inlet fitting to get at the filter. This shortcut will
introduce any contamination that is on the filter into the
servo unit.
Inlet fittings vary from union-type fittings to 90-
degree elbows. Be careful with these fittings since they
are specially modified for the filter assembly. Remove
the fitting using clean wrenches of the appropriate size.
Once the fitting is removed, it is a simple task to remove
the filter.
If the filter is permanently attached to the inlet
fitting, consult and comply with Bendix bulletin RS-48
revision 2 or a later Precision Airmotive revision. This
changes the filter to a bypassing type-the theory being
that dirty fuel is better than no fuel should the filter
ever become plugged.
Inspection of the filter is relatively easy. However,
merely looking down the middle or looking at the outside
surface and inspecting for particulate matter is not
sufficient to tell if it's clean (fuel flow is from the inside
out when installed in the servo unit).
The best inspection method is to first dry the filter
with air and tap it, open side down, on a clean piece of
paper. You will want to examine any contamination
and determine the type and source. Next, look into the
center of the filter while shining a light through the oub
side. You should be able to see light through the weave
on most of the surface areas. Another method is to
breathe through the dried filter. There should be very
little restriction to airflow.
Cleaning can be accomplished using Acetone or
M.E.K., followed by a rinse in Stoddard solvent and then
air drying. If the fitting is badly damaged or corroded, it
must be replaced. Corrosion is a good indication that the
aircraft fuel system contains a relatively high level of
water contamination.
While you're in the area, inspect all fuel hoses for
signs of deterioration. The line(s) installed between
the servo unit and flow divider, pressurizing valve or
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Accessory Technology
OLD STYLE NOZZLE
i
Old style nozzles @ottom cutaway) had restrictors pressed
into them. New style (top) i s manufactured as a two piece
assembly.
splitters should be (in most cases) Teflon lines with a
siliconecoated fire sleeve. If it isn't this type, now is a
good time to make the change.
Fuel nozzles
The next step in maintaining the system is cleaning
the fuel injection nozzles. Despite what has been p u b
lished elsewhere on the subject, a nozzle is not clean and
satisfactory for use when the cleaning solution no longer
changes color. Only proper inspection can verlfy a nozzle
has been properly cleaned.
An increase in indicated fuel flow at various power
settings is generally the first indication that nozzles need
cleaning. If contamination becomes extreme, engine
problems will occur. Engine operational problems due to
dirty fuel nozzles will be experienced at some later date
when contamination has reached an extreme.
Fuel stains around a nozzle also indicate cleaning
is necessary. During cleaning, as with the filter, any
unusual contaminant should be identified and its source
located and corrected.
More information related to cleaning nozzles is
contained in Bendix bulletin RS-77 revision 2 (or later
Precision Airmotive revision) and Lycorning S.I. 1414.
The best cleaning solution found to date (recom-
mended in bulletin RS-77) is Hoppes No. 9 gun cleaning
solvent, available at most local sporting goods stores.
Usually a 20- to 30-minute soaking is all that is neces-
sary, followed by a Stoddard solvent rinse and air dry
prior to inspection. Don't use lockwire, pins or other
metal items to remove contamination from the nozzles.
This will affect calibration.
When cleaning two-piece nozzle assemblies, be sure
each restrictor is kept with its respective body. This is
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 237
accomplished by using separate containers for each
nozzle assembly. If you're only cleaning the restridors
(permitted between annual inspections), work with each
cylinder separately by removing, cleaning, inspecting and
reinstalling the restridor, and reconnecting the fuel line.
Keep in mind that if you lose a fuel restrictor, you will
have to buy an entire new nozzle body assembly. These
restrictors are flow matched to their respective bodies
and are only sold as assemblies.
Inspecting nozzles
The nozzles used with the Precision Airmotive
(Bendix) fuel injection system have a fuel orifice diam-
eter of approximately 0.028 inch. The only proper
method of field inspecting these assemblies is with the
use of a lOpower magnifymg glass. Both fuel and fuel
air restrictions should be "shiny clean" with no evidence
of film or particulate contamination.
With older style nozzles, check the top threads (at
the fuel line connection) for damaged threads and/or
cracks. Damage indicates the fuel line nut has been
overtorqued. This can cause a reduction in the size of
the air restridor. Operationally, this only affects engine
idle, but the fad that the nozzle has been damaged is
grounds for replacement.
New style and old style nozzles for normally aspirated
engines are interchangeable with one another and may
be used in any combination on an engine.
Not all Precision Airmotive nozzles flow alike any-
more. At one time all Precision Airmotive (Bendix)
nozzles for turbocharged engines were calibrated the
same as normally aspirated nozzles and could be inter-
changed between cylinders of like engines. For many
applications this is still true. There are, however, assem-
blies referred to as "high flow" nozzles. These nozzles
flow 32 pounds per hour at 8 psi. Standard nozzles flow
32 pounds per hour at 12 psi. The inserts of these
nozzles are idenflied with a step on their circumference
and have a larger diameter to prevent installation into
the wrong body. Always refer to the engine manu-
facturer's publications prior to ordering replacement
nozzle assemblies.
Nozzle fuel lines
Before installing your freshly cleaned nozzles, inspect
the nozzle fuel lines. Though these lines are supplied by
the engine manufacturer, their condition is critical to the
proper operation of the system. Items to check:
The inside diameter of lines used on most engines
should be 0.085 to 0.095 inch (reference Lycoming
S.I. 1301). Technicians have been known to substitute
other lines such as the smaller I.D. primer lines when
a replacement was required. A small line on any one
cylinder can cause that cylinder to run leaner than
the others. Line length is not critical to the operation
of the Precision Airmotive system.
238 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
1 SPRING INLET FILTER lNLETFi77ING 1
Cutaway of servo body showing inlet filter in its correctly
installed position.
Lines for signs of longitudinal twisting-a sign of
overtorqued nuts. Inspect for kinks. The minimum
bend radius for a line is 0.062 inch.
Nuts for cracks.
Ferrule braze joint and surrounding area for cracking
evidenced by fuel dye stains.
Final assembly
Install the nozzles using a clean six-point, deep well
socket. In many instances, you will have to install your
socket over the nozzle first and then attach your exten-
sions and torque wrench. AU too often, nozzles are
damaged by trying to force a socket and extension past
engine baffling and over a partially installed nozzle (not
to mention damage to baffling). This is the primary
reason for loose shrouds and screens.
Torque nozzles (or nozzle bodies) to 40 inch-pounds.
Sixty inch-pounds is the absolute maximum torque to be
applied. If your installation requires alignment of the "A"
(very few do), then increase torque from 40 inch-pounds
until alignment is obtained. Do not exceed 60 inch-
pounds of torque under any circumstances. On nozzles
installed horizontally, the "A" should point down +30
degrees.
If you have the newer twepiece assemblies, check to
ensure that the fuel restridors are properly installed. If
you are missing one, lock the doors and search everyone.
On engines that have nozzles installed horizontally, it is
best to leave the shipping cap (tire valve cap) installed
until you connect the fuel line.
Improper line connection is a common source of
damage. If you have the newer twepiece nozzles, the
cost for failing to follow procedures can be a new set of
nozzles. When installing nozzle fuel lines, it is first nec-
essary to install the nut finger-tight (provided all threads
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are clean). At this point you have two options: Try to use
a torque wrench with adapters, if room permits, and
torque the nut 25 to 50 inch-pounds; or, you can use a
standard 7/l&inch open-end wrench and continue to
tighten the nut 1/2 to 1 flat (of the nut) from the f i r -
tight position, then stop. The latter has proven t o give
you the 25 to 50 inch-pound torque limit. Do not exceed
the 50 inch-pound torque limit as nozzle damage may
and usually does occur, resulting in rough, rich running
at idle.
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Once you have completed the fuel system main&
nance, recheck that nothing was overlooked. Pressure
test the system (with mixture in idle cutoff) for fuel
leaks-then you should be ready for ground run, minor
adjustment of idle speed and mixture if necessary, and
return to service. Don't forget the log book entry. k l l
September/October 1990
Rudy Swider i s currently employed by Bendix Engine
Products Division and was responsible for technical
support for the RS/RSA product line prior to the sale of
the line to Precision Airmotive. He has over 19 years'
experience in the industry.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 238
Starter-generators
Avoid the quick-fix syndrome

By Greg Napert

B
URBANK, CA-One piece of equipment perform-
ing two separate tasks that are of primary impor-
tance to the operation of the aircraft is a lot to
demand of any accessory. Consequently, the role that the
starter-generator performs demands that it be resilient,
powerful and, most of all, reliable.
Tom Hodges, vice president of PacAero, a parts
supplier and repair station that specializes in starter-
generator electrical and eledronic overhaul, says that the
starter-generator is taken for granted, not inspected as
frequently as it should be, and often frequently abused.
Hodges tells of the time that his company kept over-
hauling a starter-generator for a customer, only to have
the unit repeatedly sent back for overhaul with very low
hours on it. Upon investigation, Hodges found the cus-
tomer was using the unit to perform compressor washes,
spinning the engine for long periods of time without
paying any attention to the limitations of the starter-
generator.

Not built for heat

"I think we're safe to say," says Hodges, "that the
most destructive thing to a starter-generator is heat."
Eliminate the heat, caused by friction, inadequate cool-
ing and excessive electrical flow, and you should see
relatively few problems, he explains.
The interior of a starter-generator, he adds, is suscep
tible to heat damage. Improperly seated brushes or
improper operation can generate enough heat to damage
the insulation, varnish and other components used to
insulate components from one another. This can cause
electrical shorts, and eventually failure of the unit.
In order to reduce the possibility of damage, there
are a number of things that can be done.

Inspections
Technician at PacAero ensures that armatures are properly
Wayne Root, manager of repair and overhaul and a balanced prior to reinstalling. This prevents premature
15-year veteran of PacAero, has had the opportunity to failure of the bearings and unnecessary vibration.
see every conceivable type of damage related to starter-
generators. "Aircraft manufacturers usually provide
by the manufacturer, adverse operating conditions may
inspection and overhaul times," says Root, "but it often
dictate more frequent inspections.
seems as though the scheduled times are only a few
hours before the unit falls."
New brushes
Root suggests increasing the frequency of inspections
to account for operating conditions. Operating environ- Paying close attention to break-in instructions and
ment and conditions have a definite impact on how long wear limits when installing brushes is a must, says Root.
the unit lasts. Although inspection frequency is specified "Its important that the technician goes through the
proper steps when doing brush changes, not just take

240 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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the brushes out and slap a new pair in and off you go.
You might get away with it once or twice, but sooner or
later it's going to catch up with you and you're going to
end up with a piece of junk.
"We see them come in where the brushes are brand
new, but the commutator surface is burnt to a crisp with
big grooves in it. It's obvious that there was an attempt
to get additional time out of it without using proper
brush run-in procedures."
According to Hodges, a typical commutator (which is
part of the armature assembly) should be able to be
turned five or more times before it reaches its minimum
limits. If you find yourself buying armature assemblies
more frequently than that, it may mean that it's time to
take a look at your maintenance program andlor the
operating practices of the pilot.
To assure long commutator life, the brushes must be
seated according to the maintenance manual. It is impor-
tant that the brushes are fully seated before operating
the starter-generator in the aircraft. Because the
diameter of the commutator changes as it is machined,
the brushes will require different degrees of seating.
Root suggests placing a piece of sandpaper on the
commutator and sanding the brushes to the proper
curvature when new brushes are installed.
A proper run-in needs to be performed, says Root, to
condition the surface of the commutator and the brushes
so that, when they are operated at full power and at
altitude, the wear will be minimal.
The procedure for running in the brushes differs
between makes and models of starter-generators. Some,
according to Root, require the starter-generator to be
motorized for a period of time. And one model, a
Bendix starter used on the Learjet requires that the unit
be run as a generator for a specified period of time
before flight.
Vibration
Vibration can also have detrimental effects on the life
of the unit. The armature assembly must be balanced at
overhaul. An unbalanced armature will vibrate the entire
starter-generator assembly causing wires to rub, compe
nents to loosen, unusual forces on the bearings and p r e
mature failure of the unit. Normal wear of the assembly
and machining of the commutator are good reasons for
balancing the armature.
The armature is normally balanced by removing
the required amount of metal from the balance rings-
located on either end of the armature windings. These
rings are varnished into place and are susceptible to
heat damage. If the armature assembly is overheated,
the balance rings may loosen and throw off the balance
of the entire assembly.
Make sure, that the facility you choose to overhaul
your starter-generator, routinely balances the armature
during overhaul.
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Bearing replacement
Hodges says he has occasionally found bearings
installed in the starter-generator that were not approved
for use. The bearings, says Hodges, appear to be stan-
dard bearings tha6 can be purchased at any supply store.
In some cases, these bearings even have the same part
numbers. But, in fad, they should not be used. Legiti-
mate bearings are purchased by the manufacturer,
inspected and filled with a special grease that has been
tested for this application. The use of any other bearings
could result in premature bearing failure.
Another problem with bearings, says Root, is that
they're not always installed properly. PacAero checks the
circumference of the bearing housing to make sure
that it's not distorted at all. Pressing a bearing into a
distorted housing damages the bearing race. "I have
actually seen cases," says Root, "where the bearing
housing was staked (punched with a chisel) to hold an
otherwise loose bearing in place." Staking the housing
will certainly distort the bearing race and lead to
premature failure.
Cleaning
Because of the fact that the starter-generator is
aircooled with a fan that is an integral part of the
armature assembly, there is ample opportunity for
contaminants to enter and plug up the cooling passages.
Also, says Root, cooling may be impeded by carbon
residue that is left from the brushes wearing against
the commutator which accumulates and packs inside of
the armature, fields and cooling passages. "If you don't
clean it, then your cooling isn't efficient and the starter-
generator stands a chance of overheating," he says.
Therefore, it's very important to blow out these cool-
ing passages at the time when the brushes are changed.
The best way to do that, according to Root, is to blow
pressurized air through the cooling passages opposite
the normal direction of flow. Make sure, however, to
contain the "black cloud of dust that typically results
from this cleaning procedure. Otherwise you will spread
the contamination to other components.
It's now or never
Many operators, in order to enable the starter to
reach TBO,are making it a habit to rebrush and clean
the starter at the halfway point to overhaul.
"As the saying goes, you either pay now or pay later,"
says Hodges. "If the starter-generator is run until it's
down to its last leg, the bill to repair it is going to be
much larger than if it had been pulled 200 hours before,
when it was possible to save some of the components."
Taking a few simple precautions along with regular
cleaning and inspection of the starter-generator can save
money, headaches and is just good common sense. &EQ
July/August 1990
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 241
 This chart wlil hell,you to spot

dedgll4dto meel an operaling

condbm and requirementsof
integral horsepower machines.

CAUSES OF POOR
COMMUTATOR CONDITION
Frequent visual inspectton of cornmulam sur m-0 s-~ mth lit,,,
tam can warn you *en any adVerSe cmdit~nn panern is mast IrequanUy o b s e w con-

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 Wheel and brake servicing
By John Bakos

T
he service life of most wheels and brakes has
been extended considerably in the last few years.
Modern materials see up to three times the life,
when compared to older braking materials. But good and
frequent maintenance practices are still in order. This
frequently overlooked but most important part of the
aircraft must be in proper working order at all times.

General
Disc brakes come in different styles: internal, exter-
nal, multiple disc and single disc. Internal brakes are
identified by the brake and discs located inside the wheel
with the rotating discs driven by the wheel. Internal
brakes can be single or multiple discs. External disc
brakes are single disc with the disc bolted to the wheel
and the brake or caliper positioned over the disc.
Wheels and brakes are designed based on the weight
and speed of the aircraft. When it returns to land, the
aircraft's energy of motion must be dissipated to stop
the aircraft. This kinetic energy is transformed into heat
through friction generated by the brakes.
In order to dissipate the heat generated during the
stop, a material with good thermal conductivity, such as
high carbon steel, is required. Newer brake designs used
on military and commercial aircraft use carbon brakes.
Carbon discs are lighter than steel with the ability to
withstand h k h tem~eratures.However, because this
technology i s relatiGely new and expeniive, its application
is limited. Technician installing brake caliper. B e sure not to
Brakes are classified as organic or metallic. Organic overtorque bolts.
linings are a resin bonded homogeneous composition
while metallic linings have a sintered, powdered metal metallic composition and takes on several designs, from
composition bonded to a steel support plate. Organic friction material bonded (sintered) to a disc, cups hold-
linings have traditionally been asbestos based; however, ing friction material which are riveted to a disc, to bare
non-asbestos materials are now being used with greater steel discs. Again proper conditioning and use are the
frequency. The new non-asbestos organic brake lining has keys to obtaining the designed service life of the brake.
improved service life by two to three times that of old
asbestos based materials. Brake linings
An important point to obtaining the designed lining Worn linings are the easiest to replace on external
service life is to perform the proper lining conditioning brakes, since the aircraft does not have to be jacked up.
(breaking-in) procedure. Consult each wheel and brake Backplate attachment bolts are removed, backplates slide
manufacturer for the correct procedure for their brakes. out from between disc and wheel, brake cylinder is slide
Larger aircraft use internal brakes which are out of the torque plate and pressure plate is removed
comprised of alternating rotating and stationary discs from the brake. The two types of lining are attached
housed between a cylinder and backplate, supported by differently.
a torque tube. The assembly is mounted to the landing Organic linings are riveted to the pressure and
gear and fitted inside the wheel. Similar in concept to a backplates; metallic linings are held in place by solid
bicycle coaster brake, the rotating and stationary sides head rivets (pins) which fit into holes in the back of the
are squeezed together resulting in the stopping of the metal support plate. Metallic linings can be pried off
aircraft. Lining material used on internal brakes is with a screwdriver and new linings snapped into place.

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology ~Wagazine 243

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Nicks or grooves in wheel develop stress concentrations
which cause 95 percent of bead seat failures.
A shot of spray adhesive can be used to hold the lining
in place until installation on the aircraft. The pins need
not be removed unless they're damaged or worn down
due to excessive use of worn-out linings.
Rivets attaching organic linings may be drilled out
with a 5/32 diameter drill, being careful not to enlarge
the attachment holes in backplates and pressure plates.
Attachment of new linings is accomplished with new
rivets and rivet setting tool, after cleaning of any debris
or dirt on the surface of the pressure and backplates. It
is important that linings fit flush and tight against the
support surfaces.
Because internal brakes must be removed from the
aircraft for lining replacement it is generally accom-
plished with an overhauled/exchange brake which has
had new rotating and stationary discs, wear pads, etc.
replaced.
Upon installation of new linings, discs or overhauled
brakes, lining conditioning must be accomplished prior
to flight of the aircraft. Failure to perform a condition-
ing procedure could result in premature wear of the
linings and discs.
In conjunction with lining and disc replacement,
other maintenance should be performed to keep the
wheels and brakes in top operating condition. New
O-rings should be installed if the existing ones show
signs of wear or deterioration. O-rings of the proper
compound should be used for the type of fluid being
used. Red oil and Skydrol-type fluids are incompatible
and require different O-ring compounds. Nicks or
scratches on pistons or in piston bores should be pol-
ished out if possible; if not, the parts should he replaced.
244 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
In the case of external brakes, the anchor bolts (pins)
that slide in the torque plate bushings, and the bushings
themselves, should be cleaned and polished to remove
dirt and corrosion. A dry graphite or silicon spray is the
recommended lubricant, as wet oil or grease tends to
collect dirt, sand, etc. that will interfere with the free
sliding motion of the pins in the bushings. Binding of
the anchor pins leads to dragging brakes, uneven wear
or short brake lining life. Dragging brakes are also
caused by overtorquing backplate attachment bolts which
results in a crushing of the brake cylinder by the back-
plate. The backplate follows the depression resulting in a
tapered opening for the brake disc. The backplate lining
then rubs on the disc causing drag. A depression more
than .005 inch deep in the cylinder face (around the bolt
holes) requires replacement of the brake cylinder.
The use of a solid brake line can also lead to drag-
ging external brakes and a m u m of 12 inches of
flexible brake line is recommended to maintain the
freefloating characteristic of the external brake design.
Upon installation of the brake on the aircraft, bleed
the brake using a pressure pot to bleed from the bottom
up. This is the recommended bleeding procedure. Since
air travels up, carefully inspect the installation for
proper actuation, full brake release, tire pressure leak-
age, brake fluid leakage or anything that would cause
improper operation.
Wheels
Wheel maintenance is also an important part of the
landing equation. Supporting the weight of the aircraft
through the tires, the wheels transmit the stopping
forces to the tire and ground. At any given time approxi-
mately 60 degrees of the wheel circumference is support
ing the aircraft. As the aircraft moves along the runway
or taxiway, this 60-degree arc moves around the wheel,
setting up alternating stress and relaxation cycles in the
wheel halves and bolts. Materials used for wheels, as well
as brake cylinders, include aluminum and magnesium,
both cast and forged.
The bead seat, the area where the tire rests against
the wheel, is the most highly stressed area of the wheel.
Great care must be used to ensure that no nicks,
scratches or gouges are inflicted. These become stress
concentrations which soon lead to failure.
S m d nicks, scratches or gouges up to a maximum
depth of .015 inch in the bead seat may be blended out
and polished using a fine (600 grit) sandpaper. Wheel
half registers, bearing hubs and bolt bosses may be
blended to a maximum depth of .010 inch. In all other
areas, the maximum depth that can be blended is .030
inch. Specific repair and refinishing procedures are
contained in the applicable maintenance or overhaul
manuals.
Do not pry tires away from the wheel flange with
screwdrivers, pry bars or other sharp tools. Use a tire
bead breaker and press evenly around the wheel to
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 separate the bead adhesion. Cracks in the wheel, particu-
larly around the bolt holes and bead seats, are cause for
replacement.
Axle nut torque is critical to wheel half and wheel
bearing life. Too tight and the wheel won't rotate freely,
too loose and the wheel wobbles. Either case will ruin
the bearings and wheel. The bearing manufacturers don't
specify axle nut torque values, so the best thing is to
consult the aircraft manufacturer's manuals.
Bolts. nuts and washers used on wheels and brakes
should be inspected prior to using again. Inspect bolts
for thread wear, thread damage, corrosion or cracks that
may have developed at the shank where it intersects the
bolt head. Self-locking nuts should be checked for thread
wear, damage and integrity of the locking feature. You
want to be sure the nut doesn't back off in service.
Check washers for cracks, damage or other items that
would render them unserviceable.
Bolts should be installed using the crisscross method,
first bringing torque up to about half of the required
value. Repeat the procedure to torque them to the final
value. Never use an impact wrench on any item of hard-
ware where torque is critical. These wrenches produce
load spikes that cause stress greater than the bolts and
nuts were designed for. Use a recently calibrated hand
torque wrench.
Wheel bearings
Wheel bearings, when properly maintained, will
provide many troublefree fhghts. Suggested mainte
nance intervals vary depending on the manufacturers.
The recommended repacking frequency, according to
Cleveland Wheels & Brakes. is 500 roll miles. It is also
a good idea to inspect them at every tire change or
annual inspection.
Bearings may be cleaned with solvent to remove
grease, dirt, etc. Soaking them will soften the grease and
any hardened deposits. A soft bristle brush may be used
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to remove the residue. Bearings may be dried with low
pressuredry compressed air by blowing parallel to the
rollers. Never blow across the rollers, causing them to
spin. Also, bearings should never be cleaned with steam,
as the heat and excess oxygen will damage the surfaces.
Inspection of bearings is essentially a visual inspec-
tion. Discoloration of the metal due to overheating,
lubrication breakdown, moisture contamination or incor-
r e d grease will show up in different colors (black, blue,
yellow, brown), Brinelling or spalling, or a chipping or
indentation of the bearing cup or cone. If any of the
above conditions exist, the bearings should be replaced.
Repacking bearings is a simple, if somewhat messy
task. An approved grease should be used. Place a golf
ball-sized amount in the palm end of the cone through
the grease thus forcing it between the rollers. Continue
this process working around the bearing until the grease
is forced all the way through the rollers.
The bearing cone is now ready for installation in the
wheel. If you are not immediately installing the bearing,
wrap it in wax paper or store it in a sanitary location so
the grease does not become contaminated.
Tires
Tire pressure is also critical for wheel as well as tire
life. Follow the tire manufacturer's recommendations for
inflation of tires particular to your aircraft. Variation as
small as 10 percent of inflation pressure can have signifi-
cant impact on wheel life. Wheels are designed to the
Tire and Rim Association specifications for location
and amount of load applied. One of the factors in wheel
design is tire inflation which, if out of tolerance, changes
the location of the applied load, thus altering the
stresses the wheel must endure. May/June 1990
John Bakos is aftermarket sales manager for Parker
Hannifin, Cleveland Wheels & Brakes.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 245
Aging props prompt closer attention
to maintenance
By Greg Napert

E
AST HADDAM, CT-Pride. That's the best way
to describe the feeling that technicians at New
England E'ropeller have for their work. There is a
sense that the quality of life in this small New England
community transcends into the work that is performed
in this full-service propeller overhaul shop.
Attention to detail and communications with custom-
ers about improvements in maintenance practices, based
on what the technicians see in the shop, are the result
of this pride.
But there is also a fee- of concern that is sensed
as Arthur D'Onofrio Jr., president and owner of N.E.P.,
explains the recent onslaught of propeller failures. Many
problems, D'Onofrio explains, are simply the result of
propellers that have been in service too long. D'Onofrio
also puts some of the blame on the manufacturers, s t a t
ing that propeller designs have not significantly changed
over the past 20 or so years, resulting in old technology
still being used in propeller design. "We have learned a
lot over the years that should be applied to new propeller Propeller is statically balanced at the overhaul facility and
design," says D'Onofrio. should not be changed during the life of the prop.
D'Onofrio also points to the f a d that maintenance
practices can have a direct impact on the condition of
that area. Clark claims that he has seen cases where the
propellers. Aging propellers, says D'Onofrio, combined
nicks have either been burnished or lightly filed and this
with designs that are not quite as good as they could be,
is not sufficient to remove the damage.
are making it even more important than in the past to
Restoring the proper contour to the blade is also
pay strict attention to maintenance practices.
important, says Clark. Improperly contoured blade tips
For example, explains Courtney Clark, vice president
and blunt leading edges are common errors. Also, says
of operations and product support, practices that were
Clark, "If you remove metal from one blade, the other
once accepted, such as using blade paddles to move
blade should have an equal amount removed so that the
blades in and out of feather, should be discontinued.
assembly is kept in balance."
Also, says Clark, pulling or pushing the aircraft around
Greasing propeller hubs is another area that is often
by the propeller should not be allowed. Doing so places
abused. Mixing incompatible greases can destroy O-rings
unusual loads on the propeller. This could damage the
and seals, and not thoroughly purging the grease from
blade sockets and bearings, and could affect blade track-
the hub can allow moisture to remain, resulting in imbal-
ing. It is important to remember that when a prop is at
ance. Many technicians simply pump one or two pumps
rest, it is much weaker than when in motion. Centrifugal
of grease into each prop. This can result in excessive
forces of 70,000 pounds and greater that seat the blades
pressure, damaged seals, cause imbalance and doesn't
and add stiffness give the propeller its strength while in
purge the old grease from the prop. To properly grease
motion, says Clark.
the hub, says Clark, remove one zerk fitting from the
According to Clark, blade filing, in many cases, is not
hub and position the hole toward the ground. Be sure
done properly. "AC 43.13-1Agives good instructions on
that the proper grease is selected, and pump grease
how to file blades," says Clark, but many times they are
into the top zerk fitting until the grease that is running
not followed. "You have to file all of the damage out of
from the bottom hole is clean. Use caution, Clark says,
the blade in order for it to be effective." If any portion of
when reinserting the zerk fitting not to use excessive
the nick is left in the blade, the stressed area has not
torque. The threads, after repeated use, can be easily
been removed, allowing for the possibility of failure in
stripped out.

246 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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 "Corrosion, if left unattended, can often scrap a
prop," explains Clark. Removing any corrosion as soon
as it begins by sanding the affected area and anodizing
or treating as recommended can extend the life of the
propeller indefinitely.
Dynamic balancing has come a long way in recent
years, and affordable equipment is available from a host
of manufacturers. "There is no question that dynamic
balancing is a good thing.Eliminating vibration can
definitely add to the safety of an airplane. Propeller
manufacturers are currently working on approving proce
dures for dynamic balancing," says Clark. Because of the
many different types of installations, it is impossible to
write one generic procedure that would be applicable for
all. The important thmg is that it be done correctly.
A big mistake, says Clark, when balancing a propeller
is to remove weights that were used to statically balance
the propeller in the factory. Removing the static weights
to attain dynamic balance may appear to work when the
propeller is not running at cruise speed, but severe
imbalance can result when aerodynamic forces at differ-
ent speeds change the characteristics of the propeller.
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Also, by removing static weights, you have destroyed
the balance if the prop is to be used on another engine
or airplane.
Where to add weight to achieve dynamic balance
poses the biggest problem, says Clark. Without knowing
whether or not it is OK to add weights to bulkheads,
prop spinners or other areas of the prop and what
effect these weights will have on structural integrity or
performance characteristics, it is imperative that the
technician be properly trained before attempting to
dynamically balance the prop. (Any approval questions
should be directed to your local FAA office.)
Clark stresses the importance of overhaul at TBO.
Many Part 91 operators, says Clark, tend to let the prop
go beyond TBO. "This is a horrendous injustice. They
are not forced by law to overhaul their props.
"The A&P is the one who must recommend and push
the owner to overhaul when the prop comes due." Even
though the prop may appear to be in good condition,
corrosion, wear and damage such as cracks may be
present inside the hub. Disassembling the prop and
inspecting it internally is the only way to verify the
integrity of the propeller.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine U7
 McCauley meeting produces common questions
and good answers
The following are excerpts from a McCauley memoran-
dum dated November 14, 1989 and distributed to all
McCauley service stations from Chuck Rocco, manager
of marketing and product support. The questions were
generated at the McCauley 1989 Worldwide Service
Station meeting which was held in September 1989.
Q. Is there any McCadey approved dynamic balance
information for reciprocating engine equipped aircraft?
A. As the bulkheads of many recip aircraft are not
made by McCauley, specific balance weight limitations,
mass placement, etc., cannot be determined until each
individual bulkhead is analyzed. This analysis is
currently underway and at its completion appropriate
service information will be released.
Q. How do you feel about changing static balance of
the propeller?
A. It is important to maintain the static balance of
the propeller as supplied from the factory or from
propeller shops for several reasons. It provides a good
initial propeller balance to initiate dynamic balance of
the powerplant; therefore, the propeller is not matched
t o the installation and can be changed, i.e., on a twin
engine from the left side to the right side, without major
impact to the balance. Furthermore, it is difficult, if not
impossible, to obtain the full-blade angle range during
static run-ups when performing dynamic balance. Few
people actually conduct a dynamic balance with flight
tests. By adjusting the static balance weights on the
propeller, you may inadvertently make it acceptable at
low-blade angle ranges and detrimental at high angles.
We therefore feel it is in the best interest to keep the
process as simple and uniform as possible and to not
change the static balance of the propeller.
Q. Does McCauley intend to allow the reuse of
propeller blades showing signs of direct lightning strike?
A. In the past there appeared to be few propellers
affected by lightning strike. Operators are now request
ing that we look into this. McCauley would like to cau-
tiously explore its feasibility... at present, any McCauley
blade showing signs of direct lightning strike is to be
scrapped. It is difficult to locate entry and exit points
from lightning strike or potential electrical shortages.
. , 2M The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Q. W h y not drill and tap fixed-pitch propellers?
A. Balancing of fixed-pitch propellers without hub
balance weights by grinding along the blade hub is
not recommended. We are evaluating the possibility of
adding balance weights to these models.
Q. Is McCauley going to establish a TBO period for
fixed-pitch propellers?
A. The issue of fixed-pitch TBO limitations is
currently under consideration. However, no conclusion
has been reached as yet.
Q. Does McCauley endorse the use o f shot to clean
out corrosion?
A. We do not allow removal of corrosion on hubs.
Q. What i s your feeling on removing paint by
plastic media?
A. Although still under consideration, McCauleyJs
initial reaction to the use of plastic is a positive one.
From all evidence we have seen thus far, plastic media is
acceptable for paint removal on McCauley parts.
Q. I have a lot of oil leaks that I can't fmd. Everyone
tries to blame the propellers. How do I fmd where the
leaks are coming from?
k If propeller leakage is suspected, but the source
of leakage is not readily apparent, before removing the
propeller from the aircraft:
1. Remove the spinner.
2. Wipe clean all propeller, flange and spinner buJkhead
parts.
3. Use white "Dye-check or equivalent and coat the
hub and blade shank areas. Do not attempt engine
run-up without spinner shell installed unless spinner
bulkhead fillets and deice leads have been removed.
4. After solution dries, reinstall spinner and run engine
for at least five minutes.
5. Shut down engine and examine coated surfaces. The
sources of any leakage will show as a stain on the
coated surfaces.
6. If it is definitely established that propeller is leaking,
remove it and mark so that the proper inspection can
be made during disassembly.
March/April 1990
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 Starter systems
Simple truths

By Greg Napert

The starter circuit

It's a common error to assume that when a starter
doesn't turn over, there's a problem w i t h the starter
itself, explains Kevin Scdy, owner of SaFlite Accessories
in Oshkosh, WI. Scully says that it's important to think
of the starter in terms of a "starting circuit."
The starter circuit includes the battery, solenoid
starting switch, manual starting switch, starting motor,
the connecting wires and the frame of the aircraft.
"Actually, there is potential for trouble at any one of
those points," Scully says.
The first step in troubleshooting should be to check
all of the wiring) including the battery cables, to make
sure that all connections are good and that the terminals
are not corroded.
Scully also suggests checking the specific gravity of
the electrolyte in the battery. He has occasionally found
instances where technicians have serviced the aircraft
battery with automotive electrolyte.
"They have a specific gravity difference," Scully says.
"The f a d is that the aircraft battery design is slightly
different than automotive because they have to get more
power at less weight. If you service an aircraft battery
with automotive electrolyte, you've reduced the capacity."
This can cause the starter to turn slowly, or not at all,
while everything else appears to be working properly.
Scully cautions that a number of things can be wrong
with the system at one time. He points out one instance
where a customer came to him with a bad starter, volb
age drop across the solenoid and automotive electrolyte
in the battery. He says the customer took the aircraft to
other shops but that the problem was never completely
solved. After correcting all of these problems, S c d y said
that the starting system was like new and the customer
was happy.

Problem areas Kevin ScuUy, owner of Sar'lite Accessories in Oshkosh, W1,

One of the more prevalent problems, Scully says,
can appear with the starter solenoid. After many cycles
of operation, the contacts within the solenoid have a
tendency to burn. This burning causes a voltage drop
that is sigdicant enough to prevent the starter from
turning. An easy way to check this is to disconnect the
starter from the circuit, activate the relay and check the
voltage on each side of the relay. According to Scully,
if there is "more than a couple of tenths of a voltage
drop," then there is a problem with the relay and it
removes the Bendix assembly from a starter.
should be replaced. Burned contacts can also cause the
solenoid to stick, which will lead to a burned-out starter
motor (see Starter warning light).
Bad key switches are another problem area. Because
of the regular wear and tear, they have a tendency to
either stop working or begin sticking. A sticky switch
can quickly lead to a burned-out starter motor, and there
is usually no way to tell that the motor is still activated

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 249

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during the flight. But when it's time to start the aircraft There are really no
again, it's found that the starter motor is burned out special tools required to
and needs to be replaced. replace the Bendix assem-
bly explains Scully.
Installation pointers However, Prestolite mod-
One of the most common starter installation errors els EBB 131 and EBB124
is overtightening the field terminal stud. According to incorporate a steel roll
Scully, "The field terminal on most starters is a copper pin that holds the Bendix
stud, and frequently I've seen this stud stripped out or onto the shaft. This
damaged." On many older Delco-Remy starters, S c d y requires compression of
explains, the field terminal stud doesn't have any the Bendix in order to
provision to keep the stud from turning in the housing. remove the pin. Scully
If the stud is allowed to rotate, internal damage of has modified a pair of
the field coils can result. "I recommend applying Loctite welder's vicegrips by
242 (or equivalent) and using a split washer," Scully f i g down the inside of
says. "Tighten the connection until the washer just the fingers that slide over
Modified welding pliers
becomes flat and no further." that Scully uses to the center of the Bendix
Newer starters, however, incorporate a machined compress the Bendix (see photo) to the point
stud that fits into the housing so that it cannot rotate. assembly. where they slide without
Continental uses a starter that is quite different from resistance over the
the others. The Bendix assembly does not exist. Instead, Bendix. He can then com-
Continental incorporates a clutch assembly in the press the Bendix, which frees him to extend the pin
accessory section of the engine which serves the same collar (using a screwdriver) and remove the pin. Scully
purpose as the Bendix. As a result, the starter is cautions, however, to use just enough force to overcome
mounted directly on the accessory case. When installing the pressure of the spring. Excessive force with this tool
this type of starter, it is important, for the purpose of can damage the Bendix.
preventing oil leaks, to keep the mounting flanges clean After the shaft is removed from the Bendix assembly,
and to assure that there are no burrs or old gasket it is important that it's cleaned and properly inspected.
material left on the flange. S c d y says that prior to reassembly, crocus cloth should
be used to polish the shaft as smooth as possible so
Bendlx blues that "the Bendix doesn't encounter any resistance." He
Due to the positioning of the Bendix on many starter suggests using a thin film of Lubriplate 777 or equiva-
installations, the arrangement is very susceptible to dirt, lent to lubricate the shaft upon reassembly. Scully also
water and contamination. A sticky Bendix can result in recommends that the appropriate overhaul manual
failure of the starter to engage, or worse, failure of the be followed when removing and installing the Bendix
starter to disengage after it has been activated. Scully assembly.
claims that some repair shops recommend cleaning and
lubricating the Bendix every 50 hours with silicone spray For liability's sake
(Lycoming service instruction 1278 recommends cleaning S c d y suggests that more and more shops are turn-
with Varsol or equivalent and spraying with silicone at ing their starters into an approved accessory overhaul or
every lO@hour inspection). He suggests that it need not repair facility due to "technician's liability and customer
be done that frequently. satisfaction." He explains that because these accessory
"I use the recommended lubricant when I assemble shops specialize in starter repair and overhaul, they are
the Bendix onto the shaft during overhaul," Scully says, more familiar with the starter and are more likely to
"so I don't recommend all that w a s h and spraying perform a dependable repair.
w i t h silicone. If the airplane is utilized, the Bendix will "If he (the technician) is dealing with someone who's
work. I've not been able to get a sticky one to work with reputable, and most of them are, he's got a good product
any reliability by just spraying it with silicone. I've tried and can put it on with confidence," Scully says. "He's
that route and it worked for a short time, then started installed something that's yellow tagged, and his liability
acting up again." is limited to making sure the installation is correct. And
Scully suggests that the Bendix is relatively simple to his customer is happy because he's got a reliable product
remove, clean and replace. And he also suggests that if that's right the first time."
it's time for the starter to be overhauled, the Bendix
should be replaced.

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 Cold weather operation
With winter promising to stick around for a few more
months (in a large portion of the country), it's wise to
keep a few cold weather operating tips in your back
pocket.
Lycoming brings you a few pointers that are sure to
keep you in good standing with the boss.
It is important to remember that these tips apply to
temperatures above -25°F.
Preheat
At ground temperatures below 10°F, the engine and
oil system should be preheated. This does not mean that
the engine will not start below 10°F, but due to the lack
of circulation of the oil, it is possible that engine damage
will occur. Scored cylinders, scuffed piston skirts and
broken piston rings are typical damage from very cold
weather starts without preheating. Keep in mind that
the application of heat to the cylinder area only does not
guarantee that the entire oil system is properly heated.
On engines that are equipped with oil coolers, be sure to
heat the oil cooler as well as the oil sump.
Pull the prop through
Rotation of the propeller by hand provides an indica-
tion that the engine is free to turn and can add lubrica-
tion to areas that are otherwise dry. Make sure that
the mag switches are in the OFF position and pull the
propeller through several times. Always assume the
mags are hot and stand clear of the prop.
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Don't overwork the starter
If an engine requires an excessive amount of crank-
ing, be cautious not to run the starter for more than
30 seconds at a time, with one-minute cooling periods
between attempts. Pushing the starter beyond this could
result in a burned-out motor.
Watch for oil pressure
Immediately upon starting the engine, check for an
indication of oil pressure. Remember that different
model aircraft exhibit different characteristics. On most
single engine aircraft an almost immediate response is
noted. On twinengine aircraft the engines are located
considerably farther from the oil gauges and as a result,
the response may be much slower. On some twins, the
oil pressure may go up and during warm-up may drop
again for a short period of time, then rise back to
normal. Check with someone who is familiar with the
operation of the aircraft prior to starting the engines.
Keep the RPM up
After start, do not idle engine below 1,000 rpm. It's
not good practice to idle engines below 1,000 rpm at
any time (there are some exceptions to this rule, such as
the Piper Pressurized Navajo). This is particularly true
during cold weather operation to prevent lead fouling
of spark plugs. January/February 1990
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 251
Accessory Technology

Vacuum pumps
New technology has made them a very delicate device

ARTLAND, WI- Vacuum pumps are simple

H devices. But simple devices can often get you

into trouble if taken half-heartedly.
"We have torn down a lot of pumps and we see what
makes them fail," says Michael White, president of
RAPCO Inc.
In fact, RAPCO has torn down thousands of
Airborne's 200/400 Series vacuum pumps and claims
that it continuously sees pumps that have been
mishandled, mainly, because of the unfamiliarity with
the new technology.
White explains that much of the misunderstanding
stems from the fact that the old style vacuum pumps
were built like tanks. Most technicians never get to see
the inside of the pump and don't understand the
changes that have taken place over the years.
Notice that the old style pump (see photo) had a
heavyduty housing that could be placed in a vice when
fittings were removed or installed. The new pumps (by
contrast) incorporate a housing that has a much thinner
and more delicate wall. Not to mention the fact that the
rotor is closely fitted to the housing (.002 to .003 clear-
ance). Placing the new style pump in a vice incorrectly
could crack the housing or damage the rotor.
The principal materials that are used on the new
style pumps are aluminum (the housing), carbon (the
rotor) and graphite (the vanes and bushings).
The aluminum and carbon components are unaffected
by the oil, water and solvent that may enter the system.
But the graphite components are susceptible to damage.
Solvent and oil can cause the graphite to swell. Oil-
-
soaked bushings can cause the drive shaft to freeze
up and shear. And oil-soaked vanes can swell so they
become lodged in the rotor, rendering the pump useless.
Dave Schaefer, plant supervisor at RAPCO, explains
that the phenomenon known as "intermittent pump" is a
result of oil-soaked vanes. When the engine is operated
at low speed,
- . the vanes are stuck in the rotor and won't
pump air. At high rpms, however, the vanes break loose
and begn to work properly.
Old style pumps had a much longer life due to the
fact that they incorporated a lubrication system that
bathed the components in oil at all times. Also, the
vanes were considerably thicker and wore much more
gradually.
Today's pumps have much thinner vanes. "It's like
lead in a pencil," says White. The vanes wear down to
the point where they break off and cause the pump
to fail.
Airborne's new style vacuum pump (left) vs. old style
vacuum pump (right). Notice the differences in the thickness
of vanes and housings between old and new models.
According to White, "All pumps are destined to fail."
But knowing the inner workings of the vacuum pump
(as with any other component) can lead to smarter
maintenance and extended pump Life.
Tips from Airborne for installation of
vacuum pumps
Never install a pump that has been dropped.
Clamp pump on mounting flange surface only.
Clamping the housing will cause damage to the rotor
or housing.
Change all filters in the system. Failing to do so
could void the warranty on the pump.
Spray the fittings with silicone spray. Never use
Teflon tape, pipe dope or thread lube.
Never tighten fittings on the housing more than one
and onehalf turns beyond hand tight.
Always replace all lockwashers when installing a
new pump.
Clean the pump inlet line thoroughly.
Blow out all hoses using high pressure air before
installing.
I
Replace all old, hard, cracked or brittle hoses.
Sections of the inner liners may separate causing
I
pump failure.
I
I Use silicone spray on the hoses to slide them straight
onto the fittings. Wiggling the hose from side to side
can cause particles of hose to be cut from the inside
diameter of the hose and damage the pump.

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Double check the routing of the hoses. Improper
routing could cause damage to the gyro system.
To overhaul or not to overhaul-that is
the question
The differing opinions regarding the effectiveness of
vacuum pump overhaul exist. Parker H a d i Corp.,
Airborne claims that its vacuum pumps cannot be over-
hauled. In fact, it has been placing a warning not to
overhaul the pump directly on the pump body.
Syd Rearnes, aftermarket accessories manager for
Airborne, explains that they do not believe that the over-
hauled pumps will see half of the life of a new Airborne
vacuum pump.
Rearnes claims that the standards for overhaul of
its pumps do not meet its stringent manufacturing
guidelines. He recommends that, for the safety of every-
one involved, the cores be returned directly to Airborne
as exchange for a new pump.
Slick* new magneto timing procedure
is truly LLsli~k"
Forget about conventional internal timing procedures for
Slick magnetos. Slick has introduced a couple of tools
that greatly simplify the procedure.
Its new "E" gap gauge (tool No. T-150) is a precisely
machined .062-inch feeler gauge. The two ends of the
gauge are machined differently to allow use with the
older style rotors (no slots on the magnet head) and with
the new CNC style rotors (slots on the magnet head).
The base (tool No. T-100) holds the magneto in position
during the timing procedure.
To set the timing, place the magneto on the T-100
base and position the magneto so that the coil is at
12 o'clock.
Old style rotors... insert the flat end of the "E" gap
gauge between the raised laminations on the rotor mag-
neto head and the laminations in the frame. Place the
gauge against the right lamination for righthand rota-
tion magnetos and against the left lamination for left
hand rotation magnetos. Turn the rotor in the direction
of the magnetos rotation until the laminations on the
rotor head contact and hold the "Engap gauge in place.
New style rotors... insert the notched end of the "En
gap gauge into the appropriate "L" or " R timing slot in
the rotor magneto head. Use the "R" slot for right-hand
rotation magnetos and the "L" slot for left-hand rotation
magnetos. Turn the rotor in the direction of magneto
rotation to hold the "Engap gauge against the lamina-
tions in the frame.
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Accessory TechnoIogy
On the contrary, Michael White, president of RAPCO
Inc., claims that his company's standards for overhaul
meet or beat the standards that were adhered to during
original manufacture.
White says the RAPCO uses a new Airborne pump
as the reference point when testing each one of its
overhauled pumps. He also claims that because of the
improved coating that is used on the liner, the overhauls
will actually outlast Airborne's originals based on
warranty claim information that has been compiled.
He points to the fact that RAPCO operates under
FAR Part 145.33(c) as a limited repair station and that
its overhaul process is approved by the administrator.
What's a technician to do? The roughly 15 to 25
percent savings realized by having the pumps overhauled
is certainly enticing. And the safety concerns presented
by Airborne are definitely valid. But in the end the
decision to overhaul or not to overhaul is up to you.
To proceed,
connect a timing
light to the points
and adjust them
until they are just
opening. Tighten
the adjusting
screws (torque
the pivot screw to
15 to 18 inch-
pounds and the
adjusting screw
to 18 to 20 inch-
pounds).
For Retard
Breaker Magne
tos, the secondary points will now have to be set. For a l l
others, the timing is now complete.
A very important point to consider when working on
magnetos, says Harry L. Fenton, technical representa-
tive at Slick, is that there are continuous design changes
that take place with new magnetos as well as existing
magnetos. "It is nearly impossible for the customers to
keep up to date unless they subscribe to Slick's Master
Service Manual," Fenton says.
Slick's F-1100 Master Service Manual contains
maintenance and application information that pertains
to most of its magnetos. The cost to subscribe is $30 for
the initial subscription and $20 a year for revisions.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 253
Accessory Technology

Hot brakes or cool?

The controversy continues! Whether or not to use steel,
chrome or stainless steel for your brake discs.
What is the purpose of a brake disc? To dissipate the
heat generated during braking of a vehicle. How is this
accomplished? Through radiation and convection. During
the braking process, friction between the brake linings
and disc creates heat, which must be removed. Initially,
the disc surface gets hot and during the stop, heat (or
temperature increase) travels through the disc, thus
equalizing material temperature.
By accomplishing this heat transfer quickly, high
surface temperatures, which cause brake fade, are mini-
mized and the coefficient of friction required to produce
required stopping performance is realized. High surface
temperatures reduce coefficient of friction. That results
in brake fade, which requires higher brake pedal effort
to stop. Also, brake linings exposed to high temperature
will experience rapid wear and degradation of the
bonding material (resins).
Thermal conductivity Q measured in Btuhour foot
OF, is the ability of a material to transfer heat. Higher
thermal conductivity values mean a faster heat transfer,
which in the case of brake discs, results in lower surface
temperatures. Lower thermal conductivity values mean
higher surface temperatures due to a slower heat
transfer. Higher temperature at the lining/disc interface
means a reduced coefficient of friction, brake fade and
degradation of linings.
Reviewing the various materials used for brake discs
shows cast iron, steel and stainless steel to be the
primary choices. Cast iron and steel show thermal con-
ductivity values from 32 to 24 in the temperature range
of 32" to 750°F, while stainless ranges from 13 to 10
over the same temperature range-clearly a distinct
difference in the ability to transfer or dissipate heat.
Another factor that needs consideration in the dis-
cussion of brakes is the service life of brake linings. Just
as b h temperatures reduce lining life, rough brake
discs do as well. We all know that bare steel subjected to
the atmosphere corrodes. If you were to look at the
discs on your automobile after it sat a few days, corm
Brake disc comparison. From left to right-standard,
chrome and stainless.
sion would appear. However, since it takes some effort to
do this, we tend to ignore them. On light aircraft the
brake discs are visible and tend to attract attention
! when turning brown. Left in this condition, the light sur-
face corrosion soon turns to pits, which due to their
roughness, causes
rapid lining wear. Frequent use of the brakes cleans the
1 surface corrosion and keeps the discs clean. Not every
aircraft is fortunate to be flown frequently enough.
1 Bare steel offers little protection against the
elements. Alternatives include chrome plating the steel
1 disc or using stainless.
Stainless, as we know, takes a long time to corrode.
However, its lower thermal conductivity means that
higher surface temperatures, brake fade and reduced
lining wear result.
Chrome plating offers corrosion resistance when
applied to bare steel with the advantage of steel's
thermal conductivity. Eventually the plating does wear
off, and you then have a bare steel disc, which can be
worn to its limits.
Which is best? Depends on what you want a brake
disc to do! Look pretty or work.
November/December 1989

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 Professionalism. Staying Legal. FAA Feedback

Contents
Preface ........................................................................................................................................................... vii
Professionalism
Complacency ..................................................................................................................................................... 3
Blue water ........................................................................................................................................................ 6
Staying on top of technology .........................................................................................................................8
More ups than downs with owner-assisted annuals .....................................................................................10
Electric power tools ....................................................................................................................................... 12
Several sources for electric power tools ................................................................................................. 13
The training never stops ............................................................................................................................... 14
!l!roubleshootingtraining is essential .......................................................................................................16
Quality control .............................................................................................................................................17
A single manual of quality control ........................................................................................................... 18
Airline maintenance scheduling symposium ................................................................................................. 19
Software does more than streamline record keeping ..................................................................................... 22
Points to ponder ..................................................................................................................................... 24
Out of work. but not out of hope ................................................................................................................. 26
References................................................................................................................................................28
The perils and pitfalls of electric tools ......................................................................................................... 29
AD research ................................................................................................................................................... 30
Thought you knew torque? ..........................................................................................................................33
The more we change-the more we stay the same ........................................................................................ 35
Habit .................................................................................................................................................... 35
A matter of privilege ............................................................................................................................... 35
Communications: A responsibility of the mechanic ................................................................................. 36
Don't be a hero ........................................................................................................................................ 36
Finding those hard-bfind parts ...................................................................................................................37
MedAire reveals results of survey on hazardous materials ..........................................................................39
Computer applications in the aircraft maintenance department .................................................................. 41
Technicians are decision-makers in Arkansas FBO's total quality management program ............................. 44
Suggestion box pays o f f........................................................................................................................ 45
Air conditioning and the Clean Air Act Amendment of 1990 .......................................................................46
Service manager's day builds into a constant whirl of activity ......................................................................48
Building a team .............................................................................................................................................. 50
A practical approach to hazard communication compliance ..........................................................................51
The need for further training ......................................................................................................................... 53
Environmental regulations ............................................................................................................................. 55
Take note! ............................................................................................................................................ 56
Tracking tools ............................................................................................................................................. 57
Efficiency ....................................................................................................................................................... 59
Are techs meant for a mentor? .....................................................................................................................61
Continued

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Prof&onalism. Stayin# Legal. FAA Feedback

Profdonalism continued
Every technician is a salesperson ............................................................................................................... 62
Effective communication ................................................................................................................................63
Fighting boredom .......................................................................................................................................... 64
Preparing for an interview ............................................................................................................................65
When to go the extra mile ........................................................................................................................... 67
Good competitors ...........................................................................................................................................68
Be assertive ....................................................................................................................................................
69
Stressing out ................................................................................................................................................ 70
Stress inventory .......................................................................................................................................71
Training-a commitment to excellence ..........................................................................................................72
Personal appearance .................................................................................................................................... 74
"Beat the clock" and have some fun ..............................................................................................................75
Computer-based training makes troubleshooting much easier to learn ................................................... 76
Professionalism in paperwork .......................................................................................................................77
Six good reasons ......................................................................................................................................79
Trash the rubber stamp... your customers deserve better! ......................................................................79
Which technician will make more money? .............................................................................................79
Communication ............................................................................................................................................. 80

Staying Legal
OSHA police-a new threat? .......................................................................................................................... 85
Military surplus parts .................................................................................................................................8 7
Indictment! FAA employees ............................................................................................................................89
"Public aircraft" .............................................................................................................................................91
FAR Part 121 rules for all ............................................................................................................................ 93
Retesting nightmare! ...................................................................................................................................... 95
Goodbye FAR Part 65. hello Part 66! .................... . ..................................................................................... 97
Pirate the STC? ..............................................................................................................................................99
Mega.regulations. ready for more ............................................................................................................... 101
Ask before you act ......................................................................................................................................... 103
"Fresh annual" .............................................................................................................................................. 105
NAFTA ........................................................................................................................................................
107
Federal faux pas .......................................................................................................................................... 109
The police arm of the FAA ........................................................................................................................ 110
You win some. you lose some! .................................................................................................................... 112
Watch your parts or someone else will! .....................................................................................................114
The threat from Section 609 ......................................................................................................................116
Tort reform for product liability ...................................................................................................................117
New tools for civil penalties and enforcement ......................................................................................... 119
Director of maintenance? .............................................................................................................................121
Are you protected? ...................................................................................................................................... 123
Where there's smoke... there's poison gas ...................................................................................................124

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 Professionalism, Staying Legal, FAA Feedback

Hard times 125

Owner performed maintenance 127
Lien lessons 128
Supplemental Type Certificates 130
A matter of reliance 132
Technicians' toxic tips 133
Drug testing 135
Product liability 137
Update - civil penalty assessment demonstration program 139
The lurking criminal charge threat 141
The checklist- use it! 143
Technicians: beware of hazardous substances 145
Parts, the "bogus bogeyman" 146
Technicians advised to be informed on drug testing 148
"I Certify" or do I? 149
Insurance, to have or have not! 151
FAA enforceI1?-ent"frenzy" 153
New Texas law makes it easier for shops to collect bad debts 154

FAA Feedback
New policy for IA renewal 157
Checklists for parts 160
Who in the world needs an M.E.L.? 163
"Silverback" 166
Minefields : 169
A review of Part 135 (10 or more) maintenance requirements 172
Going Part 145 175
Forgotten heros 178
Comrade customer 179
Form 8130-3 183
Giants among us 187
Harmonization, bilaterals and other scary things 190
Illumination 194
Visions of director of maintenance? 197
A few suggestions for the aspiring director of maintenance 199
User fees for IAs! 200
Charles Taylor Master Mechanic award 202
Changing the rules 203
Questions for a bureaucrat 206
Ferry permits 208
The bottom line 211
Required inspection record information 213
Tips on protecting your logbook entries 213
Continued

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Professionalism, StaylngLegal. FAA Feedback

FAA Feedback continued

FAA Aviation Maintenance Technician Awards ......................................................................................... 214
Technician award requirements .............................................................................................................216
Employer award requirements ............................................................................................................... 216
Are you prepared for the FAA? ....................................................................................................................217
Human lives ..................................................................................................................................................220
It's IA renewal time ..................................................................................................................................... 222
LA defmed ...............................................................................................................................................223
So you say you want a field approval? .....................................................................................................224
Freddy's back! ............................................................................................................................................ 226
The yellow tag ..............................
.... .........................................................................................................228
The most important rule .............................................................................................................................230
FAR compliance ............................................................................................................................................231
Approved data ...............................................................................................................................................232
One service bulletin too soon ..................................................................................................................... 233
Annual sign-off ..............................................................................................................................................234
Wooden spars and data plates .....................................................................................................................235
Wedged between a rock and a hard place ................................................................................................... 236

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 Prof885ionaIism, Staying Legal, FAA Feedback

Preface
Technical reading material is, by its very nature, "dry." No laughs or chuckles can be heard as a technician
reads through the typical A&P training manual, nor can you find the average technician sitting down on the
weekend entertaining himself with a good A&P regulations book.
When we started publishing Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine in 1989, we wanted to provide
a technical training curriculum that technicians could use to advance themselves in their profession; yet, we
realized that if it were to work, we would have to provide material that was not only technically accurate
and relevant to the profession, but fun to read. We feel that we've accomplished this over the years, as our
subscribers relate stories of actually reading the material during their leisure hours-and learning
something from it.
The fact that the magazine is required reading material in many A&P schools and that the FAA and
Transport Canada have approved the material for recurrency training purposes is testament to the f a d that
the material is also technically relevant.
After being hounded repeatedly for permission to reprint articles and to provide back issues to
individuals, and after realizing that much of the material in the magazine was actually timeless, we finally
decided to make the material available in book format.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine series represents the best articles published
during the years 1989 through 1995. It is divided into a threevolume set, which includes the Recip &
Turbine Technology Series, Airframe & Accessory Technology Series, and Professional & Legal Series. The
articles appear only in the order they appeared in AMT Magazine, not according to subject matter. So read
each volume from back to front, front to back, or select only the subject matter you are interested in.
But most importantly, fiid a nice quite place, and sit back and enjoy.

Happy reading!
Greg Napert
Editor, AMT Magazine

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine vii

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2 The Best of Aircrafi Maintenance Technology Magazine

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Complacency
By Richard Komarniski
ne of the major changes to occur in the world of
airline training over the past few years has been
the emphasis on human factors. Originally focus-
ing on the pilot community, human factors have now
spread into the training sphere of maintenance techni-
cians. An indepth review of an aviation incident reveals
time and again that a series of human errors (known
also as a chain of events) was allowed to build until the
accident occurred. If maintenance errors were part of
the chain of events leading to the accident, if we can
break the chain of events at the maintenance level, the
accident will not happen.
All accidents in aviation industry are caused by one
of two factors. They are caused by either unsafe condi-
tions, such as an underdesigned or poorly manufactured
part or piece of equipment; or by an unsafe a d . Twenty
percent of a l l accidents are caused by a machine, and 80
percent of all accidents are caused by human factors. In
attempting to understand the cause factors of accidents,
and particularly in efforts to understand the chain of
the events that precede an accident, one word appears
frequently-Complacency.One human factor that can be
dealt with without penalizing revenue is the insidious
factor of complacency.
What, exactly, is complacency? Dictionaries describe
it as being self-satisfied, a calm sense of well-being and
security, self-satisfaction accompanied by unawareness
of actual dangers or deficiencies. Or, "Unjustified self-
satisfaction accompanied by a low awareness of the need
for action or involvement," or as a psychologist would
say, "A conscious or unconscious relaxation of one's
usual standards in making decisions and taking action."
Someone once was asked. "What is the difference
between ignorance and complacency?" He responded, "I
don't know and I don't care."
What causes us to become less vigilant when we do
the same inspection in the wheel well for the 10th time
or when we are asked to look for cracks on a wing strap
containing 400 rivets? Psychologists explain it by saying
"the subconscious mind (child) creates complacency
where the conscious mindlrational mind is going to find
the cracks."
Boeing studied the causes of 276 in-fhght shutdowns
due to maintenance errors. Ninety-four percent of these
investigations revealed that incomplete, improper instal-
lation, damage on installation, equipment not installed/
FOD were the contributing cause; (subconscious or emo-
tional mind) was probably the state of mind of the tech
involved with these incidences. But as soon as the ratio-
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Professionalism
nal mind has been engaged, like when you are trouble
shooting, only 6 percent of the errors were created in
this state of mind.
Complacency is an attitude. And attitudes govern the
probabilities of our responding to certain incidences to
a given set of circumstances. The good news is that like
our other attitudes, complacency can be changed through
a conscious (rational) effort.
Because of the repetitive nature of a lot of aviation
maintenance work, complacency is an ever present
danger. When a person becomes complacent, his stress
level for the task decreases and with it, his performance.
A greater stimulus will be required in order to obtain a
response. Any type of inspection work that is repetitive
and in which the probability of finding a problem is low
qualifies as *ant task.
Factors
The major contributors to complacency are those
factors that lead to relaxing one's standards, ironically,
the very factors that generally lead to safe and unevenb
ful flight. They include:
Reliable aircraff
Today's aircraft are so reliable that they can contrib
ute to complacency. I do not want to sound unapprecia-
tive for the progress that has been made by designers
and manufacturers during the past decades, but an
excess of confidence in one's aircraft was not a problem
in the early pioneer days of aviation.
Familiar cimmmkmc88
Have you ever driven to work, and once arrived, were
not able to recall having driven past some prominent
landmark? I believe many of us have had a similar
experience. The overly familiar situation can and does
apply to maintenance as well.
With complacency can come expectancy, where the
aircraft maintenance technician will often see or hear
what he expects to see or hear rather than what is actu-
ally occurring. If other factors are also present such as
fatigue, inadequate resources and stress (from a different
source), then the chance of an error becomes very real.
An incident occurred on May 5, 1983. Eastern
Airlines flight 855 departed Miami enroute to Nassau,
Bahamas with three new oil chip detectors installed.
Unfortunately, the technicians failed to install O-rings
and the flight was forced to return after losing oil.
The two technicians completing the task expected
that the detectors would have O-rings on them, as they
normally did, and the task was so repetitive that they let
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 3
their guard down to complacency. An aircraft technician
can be likely to relax his vigil because he/she believes
someone else is making or has made the decision.
Anything that tends to take away or minimize the
decision-making process (rational mind) will increase the
likelihood that complacency will set in.
Chain of events
There are symptoms of complacency that we should
be aware of, that should set off alarm signals, and
to which we can respond. Some symptoms of compla-
cency are:
Accepting lower etandards of performanca
One of the early symptoms of complacency is simply
a lowering of one's standards-for example, not compleb
ing or following an inspection sheet for the task at hand.
Erosion of desire to remain proficht
The individual who does not make the effort to stay
ahead in his profession is going to fall behind. It's like
staying in shape physically-you don't simply get there
and forget about it. The individual who loses this desire
has symptoms of complacency.
Boredom and inattention
If it is a chore to come to work day after day, or if
you don't feel challenged by what you do and aren't moti-
vated to meet that challenge, then look out for creeping
complacency. This leads to working with the emotional
mind vs. the rational mind (creating challenges).
Satiefied with the statue quo
Things as they exist now are perfectly satisfactory.
Why change? Don't rock the boat. Don't make waves.
These are typical of the individual who has become
content with the status quo.
I n d feeling of w e l l b h g
This is best described as the "couch potato." The indi-
vidual who thinks everything is going well and doesn't
realize that this feeling has slowly crept upon him. This
individual is operating in the comfort zone 100 percent
of the time. He has become too lazy to look for and
recognize the risks in his lifestyle.
The bogus parts industry is relying on us to be com-
placent in our tasks and not being vigilant to the parts
that are in our hands. It takes a very alert and knowl-
edgeable technician to be able to identify a bogus part in
hisher hands. Admittedly, we cannot detect all bogus
parts just by looking and feeling, but we can identify
quite a number of counterfeit parts if we are vigilant.
Errors or complacency can be lessened by always
following the checklist or work sheet.
Don't attempt to do work from memory, and NEVER
sign off work if you are not totally sure you completed
the task. The check sheet is a safety net and a point
where we can use our rational mind to assure ourselves
that we did complete the task at hand. Don't compre
rnise your standards.
4 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Neglecting personal safety items
If we find ourselves negleding even the smallest item
of personal safety, it should be a strong clue that the
signs of complacency are present. The companies we
work for are spending considerable time and effort
to provide a safe environment for us to work in; let's
become familiar on how to use the tools to protect
ourselves.
Safety nets
With a defition of complacency, an understandmg
of the factors and conditions that contribute to compla-
cency, and a list of common chain of events, we are in
position to discuss safety nets. The factors and chain of
events we discussed earlier suggested some safety nets
that may be effective.
To develop positive methods of preventing compla-
cency, we must keep ourselves aware. One of the first
defenses is to keep your awareness level peaked, primed,
and stimulated. I don't mean a oncea-year pep talk. Pep
talks are shorblived. There must be a long-term commib
ment that constantly hammers away at complacency.
Continually ask yourself, "Am I working with the rational
mind?" Yes, we need to work with our emotional mind
from time to time to be creative, but we should finish
the task in a rational state.
Profeeeional involvement
Staying abreast of your profession is an effective
method of fighting complacency and prevents people
from becoming stale and outdated. The technicians who
are aware of what's happening in their industxy, who are
knowledgeable of the latest technology, who read profes-
sional publications, and who belong to professional
organizations are far less likely to become complacent in
maintaining an aircraft. If you are doing an inspection
for the 21st time on the wings of an aircraft, make your-
self aware of your task and what to look for. Call up the
SDRs for the aircraft model and area. Become aware of
what other operators are experiencing with the same
aircraft you are operating. Read the service bulletins,
alerts and manufacturer communications. There is a
great deal of information out there for our use as
safety nets.
Phyeicalfitness
Being physically fit is an excellent defense for many
of life's challenges. Physical fitness results from
conscious lifestyle choices including: proper nutrition,
kicking the smoking habit, drinking in moderation,
proper rest, maintaining proper body weight, and a
regular exercise program. Physical fitness provides the
endurance to protect against fatigueinduced unaware
ness and poor decisions.
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 Plan ahead
Planning ahead provides a standard with which to
measure progress toward a goal. With a plan you can
determine if you are indeed going in the correct direc-
tion, and is an effective countermeasure to ward off
complacency.
Trainine
Initial training, recurrent training including human
factor training are fundamental to minimizing risk and
preventing complacency. Training does far more than
sharpen skills and refresh memories. Training can and
should add to a technician's total experience by prepar-
ing him to handle routine maintenance tasks as well as
emergency situations. Most companies provide their
maintenance personnel with excellent technical training
and yet very few companies provide any form of human
factors training for the very element that causes about
80 percent of the maintenance errors.
Create challenges for youreelf
How many snags can I find tonight? Have someone
else doublecheck your work if you find yourself doing a
tedious task. A dual inspection by a ceworker is a cheap
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and effective safety net we all should use when we are
completing the tasks on the aircraft. Ego has no place
on the hangar floor.
Face reality
We all must recognize in aircraft maintenance we
have little margin for error, and mistakes can result in
injury or worse. A healthy understanding of the risks
we face-the people, the aircraft, the missions, and the
environment-is essential to maintain the proper balance
to prevent a lethal dose of complacency.
In summary, complacency can be a significant cause
factor in accidents. It's not only important to recognize
the cause factors and conditions, as well as the chain of
events, but also to know the safety nets that prevent
complacency are under our control. By developing and
implementing safety nets, we can prevent rather than
have to cure complacency after it has set in. El
NovembedDecember 1995
Richard Komm'ski is president of Grey Owl Aviation
Consultants which provides human factors audits,
manuals, system setup and training for maintenance
and fight operators.
I he Best of AircraftMaintenance Technology Magazine 5
Blue water
Technicians raise questions about the safety
of working on aircraft lavatories
By Juliann Rudek
W
hen working with aircraft toilets many techni-
cians are worlung in an area where they are
susceptible to contact with several different
types of viruses and bacteria. A concern many techni-
cians are unaware of, yet some are beginning to ques-
tion, is the possibility of contracting diseases such as
AIDS (HIV)or hepatitis B (HBV) when performing
maintenance tasks on the lavatories. Typical tasks
include inspecting leaking tanks for corrosion, draining
contaminated containers, and removal and installation
of lavatory pumps.
Many may not want to contemplate the thought that
these fluids in some cases can be ideal breeding grounds
for bacteria, but the risks associated when working with
these fluids are real.
The good news is protecting yourself is easy, given
the proper knowledge and with adherence to the suitable
safety practices.
AIDS and hepatitis B-a cause for concern?
Two viruses that have been the impetus for techni-
cians questioning the safety of the blue fluid in toilets
are AIDS and hepatitis B-at least one of which has
been in the public eye for sometime now. In order to un-
derstand what one can do to protect oneself from this
potential danger, it is necessary to have a better under-
standing of AIDS and hepatitis B.
AIDS is caused by a virus called HIV, Human Immu-
nodeficiency Virus. It destroys a person's immune
system, which makes the body unable to fight off other
infections. HIV lives in body fluids and is passed from
person to person through direct contact of blood, semen,
vaginal secretions and by some reports, breast milk. The
HIV virus is a very fragde virus which dies quickly when
outside of the body. It can be killed by many common
disinfectants including bleach and Lysol.
Hepatitis B is a viral infection that causes swelling of
the liver. While most people who get hepatitis B recover
from the disease, a few become chronic carriers who can
pass the virus on to others for a long time. People who
have HBV carry it in their blood, semen, saliva, and
other bodily fluids. These infected fluids enter the blood
of a susceptible (non-immune) person through mucous
membranes or breaks in the skin, and along with these
fluids the virus can also enter. Hepatitis B is the only
form of hepatitis that has a vaccination which can be
6 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technolo~yMapazine
taken before or after becoming contaminated with the
virus. Contact your local hospital or your doctor for
information on the hepatitis B vaccination.
One of the main things to keep in mind is both of
these viruses cannot be transmitted, according to the
Wisconsin Department of Health and Social Services, by
contact with the following body fluids: urine, feces, nasal
secretions, sputum, vomit, saliva, sweat or tears unless
they contain visible blood-which should not be ruled out
in the case of aircraft lavatories.
What OSHA says about these viruses
and bacteria
When dealing with these pathogens in a lavatory
setting, Pat Lorenz, a management analyst for the
Minnesota OSHA, states, "Neither the Minnesota OSHA
nor the National OSHA classlfy urine, stool, etc. as
regulated body fluids under the blood borne pathogens
standard. However, employees who empty lavatory waste
or are otherwise exposed to these fluids should use
gloves and proper handling techniques to protect them-
selves from exposure to outer substances."
According to Joanne Royal, an occupational safety
administrator for America West Airlines, the blood
present in the toilets, in order to be considered hazard-
ous, would have to be the equivalent of taking a wash
cloth and dumping it in a bucket of blood, and when it is
picked up, the blood would have to be running off of it.
But any amount less than that, or if the blood present
is in a dried or caked form, like the amounts usually
found in the aircraft toilets, it is only considered a
minimal risk.
False security
A common misconception among technicians in the
field is the blue liquid in the toilets is a disinfectant as
well as a deodorant But according to several of the
manufacturers of the blue solution, it is nothing more
than a deodorizer.
Lindy Boehne, of Chem-Pace, a company that p r e
duces the blue solution, says the purpose of this product
is to neutralize and deodorize the odors, by killing the
bacteria or masking it with a perfume or scent. The goal
is not to disinfect anything; its goal is to maintain a
pleasant environment inside the laboratory while it is
in use. In essence these chemicals are not designed to
protect the workers from viruses and bacteria.
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 Although they do have some disinfecting qualities,
many have not been tested with this specific purpose in
mind. And even if the blue solution says it is a disinfec-
tant, this doesn't necessarily mean it will kill all bacteria
andlor viruses. Many bacteria can be resistant and
unaffected by the solutions. This means unless some
thing else is added to the solution, there is nothing being
done to kill the bacteria and viruses.
Some maintenance personnel do add solutions such
as bleach to the toilets or clean them with other prod-
ucts, but when doing this, it's important to make sure
the chemicals you are adding are compatible with the
blue solution andlor with other cleaning products you
may be using. Chemical reactions that can result in
deadly gases are not uncommon, even with some
frequently used chemicals. A good example of two chemi-
cals that are safe to use by themselves but become
deadly when used with each other is bleach and ammo-
nia. Together, they produce a gas which can be deadly in
such a confined area as an aircraft lavatory.
A good way to be sure of incompatibility problems is
to obtain Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) from the
suppliers of the products and read them. Each MSDS
states the description and uses, physical characteristics,
approvals, safety, methods of use, storage, and disposal.
-
The sheets will also state the hazardous hredients,
physical data, fire and explosion hazard data, reactivity
environmental and disposal information, health hazard
data, first aid, h a n d h g precautions, and other pertinent
information.
The blue solution itself, absent any contaminants,
should also be handled with care. Some of these
solutions are formulated with products that include form-
aldehyde, a substance which is dangerous and has been
found to be carcinogenic. However, many of the compa-
nies that produce the blue solution are trying to phase
out the use of formaldehvde.
One of the companies that has been successful in
doing this is Brent America. Jim Rodde, at Brent
America, says formaldehyde has been eliminated from all
of their products. Brent substitutes a quaternary ammo-
nium compound, which takes the place of formaldehyde.
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There is also a product called glutaraldehyde which is
offered. There is some interest in the glutaraldehyde,
but the majority of companies are switching over and
sticking with quaternary ammonium.
Still, no matter what type of chemicals are present,
they should be treated with caution. According to Joan
Garret, president of MedAir Inc. in Phoenix, AZ,a
company that offers seminars in safety in the workplace,
some of the thmgs to keep in mind when working with
or around this blue solution is:
Don't develop a false security when around the blue
solution because most do not disinfect.
Make sure when coming in contact with this chemical
that all MSDS are thoroughly read and understood.
Dependmg on the type of virus or bacteria, one can
become infected through a cut, a scratch, a sore on
the skin, or through the mucous membrane. This is
why it's important to take these fluids seriously.
Take necessary precautions to cover any exposed
parts of the body with adequate protective equipment
to include gloves, goggles for the eyes, and masks.
Immediately after removing protective gloves, wash
hands with soap and water even if there is no con-
tamination, and if there is a contamination wash the
part that came in contact with the fluid and other
areas of suspicion.
When dealing with these fluids, it's also helpful to
use "Universal Precautions," as recommended by the
Center for Disease Control (CDC), and enforced by
OSHA which states any blood or blood containing fluid
should be handled as though it were infected. If the
presence of blood is unsure, treat it as though it is
hazardous.
A guideline for handling infectious waste is offered
in OSHA Standard 1910.1030. To obtain a copy of this
standard, write to OSHA Publications Office, P.O. Box
37535, Washington, D.C. 20013-7535 and send a self-
addressed label with the request, or call (202) 219-4667.
a September/October 1995
I he Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 7
Staying on top of technology
A& Ps need a basic understanding of electronics and computers
in order to remain viable in the job market today
By Jennifer Aronson
H
elp Wanted: C e f l i e d A&P technician with
experience on wide range of aircraft. Working
knowledge of electronics a must.
Like it or not, this is reality in the job market for
technicians today. As technology continues to advance
at a breakneck pace, aircraft systems are becoming
increasingly dependent on electronics and computers.
That means A&Ps need more than mechanical knowl-
edge to do their job and remain a viable commodity to
prospective employers.
According to Charles L. Gilmore, manager of aircraft
services at Duncan Aviation in Lincoln, NE, the impor-
tance of an electronics background for A&Ps first
became an issue about 10 years ago when various air-
craft were first equipped with computerized systems.
"It's become increasingly important for A&Ps to be able
to read schematics and logic circuits," Gilmore explains.
"It's something we train on regularly, and it's a handicap
for technicians who can't keep up with the technology."
Those who are unable to adapt can often find them-
selves at a distinct disadvantage when it comes to
landing a new job or even advancing with their current
employer. Luckily, some companies are recognizing this
and offering programs to bring technicians up to speed
on the new technology. Duncan Aviation, for example, is
sending several technicians to a Citation 650 school
where they will learn how to understand electronic
systems. "It's the floor mechanics, the line mechanics,
that are going; not the avionics guys," Gilmore says,
noting that those very avionics technicians are often
called upon to help educate their A&P counterparts. At
Duncan, he says, there is an ongoing effort to cross train
employees. To that end, each technician gets 80 hours of
ongoing training per year.
Aviation schools are a big part of the solution to
bringing A&Ps on par with current technology. Embry-
Riddle Aeronautical University in Daytona, IL, for
example, offers programs to prepare students for the
future demands of the marketplace. Dick Ulin, chairman
of the maintenance/technology department at ERAU,
cites the school's aviation technology program which
combines the traditional A&P courses with avionics
instruction. "Everything in the world is going toward
digital electronics these days," he states. "When the
glass cockpit airplanes came along, there became a
bigger demand for this kind of knowledge. Those with it
are still getting hired when others aren't."
8 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Not everyone is inclined to understand the compli-
cated subject matter, however. Ulin says the program,
which amounts to a four-year bachelor of science degree,
contains a fair share of mathematics and physics. It
requires participants to earn an A&P license plus take
several electronics-based courses on subjeds such as
microprocessor systems, advanced digital technology,
direct and alternating current, and so on.
"The industry needs people who are more adapted to
solving electronics problems," Ulin says. "There are a lot
of old folks in the maintenance business who haven't
adapted. That can be an opportunity for younger people."
At FhghtSafety in New Jersey, prospective A&Ps
are taught to work on Falcon aircraft. The school is cur-
rently in the midst of its first Falcon 2000 maintenance
initial course, which avionics instructor Tim O'Neill says
teaches students how to work on the Falcon's digital
brake system, as well as its fully computerized air
conditioning and engine control systems. "It used to
be just the avionics (that were electronic) and we had
technicians to do it," O'Neill recalls. "But now the
distinction is not as clear cut as it used to be."
Overall, students today are in a pretty good position
because the schools are recognizing the need for more
training in electronics and computers, O'Neill says.
Technicians who've been in the field for several years,
however, need additional training and fast. "It hasn't
been a gradual increase," he says of the technological
onslaught. "There's been a big step. We really need a
new type of technician-one who can handle all the nuts
and bolts but who is still computer literate."
Naturally, this news can be intimidating to the
veteran technician with no experience with electronics
or computers. But the reality is that companies are
beginning to expect it of their technicians. "It needs to
be integrated into all programs," O'Neill says. "The FAA
tests don't mention it. And until there's a new class of
license to cover this, there's not enough of an incentive
to teach it."
But for technicians, the incentive to learn the tech-
nology is d e f i t e l y there, especially for those who want
to work for the major airlines. At Northwest Airlines,
where A&Ps are regularly working on glass cockpit
aircraft such as the 747, 757, and A320, it's essential
that technicians have an understanding of electronics
and computers.
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 According to Rich DeLoss, manager of technical
training at Northwest, technicians need to be able to
interpret the computer-generated data from the aircraft's
complex systems. "I consider an electronics background
a must," he states. "Even for A&Ps doing routine main-
tenance, electronics is so much more critical than it used
to be. Systems which were totally mechanical before are
now computerized."
DeLoss notes that on the A320, for example, even
the toilets are controlled by computers. To service the
system, technicians can't do anything without some
background knowledge of electronics. Even systems
which are not computerconholled have troubleshooting
systems that are, he says. "Engine mechanics need to
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know electronics so they can read the wire diagrams.
Anything beyond parts changing is going to require this
knowledge. Those without it are relegated to menial
tasks," DeLoss states.
His advice to those getting into the industry is to
make sure the school they attend emphasizes electronics
in its programs. To those already in the business,
DeLoss says they should somehow seek out extra train-
ing, either through their place of employment, through
a community college, or elsewhere. Northwest, for
example, recognizes an FCC radio license as some
electronics training, even though it doesn't imply experi-
ence with aircraft. The license is helpful but is not a
solution, he says. Jdy/August 1995
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Professlonalism

More ups than downs with

owner -assisted annuals
By Jennifer Aronson

F
or small repair facilities servicing lightweight
aircraft, owner-assisted annual inspections can be
a tool that benefits both the operator and the
customer, as long as both remain keenly aware of the
liabilities and the legalities involved.
Many A&Ps agree that allowing an owner to partici-
pate in the annual can save the customer money in the
long run, foster a better understanding of how his or her
aircraft runs,and build a trust between the customer
and his or her technician. For operators, it can be a
useful method for attracting business, as well as a time
saving measure for busy technicians.
The downside is the amount of liability shouldered
by the A&P, who walks a fine line to comply with regula-
tions governing annual inspections when he or she
allows owners to assist with some of the repairs.
For most small operations, an owner-assisted annual
inspection consists mainly of allowing the customer to
help in removing panels, cowlings, seats, etc. Owners
generally don't perform heavy-duty tasks such as engine
repair, but some use the annual as an opportunity to
learn the aircraft's systems so as to be capable of hand, he or she is often less likely to complain of the
performing more preventive maintenance, which federal cost, or question the necessity for repair.
regulations state is legal for an owner to do. If an owner is advised of a problem but opts to wait
Chuck Swain. owner and A&P/IA at Beaver Aviation to have it fixed, which is legally the individual's preroga-
in Juneau, WI, says how much an owner does during an tive, Edwards says he will send a copy of the discrepancy
annual inspection at his facility depends on his or her to the FAA. We're not required to (report it to the FAA),
ability. An advocate of "supervised maintenance," Swain but we do it because of the simple fact that it's an un-
notes there are certain areas he doesn't want the safe airplane," says Edwards. "No. 1, we're covering our
customer in -like the engine compartment-because he butts for liability, and No. 2, it builds a better relation-
or she might destroy clues to potential problems. The ship with the FAA."
customer is welcome, however, to change the oil, fiter, He adds, "The class of people who want to get
etc., if he or she is capable. "The less I have to do, the involved (in the annual inspection) are generally the type
less I have to charge," Swain states, adding that while who want to be as safe as possible."
cost savings is the biggest motivator for owner-assisted According to Edwards, some owners participate in
annuals at his facility, many owners are at least their annual inspection once or twice and then stop
"mechanically interested if not mechanically inclined." when they begin to trust their technician. Once the
Cost savings aside, some owners are interested in customer gets a feel for his or her technician's accuity,
assisting during the annual for the sheer educational then the need to participate can be replaced with the
value, and those are the customers that Reuben desire to simply have a competent professional take care
Edwards, A&P at 150 Aero Service Inc. in Kinston, NC, of the entire process. "The whole name of the game is
wants to keep. Owners that have a decent understanding trust," Edwards says. "If you can't trust your mechanic,
of how their airplane runs will be better able to provide you need to go somewhere else."
an intellgent description of a problem when one arises But despite the benefits to having owners take part
away from the shop, he says. in the annual, operators walk a fine line when they allow
And what's more, having the owner take part in the customers to ~ e r f o r mcertain tasks. While an owner is
annual is helpful when a problem is found during the legally allowei to do a certain amount of preventive
inspection. Because the owner can see the problem first maintenance and various labor-intensive aspects of the

10 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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 annual (such as removing panels, fairings, etc.), every-
thing must be inspected by an inspection authorization
rated A&P before the aircraft can be deemed air-worthy.
Mike Mertens, chief inspector for Duncan Aviation
in Lincoln, NE, is against allowing owners to perform
r e ~ a i r sand then have an IA s i m off on them. "The
worst case is when a pilot does-everythmg and the IA
comes in, looks at it, signs off on it, and then gets paid.
That's crazy," Mertens states. He says IAs should only
sign off on work that they perform themselves. To do
otherwise leaves an open opportunity for liability. "At
Duncan, we allow owners to come in and do mainte
nance but they must sign off on what they do," he says.
"I'm not about to let the owner take the engine apart
and have Duncan sign it off."
Another concern for operators that allow owner-
assisted annual inspections is having relatively inexperi-
enced customers handling the potentially dangerous
equipment in the shop. While virtually all operators have
liability insurance and take responsibility for any injuries
which might occur in the facility, no one wants custom-
ers to hurt themselves. To combat this problem, Bruce
Jaeger, A&P at Wilrnar Air Service in Wilmar, MN, says
his staff keeps customers clear of potentially dangerous
equipment. In the end, however, Jaeger won't tell a
customer he or she can't participate. "You just have to
accept some liability," he states.
While some A&Ps feel it's a waste of valuable time to
teach owners the systems of their airplane, others are
happy to have an extra hand. "We're so busy, I appreci-
ate the help," says Bob Weber at Webco Aircraft &
Engine in Newton, KS. "Customers love it because they
save money and most are interested in learning. I don't
see any problems with it."
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Generally, smaller shops are more apt to provide the
option for an owner to take part in the annual, and
that's often because it's an incentive for that customer to
choose that facility over a bigger name outfit. As Jaeger
puts it, "We're a small company and customer service is
key to our operation."
Surprising is that many of the operators who allow
owner-assisted annuals don't notice a drop in profits due
to less billable labor by the technician. Swain, in fact,
says the opposite is true for his operation. "If we were
a marginal business, it probably would have an effect,"
he says. "But the truth is, we are overwhelmed with
work. (Owner-assisted annuals) are a tremendous
advertising tool."
In the case of IS0 Aero Service Inc., Edwards says
owners are still billed for the technician's time even if
they take part in the annual. If the owner wants to
participate in the work leading up to the inspection, then
that person is assigned a technician who will supervise.
The customer is then charged for that technician's time
and subsequently the cost savings is greatly diminished.
According to Edwards, however, the education is more
valuable to most of his customers who take part in
the annual.
He adds that owners who do take part in the annual
inspection don't see a cost reduction immediately, but
will begin to notice a savings after they get a few inspec-
tions under their belt and are able to perform certain
tasks faster. "They're like an apprentice," Edwards
states. "This won't save them money upfront-it's educa-
tional-but in the long run they become a better aircraft
owner and will save money later on."
March/April 1995
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 11
Professlonallsm
Electric power tools
Safety, quality, and other issues to consider before buying
By Jennifer Aronson
S
o you're in the market for a new power tool. Do
you buy electric or battery-powered? Should it be
doubleinsulated? How about heavyduty? These
questions and more face each consumer as he or she
shops for a new tool.
You, as an aircraft technician, face a unique set of
challenges because you use your tools in an environment
where high-octane fuel is often present, creating the
potential for explosion. It's for this reason that you must
be extra conscientious when choosing a new tool.
Despite recent technological advancements, experts
in the industry generally agree that electric tools should
not be used where fumes from high-octane fuel are
present.
"Electric tools are not explosion-proof and should not
be used in an environment where high-octane fuel is
present," says Dave Aubel, product service manager with
Chicago Pneumatic Tool Co., electric tools division.
According to Tom Pope, product manager for Milwau-
kee Electric Tool Corp., even battery-powered tools are
not safe to use near flammable fumes.
"The f a d that they are battery-operated does not take
away the explosion problem," he states. "A spark still
exists and the potential for explosion is possible."
Pope notes that the only tools which are truly explo-
sion-proof are those that don't contain a spark. Air-
powered tools, for example, are explosion-proof, and so
are those which contain certain non-sparking alloys.
Most power tools on the market today are "double
insulated," a term which refers to how many layers of
protection there are between the line components and
the operator. Double insulation does not diminish the
potential for explosion, however. It simply proteds the
user from the possibility of receiving an electrical shock
in the event that a wire breaks in the field or ammeter,
Pope says. Double insulation, which typically consists
of nylon or plastic, would offer extra protection and
prevent that wire from coming into contact with a con-
ductive surface.
Pope adds that even tools which are not double
insulated have features in place that will ground the
electrical charge if a wire breaks.
Generally, Aubel says electric tools are safer than
they used to be. He states, "Safety requirements con-
tinue to be more stringent, and users are becoming
more safety conscious."
Of course, safety isn't the only issue when buying a
power tool. When buying a battery-powered tool, for
12 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
example, remember the relationship between battery
voltage and torque.
"Torque is a function of the motor and gearing more
than the battery," Aubel says. "If you're using a 12-volt
battery vs. a 9.6-volt, that means there's a higher voltage
stored in the battery pack. It usually means it can have
a bigger motor so it can do things faster. The less
voltage, the less speed available to get the same torque
as a higher voltage."
J o a n . Staub, private label product manager for Sears
Industrial Sales, concurs that a higher voltage means
more power is available to the tool's motor. As a result,
the operator can get the job done faster and get a longer
run time with a higher voltage battery.
"The more voltage, the more power is transmitted to
the gears," says Pope. "But torque is really derived from
the gearing. The lower the speed, the more torque."
Speaking of batteries, there is no question that nickel
cadmium is the variety of choice for power tools.
"Nicadn batteries, according to Pope, are "really the only
kind that's appropriate."
He states, "They have a lot of voltage and most other
varieties are not stable enough for power tools. But
technology is changing."
Aubel adds, "The only type of battery that's success-
ful is nickel cadmium. In the future, that may change,
but a nicad battery is lighter than lead acid, and other
chemistries deplete too fast."
A battery's life varies due to a number of factors: by
the material the tool it's being used on, whether its use
is relatively constant or intermittent, and even by how
long the tool has been left idle since its last use.
"Typically, cells can be recharged 500 to 1,000 times,
but that doesn't tell you the amount of work done or
the time period," Pope says. "If (the battery) is used
regularly and consistently, you might get one type of life.
If it's used infrequently, you might get a shorter life."
Recharge time for most batteries averages about one
hour. Some batteries have a faster recharge time, but
they tend to be more expensive. Pope states that a faster
recharge time can also damage the cell so that it will
have fewer possible recharge times.
Overall, when shopping for a power tool, experts
agree that personal taste is the buyer's best guide.
"Ergonomics are important," Aubel says. "If the tool
feels comfortable, it will be more effective. And different
people have different ideas of what's comfortable."
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 Aubel adds that a buyer should also look at the spec
plate to determine what he or she can expect from the
tool in terms of speed, capacity, etc. It's also important
to keep in mind the tool's intended use.
"It depends on what you're looking for," Pope says.
"If you're a professional, you look for durability, the
value in the purchase, and the value as it's translated by
the quality of the work it performs."
The term "heavy duty" generally means a tool is
intended for professional use. Pope states, "Heavy duty
separates tools for professionals, includmg a wide variety
of operational strengths. We try to define the profes
sional level by what those professionals are willing
to spend."
Several sources for electric power tools
Black and Decker
710 E. Joppa Rd., Towsen, MD 21286
Nancy Chaney, (410) 7163900
Chicago Pneumatic Tool Co.
Provides portable electric power tools- drills, grinders,
nibblers, shears, cordless drills, screwdrivers and various
woodworking tools.
Electric Tools Division
2220 Bleecker St., Utica, NY 13501-1795
Customer Service, (315) 792-2600
Makita U.S.A. Inc.
Wide variety of cordless and corded power tools, pneu-
matic tools, generators and pumps, and tool accessories.
14930 Northam St., La Mirada, CA 90638
Hiroshi Asagi, (714) 522-8088, Ext. 4404
Milwaukee Electric Tool Corp.
Manufacturer of electric power tools.
13135 W. Lisbon Rd., Brookfield, WI 53005
Debra Sajkowski, (414) 783-8311
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And as a rule, higher price means better quality.
"You get what you pay for," Aubel states, noting that
the intended use of the tool is crucial in this case. A
professional, for example, might benefit from investing
in a hlgher-priced tool if he expeds to ask a lot from it.
The consumer who simply wants a tool for occasional
home use, however, might do better to save his money
and opt for a more inexpensive model.
"You have to ask yourself what you are using (the
tool) for. Your decision on what to pay depends on how
often the tool is used. The price is less of an issue. The
bigger issue is what's inside that tool," Aubel says.
"Price should mean better quality,'' Pope states. "If it
doesn't, then you need to make another choice."
Sears Industrial Sales
Hand power tools, including Craftsman and other lead-
ing brands, as included in the Industrial Tool Catalog
(5000 SKUs)-Call for a free catalog.
P.O. Box 42538, Cincinnati, OH 45245-0538
Deidra Bodkin, (800) 776-8666
Skil Corp.
4300 W. Peterson Ave., Chicago, IL 606465999
Silvo Argentin, (312) 286-7330
Snap-On Inc.
Provides power and hand tools and diagnostic equipment
of the professional technician. Also electric power tools
and accessories.
2801 80th St., Kenosha, WI 53141-1410
Gary Busha, (414) 6585701
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 13
Professionalism
The training never stops
A forum on the value and significance of ongoing education of AMTs
By Kenn Busch
Editor's note: A proposal to revise the FAA's certifica-
tion requirements of mechanics and repairmen (14 CFR
Parts 65 and 66) is, as of this writing, in the midst of a
comment period. Of the issues at the center of this pro-
posal are whether to require a minimum number of
training hours to maintain certification (16 hours every
two years), and the use of equipment specific training to
qualify for certificate privileges.
ngoing training for maintenance technicians is a
f a d of life, given the ultra hightech componentry
and design of new aircraft being introduced, as
well as the increasing needs of aging fleets.
When it comes to choosing the best ways to approach
and implement training, however, opinions vary dramati-
cally. For example, brushing shoulders daily with a
colleague who has many years of experience may be
considered adequate training; others feel all technicians
should have square one basic training on a regular basis;
and some say sending the staff to the manufacturer
is the best way to bring them up to speed on new
equipment.
Formal vs. informal
"Training involves a lot more than just formal class-
room instruction," says Bill Beyer, an associate professor
of aviation at Clayton State College in Atlanta, who also
conducts seminars for the Future Aviation Professionals
of America (FAPA). Beyer has an A&P ceflicate with
inspection authorization and years of experience as a
maintenance technician.
"Technicians acquire a lot of their knowledge through
less formal ways-through sales reps, association meet-
ings, even just working and lunching with people from
their own companies. But this can only augment formal
training, not replace it."
Mike Mertens, chief inspector at Duncan Aviation in
Lincoln, NE, agrees, to a point.
"In some ways, you can never get enough training.
The more you know about the equipment, the better
you can work on it," says Mertens. "But after a while,
reoccurring training becomes a waste of time-there's
nothing like working on an aircraft every day."
Mertens says formal training is only of value when it
can immediately be put to use; the benefits of intensive
training are lost when it involves equipment that is only
seen occasionally. In these situations, he stresses A&P
training and access to the equipment's manuals.
14 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
"If an A&P mechanic has the manual and a basic
understanding of wire diagrams and flow charts, he
should be able to fix 90 percent of the aircraft he sees."
One of the problems with most formal training,
Mertens says, is that it's usually divided into three parts:
1) how to read the manual; 2) where to find the systems;
and 3) how the systems work. "Some maintenance manu-
als have five or six volumes; it's no use trying to learn
the whole thing because it will always be there. What
should be taught is what isn't in the books."
When formal training is called for on a new aircraft,
Mertens prefers a combination of hands-on and manufac-
turer training.
"With aircraft I haven't worked on before, I've
learned as much on factory tours as I have in training
because I can see how the systems are put together. The
best way to train, though, is to work on the equipment
from maintenance manuals for a couple of months and
then take the formal training, because by then you'll
know what questions to ask.
"But why send someone for reoccurring training on
equipment they've worked on for years?"
Refresher courses
"We see people that haven't had training in 10 or 12
years asking basic questions about an aircraft they've
been working on for some time," says Lonny Williams,
PAMA adviser and sales manager of maintenance train-
ing for SimuFlite Training International in Dallas.
Williams has 27 years in aircraft maintenance, including
a military background, and says he is a "strong advocate
of training, period."
Williams says refresher training is necessary for
basic brush-up and to maintain a uniformity in mainte
nance procedures.
"When you rely heavily on on-thejob training, mainte
nance practices can go astray as they're passed along.
You have to break the cycle every so often, and give
everyone the same tools to work with."
"If you accept that you can learn good things through
on-thejob training, you also have to accept that you can
learn bad things that way," says Mike Lee, director of
maintenance training standards for Flightsafety Interna-
tional, Wichita, KS. But Lee says he's found that just
rehashing all of the basics in refresher training classes
has limited value and appeal to experienced maintenance
technicians.
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 "We first started by covering the common problems
and the components that would cause those problems,
and our customers told us this wasn't very useful-they
were already familiar with these precisely because they
were so common," Lee explains. "Where they needed
help, they said, was with systems that didn't break often.
So we've adjusted our training for experienced techni-
cians to focus on less common problems."
But in any event, Lee says, refresher and update
training are very important, especially in light of the
aviation industry's technology turnover.
"Once trained, always trained is just not a profes-
sional concept," says Lee. "Other professionals, like
doctors and engineers, are always getting further train-
ing, throughout their careers."
Variety adds impact
The best approach to training depends on the size of
your operation, the type of equipment you deal with and
your personnel. In most cases, there k general agree
ment that a combination of manufacturer and in-house
training is effective.
"If the new model is similar to what you've already
been working on," says Mertens, "send out one or two
of your people to study the differences and have them
come back and show the rest of the technicians. If it's a
brand-new aircraft, add this to in-plant training for the
entire staff.
"You can also hire in a person who knows the air-
craft, to train and work with the staff. This way you get
the hands-on experience as well as the by-thebook-type
maintenance training."
"One of the best instructors I ever had was a 'techni-
cal rep staffer,' " says Beyer. "He was there as an
adviser, not an instructor; he had no supervisory author-
ity, so there was no feeling of being evaluated. He
considered helping us as 'part of his job,' especially when
it came to troubleshooting, and I learned a great deal
from him.
"But I don't want to minimize the importance of
having technicians go for training outside the facilities,"
says Beyer. "Much of what's learned comes not from the
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instructors but from others in the program. If you limit
your training to in-house sessions, you're limiting your
exposure to the experiences of others."
What's it worth?
Measuring return on training investment is tough,
but not impossible. Productivity is enhanced, of course,
but so is safety, to which some value must be attached.
"It's hard to measure the bad things that do happen
because of training," says Williams. "Unfortunately, the
only time a value is placed on training occurs when
budgets are being cut and the cost of ongoing training is
scrutinized; too often, the training budgets are whacked."
Beyer says the fact that a hard dollars-and-sense
value can't be attached to most training investments is
the main objection of shop owners, who want to know
exactly how the bottom line will be affected.
"How much money do you save by making an
employee 2 percent more efficient? That's hard to say,"
says Beyer. "Does training reduce warranty claims cost?
Yes, but there's no formula to tell you how much."
On the other hand, training on new equipment is
more quantifiable.
"Training should be considered a form of marketing,"
says Alan Jackson, a technician with DalFort Aviation
in Dallas. "Once customers know you've had the training
and can turn an aircraft safely, quickly and under
budget, word gets out, and the work comes in."
Another direct link between training and return-on-
investment is found in the accuracy and efficiency of
troubleshooting, where time is a major factor.
Aside from the business concerns of the shop, says
Beyer, technicians themselves should consider training
an investment that will impact their own personal
success.
"In terms of moving forward, if you can't show some
proof of self-improvement, and you've worked at the
same job for 10 years, you'll find yourself left behind by
the technological advances we're seeing, as well as by the
inevitable changes in regulations."
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 15
lkoubleshooting training is essential
A large part of aircraft maintenance boils down to conducting aircraft electrical system fault analysis on a
troubleshooting. In many cases, time spent locating sophisticated simulator. The control group had standard
problems far outweighs the time needed to correct it, eledrical system training, the experimental group had
says Lonny Williams, PAMA adviser and sales manager completed the "Principlesn class in addition to the
of maintenance training for Simuflite Training standard training.
International in Dallas. Although the study focused on the methods used
"We're seeing a deficiency in troubleshooting, which to teach the class, a simple table of results best tells
translates to a lack of electronics and electrical the story:
knowledge. Good troubleshooting principles can make a
big problem into a small one, and vice versa.
''Dmng training on a Pratt & Whitney JT-9,a class
of experienced technicians was trying to locate the
source of a reverse thrust deploy problem. They looked
for a mechanical problem for nine days; on the tenth
day, they found the problem was being caused by an
eledrical relay. This type of problem should have been
corrected in just a few hours, at the most."
As independent study of the result. produced by
Flightsafety International's "Principles of Trouble
shooting" course provided insight into the importance
of accurate and efficient electrical troubleshooting
practices. Members of two groups were observed

16 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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 Quality control
It is a sophisticated process encouraged both
domestically and internationally
By John Boyce
Q
uality control or quality assurance, as some p r e
fer to call it, has become more than technicians
doing repair work and inspectors inspecting and
signing off on the work.
It has become greatly more sophisticated than that.
Yes, technicians doing the work and more experienced
and knowledgeable people inspecting it is fundamental.
But constant, consistent monitoring of the processes, the
methods, by which the work gets done is the crux of
what quality control in aircraft maintenance is becoming.
Evidence that internal auditing of quality is being
encouraged if not demanded is the FAA's recent exten-
sion of the selfardering or selfdiscovery privilege to
repair stations. For some time Part 121 and Part 135
certificate holders have been able to turn themselves in
for noncompliance without being penalized, providing
they have a system in place to correct the problem. Part
145 repair stations now have that opportunity.
"The FAA has said," says National Air Transportation
Association manager for maintenance operations Fred
Workley, "that if a repair station has a quality system
that has an internal audit program and it finds through
self-auditing a variance or noncompliance item, it now
has the privilege of disclosing that deviation to the FAA
and giving a corrective action without being penalized.
"It's called regulatory avoidance. I preach it. Put your
money on the front end because you're likely to pay on
the aft end and have nothing to show but ill will and a
bad name."
Of course, it is not uncommon for repair stations to
discover problems with their processes, correct them,
and not say a word to anybody. .But that is piecemeal
and is not the point. Consistency of monitoring and cor-
rection to enhance safety is the point (of quality control).
And besides, it's good public relations with the FAA.
"We want repair stations to have quality control
programs," says Fred Leonelli, manager of FAA's aircraft
maintenance division. "We want the repair station to
have the ability to not just ensure that the product they
are producing is safe but the system they're working
within is safe, too. It (quality control) should benefit the
repair station because it does look a t processes and ways
of doing things more efficiently and more safely."
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Emphasizing standardization
The current emphasis in the industry on quality
control comes in large part from Europe, more than 20
countries of which have formed the JAA (Joint Aviation
Authority). It is an effort to standardize procedures,
require correct documentation, and ensure quality
control in maintenance and parts distribution across
national boundaries. The JAA took its cue from IS0
9000, the International Organization for Standardization
rules which set quality control standards for all indus-
tries, regardless of type.
The importance of JAA to U.S. companies is that in
order to do aviation business with countries which
comply with JAA standards, U.S. companies have to
meet those standards. This requires a maintenance
facility to have a supplement in its manual that
addresses the differences between the FARs and the
JARS (Joint Aviation Regulations).
Many repair stations such as those at AMR Combs in
Denver and JTS Aviation in Grapevine, TX,are imple
menting quality control programs that not only involve
inspection but internal auditing. Trans World Express
Airline's repair facility in Philadelphia, PA, implemented
a strong quality control program about five years ago
that has proved successful and effective.
For Trans World's director of quality control Howard
White, who devised and implemented the company's
program, quality control is not really a process of impos-
ing rules, but one of enforcing the rules and thereby
improving individuals and companies.
"Without quality control," White says, "the company
gets worse and worse and worse a little each day and
nobody sees it. When you come in fresh, you say, 'Hey,
what's going on here? This is a mess.' The company will
say it has been doing things this way forever. In fad,
they haven't been doing it that way forever; they have
evolved into a mess. They started out with great hopes
and aspirations and intentions but slowly evolved into
a nightmare. Quality control heads off those kinds of
problems, and it keeps individual technicians aware of
their jobs and keeps them updated."
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Regular auditing
The key to a quality control program, White says, is
the regular internal audits of procedures to determine
compliance with the regulations and company policies.
At Trans World the audits take place every three
months. In the audit, every phase of an operation is
examined and questioned. The audit can take a day or
much longer.
"There might be 60 items that the auditor checks
out," White says, "but basically he wants to know are we
doing things according to the manuals, are we doing it
correctly, are we recording the results of teardowns, and
is anybody even looking at this information to see if
there's a problem someplace?
"You might find that the electrical shop has been
doing a certain procedure wrong and we've only been
getting 500 hours out of this component whereas if we
change this procedure we could get 1,500 hours out of it.
You only find this by auditing the processes.
"Many people sit at a bench for years working on the
same component such as a starter-generator and never
think that things have changed. Better materials may be
available but they are not utilizing them because they are
ordering the same old parts and not paying attention to
the service bulletins. Things like that you find out
through quality."
The Aviation Rulemaking Advisory Committee (ARK),
an industry coalition, is developing a proposal for a
single manual of quality control for aviation manufactur-
ers, parts distributors, and installers.
According to Fred Workley, NATA manager of main-
tenance operations, "it will be a single quality system so
that no matter what activity a company is involved with,
they have one set of guidelines by which to perform
their business.
"That is not to say," Workley says, "that local and
regional requirements would not have to be taken into
18 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Benefiting from quality control
While the implementing of a quality control pro-
gram-rewriting the procedure manuals, hiring and
training quality control inspectors, arranging for training
the technicians, instituting internal auditing procedures
is Micult and can cause resentment among those who
are used to doing things a certain way, it is beneficial to
all involved.
Among the primary benefits from a quality control
program is a lessening of FAA surveillance. "The thing
the FAA wanta to see, in my opinion," says White, "is
someone in control; that when something does go wrong,
the mechanisms are in place to correct it. When you
have good quality control, the FAA knows you're acting
responsibly and that's what they want." Additionally, the
FAA is likely to look more favorably on such requests as
TBO escalation or an extension of TBO.
Of course, with closer in-house monitoring the
chances of the nightmare of FAA ticketing and civil
penalties being assessed against individuals and compa-
nies for noncompliance is lessened. Plus, that monitoring
leads to greater individual and company efficiency.
"It (quality control) will increase efficiency and it
ensures a quality product," White says, "and everybody
should be interested in those tbmgs."
account. It is simply a set of universal procedures,
processes, and documentation to ensure a quality prod-
uct regardless of the location or type of business.
"It will create a level playing field," Workley says. "It
will require documentation, receiving inspections, segre
gation of unserviceable parts for serviceable parts, and
mutilation of parts that are going to be scrapped.
"Everybody will know what the quality system
requirements are, and they w i l l also know how to meet
those requirements. That's very difficult right now."
September/October 1994
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Airline maintenance
scheduling symposium
Although every airline is different, common threads bring planes,
parts and people together in an efficient maintenance operation
By Kenn Busch
A
n airline maintenance department's job, essen-
tially, is not t o be noticed-to quietly keep
aircraft in the air, flying routes and collecting
revenue. When things are running smoothly, mainte-
nance functions fade into the background of ordinary
operations.
But ordinary operations are often the result of
extraordinary effort on the part of the maintenance
department. Juggling scheduled maintenance, line
service and unscheduled maintenance requires organiza-
tion, communication and adaptability, as three aircraft
maintenance planners recently told Aircraft Maintenance
Technology.
Paul Smith is director of maintenance planning for
Trans World Express in Philadelphia. As a regional con-
nection for TWA, TWA flies 26 aircraft-eight Jetstream
Super 31s, 11 ATR 42s and seven de Havilland Dash 7s-
throughout the Northeast corridor. Smith is blunt about
the role his department plays at TWE.
"Maintenance is a deficit operation from a corporate
point of view. The best maintenance department is one
that's never heard from at the front office-not canceling
flights, not costing money. The company doesn't actually
make a profit on us, but we supply airplanes for them to
fly and make revenue."
All of TWE's scheduled maintenance takes place at
North East Philadelphia Airport (PNE), Smith says, even
though there are no scheduled TWE flights originating
or terminating there.
"All aircraft have to deadhead here from an on-line
city for maintenance," he explains. "We request the tail
numbers we need for scheduled maintenance the day
before we need them, and flight operations schedules
those aircraft to end up the next day at nearby on-line
airports-Philadelphia Intl., Washington, Baltimore, etc.
"On average, we have five aircraft in the hangar each
night. We only do scheduled maintenance during the
third shift, except in the slower winter months, when
we'll schedule aircraft in for 2May block "C" checks.
Our current maintenance program yields about one year
between block "C" checks."
Generally, Smith says, maintenance for MEL-
releasable problems on the line is deferred, unless they
occur at JFK.
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W e contract line maintenance from TWA at JFK
where half of all our flights are. If a squawk occurs at
JFK, we'll correct the problem right there even if it is
MEL releasable, as long as it doesn't interfere with a
revenue flight." The TWA contract maintenance at JFK
is strictly oncall, says Smith; they do no scheduled
maintenance. In cases of grounding squawks at other
airports, a TWE maintenance coordinator decides
whether to contract local maintenance, ferry the plane
back to PNE, or send TWE maintenance to the plane.
In-shop/outsourcebalance
Smith says the maintenance philosophy of TWE and
its earlier incarnations (Ransome Airlines, Allegheny
Commuter, Delta Connection and Pan Am Express) has
changed over the years.
"We used to be very intense, like all airlines, trying
to do it all ourselves. Now we work from experience to
determine what is best done here, and what should be
sent out.
"We have fairly comprehensive in-shop capabilities for
engines, electrical components, avionics components, and
a sheet metal shop. We don't do all our own work by any
means, but we've found many items are more economical
to do here. These are things that are replaced frequently,
are heavy and expensive to ship, or whose turnaround
time doesn't fit our scheduling. On the other hand, items
that rarely fail aren't worth doing here-when you figure
in the necessary parts, manuals and training, you're not
saving much.
"You have to examine the details of each repairable
part you're dealing with," says Smith. "Before you send a
part out, weigh turn time, minimum inventory require
ments and mean time between failure against possible
savings. You might find that in order to support your
fleet, parts with longer turn times will require you to
buy another spare part for inventory; how does this
f i e in with your intended cost savings?"
Cushions and computers
Maintenance scheduling confronts all airlines with
the same challenge, says Smith: bringing the airplane,
needed parts, and required manpower together at the
same time and in the same place.
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Professionalism
"Computerization is essential for keeping track of the
multitude of timecontrolled parts you have to deal with,"
says Smith. "We also use software to alert us to thmgs
like scheduled maintenance and ADS. When you reach a
certain fleet size, there's no other way to deal with it
efficiently... if you don't computerize, you're lost."
In scheduling downtime, Smith says it's crucial to
build in a "cushion" that allows you access to more clock
hours when needed.
'You have to anticipate problems, and work in some
sort of flexibility to deal with them. If you know an
engine change takes eight hours, for instance, you can't
schedule it for just eight hours of downtime, because you
might have problems during run-up. The same is true for
all larger functions, where run, rig and adjustment is
required. With simple parts a cushion isn't as crucial.
"When scheduled maintenance runs over, it becomes
unscheduled maintenance, and it will delay other sched-
uled work."
Smith says all maintenance scheduling boils down to
the fact that every single operation performed on an
airplane is a requirement, either by the manufacturer,
the airline, or the FAA, and as a planner, his goal is to
meet those requirements as scheduled.
"The best maintenance planners get maximum utiliza-
tion out of the aircraft-they're able to meet all require
ments without replacing timecontrolled parts or
servicing too prematurely."
Matching maintenance to manpower
Midwest Express Airlines is based at Milwaukee's
General Mitchell Field, and serves the Eastern United
States and the West Coast with two MDSOs, nine
DG9-32~and eight DG10s. Dan Gibbons, coordinator of
maintenance planning for the airline, says his depart-
ment matches work that needs to be done with available
manpower to maximize hangar time.
"Maintenance planning schedules maintenance two
weeks out," explains Gibbons, "and maintenance control
routes the aircraft so we have them in the hangar as
scheduled. Our average utilization is pretty consistent
throughout the fleet-the DG9s at seven and onehalf
hours a day and five cycles, and the MD80s at 11 hours
a day with four cycles. This means we're able to schedule
aircraft for overnight hangar checks as needed on a
pretty consistent basis, two at a time."
Gibbons' department has been using computer soft
ware to schedule maintenance for some time, and is cur-
rently updating from a spreadsheebbased PC system to a
dedicated software package operating on an IBM AS400.
"We use computer-generated reports to show every-
thmg coming due in a certain period of time-two
months out, for example. We pull up reports on each
airplane, and we organize certain jobs together to match
the manpower available at the time."
20 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Gibbons says software helps his department track the
250 timecontrolled part changes and inspections, includ-
ing AD repetitive inspections, functional checks of
systems, and component changes that have bench check
requirements like batteries and altimeters.
Maintenance carryover
Midwest Express has a maintenance carryover
procedure for service both on the line and in the hangar,
says Gibbons.
"If an aircraft comes in for scheduled maintenance
and we find an irregularity within maintenance manual
limits that we don't have the part to fix, we fill out a
carryover form that goes to quality control. They either
approve or disapprove a deferral, depending on the
seriousness of the problem. With an approved deferral,
we can sometimes hold this work over to what we call a
quarter "C" check, which we do on weekends."
Manpower cushions ease some scheduling problems
associated with heavier "B" checks, like generators and
APU changes, says Gibbons. In other cases, cooperation
between maintenance, dispatch and flight operations
keep the airline operating without a ripple.
"We had a situation where we were installing Hush
kits in engines a t the same time we had a spare engine
out being overhauled. One plane was scheduled for a
Hush kit installation-which requires a pylon modifica-
tion-as well as a "B" check and an engine inspection.
We scheduled this for three consecutive weekends, and
had one engine in the shop ready to go on. The engine
out for overhaul had run-up problems, and didn't make it
back on two occasions when we thought it would.
"In the meantime, we had another engine on the
same aircraft coming due for time change. So we were
facing a deadline with that one, as well as doing dupli-
cate engine work. We worked with dispatch and flight
ops so we could synchronize " B and " C checks, to
make sure no inspections expired. We also begged extra
downtime from the marketing department, and every-
thing finally came together."
Maintenance planning via conference calls
Weekly conference calls between Skywest's headquar-
ters and two maintenance bases help keep the Delta
Connection operator airborne, says vice president of
maintenance Mike Gibson.
Skywest's fleet-25 Embraer EMB 1208, 28 Fairchild
Metroliners, and four Canadair Regional Jets-receives
scheduled maintenance at Salt Lake City and Palm
Springs, CA, with additional line service at San Diego
and at LAX. Gibson says maintenance works with the
marketing department to get the aircraft they need when
they need them.
"This is the biggest challenge," says Gibson "Each
night we service six Metroliners, five EMB 120s and one
Canadair; if it were up to marketing, we'd get them a t
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midmght and have them ready by 5:00 a.m., which isn't
possible." To help balance the needs of both maintenance
and marketing, Skywest holds end-of-theweek mainte
nance conference call meetings.
"Early every Friday morning, we have a conference
call planning meeting between the two bases and head-
quarters, where we talk about immediate and eventual
projects, AD notes, engineering issues, engines being
serviced, props, support kits, etc. We determine if we
need to pull something for early service or replacement,
or if we need to schedule extra people for a heavy night
or for major work, like an engine change.
"These meetings help us watch the workload, and get
the people in the trenches involved. The mechanics on
the night shift are just getting off at that time, and
supervisors are there; everyone participates, which helps
us continuously improve how we do things."
Staggered "C" checks will lighten load
Gibson says both maintenance bases run near capac-
ity with scheduled work, so unscheduled maintenance
quickly racks up clock hours. To build more flexibility
into his department, Gibson is considering staggering
some time-controlled maintenance visits.
"Right now we do block "C" checks on the E m 120s
at 3,000 hours, which take three to five days. We're look-
ing at spreading these checks over three visits, at 1,000-
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hour intervals. We tried this before, but we didn't have
enough airplanes to jusbfy it. We're in the process of
phasing out the Metroliners and adding
more EMB 120s, with the eventual goal of operating just
one type of turboprop, so I think we need to look at
staggered checks again."
Skywest uses PGbased software for all maintenance
planning, which provides man-hour estimates for sched-
uled work. Gibson says when balancing optimization of
man-hours and getting maximum utilization from time
controlled replacement parts, he leans toward labor
efficiency.
"It's more efficient for us to replace early than to bog
down scheduled maintenance during certain periods. If
we have a 150-hour check and we pull something eight
hours early, it's not a great loss."
Maintenance scheduling policies are as individual as
the airlines and the planners that implement them.
Despite the variety of approaches, though, the herculean
task of successfully bringing together the aircraft, parts
and people to maximize utilization always hinges on
these common denominators: communication between
maintenance, flight operations and marketing, schedul-
ing and manpower flexibility within the maintenance
department, and fast access to meaningful data on time
controlled parts and service. B July/August 1994
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 21
Software does more than streamline
record keeping
Computer reports flag component failure trends, prevent
maintenance bottlenecks, and much, much'more
By Kenn Busch
omputers in the maintenance department: Do
they ease or impede your work? According to
both software designers and real-life users, this
depends on what kind of investment you're willing to
make-not necessarily in dollars, but in the time and
effort you dedicate to thoroughly learning the system.
Software packages for aircraft maintenance depart
ment control typically offer:
Inventory management
Work ordersljob costing
Purchase orders
Repair orders
Rotables and cores tracking
Usage analysis (purchasing/stocking decision
support)
Parts traceability
Maintenance tracking/scheduling
Maintenance planning, cost and labor forecasting
Historical analysis of part performance/reliability
Tool calibration schedules
Supplement to logbooks
Research assistance
AD research via CD-ROM or modem
Maintenance manuals
Illustrated parts catalogs
Troubleshooting
These packages start by helping you do exactly what
you're already doing on paper-much faster, and in a
standardized manner. Once this data is in the system,
though, the computer is able to divide, conquer, and
recombine what would have been reams of paper into
single, concise reports that will tell you how your opera-
tion is really performing, and how to improve it. It can
also provide you with a snapshot of exactly what your
current maintenance situation is.
Typically, this software is capable of a myriad of du-
ties, from those mentioned above to handling payroll,
accounting, and other general business functions. In
most cases you can buy only the modules you plan to
22 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
use; if your needs change, you simply add the relevant
modules. These modules are designed to work with each
other, sharing data to produce specialized reports.
The computer hardware required by maintenance
software systems varies with the degree of functionality
you're looking for, but most IBMcompatible PCs avail-
able today are more than adequate. Just like the soft
ware modules, your hardware can be expanded to several
workstations or a network without abandoning your
initial setup.
Of the capabilities listed above, designers and users
point to issues related to inventory, parts tracking, and
maintenance scheduling as the most important elements
in improving the productivity of an aircraft maintenance
department.
Inventory management
One of the basic core modules is inventory control.
For operators that maintain a significant level of spare
parts, inventory and rotables management can save-or
cost-si&icant sums. Integrated softwarebased inven-
tory control goes well beyond the standard "where is it"
and "how many are theren functions.
"Computerizing our parts inventory was a life saver,"
says Danny Shamoon, operations manager for United
Beechcraft Inc. Shamoon oversees the maintenance
department of a flight training center for All Nippon
Airways in Bakersfield, CA. It's his job to keep 15
Bonanzas and six Barons in the air between seven and
eight hours a day, every day.
"We try to set up minimum inventories for specific
p&," Shamoon explains. "When we hit minimum
levels, the computer lets us know when to reorder, and
how many. We can also get a historical report on how
often we're reordering and how big our orders are; we've
used this information to adjust the quantities and timing
of the orders to get better prices.
"From a parts perspective, controlling our inventory
with software gives us accurate tracking of what parts
are going on which planes, and gives us an actual dollar
amount per hour for parts on each aircraft. We're
much more aware of our expenses now than before we
computerized."
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Parts that need special handling can be tagged with
priority codes and flagged in reports, allowing emphasis
on AOG or other high-priority items. Rotable parts files
contain "since new" and "since overhaul" information,
as well as parts due to and from vendors, and those out
for repair.
When Shamoon's operation was computerized five
months after starbup, all previous inventory records
were entered into the system.
"I wanted to track data from the beginning. Our
parts manager likes the purchase recommendations and
lastbuy information. We deal with multiple vendors; this
makes his job easier."
Inventory control modules are often integrated with
parts sales and maintenance work order modules for ac-
curate parts tracking throughout the operation. Software
can also deal with parts in multiple inventory locations.
Maintenance tracking
Software packages also aid in keeping records of
maintenance performed, and just as in inventory control,
once data is entered it becomes much more than the
sum of its parts.
Maintenance records include hourly, cycle, daily, and
monthly hard time items, and will report parts coming
due within specific time frames or number of landings.
Rotable records contain histories that include instda-
tions, removals, and reasons for removal, repairs, and
overhauls. Items designated to be replaced "on condi-
tion" are monitored for hours, cycles, andlor months for
historical reliability reporting.
Major and subassemblies are linked together by the
software to reduce manual record keeping for major
assembly changes.
"Our software is like a threetiered database," says
Hubert Lee, president of software supplier PRG Aviation
Systems. "It has aircraft master files, major assembly
files, and a master components file." File updates for
items associated with engine or major assembly changes
are streamlined, incorporating changes made to a parent
assembly record into its subassembly or component
records. When a major assembly is inspected or
serviced, the software resets the maintenance clock for
"nested" subassemblies or components.
Spotting items with troubled histories
From historical data compiled within service records,
you can produce special reports analyzing the reliability
of specific components. known as "maintenance variance
reports" or "premature removal summaries," these
reports compare an item's scheduled life with its actual
life, and flag those items that are being replaced prema-
turely. This allows you to spot negative trends with
certain components and track reasons for failure or
replacement, including replacement as part of a parent
assembly change.
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"We use historical information on components to
track changes and reliability)"says Beechcraft's
Shamoon. "The software takes information from flight
hours and flags upcoming inspections." Shamoon spotted
an air filter that was consistently requiring premature
replacement. It was brought to the attention of the
supplier, who is now using Shamoon's operation to test
a redesign.
Maintenance scheduling and projections
A component record can also contain the actual cost
of and man-hours required to inspect, service, or replace
that item. This information is used for shorbterm main-
tenance and long-term financial forecasting based on
historical data.
In a nutshell, this is the concept: You tell the soft-
ware to let you know about all service required on a
particular aircraft or entire fleet within an upcoming
time frame. The computer searches for all items that
meet that criteria, based on current time, cycle, or land-
ing data. Component records flagged in the search have
required man-hours attached, which are then tabulated
into projected total manpower requirements. In many
cases you can determine the time frame, or even have
the report list several time frame increments-one, two^
and three weeks out, for instance.
"I use our program to anticipate s t a f f i i needs for
upcoming service in scheduled maintenance," Shamoon
explains. "I usually look at the next 14 days. If I see a
lot of work coming up, I'm able to schedule some inspec-
tions early to help prevent bottlenecks in the mainte
nance department."
This type of scheduling enables you to do more sched-
uled maintenance while the aircraft is in the hangar,
including recurring ADS coming due.
"People don't realize how important it is to optimize
maintenance," says Wayne Brown, of Silicon Wings.
"You should do everything you can behind that panel
once you've got it off."
AD research
Given the computer's primary purpose of handling
vast amounts of data very fast, it's naturally suited to
working with AD and SB bulletjns. When integrated
with component files, ADS can be entered and updated
for several aircraft or assemblies at once, if they meet
the criteria.
AD libraries are also available on CD-ROM, remov-
able hard disks, or downloadable through a modem,
making searches for maintenance departments dealing
with several types of aircraft much less time-consuming.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
 -
Coming on I'~ n e
No one's going to tell you that computerizing your
maintenance department will be a breeze. The only way
a software package can help you take control of your
operation is if it has accurate and complete data to start
with, which you will have to enter.
"Don't make any assumptions, and don't try and
learn by intuition-read the manuals," says RuthAnne
McVay, manager of inventory control for Casino Express
Airlines in Elco, NV. Casino Express computerized two
years ago, starting with inventory control. McVay says
she became comfortable with the software by initially
setting up a dummy company with backup copies of
inventory disks, and "playing with them where I couldn't
do any real damage."
McVay says even simple things like tagging files of
items stocked to fulfill ADS simpUied inventory track-
ing, and answered the often asked question, "Why do we
have this?"
Points to ponder
while shopping for a computer system
By Steve Isabelle
So you have a computer and have played all of the
Microsoft Flight Simulator and X-Wing combat games
that your brain can handle. It's time to seriously look at
what your computer can do for you in a maintenance
tracking environment.
Throw out the plans you devised to attach your com-
puter to your toolbox and make a robot out of it. You
need to do a little research on this subject. The most
convenient way to research the various maintenance
tracking programs available is to attend a trade show
like the National PAMA convention. or the National
Business Aircraft Association convention. Next time one
of these shows comes around, make it a point to attend.
Why? You can send off for literature all day long for the
various programs on the market, but it really takes a
live demonstration by vendors to show all the features of
their programs. Remember, you are trying to make a
decision that involves a budget, as well as the amount
of time you plan on spending with the program, and
if there is going to be anyone else involved in using
the program.
Maintenance tracking of inspections and components
has been around since the dawn of aircraft, but using a
computer to track maintenance has only recently been a
new option. Third-party batch card processing is the old-
est method to follow the maintenance life of an aircraft.
Although this method of maintenance tracking is still
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Bringing your operation on-line might require some
adjustments in the way things are currently being done;
but this shouldn't be a deterrent.
"You may have to change your forms or adjust job
descriptions," says Silicon Wings' Brown. "Basically, this
software is really a combination of lots of tested and
proven ideas to help streamline your business. If you
approach computerization by trying to fit it into your
existing system, you're not taking full advantage of the
technology."
One thing computers won't do is predid unscheduled
maintenance, which may exceed 20 percent of your total
business. But they will help you get a tighter grip on the
remaining 80 percent-which is well worth the time and
effort invested.
very popular and reliable, it doesn't fully encompass the
use of a computer and software designed specifically to
track maintenance records.
The last few years have seen a technological revolu-
tion in the way maintenance records are stored and
tracked with the computer. Currently there are over two
dozen vendors that supply computerized maintenance
planning and record-keeping programs. There are prob
ably more software programs available for maintenance
tracking than are needed by the industry, but one good
things about these two dozen vendors is that no two
programs are exactly alike. Sure, many may incorporate
the same engine tracking method as the other, but each
vendor offers its users various options.
For example, some software programs are no more
elaborate than simple monitoring programs. Each
record is reset by the user, and no history files are kept.
This type of program may be attractive to someone who
wants to monitor maintenance records for Cessna 172
airplanes at a flight school. This type of program &o is
very inexpensive so it fits into everyone's budget.
However, a program that simple may not be enough
for a corporate operator or large FBO who may feel
they need a more flexible and detailed system. This is
where you should seek the help of computer vendors to
choose a reliable maintenance program.
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Among the questions you should ask when choosing a
program to meet your needs should include:
What kind of program to I need?
How much of my budget can be used for a program?
Do you just want a maintenance tracking (shell)
program, with no data, so you can custom build and
maintain just the records you want? (If you choose
this route, you probably won't see your family for the
next three to four weeks while you assign ATA codes
and descriptions.)
Do you want a "turnkey" program that has all the
data already installed?
Do you also want revision service on the Chapter 5
Technical Bulletins?
The choice is yours. Spend time researching the
various vendors to see who can provide the software
andlor data you require to meet your needs.
Also keep the following points in mind when selecting
a vendor:
How long has the vendor been in the aviation
software business?
How many operators use their program? What
support services do they offer?
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What computer operating system does their software
require? Is it MS-DOS based, Windows or OS/2?
Can it only run on a Macintosh? Is it designed for
personal computers or mini mainframes?
How much storage space is available for data in the
program? Some simple programs only allow up to
100 record entries, while other programs have unlim-
ited record storage, limited only by the computer's
hard drive capacity.
Searching for a maintenance tracking program is
not as diffkult as it may seem. Talk to potential vendors
and ask for reliable references, so that you can call to
hear objective opinions. Also, prepare to live within the
features of the program you select. Don't purchase a
product without doing your homework or you may
become dissatisfied when the program doesn't perform a
certain function.
Don't only make your decision based on price, or
because a friend uses it. What works for him/her may
not work for your operation. Wl May/June 1994
Steve Isabelle is manager of aircraft maintenance
programs for SeaGil Software Co.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Professlonallsm
Out of work, but not out of hope
Finding a position in this crowded market can be tough,
but many services are willing to help
By Jennifer Daack Woolson
L
ayoffs are common in most industries today. But
not all industries are experiencing the same con-
solidation as aviation. So even if you don't think
you're in danger of becoming a victim of downsizing-
whether that means reducing staff or closing up shop-
you should still prepare for the possibility. Although it's
doubtful that losing your job will ever be enjoyable, it's
important to realize that there are people willing to help.
Out-of-work maintenance technicians have a wealth of
knowledge and advice available to them. This help comes
in the form of personnel consultants, associations, and
aviation training schools. Technicians can draw upon
these resources for assistance with career decisions, job
search skills, and temporary or permanent placement.
Learning to sell yourself
Dennis Olson is director of consulting services for Jet
Professionals International, a division of KC Aviation
speciahhg in outplacement services for corporate
aviation departments. He says, "There are a number of
good people out of work and looking. Corporate deparb
ments are being cautious and holding off on hiring or
increasing staff, especially if they are selling off their
airplanes."
He holds optimism, though, for those who are willing
to go out and knock on a few doors and actively pursue
jobs. "People who are out of work have to look at search-
ing for a job as their job. They're the product and the
salesman, and they only have to make one sale."
Olson, based in Chicago, comments on the impor-
tance of keeping faith and maintaining contacts. Don't
stop talking to people in the industry. He says that you'll
rarely see the good jobs advertised. Instead employers
will hire someone they know or whose name comes up at
the right time.
As an example of what a technician should expect
from a consulting service, JPI offers three placement
services all at no charge to the individual:
1. Temporary employment is an assignment lasting
from a day to a week or two. Ouhf-work technicians can
call JPI at(314) 5654357 and talk with someone to
determine if there is a market for their slrills. Their
information is entered into a database. When JPI gets a
request for employees, they search the database for a
match. The assignments pay a daily rate and expenses.
28 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
2. Contract employment is work that usually lasts
a month or more. To use this service, follow the same
procedure as with temporary employment. The job pays
a different rate, and location may become more of a
consideration.
3. Permanent placement services have a search fee
paid by the company looking to place an employee.
For that reason, permanent placements tend to be in
positions with higher salaries, rather than entry level
mechanics. JPI k e e ~ sresumes on file and tries to fill
positions from the pool that they have.
JPI conducts interviews, reference checks, and test
ing with an independent psychologist to make sure that
the individual matches the personality of the flight
department for permanent placement. They usually nar-
row the field to three qualified candidates before giving
the psychological tests, since they are expensive.
As a licensed employment agency, JPI must also meet
certain minimum requirements. Temporary and contract
employees become an intermittent employee of JPI so its
liability and workers compensation insurance covers
them. In addition, if an employee permanently placed
by JPI doesn't work out within the first year, JPI will
conduct another search for no fee.
After the job training
When an employer, typically a corporate operator,
has to reduce its staff by one or more maintenance tech-
nicians, they bring in JPI to ease the notification process
and then to conduct a fourday seminar.
The seminar includes sessions on resume develop
ment, networking, interview skills-with optional video-
taped practice session-negotiating skills, and dressing
for success. JPI devotes another section to psychological
testing, with a psychologist on site to go through results
oneon-one. Olson offers workbooks and exercises to
make the experience a hands-on one.
Although it's the employer who hires JPI to provide
the session, a group of employees can suggest the idea
and help persuade their soon-to-beexemployer to work
with human resources to provide the service.
On occasion Olson has conducted seminars with
laid-off employees from different companies. He says that
it can be a valuable experience because employees can
relate to others in their same situation and realize
they're not alone.
Aircraft Technical Books
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 Taking advantage of professional
organizations
Another good place to find employment is profes-
sional maintenance technician organizations like the
Professional Aviation Maintenance Association (PAMA)
and Future Professionals Inc. (FAPA). They both offer
services to help maintenance technicians with job
placement.
FAPA of Atlanta, GA, began its employment service
for maintenance in 1984. It now offers an aviation job
bank, computerized recruiting system, career informa-
tion and counseling, and financial planning. Those
interested can access information using FAPA's (800)
JETJOBS phone line.
The association has various levels of membership that
provide different benefits. All maintenance members will
receive The Aviation Maintenance Job Report, a monthly
maintenance newsletter listing which airlines are hiring,
plus its Aviation Maintenance Employment Guide which
covers job search strategies and includes information on
job requirements and helpful advice on resumes, applica-
tions, and interviewing. Also available is FAPA's Aviation
Maintenance Directory of Employers and Salary Survey.
The guide includes addresses for employment correspon-
dence. It also contains information like number of
technicians, benefits, bases, and minimum requirements
for more than 1,000 companies. The salary survey offers
industry salary information for starting technicians, plus
second, fifth, and tenth year pay scales.
Membership with FAPA automatically enters you in
its job bank referral service and allows access to its
JET-LINE telephone briefing system for preinterview
briefings on most major airlines. Cost is $1 per minute
and membership includes $30 in 800 Access time.
FAPA also has resume experts that can help prepare
aviation rbsumes to comply with airline standards. They
will also assist with cover letters. This service is part of
the Platinum level of membership. However, an aviation
resume preparation kit or FAPA'S resume evaluation
service is available for an additional charge to Gold
members.
The Professional Aviation Maintenance Association
provides a job referral program free to its members and
for a $35 charge to non-members. Marv Loopstxa says
that the association acts as a clearing house for resumes.
Pertinent information-training and specialized experi-
ence-goes into a computer database. The system was
redesigned six to eight months ago, and Loopstra esti-
mates they've had requests from about 100 companies
looking for qualified technicians since.
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The database of 200 to 300 technicians is scanned to
find those that match what the employer wants. The
rksumes, which are kept on file for one year, are then
sent via fax to the company within a day. Loopstxa
recommends that technicians send an updated resume
to PAMA at least once a year.
Back to school
Although most people are glad to get out of school,
the old alma mater can be a valuable source of job infor-
mation. Most aviation schools have some sort of career
or job placement center, or at least provide an extensive
networking system among alumni.
For example, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University in
Daytona Beach, FL, has a career center that offers many
services to both alumni and students. Administrator of
Career Development Mary Voy says that the center has
a threepronged approach. Her section (career develop
ment) plus placement and cooperatives (positions for
academic credit) make up a comprehensive program.
For career development, the school offers complete
career counseling including discussion of choices, career
changes, and job search skills. The Alumni Sharing
Knowledge, or A.S.K., program, allows students and
alumni around the world to stay in touch and network.
The school holds a Company Expo and Career Expo
'94. Both events offer employers and alumni the opportu-
nity to network with students and discuss employment
opportunities.
In addition to job fairs, the career center holds job
search seminars each semester on topics such as resume
writing and interviewing. They also provide resume
critiquing and videotaped mock interviews.
The center uses its library of job books and its
database systems to help both potential employer and
employee. When a company has a position available, it
will notify the school. Voy says that these positions
always number more than 500. Students and alumni can
also have their resumes and transcripts entered into the
center's job search files, a database that the center cross-
references and downloads when employers ask the school
for names and qualifications of potential employees.
Embry-Riddle also publishes a weekly newsletter
called The Pathfinder. It lists, among other things, the
"hottest" jobs that companies called into the center
that week.
And when a technician becomes unemployed, one
of those jobs can be theirs if they're willing to take the
initiative and seek out the services they need to get back
to work.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 27
References
Jet Professionals International, Inc. Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University
400 E. Randolph, Suite 700 600 S. Clyde Morris Blvd.
Chicago, IL 60601 Daytona Beach, FL 321143900
(312) 5654357 (904) 226-6000

Professional Aviation Maintenance Aviation Information Resources, Inc.

Association 201 Smokerise Trace
500 N.W. Plaza, Suite 1016 Peachtree City, GA 30269
St. Ann, MO 63074 (BOO) 247-2777
(314) 7392580

Future Professionals, Inc. (FAPA)

4959 Massachusetts Blvd.
Atlanta, GA 30337
(800) JETJOBS (5385627)

28 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

Aircraft Technical Books

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 Professionaiism

The perils and pitfalls of electric tools

Common sense practices and an attitude of safety are essential

By Jennifer Daack Woolson

T hese days pneumatic tools are the most likely to
be found around an aircraft maintenance hangar.
However, there are electric tools that are becom-
ing more and more popular around aircraft, namely
battery powered. For someone working around-and
sometimes even standing in-extremely flammable
aviation fuel, there are some serious safety issues to
be considered.
What precautions should a technician take when
using electric tools on an aircraft?
Is it safe to use a battery-powered screwdriver inside
a fuel cell?
How about those simple things like plugging in an
extension cord or using a portable work light when
the floor has possible puddles of fuel?
Dangers to technicians in these situations include
possible electrocution, ignition, or explosion. Then the
potential fire damage that aircraft in the hangar can
sustain must be considered.
Precautionary guidelines
The National Fire Protection Association is one orga-
nization that has regulations regarding the safe use of
electric tools in and around aircraft and aviation fuel.
There are many common sensebased precautionary mea-
sures, though, that technicians can, and should, take.
Mark Conroy, a senior fire protection engineer for
the National Fire Protection Association, handles avia-
tion projects. The association published NFPA 410
Standard on Aircraft Maintenance in 1989. It's a set of
guidelines for hangar fire safety precautions dealing with
welding, electrical components, painting, fire incidents,
and more. The association also provides National Electric
Codes which define minimum reauirements for electrical
equipment to be used in aircraft hangars. All mainte
nance shops should already have a copy of these codes.
To contact the NFPA call, (617) 223-3848.
The guidelines in NFPA 410 include such basics as
"Electrical equipment shall be inspected to ensure that it
is being properly maintained in first class condition and
that it will not cause short circuits," and "Grounding or
bonding equipment shall be regularly inspected, properly
maintained, and properly used."
Other portions of the document offer more specific
requirements. For example, requirement 7-2.4 states,
"Electrical equipment of a hand-portable nature used
within a vapor heard area shall be of the type approved
for use in Class 1, Group D Division 1 hazardous loca-
tions as defined by NFPA 70, National Electric Code."
Grounding the aircraft and ensuring adequate ventila-
tion (especially when painting) are also crucial. While
grounding the aircraft being worked on should be second
nature for technicians, it's important to note that this
procedure doesn't provide protection from all fire or
electrical hazards.
Using safe tools & accessories
Most electric tools today are double insulated.
According to a representative for Milwaukee Electric
Tool Company, this relates to the internal electric compo-
nents of the tool. These parts are isolated or "sleeved in
plastic shields so that they can't come in contact with
the metal shaft of the tool.
If the tool has an internal failure, i.e., a wire broke
loose, the insulation protects the technician from the
sparks or voltage that the failure produces.
The representative explains that the structure of
battery-powered tools is similar in many ways to that
of electric tools. However, the voltage of most battery-
operated tools, like screwdrivers, is so low that they pose
much less threat than electric tools.
He cautions, though, that battery-powered tools are
still not conducive to explosive environments.
Also available are grounded tools. In case of an inter-
nal short, these tools have a grounding point like an
aircraft, that provides a path to the ground for the
eledricity to travel.
Technicians often use portable lights to help them
work on a close area. The NFPA offers a few cautionary
words about the safe use of temporary lighting and heat
lamps used to accelerate the drying of painted surfaces.
Regular inspection of this equipment, and of exten-
sion cords and other electric accessories is highly
recommended. LEI March/April 1994

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 29

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AD research
A guide to the tools and steps to perform a thorough search
By Jeff Hicks
T he FAA issues violations for noncompliance and
improper research of Airworthiness Directives
(ADS) everyday. Although technicians are taught
the importance of compliance with all applicable Airwor-
thiness Directives, and most have conducted research of
ADS, the exact procedures required to conduct compre
hensive research are not well documented and vary with
the research tools used. Technological advances offer
faster and more complete researchmg of Airworthiness
Directives but do not relieve the technician of investigat
ing the applicability of each and every AD. Regardless of
the research tools used, it is imperative that technicians
understand how to properly conduct an AD research.
There are three good rules to follow:
1. Understand the limitations of the tools for AD
research.
2. Use various means to validate your results.
3. Make certain that the latest information is used.
The tools
Paper, microfiche and computerized AD research
tools are available today. Each medium has its own set of
advantages and limitations.
Paper
Advantages
Comfort in using a physical document
Copy machine compatible
Low cost
Limitations
Easily damaged and/or lost
Requires a lot of storage space
Revisions are timeconsuming
Several steps and indexes required to locate all
Most time-consuming method
Microfiche
Advantages
Better document protection and organization
Faster access to information
Less storage space required
Revisions are more efficiently handled
30 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Limitations
Needs microfiche printer to obtain copies
Not as expedient as electronic
Electronic
Advantages
Builtrin AD index customized to model
Word search capabilities
Revisions extremely simple and fast
Immediate information retrieval
Highquality printing of documents
Builtin AD signaff sheets available with some
products
Information portable with use of laptop computer
Limitations
Requires use of computer equipment
More expensive investment
AD indexes
There are several companies today that offer the
"latest and greatest" AD research system utilizing
computerized indexes. However, the programs available
do not absolve the technician from the responsibility of
finding and complying with all ADS. If an AD is over-
looked because the index is in error, whether it is the
FAA's index or a company's representation of the FAA's
index, you, the technician, are in violation. Know the
limitations of the indexes you use.
According to the FAA, the paper "indexes, published
twice a year, are intended to be used as a guide only and
should not be relied upon as conclusive evidence of AD
applicability. Aircraft operators, inspectors and persons
performing maintenance are reminded of their responsi-
bility under Sections 39.3, 43.11, 43.13, of the Federal
Aviation regulations, respectively, to assure compliance
with all applicable ADS." Both the AD Summary Index,
published twice a year, and Biweekly Supplements must
be reviewed to locate applicable ADS.
Micdche products that simply reproduce the FAA
paper format are subject to all the incumbent limita-
tions. For example, Cessna AD 900213 is listed by the
FAA AD Summary Index under Model 310. It does not
appear in that index under 310 Series or any other 310
models. However, it is not applicable to Model 310, but
to models 310L, N, P, Q and 310R. To overcome these
problems, consider using a microfiche product that is
created through dhgent research, because it corrects
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cataloging errors, maintains manufacturers' buyouts,
and better assists the technician in identifying all appli-
cable ADS.
The ek&onic index depends upon both the "lookup
software" and the "effectivity data" to yield accurate
search results. The limitations and exact operation of the
lookup software must be fully understood by the user. Is
the AD search being performed based upon text match-
ing or the use of effectivity data, or both? The effectivity
data must be carefully created to resolve the precise a p
plicability of each AD to each manufacturer/model. How
is "see also" resolved? Do you search on the current
manufacturer. the manufacturer listed in the AD. or the
original cer&ying manufacturer, or all three? H O is~
model vs. series resolved? Are all series ADS listed with
each specific model? What about the "all four cylinder
piston engines equipped with rear propeller governor
and external oil line" type AD references? There are
many opportunities for various interpretations of AD
applicability. Make absolutely certain that you under-
stand the precise research methodology and limitations
inherent in using electronic indexes.
Conducting a thorough AD search
It is virtually impossible to perform an AD research
by reading every AD. Let's briefly review the steps in
conducting a complete modevseries specific AD research
for an aircraft or rotorcraft.
Start with a complete index comparable in format to
the FAA's AD Summary and subsequent biweekly. Be
certain of its currency, accuracy, cross references and
organization.
Airframe ADS
Locate the appropriate volume (large or small).
Find the manufacturer for the airframe or rotorcraft.
Under the manufacturer, find and record all model
specific ADS.
Verify that any ADS assigned to the series for the
specific model are included in your record.
Reminder: Always look for any "see also" notes next
to a manufacturer's name because some ADS for a model
or series are indexed with a previous or later manufac-
turer.
Engine ADS
Locate the engine manufacturer.
Record the ADS applicable to the model and series
(the index generally reflects the series).
Reminder: Look for any ADS listed immediately
following the engine manufacturer's name because
some general ADS not assigned to a specific series may
be listed.
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Professlonallsm
Some engine series are divided under multiple manu-
facturers and caution must be taken to identify all appli-
cable ADS. The ADS for Garrett Turbine Engine WE331
Series, for example, are found under two manufacturers:
Garrett Turbine Engine Co. and Airesearch.
Propeller ADS (if applicable)
Locate the propeller manufacturer.
Carefully review all the listings under the
manufacturer's name.
Record the ADS applicable to the model and series.
Reminder: ADS are listed by hub model numbers,
blade numbers and hub series. ModeLs are also shown by
propeller shank descriptions. ADS for a given propeller
may be found under multiple listings.
For example, Hartzell utilizes parenthesis 0 irnbed-
ded with numbers and letters to identify a specific
propeller hub number: (OHCOOYO).
Appliance ADS
Iden-g all the appliances on an aircraft with
applicable ADS can be a challenge. The only way to
be certain of not missing an AD is to use the process
of elimination.
From an index of all appliance ADS, systematically
make a determination of whether each and every
appliance, referred to in an appliance AD, is in
service on the aircraft. Most indexes list appliance
ADS by manufacturer, but using an index which lists
appliance ADS by category and then manufacturer
expedites this process.
Record all of the appliances found on the aircraft
that are referred to by appliance ADS.
Record all of the applicable appliance ADS.
Reminder: ks manufacturers sell all or part of their
components to other manufacturers, it becomes even
more timeconsuming to keep up with all the buyouts
and to locate all ADS.
For example, to obtain all ADS for a MarvelSchebler
carburetor, using the FAA AD Summary, begin w i t h the
manufacturer Marvel-Schebler listing and record the ADS
for the model series. Next pursue the reference to "see
Facet." Under the manufacturer Facet are listed more
applicable ADS. Although there is no reference under
either Facet or Marvel-Schebler, there is an additional
AD (92-15-16) against the same carburetors. It's listed
under Precision Airmotive, who purchased Facet. ('I'o
help resolve this complex problem, the AW appliance
indexes have grouped all ADS against a given manu-
facturer's model under the most current manufacturer.)
The main reason for appliance ADS being missed is
the timeconsuming task of obtaining a complete record
of all appliance manufacturer, model, part and serial
numbers. The Type Certificates for the Airframe and
Engines don't list all appliances.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
 From seat belts to coffee makers, the appliance AD
category covers a large number of items. Make sure that
you are equally diligent about both research and inspec-
I Each aircraft's AD record-keeping system should also
tion. Appropriate time must be invested in both adivi-
ties to perform this task properly.
Proposed and new ADS
Since new ADS become effective almost everyday, it's
very difficult for a single index to remain absolutely
current. It is therefore necessary to monitor the daily
issues of the Federal Register for both Proposed and
New Final Rule ADS (listed under FAR 39). Track
proposed and new ADS until they're incorporated into
your AD index. Some AD research produds offer the
Notice of Proposed Rule Making (NPRM) and Notice of
Final Rule Making (new ADS) but not all.
Validation and cross check
To verify that your research is accurate, complete and
current it is always good practice to use an alternative
index to check your findings. Reconciling two indexes
once you have a complete set of records doesn't add
that much time to the entire process. However, it may
prevent a lot of aggravation resulting from missing
ADS that were catalogued or indexed using alternative
interpretations.
Recording AD compliance
AD compliance, as with any maintenance, preventive
maintenance, rebuilding or alteration, requires entries
into the permanent records. According to the FARs, the
records must include:
1. Description of work performed
2. Date of completion
3. CeMicate number
4. Signature
32 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
include:
A complete AD record segregating the ADS by the
appropriate categories (airframe, engine, propeller,
appliance).
A list of nonapplicable ADS found during the research
and the reason each AD doesn't apply (e.g., excluded
model number, serial number, not installed, etc.).
This practice not only assures a thorough research,
but also saves an enormous amount of time for each
subsequent AD research. (FSDO's requirements for
recording of nonapplicable ADS may vary, so be
informed of your FSDO's expectations.)
Recurring and partially complied with ADS, including
the next time/date/hours due.
> Method of compliance (e.g., per SB123; visually
inspected per paragraph A of the AD).
A detailed entry of AD compliance. Avoid the entry
"all ADS complied with."
Proper AD research takes time. Although some
research tools on the market will be more efficient than
others, be sure you understand the limitations of the
products, ascertain that the latest information is used,
and always use a variety of means to validate your
results. Januaiy/Februaiy 1994
JeffHicks is currently s M L 4 at Aircraft Technical
Publishers where he is responsible for the indexing of
Airworthiness Directives for A m ' s new US.Aviation
Regulatory Library on CDROM.
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Thought you knew torque?
Don't be so sure
By Greg Napert
T
he old joke that your elbow is calibrated just
doesn't hold water in many applications today.
Extended TBOs, tighter tolerances and more
sophisticated engine and aircraft designs dictate that in
today's maintenance environment, close tolerances in
clamping forces be adhered to. Proper torque can mean
the difference between making it to the next TBO or not.
So if you haven't thought about the accuracy of your
tools or your torquing techniques lately, you'll want to
read on.
Do you know that supporting an extension while
using a torque wrench can greatly affect the amount of
torque that you place on a fastener? Do you know that
lubricated vs. nonlubricated fasteners make a large
difference in the amount of clamping force a fastener
places on a part, even though you apply the same
torque? Do you know how often to calibrate your torque
wrench to retain its accuracy? Answers to these ques-
tions are not always cut and dry even though the
principles behind torquing fasteners are quite simple. A
review of the factors that affect the final clamping force
is necessary occasionally due to misconceptions that
abound in the maintenance industry.
Definition
"Torque is based on the fundamental law of the
lever... that is... distance times force equals the moment
or torque about a point. If this law is fully understood,
all problems relative to torque wrenches and adapters
can be solved," according to The Torque Manual from
Sturtevant Richmont Company.
Many factors come into play when actually applying
torque to a fastener. The following are the most impor-
tant concepts that need to be understood:
Torque wrench handle
If the handle is not used properly, you can easily
affect the torque applied to the fastener. Force applied
toward the end of the handle will lower the torque value,
and if applied toward the head, will increase the value
even though the wrench scale or micrometer setting indi-
cates a specific value. The most common type of torque
wrench handle is the floating type of handle used on the
most conventional torque wrenches. The reason that the
handle floats is because it is mounted on a pivot point
designed to assure a constant lever length.
Many other handle designs are also available, but the
important thing to remember is if the handle does not
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Professionaiism
float or pivot, proper hand placement on the handle can
seriously impact achieving the proper torque values.
Use of extensions
Extensions used in conjunction with torque wrenches
can present the most challenging problems if used incor-
rectly. When using extensions, it's very easy to be
deceived by arrangements that include such things as
multiple extensions, universal joints and crowsfeet. Also,
when you add extensions, it's often necessary to support
them in some way with a free hand so that the socket
remains on the fastener. In supporting these arrange-
ments, it becomes difficult to predict the results of the
torquing operation.
Probably the best way to be sure of your results is to
check the arrangement on a torque tester prior to using
it on a fastener. But even with that, the application of
force to an extension by hand is very inconsistent and
unreliable.
Conventional socket extensions used in conjunction
with torque wrenches, says Sturtevant Richmont, may
necessitate resting the palm of your hand on the head of
the torque wrench (see Figure 1) to equalize the force
you apply to the handle. Failure to support the head of
the torque wrench would result in the socket rocking off
the head of the cap screw. A suggested method would be
to rest the palm of your open hand on the head of the
torque wrench and rotate your hand with the movement
of the head end as the application is made.
Adapter/extension combinations can present numer-
ous problems related to torque. In Figure 2, suppose
that the adapter length "A" is 9 inches and the socket
extension is 10 inches long and the torque wrench lever
length "L" is 18 inches. This represents an irregular-
shaped adapter, and if you apply force to the handle of
the torque wrench in a normal way, you have a conven-
tional adapter situation. In this particular case, it would
increase the scale reading one and onehalf times.
Now let's suppose that in the process of pulling on
the handle of the torque wrench, you also place your
hand at the end of the adapter which engages the cap
screw (see Figure 3). This would make no difference and
the adapter problem would exist. However, assume that
you put your hand at a point on the adapter where the
socket extension engages the adapter (see Figure 4). To
do this would cause erratic readings at the end of the
adapter. Now, place your hand on the head of the torque
wrench, which would be the most likely thing an opera-
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 33
Professionalllsm
tor might do (see Figure
5). If you were to make a
trial test on the torque
wrench tester duplicating
this particular situation,
says Richmont, you'd n e
tice that the torque pro-
duced at the end of the
Figure 1 adapter would not be one
and onehalf times the
scale reading, but very
probably, would be closer
to the actual scale reading
on the torque wrench.
Universal joints begin
to add even more complex
problems to the torque
Figure 2 calculation (see Figure 6).
Just keep in mind that
because a scale shows a
specific torque or a
wrench clicks at a particu-
lar torque value, it doesn't
mean that the torque a p
plied to the fastener is
Figure 3 equivalent to that value.
How often should
you calibrate?
The answer to this
question is not always
clearcut. But there are
enough horror stories out
in the field related to
Figure 4 torque wrenches being out
of adjustment and finding
out about it after an acci-
dent that the expense of
calibrating a torque
wrench often is well
worth it.
The FAA really doesn't
have any guidelines on
when to calibrate torque
Figure 5
wrenches; it simply states
that you need to make
sure that wrenches are in
compliance with any r e
pair station manual or
manufacturer's recom-
mendations. Most FAA
inspectors use the rule of
thumb that these tools
should be calibrated at
Figure 6 least once a year.
However, these are
only basic guidelines, and
34 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
the prudent technician should realize that there's a good
deal of importance in adhering to some kind of program
to assure quality control.
One overhaul facility, that shall remain unnamed,
sent a mechanical torque wrench out for calibration
during a routine annual inspection and was told that the
wrench was a whopping 40 percent out of calibration.
Unfortunately, this wrench was used over the last year
for torquing critical nuts that attached fans onto the
front of turbine engines. You can imagine the chaos that
followed.
To make matters worse, there were numerous
wrenches of the same make and model that were used
for the same thing. So there was no way to identify
which wrenches were used on which engines. It essen-
tially had to assume that all of the work that was per-
formed over the last year was incorrectly torqued. The
situation was eventually corrected by sending technicians
to the field to retorque all the fans in question.
Needless to say, a few lessons were learned from this
experience. First, the company learned that once a year
wasn't enough. Second, it learned that it needed to track
the serial numbers of the wrenches that were used on
each and every job. It decided to make it policy to write
the torque wrench ID on each job slip so that if it did
find a wrench out of calibration, it could identify exactly
which engine the wrench was used on.
A few practices that you may want to consider for
assuring quality control and accurate torque include:
Consider purchasing a torque tester that you send
out annually with your torque wrenches. Use the
torque tester to verify the accuracy of your torque
wrenches before and after every job. And use it to
check extension arrangements to see if they have
affected your torque values.
If you can't afford a torque tester, check the torque
on one wrench against the torque values on other
torque wrenches around the shop by torquing a fas-
tener with one wrench, and removing it with another,
keeping in mind that the torque required to loosen a
fastener is not the same as tightening. This is inaccu-
rate, at best, but can give you a rough indication if a
torque wrench is far out of calibration.
Check mechanical torque wrenches and torque multi-
pliers often, depending on the amount of usage.
Keep accurate and detailed records of which torque
wrenches are used on which jobs and when they were
last calibrated.
Brush up, occasionally on torque formulas and torque
theory.
Make sure that you follow manufacturer's torquing
recommendations related to torquing of fasteners.
This includes: torquing wet or dry, reuse of fasteners,
torquing procedures, etc.
kQl November/December 1993
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 The more we change-the more we
stay the same
his summer, the Fhght Safety Foundation
T Aviation Mechanics Bulletin published its 40th
Anniversary issue in which it reprinted key
articles from the '50s and '60s.
It became profoundly obvious that sound values and
good technique are unaffected by the passage of time
and the change in human perception.
With the permission of the FSF, we reprint the
following articles as originally published, so that the
wisdom of the individuals who penned their thoughts to
paper over 40 years ago, can be shared by all:
Habit
By Norman G. Shidle, SAE Journal
(May/June 1954)
Most of us would be further along if we spent more
time getting into habits and less .time trying to get out
of them.
The very word "habit" has come to have a slightly
unsavory connotation. We tend to be apologetic about
having one. Ten people are trying to get rid of some bad
habit for every one who is busy txying to establish a
good one.
Getting good habits is more rewarding than ousting
old ones if only because it focuses minds on constructive
pursuits. Getting a good habit betters something already
good. Spend enough time that way and the bad habits
often vanish automatically.
Make a habit of being on time and that old habit of
arriving late no longer exists. Make a habit of speaking
pleasantly to everyone and that old habit of growling
ceases to exist. Start giving the other fellow more than
half the road and that old habit of crowding other cars
becomes a nothingness.
Habit can be a vital, constructive force. It can take
care of hundreds of daily decisions. It has to or we'd
have time for nothing but trivialities. The best way to get
freedom to do what we really like to do is to put more
actions under such automatic control that we don't have
to spend time discussing them. "What a waste of time
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and energy," Dr. Ralph Sockman said the other day, "if
we men debated every morning with ourselves whether
we should shave or what train we would catch to busi-
ness!" Such things we reduce to fixed habits and thus
free our minds for bigger choices.
Instead of apologizing for our habits, we had better
get habits which need no apologizing for. "Mind the
Light" is a more productive motto than "Avoid the
Darkness."
A matter of privilege
By Joe Chase
(July/August 1955)
The aviation mechanic is so often reminded of his duties
and responsibilities that it is pleasant to pause and
remember our many privileges.
One of these privileges is exemplifying so well the
craft and the craftsmanship we represent that we can
stand in the penetrating light of self-examination and
be proud.
Another is to exercise the cool, detached, unhurried
and unflurried judgment of the man who knows his job
beyond doubt or question.
Working pleasantly with others is a privilege. So is
working safely, to the end that everyone finishes his shift
sound of wind and limb and fit to work another day.
It is a privilege to provide a truly great service to the
public. The aviation mechanic does that to an unusual
degree. He also contributes much to the nation's
strength, for which we can all be glad.
It is our prerogative to demonstrate respect for law
and authority, whether it be labeled the CAR or company
procedures or the rights of others. Perhaps it is the
craftwide conformity to principle that engenders such
universal respect for the mechanic.
And it is our privilege to enjoy the work of
our choice.
It would seem that our privileges greatly outweigh
our duties.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 35
Communications:
A responsibility of
the mechanic
By Joe Chase
(July/August 1962)
It is an established custom to hold management respon-
sible for communication within a company. We will buy
that, to a point. It is defitely up to management to
provide the manuals, the bulletins and bulletin boards,
the newsletters, the mechanical difficulty reports, and
all the et cetera necessary for the flow of maintenance
information between the segments of an aviation organi-
zation. It is also management's responsibility to create
and maintain a climate conducive to good communica-
tion, an open door, and open mind. But the channels for
communication and the attitudes that nurture it are only
the beginning. The mechanic is responsible for making
the system work wherever it touches him or his job.
.Communication is much more than just a message
and the method of its transmission. People are involved.
A.n instruction or report or an idea goes from someone
to someone. It must be received and understood or it
isn't a communication. Without reception and under-
standing it is as devoid of meaning as a letter that isn't
mailed or a radio message that isn't heard.
Here is where the mechanic becomes involved and
responsible. To properly receive a communication
requires a special skill. If the message is verbal, one
must listen actively and consciously. This is very differ-
ent from standing quietly while the boss man speaks.
True listening permits no mental meanderings: "This job
will cut into my lunch period." "Brother, what a haircut
he's got." Few of us can fully comprehend an instruction
we have only half heard. So listening with full attention
becomes a part of our job and our responsibility.
If the message is written, one must read it carefully,
completely, and with understanding. Suppose the mes-
sage is not clear, the author is not blameless, but the
man who faiLs to ask for and to get an explanation is the
man responsible for the breakdown of the system.
Good communication is like a flight of stairs. It runs
from the bottom to the top as well as from the top to
the bottom. The mechanic who doesn't use this stairway,
who doesn't attempt to reach management with his ideas
and suggestions, is accountable for a system that oper-
ates in only one direction.
Good communication is particularly important in
our industry. Aviation cannot tolerate confusion as to
purpose or method. It cannot permit misunderstanding
of intention or of accomplishment. Whether or not we
listen well, read carefully, ask questions, make certain we
understand, is largely up to us. The responsibility to do
so is already ours.
36 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Don- be a hero
By Joe Chase
(September/October 1963)
Someday it will happen to you. Someday you wiU be
handed a job that is just a bit over your head. It may be
a job you have never done before. Or something you
helped with two or three years ago and haven't touched
since. Perhaps it was covered in that course you took
on systems, but that was back when the company got
the new equipment. So you are not at all sharp on this
particular job, but it has been given to you. Well, don't
be a "hero."
We were recently reminded of this hero business
when a friend mentioned an accident that occurred a few
years ago. It was a maintenance accident, an avoidable
accident in which many people died. It was set up when
a mechanic accepted a job he was not quwied to do,
and it was triggered when he blundered ahead without
telling anyone he needed help. He might have made out,
but he never opened the manual.
It is hard for us to understand this rushing in to save
the day, thie "hero" bit. It takes more guts to say you
don't know than to clam up and hope that no one discov-
ers it. Actually, no one expeds you to know all the
details of a complex airplane.
It is much easier to use the help available-the
manual and the experience of others-than to stumble
along alone. Why take the hard way?
No bravery is required to gamble with the lives of
others. If you want to bet your own life, try drag racing
or highway driving on a threeday weekend.
We have great compassion for the "heroes." They are
sadly mistaken and not too bright. They are afraid to
confess their weaknesses to themselves. Probably they
don't sleep very well.
Don't be a "hero." Be an aviation mechanic.
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 Finding those hard-to4ind parts
If at first you don't succeed, where do you go then?
By Jennifer Daack Woolson
L ocating parts for our aging aircraft is becoming
more W ~ c u levery
t year. It has become a long
and often time-consuming process to find parts
that are no longer produced by the original equipment
manufacturer, are not usually kept in inventory or whose
part numbers are difficult to identify.
Pete Schroeder, a technician at Wisconsin Aviation in
Watertown, WI,says that locating parts is definitely one
of the biggest pains of his job.
He explains that there aren't just a few specific prob
lem parts which are difficult to locate. "The problem is
that there are so many different parts on an aircraft,
and on each aircraft the parts are just a little bit differ-
ent. Parts on a 150 are different than parts for a 152.
We never know which one we're going to need. If we did,
then we'd find a source for that part and keep it in
stock. But there are too many and you can't possibly
keep them all in stock."
The first step that Schroeder takes when he needs a
replacement part is to call the Piper dealer he works
with to see if he can locate the part. If that doesn't
work, he calls other Piper dealers around the country for
their help.
If he is still at a loss, he'll call one of several compa-
nies that specialize in locating parts, like ILS (Inventory
Locator Service) or Aero PartsFinders Company. These
companies have computer networks or systems to help
find parts from all over the country, or the world.
The major distributors
Like Schroeder, the first step for most technicians in
search of a part that's not in inventory is an OEM (origi-
nal equipment manufacturer) dealer or distributor.
AMR/Aircraft Parts International is a distributor of
everythmg from engine parts to tires to propellers. Its
warehouse in Memphis, TN, is open 17 hours a day,
seven days a week. It also has records of the inventories
of airframe parts at the 10 or so FBOs that are part of
the AMR chain.
API general manager Glenn Golden says that when
technicians call in search of a new part that AMR
doesn't have, it refers them to one of its FBOs or tries
to locate it for them through ILS. "Many of the small
companies we deal with either can't afford or can't
justify the fee that ILS charges because they don't use
the service often enough. So we'll try to find it for
them," he says.
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Golden explains that the risk of buying parts through
a locator service or classified ad, rather than a major
distributor, depends on the part you're l o o w for. "If
you're looking for a Cessna airframe part, for example,
and you get one from Cessna, there's not much risk. The
largest risk comes if you're looking for overhauled parts."
AMR only deals with overhaul shops that it is familiar
with, and Golden says that it will buy only new parts
from locator services.
Networking
ILS, which is also based in Memphis, TN, began
operations in 1979 and today has more than 16 million
parts in its data base. It became a Ryder System Com-
pany in 1985 and operates as an independent subsidiary.
Manager of marketing services John Duffy says that
the company gets between 15,000 and 20,000 calls per
day from brokers, dealers, repair shops, FBOs and
others who use the ILS system to locate parts. It's
an international operation with representation in
England, Hong Kong and Australia as well as several
other countries.
Duffy explains how the locator service works: "We
have an on-line data base where suppliers list their
inventory. And basically we bring buyers and sellers
together while maintaining our independence." Because
of this approach, ILS is not liable for the parts, he says.
However, the system automatically alerts users if a part
they are looking for has been reported by various law
enforcement agencies as stolen.
Callers looking for a part can access the data base by
computer modem 24 hours a day. The computer searches
the data base by part number and provides a listing of
the suppliers who have the part in inventory and
whether the part is new, used or overhauled. Duffy says
that the buyer contads the supplier on his own, and the
two work things out independently of ILS. Both suppli-
ers and buyers pay a monthly fee for access to the data
bases. ILS leases communications hardware to those
who need it and has 24hour customer service.
Keeping customers happy
John E. Anstensen, owner of Aero PartsFinders Co.
in Sarasota, FL, operates his business under what he
calls a fairness doctrine. "It's very important for a trans-
action to be right the first time. That's the secret to
keeping customers happy. We inspect every part to make
sure it's right. Once the customer receives the part, it's
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Professionalism
their decision whether or not they like it, or if they want
to keep it. It all comes down to how you would like to be
treated if the tables were turned."
Anstensen's company specializes in locating Piper,
Cessna and Beechcraft parts, those that are in and out
of production. He says that there are certain parts that
may be diffkult to find today, but not tomorrow. Some
manufacturers, he explains, will wait until they have a
backlog of orders before they produce a batch of parts.
Aero PartsFinders is operated mainly through what
Anstensen calls his goodald-boy network. A former Piper
distributor, he tries to keep in contact with dealers,
distributors, suppliers everyone out there who has parts
to offer. When he locates a new or used part, he buys it,
has it inspected by an IA for airworthiness, and then
sells it to the customer. He says that he rates parts on a
scale of one to 10. New parts must be a 10, he explains,
but used parts vary so much that what he thinks is a 10,
a customer might see as a seven. That's why he guaran-
tees the parts so customers are only obligated to accept
what they are satisfied with, he says.
Because of the nature of his business, Anstensen's
customers usually come to him when they've exhausted
every other resource. And he says that's just fine with
him. "We don't want people who are just shopping
around for the best deal. There are easier ways for
people to get parts, so we don't want to waste their time
or ours."
Searching the "bone yards"
As a final step, Schroeder calls salvage yards to see
if he can find a used part. These he says he installs as
serviceable parts. He also buys parts through classified
ads in publications like TradeA-Plane.
One such salvage yard is OK Aircraft Parts Inc. in
Gilroy, CA. The company buys all types of aircraft and
parts, will consign parts or aircraft for you, and pays
finders fees for information leading to sales or pur-
chases. In addition, says president Ed Riley, they will
help technicians locate parts either by using ILS or by
going through the extensive contacts that they have d e
veloped in the industry. He explains that sometimes the
company wiU broker the part from a contact and some-
times the buyer and seller will be set up independently.
38 The Best of Aircraft Maintenawe Technology Magazine
The company's own inventory is recorded on com-
puter so that parts can be located easily. Riley says that
all of the parts that they sell are inspected before they
go to the customer. W i t h as-removed parts, it's hard to
say whether they're any good until the technician buys
them and sees if they're any good for his end."
How risky is this business?
Schroeder says that the risks involved in using parts
from locator services, salvage yards and classified ads
are a concern for him.But he explains, "We have to
trust the people that we're going to buy parts from.
Most people are upfront about it. But I'm the one who
has to stand behind the airworthiness of a part, so it's
up to me to make sure it's the part they say it is." He
says he expecta the parts that he buys to have proper
documentation so he knows where thev came from and
what's been done to them.
The FAA's stance is not all that different. Bill
O'Brien, the airworthiness program manager for the
FAA, says that what really matters is that the part is the
real thing. "How can you be guaranteed you're getting a
good part? Go to an OEM. Go to a guy who's in busi-
ness, not someone who's selling parts out of the back of
his truck or his garage." No big news there.
But he adds, "The bottom line responsibility belongs
to the technician who puts the part on the plane and
signs it off. His signature constitutes approval for return
to service. The mechanic has an awesome responsibility."
And as most technicians realize, making that determina-
tion is not always easy.
O'Brien explains that the more complicated the part,
the more difficult it is to tell if it's going to be airworthy.
For example, he explains, a brake assembly either works
or it doesn't. So if you're going to get a used one, it
doesn't matter as much where it's from, as how well it's
inspected. Making the determination of whether it fits
the type design and is safe for operation is not very com-
plicated. However, he says that with more complex parts,
like computers for auto pilots, unless it's an OEM part
you can never really be sure how it will perform. Dl
July/August 1993
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MedAire reveals results of survey
on hazardous materials
By Jennifer Daack Woolson
J
oan Sullivan Garrett, president of MedAire Inc., an
aviation medical consulting and training firm
based in Phoenix, presented results of a hazardous
materials survey at a management seminar offered
at the Professional Aviation Maintenance Association
symposium in February.
The current climate for study of these issues is ripe.
Standards published in 1989 by the Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (OSHA) concerning hazard-
ous materials and equipment are gradually finding their
way into written safety programs in many maintenance
hangars. These standards, however, are not specific to
the unique hazardous materials handled in an aircraft
maintenance hangar.
OSHA regulations require that employers who have
chemicals on the premises must inform the employees of
their presence, label the chemicals and provide material
safety data sheets (MSDS).
Although enforcement of regulations has been some
what lax in the past, Garrett says that with the new
administration in Washington, airports on public prop
erty should beware and expect a visit from OSHA to
check on compliance with its regulations.
The major positive finding is that managers are
acutely aware of the threat to the health and safety of
their employees associated with the use of hazardous
chemicals and equipment. The major negative fiiding
is that too few expert sources of education, prevention
and emergency first aid are immediately available in the
aircraft maintenance hangar.
The need for information
"In my experience I've found that there's little com-
munication within maintenance organizations in the area
of safety," Garrett says. "There is a wide gap in the level
of safety training that maintenance individuals receive
and a great need for information.
"Maintenance managers need to have information
they can take to their employers.
"This gives them information on how they're perform-
ing compared to their counterparts and the current
laws," she explains. "It gives them an impetus to go to
their employers and show the need for more training."
By taking the survey results to the person who
handles the purse strings in the organization, managers
have an argument for resource allocation for safety train-
ing specifically for the maintenance department.
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Professlon~llsm
The findings
Garrett says that the broad finding from the survey
is that the Hazard Communications Standard, published
three years ago by OSHA and widely and uniformly
followed in some industries, is neither widely nor
uniformly followed in the aircraft maintenance hangar.
For example:
49 percent say they are not familiar with the Hazard-
ous Communications Standard (1989).
34 percent of respondents indicate that they have not
received information andlor training concerning the
storagehse of hazardous materials in the work site.
44 percent indicate that there is no established
procedure for responding to a hazardous materials
incident.
Yet 41 percent of the respondents indicate that a
minor chemical spill has occurred in their maintenance
hangar.
The survey also revealed that there are a number of
problems resulting from insufficient education and train-
ing. Among those is the complacency of technicians that
nothing can happen and that safety rules are not needed.
Copies of the Hazardous Communications Standard
and MSDS can be obtained from the local OSHA offices
in each state.
What can be done?
To enhance awareness, knowledge and skills of
employees, Garrett says that hangars should provide a
comprehensive program of education, prevention and
training in two primary areas: principles and procedures
of f i s t aid and chemicallmaterial hazards of the mainte
nance hangar.
Training in CPR, use of emergency firstaid equip
ment and assessment skills are essential. Employees
should be trained to recognize and treat emergencies
such as seizures, inhalation injuries, bleeding and shock.
Firsbaid courses are routinely offered by organizations
like the Red Cross and community hospitals.
A safety and training program for chemicallmaterial
hazards of the aircraft maintenance hangar should
include an information and prevention program.
Managers can adapt OSHA regulations to the specific
constraints of the hangar and create a program to meet
their needs. This program should include an explanation
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
of health and safety hazards associated with classes of
chemicals frequently used in the hangar; immediate and
long-term effeds of exposure, including possible develop
ment of cancer; identification of vulnerable body organs
and routes of exposure; and selection and use of appre
priate personal protective clothing and equipment.
Training in hazardous materials handling is offered
by the National Safety Council and videotaped courses
are available from various companies and organizations.
Garrett says she knows of no other program except
MedAire's that offers training specific to hangars.
40 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
In addition, Garrett recommends contacting OSHA's
advisory division and requesting it come out and assess
the company's work environment and make recommen-
dations that will ensure a safe workplace. She points
out that this division is totally separate from OSHA's
enforcement division, and the consultation is confiden-
tial. The consultant will not routinely report violations to
the enforcement division. The employer will not be fined
and is obligated to correct eminent dangers in a timely
manner. El May/June 1993
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 maintenance department
By John D. Cotter
T here are many new software tools on the market
which help the technician perform aircraft
maintenance. Computerized aircraft maintenance
tracking has been available on mainframe and mini-
computers for several years. But now, many highquality,
affordable applications are available for the personal
computer. Several others are in the final design and t e s t
ing stages. Besides tracking maintenance activities, new
applications for the microcomputer allow the technician
to research almost all the different FAA publications.
Even the AC 65 Series and AC 43.13 are only a few key
or mouse clicks away for the technician experienced in
the use of the application.
Computer hardware and software
New Intel microprocessors provide hundreds of times
the processing power of IBM's original PC. This hard-
ware, combined with the new tools for application devel-
opment, makes searches of large information bases (data
bases) very fast.
Supporting this evolution are several types of high-
capacity information storage devices. They now contain
information that, as printed media, filled entire rooms.
CD ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory) is one
new method of storing information. By design, it's
primarily for use with information that doesn't change
frequently. Computer hard drives are intended for
constantly changing information. Mass distribution will
make CD ROM a disposable media, appropriate for large
volumes of information that varies over time.
Soon CD ROM drives will be as common as floppy
drives are now. Anyone planning to purchase a new
microcomputer should be sure to make CD ROM a
standard part of their system, whether they use it for
aviation publications or not. Make no mistake, the
technology is here now. Currently, two vendors are d i s
tributing aircraft maintenance information on CD ROM,
and more are sure to surface soon.
Researching airworthiness directives
There are several applications which will provide the
technician with the ability to search for, view and print
ADS (Airworthiness Directives) and FARs (Federal
Aviation Regulations). Each application differs in its
method of solving the AD and FAR research problem.
Trust the computer to look up ADS? All the available
products claim to provide the technician with an
accurate listing of applicable ADS. Many technicians are
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going to be very leery of allowing a computer to perform
the AD research task. It's obvious that missed compli-
ance with an AD could have serious safety consequences.
Before the technician can begin to expect the com-
puter to ably perform its assigned task, he or she must
usually pay some dues. After all, the old computer user's
adage "garbage in, garbage out" remains in effect. The
technician must invest the time to thoroughly learn the
application's method of operation. Increasing familiarity
with the application and comparison to manual AD
searches may allow the technician to develop confidence
in the application's ability to get the job done right every
time. As always, the technician is ultimately responsible
for the accuracy of AD compliance.
With continued use, the time spent locating and
printing the required ADS will decrease drastically,
turning hours into minutes. Thls is the primary reason
for using a computer to begin with. The long-term finan-
cial payoff is obvious.
A secondary benefit is the availability and clarity of
printed information obtained from the applications. A
complete listing of applicable ADS and the full text of the
ADS become a part of the aircraft's records. This is a
tremendous asset to the technician who is new to a
particular aircraft. Researching the ADS, again using the
computer, should confirm in minutes whether the old
listing remains accurate. Researching and adding newly
issued ADS to the record is simple.
The computer applications that search for ADS and
FARs all work similarly. Some vendors combine ADS for
large and small aircraft, all of the FARs and the AIM
(Airman's Information Manual) in a single computer
application. Other vendors offer produds that search
only the ADS for small or large aircraft, or the FARs and
the AIM.
Many vendors' applications allow a search of the AD
data base looking for key words that occur in the AD.
Most of these applications have a "dictionary" in which
all of the important words and terms of the ADS have
been indexed. For example, a technician is working on a
Lycoming 10-540 cylinder assembly, and recalls there
may be an AD against the engine's piston pins. The tech-
nician could search for all ADS that reference "10-540."
This search results in 15 ADS. A search of the data base
for all ADS that reference "piston pin" yields a list of 26
ADS. Combining "10-540"with "piston pin" reduces the
number of ADS to one, saving the technician the time of
looking at ADS that do not apply.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 41

tiny compact disk with the new computer technology
available now.
Researching federal aviation regulations
Searching for key words is the basis of the FAR
research applications. AU vendors' applications can
search and display an FAR if the FAR paragraph num-
ber is entered, such as 23.29. More useful is the ability
to search for key words and phrases. Suppose a techni-
cian, preparing a weight and balance report, wanted to
know what regulation governed the quantity of oil that
should be included in an aircraft's empty weight. Enter-
ing the phrase "empty weightn and the key word "oil"
results in 10 FARs that the technician must review. Such
a comprehensive review may hold surprises that might
be missed entirely by a manual check of the paper copy
of the regulation.
42 The Best of Aircraft Mairttenance Technology Magazine
Maintenance activity and component tracking
The rewards for moving to a computerized mainte
nance activity and component tracking application are
many. A computer's ability to reorganize information
into the form most appropriate for the task at hand is
its greatest asset.
Airworthiness can only be assured by performance
of scheduled preventive maintenance, inspections and
resulting nonroutine maintenance, and time or cycles-
limited component replacement. AU of the available
maintenance activity and component tracking applica-
tions provide timely aircraft status in formation. Specific
items available in printed reports include dates of all
services and inspections performed and next compliance
due information. Other available reports include: compe
nent part and serial numbers, list prices, average labor
requirements, and inspection and servicing frequencies.
Aircraft hours and number of landings are tracked for
all services, inspections and components.
Consider a maintenance manager txying to prepare
an employee work schedule. Using the computer, the
manager can print a report of pending maintenance
inspection and service items for all aircraft in the fleet
sorted by date. This printout can include subtotals of
the number of technician hours typically required to
complete the required tasks. Maintenance activities can
be scheduled to more closely match existing technician
staffing levels. The manager can balance the workload
and reduce periods of inactivity and overload. This
improves availability of the aircraft fleet, and reduces
payroll costs for overtime.
Using the same data base, the parts inventory
manager can print a report listing the time in service for
all lifelimited components in the fleet. This allows timely
ordering of the replacement parts needed, reducing idle
inventory and assuring the availability of required parts.
Again, fleet availability improves, while inventory costs
decrease.
A technician troubleshooting an aircraft can create,
in only a couple of minutes, a sorted printout to include
only information that is applicable to the malfunctioning
aircraft system. Reviewing previous system component
replacements helps prevent duplication of effort and r e
duces the number of hours needed to repair the system.
Maintenance actions resulting from more informed
troubleshooting and decisionmaking should reduce the
number of premature component removals.
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 The dues
In planning for a move to a computer application,
there are a few details that must not be overlooked. This
is true whether the new application provides AD and
FAR research capabilities or maintenance activity and
component tracking.
Converting the records of an aircraft, or a fleet of
aircraft, from a handwritten paper record-keeping
system to a computerized system is a major undertak-
ing. The documents that serve as the source of informa-
tion for the new computerized records must be reviewed
for accuracy and applicability.
Often there is no formal organization of the existing
paper records, just assorted yellow envelopes containing
various paper folders and logbooks. As always, the infor-
mation obtained from the computer is only as good as
the information that was put in. The aviation departr
ment planning to adopt a computerized maintenance
activity and component tracking system should be ready
to invest many hours in information preparation, before
anyone touches a computer.
The individual or company must plan for training for
the new application, and then allow adequate time to
practice using the application. If the hidden cost of train-
ing cannot be paid, it would be better not to purchase
the application at all. There are computers gathering
dust all over the nation. Hardware and software costs
were covered, but access to adequate support personnel
and materials was absent. With two exceptions, this
author required two to four hours to begin to feel
comfortable with each application. The exceptions: one
application was printing AD lists 10 minutes after start
up; the other remains a mystery.
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Data backup must be provided for. If all of the data
base files can be backed up onto a single floppy disk,
then the basic computer system will suffice. If backing
up the data requires two or more floppy disks, buy a
tape backup system. Given the availability of inexpensive
tape drives and the absolute terror one feels when the
computer's hard drive fails, or the data files are acciden-
tally erased, one would be crazy to proceed without this
system component.
Follow a rotating tape backup schedule, with an
absolute minimum of individual tapes for Monday
through Friday. Storing the Friday tape offsite is highly
recommended. The cost of the tape drive wiU be repaid
a hundred times the first time the data base is lost
or corrupted.
The future
As computers find new uses in general aviation, the
computer knowledge and skill level of the technician
must increase. The good news is the quality and accessi-
bility of the information used by the technician on a
daily basis are sure to make the task of maintaining
aircraft easier and the aircraft safer. D March/April 1993
John D. Cotter is an assistant professor at Southern
17linois University at Carbondale, Aviation Maintenance
Technology, College of Technical Careers.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 43
Professionalism
in Arkansas FBOystotal quality
management program
By John Boyce
Contributing editor
entral Flying Service of Little Rock, AR, is taking
C
a popular business idea and applying it to its
aircraft maintenance division.
Total quality management (lQ,M) or total quality
initiative (it has several names) is the idea that a quality
product is the result of a commitment to quality by all
workers in the production process. In other words, each
employee is part of a team or committee that makes
decisions, solves problems and sets goals. It's based on
the belief that groups make better decisions than indi-
viduals, traditional supervisors or managers.
"The purpose of it, basically, is to provide the cup
tomer with better service," says Dave Altrui, director of
maintenance at Central and a prime mover in the imple
mentation of TQM in the shop. "That's the bottom line.
"The product is aircraft maintenance and we're
trying to build in the quality before the lid gets put on
so that comebacks are kept to an absolute minimum."
He says that basically, it's a philosophy that deals
with producing a very highquality product using the
input and performance of the technicians as the driver.
The idea is to give the technician the responsibility) the
tools and the training to provide the quality upfront.
'Brainstorming' sessions
Altrui reports that teams of technicians meet with
their supervisors on a regular basis to "brainstorm."
Each person is encouraged to offer suggestions
and ideas.
Paul Garner, a 13-year veteran A&P at Central,
says that the new approach, if nothing else, gives the
technicians the opportunity to air their views on working
conditions.
"We discuss procedures at the meetings," Garner
says, "and we get a better feel for what's going on, not
that management always listens to you, but at least it's a
forum to air all the hostilities."
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Customer and employee satisfaction
TQM,while aimed at customer satisfaction, recog-
nizes that customer satisfaction can't be achieved with-
out employee satisfaction. With that in mind, Central
first asked its technicians "What would make the shop
better?" The unanimous response was to improve the
working area and update the equipment.
"We put a team together," Altrui says, "and we
brainstormed on how we could get the most bang for the
buck and we came up with a product we thought would
fit us. That was a complete renovation of the shop-new
lights, new walls, better fixtures, new heating. And it all
came from the team."
Garner also says, "We got better equipment, which
makes our job easier, developed better paperwork proce
dures, and we got recurrent education out of the deal."
Caring for the product
Understanding that the heart and soul of aircraft
maintenance quality is the technician, is what drives
Central's TQM effort. Feeling for the technicians' day-to-
day activity and its inherent problems was the company's
uppermost consideration.
"When people talk about quality management or qual-
ity whatever," Altrui says, "it really comes down to the
employee caring about what they're doing. If they like
their work, if they like the company they're working for,
the process is easy.
"The management is supporting what the technicians
really need," Altrui says. "When there are decisions to
be made, the technicians are making a lot of those based
on what they see in the shop."
Committing to the program
Altrui is not saying that there's unanimous approval
for the program from technicians.
"I don't need to say that some of them think it's a
bunch of you know what, to put it bluntly," Altrui says.
"They say, 'What's the big deal? This is how we've been
doing it all along.' But sill, others are excited about it."
Garner is keeping an open mind on the new program.
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"Right now," Garner says, "from the troops' stand-
point, the managers go to these meetings and come back
pumped up about these new ideas and the troops say,
'What's in it for us?
"But the general attitude is that if we educate the
bosses they will be more in tune with us. If management
Suggestion box pays off
I n its effort to upgrade quality by involving employees in
the process of management, Central Flying Service has
introduced a suggestion box that pays off in dollars.
According to Paul Garner, an A&P at Central, techni-
cians put suggestions in a box and four or five of the
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ProfesslonaIIsm
knows what's going on with us, then things will improve.
The guys are putting forth the effort to make things
better."
Altrui says that the program calls for patience. "It's
not a onestep process," he says, "you build on small
steps one at a time. It takes commitment."
best are selected. These, in turn, are placed in a bowl
and one is randomly selected for implementation. The
author of the selection then receives a $100 bonus.
"It's a good deal," Garner says. "It's helped out. It
keeps the troops interested." G5l January/February 1993
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 45
Air conditioning and the Clean Air
Act Amendment of 1990
By Richard A. Peri
A
s the weather begins to cool down, we know that
summer is coming to an end. The real proof,
though, is when our air-conditioning servicing
carts begin to accumulate dust. Slowly they begin to
drift toward the corners of the hangar to be forgotten
until next summer.
This may not be a good year to forget about air-
conditioning repair quite this early. If your shop repairs
and services airsonditioning systems, you need to know
about the Clean Air Act Amendment of 1990, and the
regulations that became law in 1992.
Since 1988 the U.S. government has enacted laws to
reduce the effects of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) on the
atmosphere, or more accurately, the ozone layer. Most of
the laws limited the manufacturing of CFCs to the 1988
levels, with very little impact felt by consumers. In 1989,
through the use of NASA's satellites, scientisb observed
that CFCs might be having a greater effect on the ozone
layer than originally predicted. This led to the enactment
of the Clean Air Act Amendment of 1990, and the accel-
eration of the CFC phaseout schedule.
The Clean Air Act Amendment doesn't address avia-
tion specifically, except in the use of halon for fire extin-
guishers, nor does it address aircraft air-conditioning
systems. For the purposes of the act, aircraft have been
ruled as off-road vehicles, which means, for one thing,
that aircraft technicians don't have to be separately
certified to work on aircraft air conditioning. However,
indirectly, there are a number of issues regarding the
use and handling of refrigerants venting, equipment
requirements, ceMication, labeling-that will affect
aircraft air-conditioning maintenance.
The first major issue addresses the venting and
release of refrigerant into the air. Effective July 1992, it
is unlawful for any person to vent, release or dispose of
CFGl2 (among other refrigerants) into the atmosphere.
This, in simple language, means that when we work on
air-conditioning systems we must recover the refrigerant
and not intentionally vent, release or dispose of any
refrigerant into the air. AU refrigerant, except the small
amount that is vented during normal attaching and
removing of servicing lines, must be recovered, and
either recycled at the maintenance facility or collected
and sent off for reclamation.
46 I he Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
There is no requirement that the maintenance facility
recycle the refrigerant, but it may be costeffective to do
so. The decision on whether to recycle or simply recover
refrigerant will depend on the volume of air-conditioning
work done by the facility during the year. If the facility
does a rather low volume of air-conditioning work, it
may choose to recover the refrigerant and turn it in at a
licensed reclamation facility, If the maintenance facility
does a large volume of air-conditioning work, it may
choose to invest in a recycling unit. Either method is
acceptable and both methods require the purchase of
special equipment.
Another issue addresses the equipment requirements.
Before the salesmen arrive, and they will, each mainte
nance facility needs to evaluate the amount of aircondi-
tioning work that it anticipates doing. Keep in mind that
a good refrigerant recycling cart can cost between $3,000
and $4,000 and that a "recovery-only" unit can cost con-
siderably less, from $300 up.
The advantage of a recycling unit is its ability to
recover refrigerant from a system, clean and filter it,
then reuse it as if it were new. This reduces the amount
of refrigerant that must be purchased. With the high
cost of R-12 refrigerant (and all indications point to it
going even higher), a recycling unit could pay for itself
within a few years.
If all the maintenance facility currently has is a
recharging hose and gauge set, the set will still work for
the partial recharging of a system, although it will no
longer be acceptable for the complete servicing of a
system. A recovery unit is required when a system has
to be drained for component repair or replacement. It's
important that all the refrigerant be recovered.
If the facility has refrigerant recovery/recycling
equipment that is only a couple of years old, check it for
an Underwriters Laboratories certifkation. If the recov-
ery unit meets UL1963 standard or SAE standard 51991,
it'll meet the new standard. The new standard for equip
ment used only for recovery hasn't been released yet.
Fred Workley, National Air Transportation Association
manager for maintenance operations, doesn't expect
the standard to be established by the EPA before mid-
December.
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However, newly manufactured equipment that meets
UL certification will most likely be acceptable, according
to the EPA. If older equipment can still recover satisfac-
torily, it would be in the facility's best interest to wait
until the new standard is announced to see if the older
equipment will be grandfathered out before a new model
purchase is necessary. A complete listing of approved
units should be available later this year or early next
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Professionalism
year from the EPA's Stratospheric Ozone Information
Hotline at (800) 296-1996. November/December 1992
Richard Pen' is a c e d e d occupational health and
safety specialist and a consultant in the fXd of aviation
maintenance safety. He is a certified airframe and
powerplant technician with over 20 years of aircraft
maintenance experience.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 47
Professionalism

Service manager's day builds into

a constant whirl of activity
By John Boyce

A
USTIN, TX-If you've ever listened to and
watched a big city build up momentum in the
early morning, you have an idea of how a work-
day in the life of Earl Monreal goes.
It starts slowly, builds up speed, then levels out at
a roar.
Page Avjet Austin service manager Earl Monreal
didn't touch an aircraft in a wrenchlike way, but every-
thing he did or said, on this day, touched the aircraft or
the nine technicians who work on them.
Early in the day, sitting quietly in the office of his
foreman Richard Ramirez, Monreal is a little tentative
with a visitor there to observe what he does. He thinks
he has to explain the job rather than do it.
"This is it," he says almost apologetically, intimating
that he just sits in the office. His explanations of his job
are slightly scattered as they might be for a man used to
doing his job rather than explaining it. Monreal discusses a maintenance problem with one o f
"I troubleshoot a lot on the phone... his technicians.
"The best way in this business is to tell the truth...
"I call customers if we get an advisory on their air-
Confusing? Try having a phone to each ear while
plane particularly is it's a freebie...
making notes and trying to carry on a conversation with
"A lot of it is customer relations, calming people's a salesman.
fears and explaining... "It's fun," Monreal says. "I like it. It gets hectic
"I research the work orders making sure the labor
around here sometimes, but it's fun."
they (technicians) put in is not out of line...
When Monreal's secretary, Jennifer Acosta, arrives at
"I check the parts and labor that have gone into a
8 a.m., the activity begins to escalate. Monreal takes
job; if there seems to be a problem I get an explanation
some reports to the main terminal and brings back a
from my foreman...
cup of coffee.
"It's my job to analyze parts sales too...
By this time Monreal has taken six phone calls, one
"I build a relationship of trust with the customer...
of which is scheduling an aircraft in for work, and dealt
"I go into the manuals to do research...
with five requests, comments or questions from techni-
"This is a forecast day where I run my reports to see cians. At 9:15 a.m. a phone call propels him into his led-
how I'm doing with my budgets..."
gers of work records and survey of a Cessna advisory.
The process of interruption
The first sales call
Monreal has been involved in aircraft maintenance
At 9:35 the first salesman appears. The salesman in-
for most of the past 30 years and has held his current
quires as to why Monreal's patronage has slipped below
position at Page for five years. His day begins before
normal and is calling to find out why. Monreal responds
730 a.m. and lasts many times into the evening when
by saying, "I'm running behind on my quota and some-
he can "catch up with paperwork without a lot of inter-
body has to suffer." The salesman replies with a laugh,
ruptions."
"I guess I am."
He's organized on the job but a lot of his time is
During this conversation, Montreal takes a call from
spent on things that can't be planned. Interruptions,
Mexico. In Spanish, Monreal explains the situation and
interruptions of interruptions, and interruptions of
what it will take to get the customer's aircraft into the
the interruptions of interruptions are a major part of
United States for maintenance. That f i h e d , he goes
his day.
back to the salesman only to be interrupted by another

48 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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phone call, in which he explains to another Page facility
the FAA regulations as they apply to foreign aircraft.
In his conversation with the salesman, Monreal
subtly turns into a salesman by suggesting that the
company might be interested in a discount package on
parts. No sale is made but the interest is there.
Little interval in the activity
By this time, there's little interval between the ring-
ing of the telephone. Acosta deals with many of them
but many demand Monreal's attention.
AU the while he makes trips into the hangar to have
short discussions with Rarnirez or other technicians, or
fields requests or questions from the technicians who
come into the office.
During this increasing activity, the chief pilot for
Kansas State University comes into the office to wait for
some repairs to her aircraft. Monreal doesn't have to
spend a lot of time with her, but he takes the time to
be courteous.
The third parts salesman of the day appears. His
first day on the job, the salesman listens while Monreal,
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Profe~onalism
obviously clearing his chest, tells him politely but firmly
why the salesman's company isn't in good standing.
He ends the conversation by saying that he doesn't
hold out much hope, but if the parts company will do
certain things which it has promised to do in the past,
he would consider dealing with the salesman.
Although far from over, Monreal's day is given a
boost when the chief pilot thanks Ramirez and him
enthusiastically for their attention and service.
Because he's one person short in the parts operation,
and because "when you get to be my age you have to
miss some meals to maintain this great figure," he skips
lunch, covers the phones while Acosta leaves, and roars
on into the afternoon.
Later, as his visitor-observer prepares to leave,
Monreal has a rare moment when the phones are silent
and there is nobody else in the office. He laughs and
says, "You should come sometime when it's not so busy."
"I wouldn't have had it any other way," the visitor
says. And judging from the ease with which he handles
the constant activity, Monreal wouldn't either.
Wl September/October 1992
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 49
Professionallsm
Building a team
Careful selection of individuals is key factor in
successful maintenance depattment
By Peter LaSalle
A
ndrew Carnegie once said, "Take away my
people, but leave my factories, and soon grass
will grow on the factory floors. Take away my
factories, but leave my people, and soon we will have a
new and better factory." Another famous quote comes
from R.H. Grant: "When you hire people who are
smarter than you are, you prove you are starter than
they are." These statements are as true for aviation
maintenance as they are in any other business.
The whole idea of being a manager is not to do the
work yourself, but to get it done through other people
and equipment-to manage resources. Otherwise, every
great technician would be a great manager, and we know
that isn't the case. So what's involved in managing this
all-important resource we call technicians?
There's no great mystery to finding and keeping good
technicians, but it is a full-time job. A good manager is
constantly "recruiting" his current and future employees,
always conscious of how he can inspire his team to use
their s k i b for their enjoyment, while delivering value to
the customer. That's a mouthful, so let's break it down
into pieces.
A smart manager is always on the lookout for good
help-sooner or later you'll need to hire a technician.
The most basic (and often overlooked) part of recruiting
is understanding your needs. Many managers tend to
focus on a technician's technical skills and pay less
attention to the rest of the picture. Since technical skills
can be learned, why not look more for technical apti-
tude? You may have more luck hiring someone who is
trainable rather than a technician who has all the skills
you need.
Two other traits deserve careful consideration when
evaluating your needs in a technician: maturity and
50 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
finesse. Maturity often means the difference between a
problem employee and a star performer. Try to find out
if a candidate is reliable, cooperative and eager to be a
team player. Is he working for a paycheck or is he work-
ing for the company?
Finesse is a greatly undervalued skill-it's the polish
that can make up for a lot of rough edges. Make no
mistake about it: a technician who can schmooze a
customer is a valuable asset-he's your frontline guy
rather than a backcorner technician.
The point of all this talk about traits is not to say
that every person you hire has to be perfect in every
regard-few shops can afford to hire a 100 percent
perfect team! Just be aware of these traits so you can
staff accordingly; the right mix of people can be the
deciding factor between a shop that "runs itself" and one
that runs amuck.
The final bit of advice under the recruiting topic is to
stay in touch with the market. You can't expect to hire
or keep good people without a competitive compensation
package. There's much more to the package than hourly
wages. Benefits such as health insurance, holidays, sick
pay and vacation pay are part of the equation.
And what about work hours, flexibility, uniforms,
working conditions, training, variety and challenging
work? All these things represent value to your
employee-make sure both of you understand what you
have to offer.
Some companies do extensive annual surveys to
evaluate their compensation. At the very least you
should make it a point to gather firsthand information
about your competitor's pay-you can bet your employees
do! September/October 1992
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A practical approach to hazard - -

communication compliance
By Richard A. Peri

I
t was while listening to a couple of "old-timers" talk
about how aviation used to be that I began t h d i n g
about how safety used to be, and how safety today
is so misunderstood. The goal today is the same as yes-
terday to keep those whom we have trained, performing
the jobs that we have trained them to do."
In the past, most of the chemicals used in aircraft
repair were similar to those used in automobile repair.
As airplanes became more sophisticated, the chemicals
used to maintain them became more complex. It's diffi-
cult for most of us, as technicians or supervisors, to look
at a given type of solvent and immediately recognize that
even a slight exposure can cause drowsiness,
lightheadedness or nausea. It seems a little counter-
productive that because of our lack of knowledge, inad-
equate personal protective equipment andlor employee
training that when we expect our technicians to be at
their best, we unwittingly send them impaired to com-
plete a task.
Originally conceived to protect the employee, the
Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA)
devised a standard that can be one of the most used
tools available to the supervisor today. The OSHA stan-
dard 1910.1200 or the Hazard Communication Standard,
mandates certain requirements that when taken in all at
once, appear to be too time-consuming. However, when
looking at the valuable information that exista, a prop
dispose of those long-forgotten chemicals that have been
erly administered program can save the maintenance
taking up valuable storage space in the back of the shop.
manager a si@icant amount of time and frustration.
The next step is to locate the Material Safety Data
A good program begins with Sheets (MSDS) for each of the chemicals that you have
a complete
decided to keep. There are two ways to accomplish this.
inventory of
First, contact your local distributor and request MSDS
all of the
for each of the chemicals that you have purchased from
chemicals that
them. Consumer products such as general-purpose clean-
are used in the
ers are not required to have MSDS, so the local hard-
workplace, that
ware store may not have them available upon request. In
includes not
this case just contact the manufacturer for a copy. The
only the fuels,
second way to obtain the MSDS is to call the manufac-
oils and sol-
turer of each chemical and request a copy of the MSDS.
vents, but also
The information contained in MSDS will prove to be the
the cleaners, pol-
greatest asset to having this program.
ishes and paints.
Once the Material Safety Data Sheets have been cata-
This is a good
loged, each employee that either comes in contact with
opportunity to
that chemical through normal use or through emergen-
cies must be trained to handle the chemical properly.
During the training session, address not only the safety
precautions for handling the chemical but also the

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 51

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Professionaiism
proper use of chemicals in the workplace. The topic for
the training session should include what the proper mix-
ing ratio of cleaning solutions is, the time solvent clean-
ers should be left on a surface before rinsing and what
chemicals are used for specific applications. This is also
a good opportunity to train employees to reduce waste
by more efficient application of the produds).
Finally, compile all the information that you have
gathered into a written Hazard Communication
Program. This step is much easier than it sounds, most
of the state safety offices will provide you with a recom-
mended format for a written program that is actually
not much more than fm in your specific information
in a generic Hazard Communication Program.
After completing these four steps, you have estab
lished the barebones Hazard Communication Program
required by OSHA. But what about the timesavings that
I promised? That comes in the form of the Material
Safety Data Sheets. These sheeta contain information
that cannot only be useful in an emergency but can be
useful in environmental issues, storage, firefghting,
52 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
determining ventilation requirements, selecting personal
protective equipment and as a good reference when
selecting new products.
Not all chemical suppliers use the same MSDS
format; OSHA does require that a minimum amount
of information be included on all sheets regardless of
the format.
There is a wealth of information that is available
from the Material Safety Data Sheeta. The requirements
that each employer have and maintain a Hazard Commu-
nication Program is a matter of law, but to have a
productive program that's part of business planning is a
costeffective approach to what can otherwise be a very
costly OSHA regulation. July/August 1992
Richard Pen' is a certified occupational health and safety
specialist and a consultant in fhe field of aviation main-
tenance safety. He is a certified airframe and powerplant
technician with over 20 years of aircraft maintenance
experience.
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The need for further training
It should be approached as an investment rather than a cost
By John Boyce
T he A&P license you earn is really a license to
learn. The license guarantees that you have a
basic understanding of aircraft systems, but it
doesn't guarantee that you know everything.
According to a PAMA survey, a sigdicant percentage
of responding technicians expressed the desire for, or
feel in need of advanced or recurrent training. Any
thinking person involved in the maintenance of aircraft
understands the necessity for ongoing training simply to
keep up with changing technology.
However, there is an uneven approach to training
across the aircraft maintenance industry. With some
companies, training is institutionalized, required, pro-
moted and encouraged. Other companies are at best
passive about training; if there's a contract that requires
it, they'll do it, otherwise, "We can't afford it."
Of course, the individual technicians, on their own
initiative, are at liberty to get the training they need or
want. But technicians are largely at the mercy of their
employers in terms of ability to pay for training and
getting the time off to take the courses.
As one technician from an FBO put it, "Absolutely, it
would help to have the manufacturer explain things for
you rather than have to figure them out for yourself.
Certainly the more you know the better you're able
to work. And a lot of these schools are free, but my
company doesn't want to spring for room and board, and
transportation. I can't afford that. We've had several
people, on their own, go out and get extra ratings, but it
doesn't translate into extra money."
Aviation companies, particularly FBOs, are working
on such slim profit margins that when push comes to
shove, training gets shoved because it is considered an
expendable cost. FBOs also fear that when they provide
training, the trained individuals become more valuable
and thus more susceptible to being hired away.
Technicians across the country need to convince their
managements that training isn't a cost so much as an
investment-an investment in improved safety, improved
efficiency and improved morale-all of which contribute
to improved profitability of the company. And also,
a part of the equation should be increased pay for
increased training to encourage competent people to
stay and help the company grow.
Aircraft Technical Books
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Competence as a competitive edge
Stevens Aviation of Charleston, SC, is a company
that needs no convincing. It has doubled its training
budget in this recessionary year because it has taken
the approach that a company's greatest asset and its
competitive edge is the people who do the work.
"...One of the few things that truly distinguishes a
service organization from any other is the quality,
the professionalism, the expertise, the tenure and the
attitude of the guys that are working on the airplanes."
Townes reports that Stevens is headed toward a com-
plete training turnover of its personnel every three and
onehalf years. "If your customers know that your people
are absolutely up to speed and current and that you pay
for that, they are willing to pay a premium price. We
charge premium prices because we pay premium rates of
pay to the people who touch airplanes."
Stevens offers complete tuition reimbursement to
technicians and other personnel earning a B or better in
any class they may wish to take to enhance or advance
themselves, even to the point of getting an associate's
or bachelor's degree. "Good management teams should
encourage people to move up in their education and
skills to get ahead in the organization," Townes says.
Communication skills are vital
Management skills, which are basically communica-
tion skills, don't come naturally. Communication is a
complex procedure that is far more than simply being
able to talk. These skills have to be learned. Whether
you're interested in moving up in management or simply
doing a better job, communication, with fellow techni-
cians, management, customers, pilots and so on, is vital.
Management personnel have to come from somewhere.
Why not from the ranks of technicians, people who
understand aircraft?
There is no reason except that technicians, histori-
cally, have not been trained in management and comrnu-
nication skills. As Mike Lee, director of maintenance
training at Flightsafety in Wichita, KS, says, "Typically,
companies take the best troubleshooters or best what-
ever on the floor and make them supervisor-and they
never tell them anything about being a supervisor."
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 53
 Lee is an advocate of includmg communication and
interpersonal skills in the basic curriculum of A&P
school. At the very least it should be provided by employ-
ers, he says. Whether or not you agree with that
approach, there is no disputing his contention that those
skills are important in today's aviation market.
Doug Bowen, director of maintenance for the corpo-
rate fhght department at Enron in Houston, adamantly
agrees.
54 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
"I think one of the most needed training courses
right now," says Bowen, who wrote his master's thesis
on the subject, "is aviation personnel resource manage
ment. We spend a lot of time worrying about cockpit
resource management and training flight crews to inter-
a d with each other, but we've lost the point in training
maintenance people that they need to interact, also.
"In many shops there are maintenance technicians
who don't even speak to each other. I'd call that a safety
problem right upfront." 65fl May/June 1992
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Environmental regulations
How maintenance will be impacted
By Fred Workley
A
ircraft technicians, IAs, repair stations and
fixed base operators are all faced with an ever-
increasing number of environmental laws and
regulations. Most new requirements are expensive and
require many hours of your time.
It's important to know what effect these laws have on
maintenance now, and what effect they will have in the
future. The ozone protection provisions of the Clean Air
Act require state implementation plans to place controls
on use of solvents, coatings and paints. These new
requirements will stop production of methyl chloroform
by 1993, which is commonly used as a chemical
degreaser, and restrict chromium processes. Several
chemicals, such as CFC113 and methyl chloroform (1,1,1
trichloroethane) will be eliminated by specific deadlines
mandated internationally. However, development, qualifi-
cation and acceptance are well underway for alternative
materials and processes that meet specific performance
requirements and are cost-effective.
Solvents with chlorinated formulas are also being
identified as either ozone depleters or toxic air pollut
ants. Until recently, aircraft maintenance technicians had
to rely on chlorinated hydrocarbons, petroleum naphthas
and CFC-113 to remove grease, oil, flux and dirt.
Even though most of these chemicals are still avail-
able, political pressures to completely eliminate these
chemicals are mounting. They are being blamed for
ozone depletion, and are restricted by the Montreal
Protocol and U.S. Clean Air Act. Also, many are
suspected carcinogens and health risks to employees.
Switching to safer chemicals
So what are the options? And how's a technician to
comply with existing and upcoming regulations? Alterna-
tives for solvents that are no longer legal to use are
already on the market. These new products use citrus
or terpene bases and include produds that act as a
combined solvent and emulsifier system.
Another option for cleaners is terpenebased cleaning
agents that do the same job that chlorinated solvents
m e l,l,l-trichlorethane) and petrochemical solvents
have done traditionally. These terpenebased cleaners
meet standards for use on all alloys, are non-toxic and
are biodegradable.
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New methods are also currently being studied to
replace methylene chloride chemical stripping systems.
Studies using dry media, dry ice and sodium bicarbon-
ate, and flashlamps are currently underway. They still,
however, need to be evaluated for cost, labor and facility
costs, and for the possibility of causing fatiguing of the
airframe as well as additional corrosion problems.
Reducing wastes
In addition to switching to safer chemicals, techni-
cians will be encouraged and possibly required to prac-
tice waste minimization, source reduction and recycling.
Waete minimhtion means the reduction of waste
that's generated or subsequently treated, stored or dis-
posed. An example of this is the substitution of cleaners
for MEK, methyl ethyl ketone, which was identified as
hazardous in November 1980.
Source reduction is a second option. This approach
means reduction of hazardous waste usually within a
process. Source reduction measures involve process
modifications, material substitutions, improvements
in material purity, housekeeping and management
practices, increases in the efficiency of machinery and
recycling within a process. Source reduction implies
any action that reduces the amount of waste exiting
a process.
Recycling is the use or reuse of waste as an effective
substitute for a commercial product, or as an ingredient
or additional material in a process. Recycling implies
use, reuse or reclamation of a waste after it has been
generated. One example of this is used oil.
Incidentally, on September 23, 1991, the EPA
officially released its proposal to regulate oil and oil-
contaminated materials. The public comment period on
proposed listing options and the management standards
has closed and many comments were received. Until
there's a resolution of the many different opinions about
new federal guidelines for used oil, it's important to
continue to follow existing state laws regarding recycling
of used oil.
Fred Workley currently serves as manager of m a i n k
nance operations for the National Air Transportation
Association (NATA), based in Alexandria, VA.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technolo~yMagazine 55
Take note!
Penalties are severe for environmental non-compliance
What happens if you don't comply with new environmen- an organization (meaning a legal entity, other than a
tal regulations? A review of the Clean Water Amend- government) shall, upon conviction, be subject to a
ments of 1987 shows three classes of penalties: criminal, fine of not more than $1 million.
courbimposed and administrative civil penalties which
apply to certain municipal and industrial storm water Court-imposed civil penalties
discharges.
Courta may impose civil penalties of $25,000 per day
The penalties are as follows:
for each violation. In determining civil penalties, the
court shall consider the seriousness of the violation, e c e
Criminal penalties
nornic benefit (if any) resulting from the violation, any
(Penalties doubled for second conviction). history of such violations, any good-faith efforts and the
Negligent violations-Person shall be punished by a
economic impact of the penalty of the violator.
fine of not less than $2,500 nor more than $25,000
per day of violation or by imprisonment for not more Administrative civil penalties
than one year, or by both.
The 1987 law gave the EPA new authority to adminiR
Knowing violations-Person shall be punished by a ter administrative civil penalties (judicial review allowed)
fine of not less than $5,000 nor more than $50,000 and fines may range from $25,000 to $125,000, depend-
per day of violation or by imprisonment for not more ing on the type of enforcement action the EPA decides
than three years, or both. to pursue. LEl MarUApril 1992
Knowing endangerment violations- Person subject to
a fine of not more than $250,000 or imprisonment of
not more than 15 years, or both. A person which is

56 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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lkacking tools
Tool organization can save lives

By Greg Napert

E very technician's nightmare is one which involves

hearing of an aircraft accident and finding out
that the aircraft involved is one that he or she
recently worked on. Even worse, is finding out that the
aircraft crashed because of a tool that was left on board.
Regardless of how carefully most technicians inspect
the work area after performing maintenance, tools inevi-
tably get left behind. Malung sure that systems are in
place that goes beyond a simple inspection for tools is
critical if tool loss is to be kept to a minimum.
One company that places a great amount of emphasis
on tool control is Canadair Challenger Inc., in Connedi-
cut. Jim Scavotto, director of maintenance for the com-
pany says that good tool control is a matter of attitude.
It goes a little further than that, though, he adds.
Management has to care and implement programs to
help technicians keep track of their tools and equipment.
Joe Rheubeck, technician at Canadair, says that "it
all goes back to having your toolbox organized so that
missing tools are apparent." It's important, he says, that
there are no extra spaces or loose sockets in the draw-
ers. If you're using rails, don't have any additional clips
on them for sockets that you don't have. Also, if you're
using racks, use a marker, tape or something similar to
Snap-on toolbox with drawer liners.
mark the slots that aren't in use so that you can tell
which wrenches are missing. By doing this, all it takes is
a couple of minutes at the end of each day to quickly One of the problem areas related to tool control is
scan your toolbox for misplaced or missing tools. sorting and keeping track of odd small tools that are
It's easy enough to fabricate tool organization devices collected on a regular basis. A different system really has
yourself. Creating foam drawer cutouts using a razor and to be devised for these tools. Rheubeck says that he
some inexpensive foam, or even cardboard will often keeps tools of similar size and shape in specific drawers.
suffice. Additionally, using a spring set on its side, He also says that he treats these tools a little differ-
serves the purpose of a wrench holder and works quite ently than tools that come in sets. He explains that when
well. A little creativity with a couple of pieces of wood or he uses special tools, he keeps close track of them from
sheet metal can go a long way toward providing dividers the time he pulls them out to the time he replaces them.
and racks for your tools as well. He typically removes one of these tools for only as long
Some of the systems that are around for organizing as it takes to ~ e r f o r mthe task it's needed for-he then
tools have actually been around for a long time and immediately places it back in its drawer prior to moving
aren't all that expensive. Many tool companies supply on to another task.
racks for wrenches, and rails for holding and organizing Jerry Grassetti, another technician at Canadair, says
sockets. that a system that's effective for him is to have a line
Foam cutouts are also available from tool manufac- box that he keeps separate from his rollaway. He
turers as well. These cutouts come from the tool compa- explains that by using this box, he only takes the tools
nies precut in different configurations, and some that are required for a particular job out to the jobsite.
companies provide services for custom cutting the foam By doing this, he can easily track the few tools that he
to your specifications. uses. At the end of the job, or at the end of the day, he
Also available from many tool manufacturers and simply returns the tools from the tray to his box, and
suppliers are plastic trays. These trays are typically takes inventory as he's doing it.
designed to hold tools that are sold in kits.

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 57

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Professionalism
Just as effective is the use of tool bags. Custom-
designed tool bags with specific pouches and pockets for
specific tools are particularly helpful. These bags and
backpacks can be used in the same manner as tote trays
and also provide you with the convenience of being able
to haul your tools into the aircraft for interior work.
Another idea that can be effective, depending on
what type of work environment you're in, is the use of
tool boards. There are a number of companies that pro-
vide predesigned boards with identification markings for
specific tools. Additionally, stick-on silhouettes to aid in
designing your boards are available. It's also easy enough
to fabricate and design your own tool boards and outline
the shapes of specific tools onto the front of the board.
Tool boards can also be mounted on rolling platforms
so that a complete set of tools for a specific job can be
rolled right out to the jobsite.
Another idea that can be applied to a tool control
program is the use of brightly colored tools. Standard
chrome, or industrial finished tools tend to blend into
the background of aluminum, and gray and black colors
of the engine and airframe. An idea that's currently
being sold and marketed by one tool company is to pro-
vide brightly painted tools instead of the more common
chrome finish. The idea being that they are more likely
to be seen during a cursory inspection of the area than
are the standard tools.
Tool control programs should also be applied to
company-owned tools that are typically checked out from
the toolroom. These tools are usually not as much of a
problem because basic tracking systems are in place.
Such items as bucking bars, clecos and pneumatic tools,
however, can be checked out for long periods of time
and forgotten about.
58 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
A good idea regardmg toolroom tools is to develop a
daily tracking system. The shop should get into the habit
of checking tools back into the toolroom on a daily basis
or after each shift. Even though this seems like more of
a hassle, it allows the toolroom to inventory i t . tools
supply on a daily basis and it becomes more unlikely
that these tools are left behind somewhere.
Some facilities go even further. Gary Walsh, tool and
equipment coordinator for Canadair, says that the
company's tool supply is so large, that they have insti-
tuted other programs to track them. Many tools, he
explains, are checked out for specific aircraft. The air-
craft N-number is logged along with the technician who
is taking the tool out. Then when the aircraft is in the
process of leaving the facility, the log is reviewed, and
any of the tools that were checked out for that aircraft
must have made it back into the toolroom.
Other things like proper lighting, allocating time at
the end of the day for tool organization and including
the technician's personal tools in the shop's tool calibra-
tion program are all things that contribute to each
technician caring about tool control.
Regardless of how many programs are instituted to
help technicians keep track of their tools, most agree
that it's important to keep the technician ultimately
responsible for tools, whether they belong to the techni-
cian or the company.
Scavotto says that it's critical to combine a strong
belief in your people with systems to help them. "In the
event that someone does leave a tool and we find it on
final inspection, we typically don't carry it beyond going
back to the technician and having a little talk.
"Getting down too hard on people creates problems
and defeats the purpose of preventing the problem from
repeating," he says. MarcWApril 1992
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Efficiency
Make work easier and less irritating
By John Boyce
E
fficiency is organization. Organization makes
work easier and more professional. If you're
organized in your workplace, you don't have to
suffer the irritation of wasted effort, the work gets done
quicker, the boss is happy, and you're satisfied.
Aircraft technicians, through experience, have devel-
oped many ways of ma3ung their work easier and, conse
quently, their shops more profitable, whether it's by
convenient placement of tools or simply by putting hard-
ware in a certain place so they don't have to look for it
every time they need it.
There are, of course, many things that affect effi-
ciency of a maintenance facility: its size, its layout, the
number of technicians, the type of work it does and so
on. For instance, in a smaller shop it's perhaps more
efficient, at least from a management perspective, for
the technicians to get their own parts-while in larger
shops, that same practice would be chaotic.
Much of the built-in efficiencies of maintenance facili-
ties are there because of technicians, either through
suggestion or because the designer of the work area is a
technician by profession. "We get feedback from our
technicians all the time on how to improve efficiency,"
says Gary Coppedge, production manager at Heli-Dyne
Systems in Hurst, TX."Just about all of our efficiency
ideas have come from the guys on the floor."
Using rolling stock
Heli-Dyne, a helicopter service facility in the Dallas
area, took the suggestion of one of its lead men to put
repeatedly used items on rolling stock. Technical manu-
als, for instance, are clipped into racks such as those
found at libraries and are rolled up to the aircraft for
convenient reference while work is in progress.
"We probably have eight or nine racks for different
models of aircraft," Coppedge says. "They roll right up
to the aircraft, so there's not a lot of wasted time going
over to the tech library to grab a manual."
Frequently used hardware a t Heli-Dyne is also on roll-
around racks as are certain types of equipment such as
sheet metal equipment and power supplies, which are
easily plugged into adjacent wall plugs.
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Professionalism
The common-sense approach
Reusable hardware can be hard to keep track of,
particularly when it isn't used immediately and another
technician might be closing things up. Bill Barnes, the
maintenance superintendent at Downtown Airpark in
Oklahoma City, says, "We just put reusable hardware in
plastic sacks and hang them from a hole where they're
going to be used."
As Dennis Paxton, director of maintenance at Trego
Aviation in North Platte, NE, says, many efficiency
ideas, particularly at a small shop like his "are just
common-sense things. Like, we have tool boards and
the ones you use most are at eye and arm level. Things
like that."
The grand scheme
For some shops, efficiency is a grand scheme. For
instance, Kal-Aero, a 120-technician maintenance facility
in Michigan, is building a brand-new facility in Battle
Creek, just a few miles from Kalamazoo, its original
home. Efficiency is the byword of the facility design.
"Efficiency is an interesting challenge in aviation,"
says Jim Clifford, director of turbine engine services and
rework at Kal-Aero. "A lot of shops are just added on to
as they grow so we project pretty good efficiency just by
getting everytbmg under one roof."
The new facility is a 200,000-square-foot, threestory,
L-shaped building.
"As an overall philosophy," Clifford says, "we tried to
look at what function each department did and how
often they were involved with being in the service
hangar. We had to look at the departments as to the size
and bulk of what they did. For instance, we put our
avionics install on a firsbfloor location because it's easier
to move the larger harnesses out of a firsbfloor room
than a second-floor room."
Easy access to power
In the main service hangar, which is 160' x 400',the
company strategically located 18 electrical pits. They
have air, 440-, 220-, 28-volt, 400cycle power "so when the
aircraft is positioned, rather than having to drag power
cords away from the wall or along overhead booms that
get in the way of tails, we can open up a manhole and
pull out the appropriate power source."
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 59
Professlonallsm
The team concept
At another large maintenance facility, AMR Combs in
Denver, a team concept of maintenance has been imple
mented and a new network computer has been installed
to increase efficiency.
According to director of maintenance Paul
DeHerrera, a single team stays with an aircraft from
beginning to end. "You get people working together as a
60 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
team to accomplish one objective. I think it's a lot more
efficient. Think of it the other way; if you mix the play-
ers up doing the project, if one guy starts something and
another finishes it, you can imagine the inefficiencies
that causes.
Although some of these ideas for improved efficiency
are outside the control of the individual technician,
imagination and creativity aren't. Wl
January/Februa.ty 1992
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Are meant for a mentor?
By Peter LaSalle
W
hat do you have in common with Accoun-
tants? Lawyers? Consultants? Doctors?
Teachers? These are all personal service
professions... jobs where you use your technical expertise
to serve a customer directly. At times, these tend to be
"lonely professions" you are on the line to find the prob
lem and fix it. In many firms mentoring is used to help
prepare new recruits for the responsibilities of frontline
problem solving.
And so it should be in aviation maintenance as well.
Unfortunately, however, this is a practice that isn't
utilized to its fullest potential in most maintenance orga-
nizations. But take a look at other professional service
companies and you'll usually find that mentors play a
critical role in bringing new people into the work stream.
Why? Because formal schooling just can't teach all the
finer points of a trade, much less prepare a student for
working in a particular company, mentors are a great
way to "fill in the gaps!" Here are a few examples of the
kinds of things that are better learned from mentors:
Technical tipa-No amount of schooling can expose
you to all the various types of equipment you're likely to
see on the job. A technician who's been around for a
while will have much broader technical knowledge and
firsthand experience of "real world problems and fixes.
Efficient work habits-The sharp technician is the
guy who figures out how to do the same job as everyone
else in half the time. You won't learn that in class.
Hanclling cuetomera-No matter how good your tech-
nical skills, you're "just another technician" until you
learn to understand what your customer wants and how
to give it to him. Only an experienced "peoplepleaser"
can show you how to make your customers like you!
Maintaining a profit-Sometimes it takes finesse to
see that everyone on a repair job comes out a winner...
you, the company and the customer. The best way to
learn "the system" is to tag along with someone who's
had plenty of practice working it.
Company politics-Like it or not, you need to work at
pleasing your boss and your co-workers. It could take a
newcomer years to sift through all the personalities
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Professionalism
involved in a good-sized shop. Save yourself the grief...
turn to someone who's had a while to work around
everyone's little quirks.
Vendor eupport - There's hardly a day that goes by
where a technician doesn't have to rely on a vendor for a
part or subcontracted work. Make no mistake about it...
your success, your reputation and your license depend
on the vendors that support you. A tech who has been
burnt a few times is the best person to tell you whom
you can count on and whom you can't.
Friendly mcouragement -This really can be a lonely
profession and it certainly has its share of stress. A few
understanding words from "someone who's been there"
can go a long way.
Getting hitched
If you want a mentor, then do it right. That means
that you, your boss and your mentor all need to know
what's going on. Sure, you could "pick y o u hero" and
then tag along, but you're much less likely to get really
useful advice that way. Make it official...most technicians
would take pride in being chosen as a mentor... they
would feel honored that they have been entrusted to
"show you the ropes." If your company doesn't have
a mentor program, show your boss this article and
volunteer to be the guinea pig as the company takes a
lea^ forward.
Some companies let the employee participate in
choosing a mentor. If you get this opportunity, look for
someone who is eager to learn from you. That's a pretty
good indication that he will be knowledgeable and inter-
ested in helping you. Just as importantly, your mentor
should be a star performer: someone who enjoys his
work and makes both the customer and the boss happy.
-
One last bit of advice: Too much of a good mentor
can lead to trouble. A mentor should be someone you
can look up to on occasion for guidance... not your
constant companion. Keep a little distance from your
mentor. You need the "space" both professionally and
socially if you expect to grow! a
NovembedDecember 1991
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 61
Every technician is a salesperson
By Peter LaSalle
P rofessional salespeople spend 75 percent of their
time mailing, phoning, begging and sweettalking
their way into customers' offices-trying to get
that all-important personal contact or "face time" with
the decision-maker. Many salespeople would kill for the
personal contact that you take for granted. In sales,
face time is more precious than gold. If you have the
customer contact typical of most technicians, you are
sitting on Fort Knox! The best way to further your
career is to learn to cash in on that gold. A little sales-
manship on your part could make the difference between
your being "one of the guys" and being "the rising star
of the shop."
Selling in any profession is largely a matter of estab
lishing a relationship, knowing the product/service and
asking for the business. As a technician, though, you
have a leg up on ordinary salespeople-you get to per-
sonally perform for your customer. Let's look at a few
key elements of salesmanship as they apply to aircraft
technicians.
Establish a relationship
People want to spend their money with people they
like-good people. When dealing with customers, your
personal behavior is always under scrutiny. You can't
afford to be anything but honest, conscientious, courte
ous, enthusiastic and neat. Many people think that
they have to be the world's greatest entertainer-"Mr.
Personalityv-to win favor with a customer. That only
works if it comes to you naturally. If you're on the quiet
side, just try to show a little genuine interest in your
customer. That will go further toward establishing a
relationship than any clown routine.
Know your business
Customers expect you to be knowledgeable about all
areas of your company. Make it your personal goal to
know some- about every type of service your deparb
ment offers. Then take the time to learn something
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
about all the services offered by each department in
your company. You'll be appreciated as an expert by the
customer and a 'company man" by your boss!
Ask for the business
Customers need your services and expect you to offer
them. It's downright insulting to make a customer ask
you to sell him something. Haven't you ever been disap
pointed when a waitress did not offer to tell you about
the "specialsn or dessert? It's the same thing! And don't
be shy about asking a customer to tell his or her friends
about the wonderful service you have provided. Custom-
ers like to know that you are a go-getter, and they are
usually flattered that you think enough of them to ask
for their help. Remember the finest sales efforts in the
world are worthless unless the deal is closed. Ask for
the business!
Service your customer
You've heard it a million times, but only because it's
true: The best advertisement is a satisfied customer.
Satisfied customers bring in more business from them-
selves and their friends. It is hard to buy advertising at
any price that will be as effective. Your obligation to
your customer is simple: deliver quality work, on time
and at a fair price. Just remember that it is the
customer's perception of quality, time and price that
you must satisfy. One way to understand the customer's
expectations is to ask, and then listen to the answer. If
the customer's perceptions are unrealistic, you'd better
sell him or her on your version of reality before doing
the job. Once the work is done, any explanation you
offer will sound like an excuse. Being sensitive to the
customer's needs and expectations is at the core of
good service.
Abraham Lincoln once said, "Things may come to
those who wait, but only the things left by those who
hustle." Practicing good salesmanship is the natural way
for you to hustle and enjoy the results. Don't let this
opportunity pass you by! El September/October 1991
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Effective communication
By Peter LaSalle
A
major part of a technician's job involves getting
the aircraft to behave according to the expeda-
tions of its owner or pilot (and vice versa). In
that sense, the technician is acting as a liaison, or inter-
preter between man and machine. And what skill do you
think is central to being a good liaison? You guessed it-
communication!
Excellent communication skills are an essential
part of every technician's job, not only in dealing with
customers, but with fellow technicians, parts suppliers,
factory tech reps and, of course, the boss! Contrary to
popular belief, good communicators are not born, they're
trained. Just a little bit of attention to the way you
communicate can make a world of difference in your
effectiveness on and off the job.
Speaking and writing are probably the first things
that come to mind when you think of communicating.
It's easy to forget that those things are only half the
picture: What about listening? A good listener will find it
relatively easy to make his or her point-a poor listener
will often be off-base and will be heard whining, "No one
understands me."
The key to being a good listener is to be an active
listener. Think about the way you would listen to your
doctor's instructions on treating a life-threatening
disease that you had just contracted. Chances are, you
would pay a little more attention than your average
conversation. In fad, if your life depended on it, you
would probably:
Give them your M attention -No magazines in
front of you, no phone in your ear and no unrelated
paperwork going on.
Take notes -Any critical points would be written
down in minute detail (probably even spelled correctly
and in legible writing).
Ask clarifying questionm-You'd want to be sure
that what you think you heard is what the doctor
actually meant to say.
Watch body language -You'd be looking for every
clue to figure out exactly what the doctor is really trying
to say. (Was he smiling or crying when he said "You'll
be OK"?).
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Professionalism
At the very least, being an active listener will further
your career. And one of these days it just could be a mab
ter of life or death for your customer!
Your ability to get the message across is really a mab
ter of your sensitivity to the situation-how well you are
"tuned inn to the other person and the conditions under
which you are communicating. Imagine that you had
ringside seats last night to a world title boxing match.
Think about how you would describe the fight to your
buddies at work. Now picture yourself describing it to
your mother. Whole different story, right? Both stories
may be fadually correct, but they would be told to a p
peal to different audiences. Different details, different
adjectives, different emotions, different length and so on.
Those two situations are so different that you instinc-
tively shift gears and tell different stories. A really good
communicator will automatically adjust for every person
he or she meets, being sensitive to the most subtle differ-
ences in personalities.
Refining your communication skills is not difficult,
but it does take some practice. Try to take time to think
about each situation before you speak or write. Being
aware of the following variables will help you tailor your
message to the occasion:
The d e r - H o w are you perceived by the
receiver? Expert or rookie? Straight shooter or bull
shooter? Sincere or shallow?
The receiver-Is the receiver emotional? Trusting?
Informed? Concerned? Patient?
What tone ia appropriate?-Urgent? Laid-back?
Scolding? Cooperative? Eager?
Length-Will you have five minutes of the
receiver's time or the whole day?
Feedback-Do you want a response from the
receiver? How candid? How soon?
By paying close attention to these variables, you
will become more aware of the fadors that affed your
communication. Try to tailor your communication by
altering the content of the message itself, the medium
used to transmit it (written, telephoned or in person)
and the style. Use your common sense to pick the condi-
tions that will give your message the desired impact. El
July/August 1991
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 63
Fighting boredom
By Peter LaSalle

hink of all the "less than ideal" conditions you to allow time to "sharpen
may have worked with: a clattering rivet gun, their ax." Why wait till
noxious adhesive fumes, the cramped darkness of you're bored? There's one
a tail cone, the sweltering tarmac of an August after- other way to fill in time
noon. Then there's the real killer: Those tedious, boring when all the productive
projects that made quitting time seem like it was weeks stuff is done, so read on.
away instead of hours. Most people would sooner pull an - Go fishing (or hunb
annual on the ramp in a Minnesota snowstorm before ing, or skiing, or to the
they would take on a few days of boring work. movies, or whatever it is
The good news is that you can do something about you like to do). If you
boredom. All those other discomforts are environmental have several empty hours
or external; they may be pretty tough to fix (at least in on your hands, ask for
the short run). But boredom is mostly in your head, and the time off. Or, if you
that's something you can fix. need to stick around the
Boredom comes in two flavors: 1. Too much tedium shop, read a magazine or
and 2. Too little to do. They can both be fixed, but they take a stroll. If you've
require a little different approach. First, let's talk about gone through the first
No. 2, too little to do. three steps, you deserve a
break! Better to enjoy some leisure time while things are
When things are S L 0 W slow than expect to play when the shop is swamped.
There is an old adage that says somethmg like "work
expands to fill the available time." This is an easy trap to Fighting a tedious job
fall into. I think we're trained as kids to always "look The key word here is fighting-that's the surest way
busy" or else Mom or the teacher may put us to work! to compound your boredom. Instead of moaning about
The problem with working at a slow pace is that we get grunt work, find a way to make it challenging (there's
bored when we aren't challenged. that "C" word again).
There are a few easy steps you can take to he sure You can make a job much more interesting just by
you don't have too much time on your hands: approaching it with a different attitude. If you can
- Set your own deadline to f i h the work-and answer "yes" to any of these questions, you're on to a
make it challenging. If you're the "wonderman of the brighter day:
widgetfixers" and you can do the same job twice as fast - Can I find a way to do this job more efficiently?
as anyone else, then do it and move on to something - Can I provide higher quality workmanship?
else. By the way, there's nothing wrong with billing a - Can I learn more about this job and ita impad on a
customer for the time it would have taken for an average bigger picture?
guy to do the job (if that's your company policy). The - Can I trade jobs with someone who might be more
only way to make a deadline seem real is to have some challenged by the stuff that I find boring?
thing lined up behind it. That's why the next few steps
are very important. If all else fails...
- Lend a hand on another job in the shop. Now You can always improve the situation by following the
that's the way to be on the top of the boss's list when above suggestions, but sometimes that just doesn't seem
it's time for raises: Be the technician that finishes early to be enough. Then it's time to think of your "boring
and looks for something else to do. Granted, this may be work in terms of your overall career. If you're facing a
tough when the shop is slow-on to "Plan B." little boredom as a stepping stone to bigger and better
- Educate yourself. Ask to observe someone else's things, then hide your watch and suffer through it. But
job. Start a self-study training module. Read a few if you can't see anything to challenge you down the road,
months' worth of aviation maintenance publications. then maybe it's time to work on your resume-you'll be
Pick up a repair manual. Anythng you can do to expand doing yourself and your employer a favor! Qa
your skill set is time well spent. In fad, many successful May/June 1991
people will tell you that they always plan their schedule

64 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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Preparing for an interview
By Peter LaSalle
hat is your idea of an ideal job?... a great
W employer?... the perfect boss? Why are you
worth more money than other technicians?
These are questions you should be able to answer before
you ever walk into a job interview. When preparing for
an interview, it's important to remember that two things
need to happen for the interview to be successful: You
need to sell yourself to the prospective employer and you
must learn about the job/company. Let's take a look at
the research and the practice that can help you get the
most out of an interview.
Know yourself
The first thing to look into before interviewing is
yourself. Be sure that you understand what you want in
a job and why. What kind of equipment do you want to
work on? Is location important? What about responsibil-
ity? Do you need a lot of variety? New challenges? Are
you looking for a set schedule? What kind of people do
you enjoy working with? What kind of pay and benefits
do you need to support your f d y ? Think about these
types of questions and make up your list of short and
long-term priorities. The quickest way to get somewhere
is to know where you're trying to go!
Take some time to re-evaluate your experience. Make
a list of every hobby, sport, organization and job you've
been involved with since high school. What did you learn
about working with people, tabing orders, acquiring new
skills, handling problems, satisfying customers? Even if
you've never had a "realn job before as a technician, you
have experiences from which to draw. The worst mistake
you canmake is to assume that "your experience speaks
for itself." You need to bring your experience to life with
examples. Make a list of examples you can use in an
interview to show that you understand how to handle
each aspect of the job.
The current wisdom on resumes is: Keep it simple.
Using the front of one page, you should present high-
hghts of three areas: education, experience and special
skills. In the experience section, go further than a mere
listing of your previous job history. Try to list key accom-
plishments, promotions or recognition that you received
in each job. This is a sales tool-accent the positives.
Career objectives, hobbies and other information is best
left off the r6sum8 and discussed in the interview. If
you're in a serious job search, invest $20 to $50 with a
resume service to have it professionally prepared-first
impressions do make a difference.
Aircraft Technical Books
800-780-4115
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Professionalism
Know the company
Researching your prospective employer is absolutely
essential if you expect to have a meaningful interview.
You should try to learn the company's strengths, weak-
nesses, financial condition and future direction. Evaluate
that information to anticipate any hesitation you might
have in accepting an offer. Use the interviews to discuss
your concerns and show the employer how you can
contribute to the company's success.
The aviation industry is a relatively closeknit commu-
nity, so the quantity of information "on the streets" is
often betkr than the quality. Rather than relying on one
source for your research, try to get different viewpoints.
Typical sources include: current and past employees, c u s
tomers, competitors, parts suppliers, trade magazines,
airport management and the FAA.
Know the interviewer
Having some background Information on your inter-
viewer can be very helpful in two respects: establishing
a rapport and enabling you to make your "pitch" in the
context of his or her experience. Although it may not
always be possible, from the sources mentioned above,
try to get the interviewer's history with the company,
current job description, apparent future direction and
political connections within the organization. Keep all
this in mind as you plan your interview. Once in the
interviewer's office, look for clues of outside interests.
Ask about pictures of children, awards, clubs, etc. to
build a rapport. Whenever possible, use examples to tell
your story in the interviewer's terms.
Know the job
You can put yourself one step ahead of other job
candidates by coming into the interview knowing every-
thing about the job. Other employees and competitors
can tell you a lot about the type of work, hours, pay,
responsibilities and technical requirements of the job.
You can probably get much of this from preliminary
discussions with the employer-just be careful not to
appear preoccupied with "what's in it for me."
The job research that will really give you an edge
goes beyond the basics: Try to learn about the non-
technical aspects of the job. What is expected in terms
of handling customers, supervisory responsibilities,
following budgets and training? Once you have estab
lished your technical competence, use the interview to
demonstrate your understanding of the business (profit-
making) end of the job.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 65
Have a plan
The last step in preparing for your interview is decid-
ing exactly how to take advantage of your research. The
key is to write down the questions and answers that are
important to the interview; only by writing will you
clarify your thoughts and be fully prepared for the inter-
view. You should go into the interview with a list of
questions you would like to ask. It's OK to bring a pad
into an interview as long as you don't spend all your
time reading or writing. Give special thought to any
delicate topics you need to discuss; phrase your question
carefully ahead of time.
You can enter an interview much more confidently
by planning explanations of your weaker points. Try to
anticipate the five questions that would really make you
squirm, write down your best answers, and then memo-
rize them. With a little forethought, you can minimize
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
almost anything negative and maybe even turn it around
as a positive point for you.
Appearance is every bit as important for your posi-
tion as it is for any other job. Be neat, clean and fresh
for the interview. You don't have to be dressed like a
Wall Street tycoon, but plan to look at least as good as
your interviewer or anyone in his or her department.
The final part of your interview planning is the
attitude check. It is important to put your work day,
personal problems and everything else behind you-focus
only on the interview. Remember that you are entering a
business conversation where you are expected to show
how you can be of value to the employer. This is also
your opportunity to tadfully find out if you really want
the job. Make sure you come across as a confident and
friendly professional. Wl MarUApril 1991
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When to go the extra mile
By Peter LaSalle
ive it all you've got!" "Go the extra mile!" These
noble phrases sound great on the surface, but
tend to be misunderstood. What we're talking
about is going above and beyond the c d of duty-that
special effort that nobody was expecting.
There are two things to consider about going the
extra mile: "We only have so many extra miles" to offer,
and some "extra miles" lead to nowhere. Maybe it makes
more sense to "go an extra quarter mile" and pick your
direction carefully. Let's take a look at the how, why and
when of "going the extra mile" and see what makes
sense for you.
First the "why" part. I can think of three good rea-
sons why we would want to put out extra special effort.
A common motivation is to better serve a customer-to
prove that we really care about satisfying the person that
ultimately feeds our family. A second reason to shine is
to further a career-to please the boss. Finally, there's
my favorite reason: It feels good to give a little extra.
The technicians I've met that really enjoy their work are
motivated by all three. They excel to please themselves,
their employers and their customers. If you can't say the
same, you're either in the wrong profession or you're
working for the wrong company.
The "when" part of the equation is the most obvious
yet most neglected factor in understanding extra effort.
I think that many people get burnt out in their jobs
because they overlook this simple concept. When should
you go the extra mile? When it matters! Does it benefit
your customer when your extra effort will never be
appreciated? How about your boss? I don't think there's
much personal satisfaction in just knowing that you did
a great job. Sooner or later it needs to be appreciated to
mean something. Of course, there are ways to improve
your chances for appreciation-that leads us to the
"how" section.
"How" you go the extra mile relates to what you
do before and after the extra effort. One of the most
popular business phrases of the '80s was "get close to
your customer."
The challenge is to understand where your customer
draws the Line between expected performance and a
pleasant surprise. That distinction depends on all the
factors that shape customer expectations: performance
of other shops, other technicians and your own prior
performance.
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Professionaiism
Remember that airplanes aren't the only thing your
customer sends to the shop. What kind of treatment
does he get from his Cadillac or Mercedes dealer? How
about his computer technician? Every customer has
different expectations-your job is to figure out what it
takes to impress each unique customer.
Fortunately, customers with high standards usually
expect to pay for the attention they demand. Likewise,
customers with low expectations may not want to pay for
anythmg. That's why it's naive to think you can treat
every customer the same. The bottom line is this: Know
what your customer expects, meet his standards and
charge accordingly; then do a little something extra to
give him a pleasant surprise.
What kinds of things do customers appreciate? Look
at what your competition (including the Cadillac shop) is
and is not doing. Maybe staying late to get an airplane
out is all it takes. Some customers expect a daily phone
call with a progress report and cost update. For some
people, tidying the cabin and crossing seat belts is all it
takes. If your customer is an accountant or engineer,
meticulous logbooks may turn him on.
The list goes on forever. Look for clues in "hot
buttons." Once you learn to read your customers,
you'll find it easy to put out the extra effort and have
it appreciated.
One other skill that comes in handy is the ability to
draw a compliment. The trick is to do it with finesse. Let
the customer know what you've done for him without
looking like you're bragging or waiting for a tip. Depend-
ing on the sensitivity of your customer, this might
involve anything from a casual mention of your extra
effort to taking him by the hand, showing it to him, and
asking what he thinks. Until you know your customer,
keep your bragging on the subtle side.
Extra effort can make the difference between a dead-
end job and a promising career. But you can't give 150
percent for 24 hours a day. Being sensitive to each
customer is the best way to ration your "extra miles" to
go farther for you and your company.
January/February 1991
Peter LaSalle is currently employed as a consulting
manager with Price Waterhouse in Dallas, TX. His past
experience includes management for Pelican Aviation
in Louisiana and three years as president of Aviation
Systems and Programs at Duncan Aviation, Lincoln, NE.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 67
Good competitors
A rare breed?
By Peter LaSalle
T he owner of a thriving aircraft maintenance
operation recently shared his news on competi-
tion. "Our competition," he said, "is not the FBO
across the field. Our real competition is the airlines, the
trains, the yachts and the recreational vehicles-anything
that takes dollars away from the general aviation indus-
try!" In other words, we should be more concerned about
the "size of the pie" rather than scratching for a little
larger piece. Let's take a few minutes to apply this to
the maintenance business: How and why should you
maintain good relations with other shops?
The answer to the why part of this question is very
simple: Good relations with other shops help to maintain
healthy competition, raise industry standards and
increase profitability. With healthy competition, busi-
nesses focus on serving customer needs and making a
reasonable profit-a good deal for everyone concerned.
To appreciate the importance of "industry standards,"
just think about an industry with a poor image. For
instance: When is the last time you felt that you were
ripped off when you were considering making a pur-
chase. Did you... Delay making the purchase?... Look for
alternatives?... Delay paying your bill?... Compare bad
experiences with your friends? These are all signs of a
sick industry.
You'll probably find infighting among competitors.
Misguided companies forget about customer service and
focus instead on cutting corners and cutting prices. No
one wins: Dissatisfied customers take their business
elsewhere and competitors lose money fighting over an
ever-shrinking market share or "pie."
Maintaining good relations with other shops makes
it easier to uphold industry standards and can benefit
everyone: You, your customer, your competitor and the
industry!
How do you become a good competitor?
"Good competitors" develop loyal customers who
appreciate good service a t a fair price.
"Good competitors" aren't afraid to charge enough to
make a profit.
"Good competitors" are secure enough to send work
to the competition when it's in the customer's
best interest.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Being a "good competitor" requires little more than a
sound work ethic and good communication. The basic
idea is to never compromise your professionalism-by
holding yourself to high standards, you make the rules
for the industry. You'll earn the undying respect of your
customers and your competitors.
Know your place. The most successful operations
identify a niche and then make it their business to
provide unbeatable service in that area. A "good com-
petitor" will not hesitate to pass on work that is outside
his area of expertise. Once again, everyone wins: The
customer gets better service and you (and your competi-
tor) have fewer "problem jobs."
By definition, friendly competitors have an ongoing
relationship. Solid business relationships are built on
mutual trust and kept alive with regular communica-
tions. A "good competitor" wiU make sure that business
referrals are flowing in both directions. Don't hesitate
to tell another shop exactly how you propose to work
together; then follow up to be sure it's working to
everyone's liking.
The best advice I've heard about referring work is to
"never forget that it's your customer-always remember
to follow up even when you've sent the customer to
another shop." The ideal approach is to subcontract
everything so you maintain control, but this may be
tough on large jobs. Whether you " s u b the work or
refer it, be prepared to take the compliments and the
complaints-it's your customer. This is your chance to
prove to the customer that you're genuinely concerned
about his satisfaction!
Good relations with competitors don't just "happen '-J
sometimes it takes a little work. Look for opportunities
to "raise the standards" and turn other shops into "good
competitors." You'll find the payoff well worth the effort!
NovembedDecember 1990
Aircraft Technical Books
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 Be assertive
It doesn't pay to be humble
By Gisdle Richardson
S
ome years ago, flight operations began to discover
the value-indeed the need for-training managers
and staff in the skill of people relations. This
activity, focused most frequently on fhght crews and
management, has evolved from being a rarity to a
regular feature in most flight departments.
But don't maintenance directors, crewchiefs and
supervisors need skills to communicate, manage and
motivate? Don't technicians also need to learn to deal
with the same types of problems? Why aren't they get-
ting the same attention the flight groups get?
The answers to these questions can be, for the most
part, blamed on those responsible for the maintenance
departments. They are not asking for what they need.
Why not? Part of the answer may be the technician
is simply not assertive enough. The overall characteris-
tics of most technicians in this day and age may contrib-
ute to that fact. These qualities-commitment to
excellence, willingness to put in effort and hours, integ-
rity, distrust of words, dependability, the tendency to be
a loner, modesty (no desire to be in the spotlight),
doesn't like to ask for help, tends to be self-sufficient and
thinks things through on his own, not sharing his
thoughts too frequently or thoroughly-are certainly
assets. But when carried too far, they can place the tech-
nician at a disadvantage.
Let's look at self-sufficiency, along with the habit of
doing your thinking without checking it out with others.
Both of these characteristics contribute to the onedown
role that maintenance too often holds in the flight d e
partment. In other words, one of the reasons the mainte
nance group so frequently finds itself in the position of
being walked all over in the company is because, in a
way, it's aslctng for it.
Not very long ago, we were conducting Team
Effectiveness programs in a large corporate flight
department. The company was one that did not cut
corners and generally responded to reasonable requests
from its managers. To our amazement, we found out
that whenever pilots and technicians went to ground
school (even when they were there together!), technicians
received a lower allowance for meals, etc., than did
the pilots.
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This attitude invites others to see technicians as less
important, less worthy, than other members of the
department. If you invite people to kick you, there is
bound to be someone who will accommodate you.
Technicians, and especially the managers in the
maintenance area, must start rethinking how they
perceive their role in the department, the contribution
their people make to the company, and the ways they
have at their disposal to make sure that they are duly
recognized.
Employees in the maintenance area can certainly
benefit from systematic psychological maintenance and
any kind of training that enables them to understand
human behavior better, to see how they unwittingly
contribute to some of their problems, and-most impor-
tant-to ensure that they find some ways to become
comfortable with more appropriate behavior.
The management group of the maintenance area
must first upgrade its own people skills to understand
how they limit their ability to use their talents, their
experience, their wisdom and their compassion for the
benefit of their people. They need to recognize that they
have two roles to play in the organization: To contribute
to the success of the company, but also to stand up for,
to defend, to represent and to develop their own staff.
But the technician has his 50 percent of the deal, too.
He should avoid swallowing his frustrations and giving
up too easily. ("I mentioned it to him once five years
ago, but he didn't do anything, so what's the use of
bringing it up again?") He should also state his point of
view clearly and make his frustrations and satisfactions
and preferences known. And he should give his boss the
kind of feedback the boss needs to do his job properly
and easily.
Equity and responsibility for all. It's a psychological
coming+f-age of the maintenance people in the aviation
industry that must eventually take place if the technician
is going to realize more benefits. It's time to stop being
humble and contribute to establishing a position in the
industry that is welldeserved.
September/October 1990
Gisde Richardson is president of Richardson Manage
ment Associates which specializes in the training of the
human element in aviation.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technolo~yMagazine
Prof ~ ~ o n a l i s m
Stressing out
By John Boyce
I
t's one tight deadline after another. No sooner do
you get one aircraft signed off than you have to get
another finished because the owner needs it for an
important trip to Belugaland.
Then, as if the time pressure isn't enough, you have
to get it right. You can't just throw it together and be
sure that if anything goes wrong, the owner or pilot can
pull it over to the side of the road and have it towed to
the garage. You have a responsibility which you take
seriously because you know that what you do can be the
difference between flying and crashing, life and death.
And those are only a few of the unique stresses an
aircraft technician might feel in any given period of time.
He is also subject to all the strains of anybody else living
in a complex society: Bills, noise, traffic tickets, divorce,
marriage, change of job, new baby, illness or injury, prob
lems with superiors and fellow workers, and on and on.
Sometimes the strains and stresses of living a
technician's lifestyle will have you singing that Bob Dylan
lyric that goes something like, there's got to be some
way out of here.
And, of course, there is no way out. You have to deal
with it. But dealing with it is not avoidance and it's not
necessarily resignation. You can do more than throw up
your hands and have another beer.
The first thing you have to remember when it comes
to managing the stresses you feel is that stress is natu-
ral; it's a consequence of living. And that means that
stress can be good (a new baby, job promotion), known
as eustress; bad (deadlines, FAA investigation), known as
distress; or neutral. If you understand that, you won't
have the added stress of thinking that you are trapped in
a situation that is unique to you.
It will ease your mind to know that, according to
many psychologists, life is a process of meeting and
mastering challenges (stresses). And it is also good to
remember that a life without stress can have long-term
effects as dangerous to your well-being as prolonged
discomfort from stress.
Hans Selye, in his book Stress Without Distress,
defined stress as the non-specific response of the human
organism to any demand, positive or negative, that it
encounters. In other words, the body does not discrimi-
nate between stressors, good or bad, but reacts the same
way regardless of the type.
What he's saying is that how we as individuals
respond t o the stresses around us determines if we expe-
rience distress or not.
Distress is commonly defined as normal stress that
has become chronic (worry); you feel overwhelmed by a
70 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
challenge or problem and as a result you become
less able to function normally; that is, you become
"stressed out."
Stressing out can lead to all kinds of woes, including
confusion, decreased work efficiency, loss of interest,
loss of selfesteem and, perhaps most important, loss
of health.
Many studies indicate that 50 to 75 percent of all
illnesses are related to distress. Under prolonged stress,
the body's immune system breaks down so that the
distressed person is not only faced with the diseases
usually associated with stress such as heart disease, high
blood pressure, mental illness, ulcers, insomnia, burnout
and the like, but also serious physical illnesses such
as cancer.
So what are you to do when things just become too
much? Well, the obvious, and maddeningly glib answer
is, you shouldn't ever let things get to that crisis point.
Thanks. Now, what can a person do?
There are long- and shorbterm strategies to manag-
ing stress and they are interrelated.
'The first thing you need to do, say students of stress,
is to become aware of the major sources of stress in
your life. Take an inventory of these sources. Stress, as
you experience it, is many times a combination of
stresses: That is, you might be aware of one stress, but
there might be other stresses in your life subconsciously
working to make the conscious stress worse. An inven-
tory helps you break a larger stress into smaller, man-
ageable stresses.
Coping with stress requires that you face your prob
lerns, then deal with them. The smaller the problem the
easier it is to think through and cope with.
Although recommended methods vary, all authorities
on stress advise a program of relaxation and exercise to
alleviate the symptoms of stress. None of them suggests
relaxation with tranquilizers or alcohol.
This doesn't mean you have to develop into a long
distance runner or even get into a physically exhausting
activity. It simply suggests that you should do somethug
which allows you to recognize that tension exists and
alleviate it. In addition, exercise regularly performed will
make you feel selfconfident and better able to cope with
problems.
Relaxation has the corresponding value of diverting
your mind from the stress and subsequently clearing
your mind so that you can better think your problems
through. kEl Jdy/August 1990
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 Professionalism

Stress inventory
Have you had any of the following things happen to you Your total score measures the amount of stress to
during the past year? If so, simply circle one of the which you have been subjected. A score of 150 or less is
numbers following each of those items. Score only those normal. With a score of 150 to 250, one-third of all
items which apply to you. persons will experience illness or accident. If you scored
250 to 300, you have a 50-50 chance of accident or
tile event Point Value illness; above a score of 350, you may be 75 percent sure
of trouble in the months ahead.

Developed by Dr. Thomas Holmes of the University of

Washington.

25.
26.
27.

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lkaining- a commitment
to excellence
By Peter LaSalle
"T
he quality of a person's life is in direct proportion
to their commitment to excellence, regardless of
their chosen field of endeavor."
- Vince Lombardi
Think about the people you've worked with over the
years. Chances are, you could describe them using one
of these three categories:
Watchem -These are the people who show up for
work and wait for someone to tell them what to do and
how to do it. They have hardly even thought about
trying to get ahead-they watch from the sidelines as
the rest of the world passes them by.
Players-These are the ones that know they want
to excel and show up for work ready to give it their
best shot. They're playing the game and making a real
contribution.
Winners-These folks not only want to excel, but
make a commitment to be at the top of their field. They
plan to win the game, and they're willing to make the
long-term investments needed to pull it off. For aircraft
technicians, that investment is spelled T-R-A-I-N-I-NG!
Continuing education (CE) is one component of train-
ing that is often neglected. It doesn't matter whom you
work for, how much experience you have or what type of
work you do. Continuing education is important to you
for at least five of these eight reasons:
1. CE improves technical proficiency.
2. CE makes you a more valuable employee.
3. CE helps you make important industry contacts.
4. CE breaks up the routine.
5. CE impresses customers.
6. CE helps attract business.
7. CE opens doors.
8. CE cuts your liability exposure.
Continuing education for aircraft technicians comes
in many forms: factory training, vendor field training,
in-house (employer-sponsored) courses, FAA-sponsored
seminars, trade association seminars (PAMA, AEM,
etc.), local technical schools and self-study courses, to
name a few. Some of these sources are better suited for
particular training objectives, but all of them offer just
about every one of the eight benefits listed. Let's see
how those benefits could affect your career!
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Technical proficiency
The obvious reason for continuing education is to
learn a new skill or polish an old one. Lots of people
don't want to take time out for formal training-they
prefer to Yearn it on the fly." This is fine for some skills,
particularly if you're working side by side with an expert
who has time to give you pointers. But this can also be a
slow, painful way to learn. Think about the value of
learning to do a job right the first time: the customer
gets better work at a fair price and you get less knots in
your stomach!
A more valuable employee
Your most valuable personal asset is your ability to
do highquality work on a wide variety of equipment.
Give careful consideration to the trends in the industry-
which skills will be in highest demand as you develop
your career?
Industry contacts
"Who you known can be almost as important as
"what you know." Training seminars are great for
building a valuable network of industry contads. Your
comrades from other shops can be a great source of
information during and after a seminar-take advantage
of their experience!
Break up the routine
Attending a training seminar is a healthy, productive
way to "recharge your batteries." Continuing education
should be the next best thing to your favorite vacation.
If you don't come away from a good seminar feeling
refreshed and more motivated, it's probably time to look
for a different h e of work.
Training impresses customers
Don't ever believe that a wall plastered with training
certificates goes unnoticed by customers. Aircraft owners
and chief pilots like to know that their technician is
keeping up with the times. This is just one more way to
project a more professional image to your customers.
The benefits of improved credibility are many: more
customer cooperation, higher customer satisfaction and
repeat business!
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 Training grows your business
Broader and deeper skills attract customers. The
more equipment you can service correctly, the higher
your potential for growth.
CE opens doors
Aircraft operators need technicians that can offer
sound advice. Your knowledge of various technologies
puts you in the position t o develop customer loyalties. In
the long run, this translates to your own personal sales
staff (satisfied customers), who will advance your career
as they brag about your abilities.
CE keeps the lawyers away
Or at least it cuts them short. A strong personal
commitment to continuing education is tangible evidence
of your dedication to highquality work. While this
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shouldn't be your primary reason for attending semi-
nars, it is a valuable side benefit. The less time you
waste defending against frivolous claims, the faster your
career will grow.
Don't overdo it
Continuing education is essential to aviation techni-
cians. But don't forget about balancing the benefits
against the cost. In addition to travel expenses, remem-
ber that every hour you are out of the shop means lost
revenue for your employer. Pick your seminars carefully
for maximum benefit and be willing to work with your
employer to keep costs to a minimum. Continuing
education serves you as much or more than it does your
employer-it's an investment in your quality of life! E!
May/June 1990
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 73
Professionallism
Personal
Are you dragging a ball and chain?
By Peter LaSalle
C rackerjack or crackpot? Rookie or pro? Technician
or greasemonkey? Gentleman or jerk? How would
a customer describe you after your first meeting?
How good of an impression could you make on someone
within 60 seconds of meeting them?
These are important questions because just as books
are judged by their covers, people are judged by their
appearance every time! Like it or not, your appearance
affects how much you can charge a customer and how
much you will get paid. If you think this is an exaggera-
tion, consider this example:
A corporate pilot has had minor work done by two
competing shops. Most of his contact was with the
service manager, though he briefly met the technicians
at each shop before the work was performed. The techni-
cians at shop "A" were neatly groomed and wore clean
uniforms. The guys at shop "B" wore jeans, grease
stained T-shirts and had sllghtly longer hair, All other
factors being equal, every corporate pilot I've ever met
would expect shop "A" to work better. Conversely, he will
expect to have problems with shop "B." How would you
like to have customers who are looking for problems?
Even if both shops' rates are the same, you can bet that
shop "A" will usually make more off the same job than
shop "B".Why? Because customers who are expecting
problems will find problems. Shop "B" will waste more
time correcting nibpicking problems and proving that
the job was done right. Shop " B will also find that it
must frequently adjust bills to appease a customer.
Either way, this translates into less dollars per hour that
the shop receives for its technicians (and lower pay for
the technicians).
The message here is simple: If you turn out hlgh-
quality work, then you need to look the part to be able
to charge a fair price-don't give customers any reason
to question your professionalism!
The first step in looking the part is understanding
the part. What kind of image do your customers expect?
The answer to this question depends on several factors:
the type of customers you service, the type of aircraft or
equipment you maintain, the image of your shop and the
look of competitive shops. If you're serious about your
career, take the time to ask around and listen to custom-
ers' comments. With a little common sense, you'll prob
ably discover some subtle changes that you can make to
improve your professional image.
Most people immediately recognize clothing as the
primary influence on personal appearance. Grooming,
74 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technolo~yMagazine
though often taken for granted, is another effective tool
for shaping your image. Let's take a little closer look at
both of these areas.
Regardless of the circumstances, a technician's cloth-
ing should project professionalism, confidence and
attention to detail. For starters, this means that whab
ever you wear, it must be clean and neat. Don't fall
into the trap of hanging on to badly stained or frayed
uniforms-they look just as bad as any kind of ragged
clothes. If your employer doesn't furnish uniforms, check
into buying them yourself. You may find that purchasing
durable clothing from a uniform supplier is a smart
investment! Shoes play an important part in completing
a uniform, so don't overlook them. I've seen more than
a few technicians ruin an otherwise professional appear-
ance by wearing ratty sneakers.
Grooming is equally important to clothing: a clean,
neat appearance is critical. Take a look in the mirror:
Would you go to a doctor that has your haircut, side
burns, beard or mustache? Customers notice these
things, just as they notice bad teeth, sour breath or body
odor. Proper attention to all of these areas tells custom-
ers that you are a successful professional who takes
pride in yourself and in your work. Lack of attention in
any of these areas raises concerns in a customer's mind:
poor expectations that you must work to overcome!
Hair styles, beards and mustaches all play a heavy
role in shaping your identity. They can make you look
older, younger, wiser, careful, creative, progressive,
conservative, carefree, serious or just about anything
else. Use your appearance to your advantage-seek the
advice of a barber or hair stylist if you're not sure how
to project a given image.
There is no "perfect" image for all aviation techni-
cians. In some cases, it may be better to look younger
rather than older. And there is such a thing as looking
too good-a perfectly manicured technician decked out in
a crisp uniform may scare off the Sunday pilots that like
to putt around in their Super Cubs! Use your common
sense-what is your customer's idea of a neat, capable
technician?
There are probably many technicians who feel that
personal appearance is a way of "expressing" themselves.
This is absolutely true. Just be aware that those who
"expressn an image that is inconsistent with a custom-
er's (or boss's) expectations are at a serious disadvan-
tage. Doesn't it make more sense to use your appearance
as an asset rather than a ball and chain? EM
MarcWApd 1990
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 yy
"Beat the clock and have some fun
By Peter LaSalle

Y ou've probably heard it a zillion times: "All you

have to sell is your time!" Like it or not, there's a
lot of truth in that statement. The good news is
that there ARE rewards for working smarter: happier
customers and a happier boss, to name a couple.
The toughest thing about working smarter is that you
may have to start off working a little more slowly. After
all, it takes time (typically about three weeks) to change
a habit. You really need to practice working smarter
before it becomes automatic. Here are a few habits that
may be worth learning:

Go fishing -
or at least plan to! The idea is t o never work without
a target and a reward. Challenge yourself at the begin-
ning of each task to deliver the finest quality in record
time. Without some kind of target, most of us tend to
roll along and fill the available time. Try promising your-
self some kind of little reward for meeting your goal.
What's important is that you want to make the target,
not that a supervisor is rushing you. You'll be surprised
at the effectiveness of a little self-induced pressure!

Cut corners - to plan for a little mess-use bags to protect seats, paper
to protect carpet, "alligator paper" to protect paint
on non-productive activities. Be willing to invest
pennies to streamline tasks that waste dollars-the finishes. You'll wind up with a cleaner airplane, less
savings add up! For example, why not develop a standard wasted time, and no grief over greasy carpet stains from
inspection parts list to save research time and expedite the "one time" you just had to jump in and tweak the
parts retrieval? Or sort hardware into ziplock bags as it whatchamacallit.
is removed to be able to f i i d it more quickly down the
road? Most people despise paperwork and have plenty Hire a secretary -
of short cuts. Great-but don't stop there! Use your or, if that's not quite within the budget, get yourself
imagination and a little common sense to see how else organized. A few wellchosen office tools can avoid lots
you can make things easier on yourself. of headaches. Why not keep an extra clipboard, binder,
stapler, high-lighter, etc. at your toolbox if you need one
Sharpen your ax - frequently. The same applies to the strategic location
of copy machines, fiche printers and other office equip
and look for training opportunities that will improve
your understanding of the technology. That knowledge ment. Keep this stuff where it's needed!
should enable you to work more productively and
confidently. And don't stop with the aviation industry- Betty, hold my calls! -
look for ways to apply methods and technology used by There's no such thing as a good interruption. Do
technicians in other industries. whatever you can to avoid breaking your concentration:
Work during quiet times, hold personal calls, etc. If you
Make a mess - are in a position where you must take a lot of customer
calls, try a portable phone.
but prepare for it in advance. How much time do you
waste taking shoes on and off or dusting yourself off
before entering an airplane? You may find it much easier

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 75

Aircraft Technical Books

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Professionalism

Just do it! - What are your big time-wasters?

That ad slogan might be the best advice of all. Some
people have developed procrastination into a fine art-
they can find 1,001 reasons NOT to jump on a job and
get it done. And be wary of delegation-one of those
skills that can be crippling when carried to an excess.
Be careful that you don't waste more time training and
supervising a helper than you would have taken to do
the work yourself.
More importantly, what are your little timewasters
(it's the little ones that add up and eventually take a
big toll on your productivity)? Use your common sense
to identify potential areas for improvement. And be
prepared to invest both time and money to hone your
efficiency-you'll enjoy the payback many times over!

Computer-based training makes troubleshooting

much easier to learn
Troubleshooting has historically been a difficult thing to
teach mainly because good troubleshooting skills are
learned in the field through handsan experience.
But that's rapidly changing. Enter, the computer.
FlightSafety and SimuFlite, both leaders in the field
of training, have incorporated computer-based training
(CBT) into their curricula. FlightSafety's "Principles of
Troubleshooting" and SimuFlite's "Professional Trouble
shooting Skills" courses offer excellent advantages to
conventional methods of teaching.
Taking one of these courses can bring to light differ-
ent approaches to the same solutions that are more
efficient and offer all technicians an opportunity to
brush up on skills that are often taken for granted.
Both companies do on-site training or they offer
courses at their facilities. Both teach generic trouble
shooting skills that can be applied to any aircraft. The
realistic interaction plays a role in creating a feeling of
actually working on the aircraft.
Time and cost tracking for each procedure give the
technician a good idea of how much and how long his
repair took, allowing him to experiment with various
SimuFlite has developed computer graphics that make its
approaches to find which repair is more efficient. system user-friendly.
SimuFlite has taken the initiative in improving its
computer graphics and interadion capabilities. Tool s e
lections are graphically represented on the screen giving For course prices and further information on CBT,
the technician a feeling that the tool is at his disposal. contact FhghtSafety's maintenance marketing depart
FlightSafety, however, is developing more specialized ment at (201) 9391810 or SimuFlite at (800) 527-2463
courses for particular aircraft. Technicians who work (in Texas (800) 442-6664). El Januaqy/Februaqy 1990
primarily on one aircraft can take a troubleshooting
course designed specifically for that aircraft. I

76 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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 Professionalism in paperwork
Don't sell yourself short
By Pete LaSalle
N
ine out of 10 people would probably agree that
the mark of a good technician is one that
"performs quality work delivered on time and at
a fair price." So would I. But what do you think it takes
to be a great technician?
... do the job right the first time?
... deliver the airplane clean?
... give the customer what he wants?
... keep him informed of your progress?
These things are all important, but the great techni-
cians are the ones that can consistently make their cus-
tomers feel good about paying the bill! In other words,
they sell confidence-they help the customer understand
that he really is getting quality work at a fair price!
To appreciate the importance of this idea, put your
"customer hat" on for a minute. Suppose your home
air conditioner breaks down on the hottest, muggiest
Sunday of the year and you call a repairman. He shows
up in a couple of hours, has the unit running in 15
minutes, and gives you a bill that reads:
Replace faulty starter on condenser unit.
Labor: $50.00
$23.50
Total: $73.50
You'll probably think, "This guy wants $50 for 15
minutes of work-wow! Well, he did get out here fairly
quickly and get it fixed, so I guess I'll just keep quiet and
pay him." But what if the same repairman, after doing
exactly the same work, had given you a bill like this:
Traveled to customer's home to repair air condi-
tioner. Troubleshot air handler and condenser
unit and found faulty starter on condenser unit.
Replaced with remanufactured starter (same
warranty as new component). Cleaned and lubri-
cated unit and performed functional check to verify
proper performance. No extra charge for Sunday
call-out.
Service Call. $50.00
Parts: $23.50
Total: $73.50
If you're like most people (including aircraft owners),
you'd probably pay this bill without a second thought.
Was the quality of the work any different? No. Would
Aircraft Technical Books
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you feel like the second guy gave you a better deal?
Absolutely!
What if the second repairman had casually men-
tioned that he had just gone to a refresher course on
troubleshooting your make of air conditioner? And what
if he happened to say that he stopped by his shop before
coming to your house and picked up three or four parts
that tend to wear out on your type of unit (one of which
was the faulty starter, of course)? You'd probably think
to yourself, "This guy is really sharp -I'm glad I was
smart enough to call him!" If you're like me, you'll
probably go to work the next day and tell your friends
just how smart you were to call this repairman. Why
would you deal with anyone else?
The point of all this is that IT ISN'T ENOUGH
TO DO A GOOD JOB-YOU HAVE TO MAKE THE
CUSTOMER AWARE OF IT!
Sales promotion, not paperwork!
In the aviation business, we have plenty of opportuni-
ties to sell our customers on the value of our services.
For now, let's focus on paperwork. How can we turn
"drudgery" into our own personal selling tool?
Few technicians enjoy doing paperwork. Yet the
logbook entry or invoice may be your most visible
contact with a customer. In fad, all of these documents
are opportunities to show a customer that you are a real
professional:
Invoices
Logbook entries
AD and Service Bulletin research
Weight and balance
Price quotations/estimates
Put yourself in the customer's shoes as you work on
these papers-think about the airconditioner repairman.
Customers like to be reassured that they are getting a
fair value, no matter how much confidence they have in
a repair shop. Look for every chance to help him appre
ciate what went into his job (it's not bragging if you're
just stating the facts).
Try to anticipate a customer's questions and answer
them in the paperwork. Remember-many clients are
reluctant to question an invoice or other documentation.
He may just decide to take his business elsewhere with
no warning!
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 77
Professionalism

Timesaving techniques into the logbooks. A wide variety of "off-the-shell" com-

The challenge, of course, is to provide thorough, leg-
ible documentation and only spend five minutes doing it.
That probably won't happen, but there are methods of
improving your paperwork efficiency:
Rubber stamps-This old favorite does save time, but
doesn't rate very high on the professionalism scale. See
the insert to this article.
Preprinted checkoff sheets/stickers- Similar to the
forms used by doctors. Just put a check by the
diagnosis(es) and another by the treatment(s). These at
least allow some customizing that isn't possible with
stamps. Checkoff sheets and preprinted inspection
descriptions may not be that convincing-they still look
like "canned propaganda" to a customer. Some techni-
cians use these successfully by writing comments in
addition to the preprinted items. This lets the customer
know that his work gets special attention.
Computerized lists -Several technicians have adapted
PC programs to allow the selection and printing of
stored phrases. This is a big improvement over the
checkoff sheets because the clutter is removed-the
customer doesn't see all the things that you DIDN'T do
to his airplane! Some shops print these work descrip-
tions on "peel and stick" label material that can be put
puter programs can handle a task like this, depending
on how much sophistication you want.
Spreadsheet programs- These are ideal for working
up weight and balance revisions. Once a general format
is built, a technician can input the data and work a new
weight and balance in a matter of minutes (with no
math errors!). Spreadsheets can also be used in the
same manner to prepare quotes - especially handy when
there are a lot of lines of labor and! or parts to calculate.
Specialized aviation software- Several excellent pack-
ages are available to handle aviation maintenance record
keeping. The most common applications include invoic-
ing, inspection requirements tracking, and AD/Service
Bulletin research. Most of these systems are specifically
designed to produce a professional looking document
with minimal effort. These are worth looking into,
particularly for shops with several technicians.
No matter how you look at it, professionalism in
record keeping is a critical requirement for any techni-
cian that hopes to build a loyal customer base. High-
quality paperwork is YOUR way of letting the custo-
mer know what you have done for him-don't sell
yourself short!

KAL-AERO, INC. AIRFRAIIE

lOOBOO<ENTRY
NI...!illL III<E BEED£RIf'T IllDEl 8211 SIN 88UXI
PME.lJI'.L fllBBS TTOC 1463.~ lOO _

I. t:o.pli.d "Ith t3 o.hil.d Inspection a1lll5e-ilour Routir•• IroSpI!t'tic""in a~a""" with

Bftchcraft inspect Ion fonK.
2. t:o.pli.d "ith AD87-22-t1 a1llls.,-yiCl! 8ullrtin S82IR Rrv I, Part I 12, No$r larding Sear
Fork Inspection. No defr<:ts not.d at this H ••••
J. AD8~-t1 SIoitJlk co. Inflator dOM not apply by datr of llanuhl'ture. RII ir.shll.d
life vrsts dat.d OCT113.
4. All89-t9-t2 Davis Seat Belts dOMnot apply by unuhl'turrr of Inshll.d ~ui~.t.
5. t:o.pli.d with 58 e&J2-28e Furl !All Inspr<:tlon. No deftl.'ts rtCIt.d at this ti ••
6. RepllCtd fonoard a1lllaft tvaporator filters,sudion •• lief valve fllbr, a1lllcabir, air
nrturn fi It ••..
7. t:o.pli.d ••Ith fhpprr valve inspection. No deftl.'ts not.d at this ti •••.
8. t:o.pli.d "ith ailrron tab f""'play iroSpecticm. Fou1lllntisfactory at this tl ••••
9. t:o.pli.d "ith cabin ,,11111011 fr ••••• inspectior,. No defr<:ts not.d at this ti •••• Next
Inspect it>ndue at 211&3.9
Ie. RMO'V.dbattery SIN 91222. Cap cnr<:kedard ir,sta lied cust ••••. ' s spare battery SIN 1526~.
(Spa•• cap cnr<:ked at 1_) Chrcked IJ<.
11. Replac.d pi lot' 5 eltl.'tric tri. !IOIitcnPIN ~3-4381. Ops cnr<:kedgood.
(Cantinutd "~"~ nrd paqel

An example of professional-looking paperwork. Kal-Aero uses easy-to-read logbook

stickers in place of sloppy looking handwriting.

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78 TheBest of Aircraft Maintenance TechnologyMagazine www.actechbooks.com

Six good reasons
...to put some extra effort into highquality documentation:
1. FAA Inspectors, Insurance Companies and Lawyers...
you're way ahead in dealing with any of these folks
when you can produce thorough, legible documenta-
tion that your work is of the highest caliber.
2. Satisfied Customers... are more likely to pay their bill
in full and more promptly.
3. Satisfied Customers... will be back to give you more
business.
mash the rubber stamp...
- your
- customers
deserve better!
Rubber stamps were fine 20 years ago when life around
the airport was a little more casual (and probably less
competitive). In these days of computerized grocery
receipts and digital dashboards, customers expect more
Which technician will make more money?
...the guy who is outstanding, but does sloppy
paperwork... or the very good tech that produces perfect
documentation? The technician who uses paperwork to
sell will build a larger following than the guy that never
Aircraft Technical Books
800-780-4115
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Professionalism
4. Satisfied Customers... will recommend you to their
friends.
5. Thorough Records... improve the resale value of
an airplane and score points with the seller and
the buyer.
6. Your Personal Reputation... is at stake every time you
sign your name to any kind of paperwork. What kind
of image do you want to project to your customers?
from their aviation technician. How would you feel about
getting a $500 rubber stamp invoice for repairing your
car? Try to avoid the "rubber rut" for everything except
the simplest, least expensive jobs.
reminds his customers of his excellent work. Superior
record keeping will be a plus to any technician,
regardless of skiU level! November/December 1989
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 79
Professionalism
Communication
One facility's approach to improved customer relations
By John Boyce
L ITTLE ROCK, AR-Psychology-there is no
substitute.
"You have to do kind of a quick psychological
profile and figure out how best to approach them," says
Alex Kienlen of customers he has to talk to as a lead
technician at MidcoasbLittle Rock's maintenance facility.
"Some customers need their egos massaged. Some
want to hear we fixed it and it's ready to go and they'll
worry about the bill later. Some guys need to know
where every penny is going.
"Dealing with the customer is tricky but it's part of
the job. It's like an AD notice; they can be tricky to
interpret sometimes but it's just the way it goes; it's part
of the business."
Dealing with maintenance customers and their some
times irate concerns is something that all aircraft techni-
cians must do at one time or another.
Kienlen, through his 10 years as an A&P, has devel-
oped his own methods of handling that particular part of
his job and at the heart of his approach is the ability to
communicate.
While exceptional communication skills are not a
requirement for an A&P license, Kienlen and his boss
at Midcoast, Dennis Braner, recognize that it certainly
makes the technician's job easier.
Braner, who supervises a maintenance department
that employs 20 floor technicians, has learned the best
way to head off potential problems with maintenance
customers is to communicate with them; keep them
completely and constantly informed.
"We put the philosophy in front of everybody that
communication with the customer is important," says
Braner, whose official title at MidcoastLittle Rock is vice
president of technical services. "That's why we have no
problem with the customer being on the floor (with the
technicians). I'd prefer he wasn't standmg on the
mechanic's feet, but if he's in and out of the hangar, that
assists us.
"Basically, I tell them (technicians) to put themselves
in the customer's shoes. I tell them, ' h k yourself, if that
was your airplane would you be satisfied? If yes, it's
probably OK. If not, the customer probably has a reason
to complain.' "
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Braner, who has been with Midcoast (formerly Little
Rock Air Center) since 1984, initiated the Firm Price
Inspection Program for his customers. The program is a
detailed explanation of how an aircraft and its owner or
pilot will be treated.
Several steps along the way to completion of the
work are devoted to review and communication between
the customer and the crew chief responsible for the
work. However, the customer is encouraged to talk with
the technicians doing the work.
'We don't think you can communicate too much with
a customer," says Jean Dickerson, manager of technical
service sales for Midcoast and a licensed A&P.
"If we let him know right away what the problems
are and how much it's going to cost, he can make a
decision on what he wants done and what he doesn't
want done. Of course, if it's an airworthiness problem he
doesn't have a choice; we're required by law to fix it, but
we make sure he understands that and everything else
we've found."
Of course, problems do arise with customers. As
Dickerson says, "There are people who are going to be
upset regardless of what we've done or haven't done.
That sometimes creates a problem for the technicians."
For dealing with the irate customer, Kienlen has
some clearly stated advice for technicians.
"I don't get out of control," Kienlen says. "What I'm
saying is if he gets out of control and starts yelling and
screaming, the worst thing you can do is yell and scream
back. Stay calm. If he's throwing a point nine tantrum,
just be quiet and just let him run his tantrum out. He'll
settle down in a minute. Keep a smooth, steady voice
and attempt to work the situation out."
At times there is nothing the technician can do to
calm the customer. In that case, crew chief Tim Cook
has a simple solution.
"There have been times," says Cook, who has been at
Midcoast for his entire 12-year career as a technician,
"when you would like to barrel up and hit them but you
know you can't. I've had a couple of pilots who have just
gotten completely out of control, and the best way to
handle them is for me to turn and walk off and go to my
upper management and let them handle it."
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The first step to upper management is Midcoast
shop foreman Gordon Eidson, who has been with the
company since he got out of the School of the Ozarks
with a B.S. degree and his A&P license six years ago.
Eidson echoes Braner's basic guideline to his
technicians.
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Professionalism
"I just listen to his (customer's) problem," Eidson
says, "and try to put myself in his position and try to
deal with it accordingly.
"...Communication is important from the director of
maintenance all the way down to my position and the
mechanics. It's critical." El NovembedDecember 1989
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 81
Professionalism

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The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 83

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OSHA police-a new threat?
Beware of the Safety Cops
By Stephen P. Prentice
A
loud explosion shattered the quiet morning air
at a California repair station early this year. The
result was substantial damage to a C421 aircraft
and the death of a technician. Many of us saw the
reports that described the accident as having resulted
from the technician's use of a battery-powered screw-
driver while removing screws that attach an internal
access plate to a fuel cell. Fuel vapors inside the tank
ignited causing the explosion.
Now we all should know that fuel tanks are to be
treated as potential explosive devices since vapors can be
ignited by any kind of a spark, even from a screwdriver
or a flashlight. Momentary safety lapses for the sake of
saving some time can extract a terrible penalty as this
accident shows.
So much for the painful details. The technician's f
amily was compensated for his accidental death through
workers' compensation insurance and that would ordi-
narily end the story. But read on and shop operators pay
particular notice!
Some time after the accident, the shop was visited by
personnel from the State Occupational Safety and Health
Division and a thorough so called "safety inspection" of
the facility was performed along with their investigation
of the accident. This is the agency commonly called
OSHA whether the federal or state variety, and the FAA.
Whenever a death or injury occurs on the job, the
OSHA people from your state are required to investi-
gate. If a state agency does not exist, the federal OSHA
representatives will step in. The state agency is of course
the more aggressive since they are always interested in
justdymg their existence, jobs and bureaucracy.
OSHA has enormous power to force a business to
conform to the agency's perceived standards of work
place safety. In enforcing safety and health standards
OSHA (state or federal) may prescribe the protection
methods necessary to ensure safety; enforce any stan-
dard or order they create; and/or require any other act
reasonably necessary to protect the life and safety of
employees. Of course, what is reasonable is decided by
the agency and may not agree with common sense.
These agencies have an uncommonly broad mandate.
After a typical investigative review by the state
OSHA, a laundry list of violations is usually compiled
and served as citations. Keep in mind that any citation
should be served with reasonable promptness under
most rules and cannot be issued beyond six months after
the date of an alleged violation.
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In this case violations were alleged in a list including,
but not limited, to the following: Failure to install
grounding leads on aircraft under work in the hangar,
improper safety procedures in regard to fuel cell purg-
ing, failure to use proper fuel vapor monitoring devices
during cell rework, and a lack of inspection oversight
during rework procedures.
Now for the penalties. Fines are the financial life-
blood of OSHA, and the bureaucrats have a substantial
interest in seeing that they are levied and paid. They
rely on them to expand their activities. Keep in mind
that citations describing violations of employment safety
rules are civil penalties involving the payment of a
monetary fine-which can be substantial. However, both
civil and criminal penalties are available to OSHA and
this is where the rub comes in!
It's not uncommon for these agencies to levy a s u b
stantial civil penalty and shortly thereafter say... "Oh, by
the way, we are thinking about bringing a criminal com-
plaint against you personally and our investigation is on-
going. We will let you know about it further...!" Many
would say it sounds very much like extortion!
A criminal charge can be threatened when there is a
serious violation alleged that results in injury and death.
Most state statutes allow for the imposition of criminal
as well as civil sanctions for violations that cause death
or serious injury.
In California, for example, any employer, who willfully
or even negligently violates any order of OSHA can be
charged with a crime and fined anywhere up to $70,000
and imprisoned for up to six months. Civil penalties
apply where the violation is deemed to be minor in
nature and can be up to $7,000.
There appears to be little doubt that threatening to
bring criminal action against a person while attempting
to collect a fine from him would hasten his payment of
the fine. More importantly, it would tend to dissuade
him from appealing or otherwise contesting the imposi-
tion of the fine.
Well, it seems many times this is just what happens.
In addition, some states allow a charge of involuntary
manslaughter under their penal codes when accidental
death occurs in the commission of an unlawful act not
amounting to a felony-or in the commission of a lawful
act which might produce death, in an unlawful manner
or without due caution and circumspection. (California
Penal Code Sec. 192)
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Saying Legal

A well-publicized action in Illinois recently resulted in In most states now every employer must establish,
the owners of a chemical plating plant being sentenced implement, and maintain an effective injury prevention
to jail for convictions of manslaughter. (Several employ- program which must be in a written form. In addition,
ees died as a result of long-term breathing of toxic most employers must show that they conduct periodic
fumes.) safety audits in order to find and eliminate potential
Some have argued that OSHA has no business inter- sources of injury to employees.
fering in aviation areas simply because the government There is little doubt these bureaucrats can cost vou
and the FAA control it so pervasively. Recently an attack money and in some cases your liberty for matters that
on the jurisdiction of OSHA came before the courts in are sometimes beyond your control. So tread lightly and
California. The theory was that aviation is controlled watch out for the OSHA police! When you see them
exclusively by FAA regulations. It was brought on behalf coming, keep your mouth closed and call your counsel!
of a large air carrier that was being harassed by OSHA k l l NovemberLZIecember1995
at its overhaul facility. Needless to say it failed.
The court maintained that the FAA is chiefly Steve Prentice is an
concerned with inflight safety and not withstanding attorney whose practice
their approval of safety procedures in overhaul shops, involves FAA-NTSB issues.
they don't exercise sufficient oversight of health and He has an Airframe and
safety issues in the workplace. So much for that attack Powerplant license and
on OSHA. is an AW-rated pilot. He
What the business owner must realize is that these worked with Western
OSHA people have the power to shut you down for Airlines and the Allison
relatively minor infractions. Division of GMC in Latin
America, servicing
commercial and military
overhaul activities and
is a USAF veteran.

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Military surplus parts
Under attack
By Stephen P. Prentice
T
he FAA's own administrator recently stated to
a Congressional committee that the use of
unapproved parts in the industry is "just not
a real problem."
This "head-in-thesand attitude was promptly
attacked at the same hearing by none other than the
inspector general of the Department of Transportation
and the Federal Bureau of Investigation.
The inspector general of the DOT presented a com-
pelling record of continuing enforcement activities that
seem to focus on parts that should have been destroyed
as unserviceable but yet still find their way back into the
parts supply system. The FBI asserts that illegal parts
use is widespread throughout the industry and includes
the use of illegal surplus military parts.
As a subset of these unapproved parts investigations,
the sale of surplus military parts to the civil aviation
community is an issue that has been heating up for
some time now. The Congressional committee touched
on the subject, and there are ongoing efforts by industry
and government to stop the sale of otherwise serviceable
aircraft and engine parts by the military.
Current controversy primarily involves Army helicop
ter engines and parts being released as surplus, but does
involve other models of engines and aircraft parts as
well. Military surplus parts have been sold to the civil
aviation community for years, and there is a lot of
money invested in such parts by private enterprise.
Small businessmen and repair activities are being
attacked vigorously by the traditional manufacturers
with tacit if not overt support in some cases from the
FAA. Some however are striking back!
For example, in a current civil lawsuit in federal
court on the East Coast, it is alleged, among other
things, that a prominent engine manufacturer has
referred to military surplus parts as "bogus parts," for
which they will render no warranty credits.
Whether or not a warranty of any kind would or
could follow a surplus military part is c e r t a d y open to
question. It is not a novel idea however. The adrninistra-
tor, it is reported, recently went a step further, support-
ing the notion that a surplus military part is indeed
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"bogus" by stating that it has no "traceability." The
FAA's theory here is that most military parts are with-
out adequate documentation and therefore fail to fit the
definition of an approved part contained in FAR Part 21.
They cannot be accepted in the civil aviation market
place. This position obviously gets a little sticky and
weak when one observes that the parts are identical in
all respects to their commercial variant and can be
brand new in the manufacturer's original packaging!
The FAA has further stated they may develop a p r e
cess to allow such parts to become approved. Strange
indeed! Clearly, the manufacturer does not wish to grant
warranty credits on parts that were sold as surplus to
the current owner for pennies on the dollar. Part of the
problem no doubt also involves the manufacturer's fear
of the products liability trail which always lurks in the
background. The fact still remains, however, the taxpay-
ers paid full price for these parts that were sold initially
to the military.
Speaking of product liability, it might be instructive
to recall at this point that there is a basic difference
between liability for defective parts sold to the military
and those sold in the commercial world. The injured
commercial customer can usually bring a successful
action for an alleged defective part, whereas the military
customer can not. The short reason for this is simply
that courts have accorded manufacturers strong special-
ized defenses to such claims by injured military person-
nel. One might suggest that parts priced out in military
sales should not take into account the threat of products
liability claims, or, on the other hand, maybe they are
priced to carry most of the load.
The original manufacturer and the FAA have no busi-
ness interfering with or controlling the sale or disposi-
tion of surplus military parts. However, they have been
trying desperately t o control these sales and the supply
of parts. This is clearly a matter for the owner however,
namely the military. If they want to sell their surplus
to the public they should do so. Millions of dollars are
involved in this high stakes game, and private enterprise
should be allowed access to such military parts.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 87
Staylng Legal
As usual the FAA has a solution. Form another com-
mittee! In order to dispel the allegations of a head-in-the
sand attitude, the FAA now has formed an unapproved
parts task force. We are told that in view of the afore
mentioned criticism by other agencies(DOT and FBI),
the Congress and, in some cases, aviation groups, FAA
has hastily put together this response. The apparent pur-
pose of the new group within FAA is, among others, to
support additional surveillance and enforcement activi-
ties. Yeah! Just what we need!
88 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
And yes, original manufacturers are now bidding on
their own parts that they have called "bogus" in the past.
At military surplus sales they now compete with other
small businessmen and purchase items they sold for big
bucks for next to nothing! They in turn will do just what
the small businessmen do, that is refurbish and return
them to service! Who says they are bogus parts? Wi
September/October 1995
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Indictment! FAA employees
Attempts to cover up are thwatfed-deal cut for FAA people!
By Stephen I? Prentice
F
amiliarity breeds contempt. An old axiom that
fits many situations today. Take for example a
trial recently concluded in an eastern U.S.
District Court.
Two FAA employees assigned to police air carrier
operations are indicted, arrested and brought to trial
along with a business owner, in an alleged conspiracy
and attempted coverup. Violations of federal air
regulations involving maintenance and fhght records
were charged.
The owner kept two sets of records to cover up the
illegal activities of the air carrier. The FAA inspectors
were aware of the arrangement and conspired with the
owner to cover up the illegal records. When the two FAA
employees were faced with overwhelming evidence at
trial, they elected to plead g d t y before it ended.
The government prosecutors struck a deal that
allowed a plea to reduce charges for the government
employees in order to focus its attack on the remaining
defendant-the air carrier owner. The owner continued
to maintain his innocence. The strategy here was not to
distract the jury with the problems of the government
employees. The business owner was later convicted of
falsify~ngaviation records and conspiring with FAA
employees in attempting to cover up the falsifications.
The air carrier had an interesting history. It had
experienced several accidents which resulted in the
death of three pilots. Aircraft were said to have been
modified illegally and pilots were forced to fly beyond
their hourly limits with inadequate training, among
other allegations. The FAA through their agents were
aware of these violations.
The defense pointed out an important fact during the
trial, namely, the employees never made any reports to
the employer or to any FAA authorities. Many employees
testified during the trial about illegal operations and
maintenance procedures during a threeyear period, but
no one, maintenance techs or pilots, had ever reported
these fads to management. During this time the air
carrier c e f l ~ c a t eof the company was revoked for
violations and then, incredibly, returned to them after
the investigations were completed!
If it were not for the willing cooperation of the FAA
employees, this company would never have continued in
business after its initial revocation. It is conceivable the
FAA should therefore be sanctioned for breaching its
public trust in allowing this company to continue in
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business after finding grounds to shut it down. One
might suggest the local FAA people were responsible
for returning the certificate, but the fact is that any
reinstatement of an air carrier certificate must have the
blessing of FAA headquarters.
This could well have been done in an effort to allow
further time for federal agents to gather additional
evidence that would support a criminal action filed after
the FAA administrative investigation. Thus, by giving the
carrier personnel a false sense that their problems were
resolved, investigative efforts could and did undoubtedly
continue while more evidence for the criminal action was
collected. We a l l know this tactic as sandbagging! Profes-
sional criminal lawyers refer to it as entrapment!
This incident brings to light the importance of indi-
vidual employees keeping a maintenance log. Employees,
rather than remaining silent with the knowledge of
known violations, should have reduced their concerns to
writing and delivered them to their employer.
As long as they made a record, their credibility at a
later date would be supported. Absent a record, it will
always appear they were saving their own skins under
some threat of action by the FAA.
Now for the final postscript to the story. The airline
owner was sentenced to 41 months in prison and fined
$250,000 for his part in setting up the dual records
system.
The owner was further found to have been respon-
sible for the installation of an illegal cutout switch on
Learjets that allowed the aircraft to exceed maximum
speed restrictions, among other maintenance irregulari-
ties. This was cited as the cause of a crash that killed
two pilots. In view of this, the court decided the deaths
of the two pilots resulted from the owners wanton and
reckless conduct and thus was tantamount to involun-
tary manslaughter, even though the pilots were aware of
the popular but illegal mo cation that simply shut off
the warning indication. Quite a stretch by the judge to
say considering one of the pilots was a former Lear test
pilot and was one of the most knowledgeable pilots in
the country on the Learjet. Furthermore, pilots can
simply look at the airspeed indicator to determine what
their speed is at any time. The warning is simply for
added safety.
Now, let's see what happened to the FAA employees.
Well, they got probation!
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 Imagine. Here are two long-time FAA employees who
breached their public trust involving safety in air com-
merce and they walk off virtually scobfree! They will be
under federal probation for three years and pay a fine of
$10,000.
Stop and think for a minute. Here we have two FAA
employees who pleaded guilty to felony charges, who
most likely will continue to receive substantial benefita
from the government, even though they willingly
conspired with the owner to violate the law. Basic law
school training tells us co-conspirators are at least
equally responsible for crimes in most cases. Some
observers believe the FAA employees here were more
culpable than the operator.
90 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
One might even say they were responsible for all the
problems at the company and therefore should have been
treated accordingly. The f a d still remains however that
they did see the error of their ways and elected to plead
guilty during the trial, unlike the owner. This action
typically calls for a less severe sentence. In case one
might wonder about it however, there is no difference
between a negotiated guilty plea to a felony and a convic-
tion after a trial, except the obvious. That is, one person
agrees with his guilt and the other person maintains
his innocence!
The convicted defendant here no doubt believes the
FAA and the system caused him to be railroaded into
jail. Perhaps an appeal will correct this penalty injustice!
a July/August 1995
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"Public aircraft"
New rules will cause big headaches for affected operators!
By Stephen I? Prentice
L
ate last year a sgnificant rule change was enacted
affecting the operation of so-called "public
aircraft." Technicians should be aware of this
special classification of aircraft and the additional main-
tenance and operations attention that may be required.
The potential for trouble under the new regulation has
been admitted by none other than the FAA legal staff
themselves! It may prove to be a quagmire!
A public aircraft is defined as follows:
FAR 1
"Public Aircraft means aircraft used only in the
service of a government, or political subdivision. I t does
not include any govenunent-owned aircraft engaged in
carrying persons or property for commercial purposes. "
Typically these are aircraft operated by public agen-
cies that sometimes compete with commercial activities.
Examples are the FAA and government fleet itself, the
Forest Service, various sheriffs departments and police
departments, governmenhperated Medivac services and
the DEA, among others.
Until the passage of the recent legislation, public
aircraft were exempted from compliance with Federal Air
Regulations, and technically, their operators did not even
need a pilot's license! In addition, certified maintenance
and airworthiness certificates were not required!
Although most public agencies generally follow the FARs,
there has never been a specific requirement to do so!
Public agencies have only recently gained an advantage
in providing services to others simply because they
received many of their aircraft for little or no payment!
Most, if not all, of the competition resulted from various
helicopters and fixed wing aircraft that came from
military surplus or DEA seizure.
Historically, commercial operators provided most
services to public agencies. In time, many of these same
agencies acquired surplus and seized aircraft. The com-
mercial business slowly declined and government employ-
ees and aircraft filled the gap. They even went so far as
to charge or receive credits for their services to sister
agencies and in some cases, private parties. Many
observers believed that these services are not consistent
with a competitive system. The Army is now poised to
release over a thousand surplus helicopters on the
market in the coming two years. Government agencies
routinely are given preference over private parties in
acquiring these aircraft, and many believe this will make
a bad situation worse.
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The new legislation will offer some relief in that it
requires that all agencies now follow the same rules. The
name of the statute is the Independent Safety Board Act
Amendment of 1994 enacted on Oct. 25, 1994. It was
designed to correct safety deficiencies in the operation of
public aircraft, as well as provide a level playing field for
competition. It became effective on April 23, 1995.
One of the significant features of this legislation is its
effect on those possessing and operating former military
aircraft or other aircraft received through government
exchange. The new rules will require that these aircraft
and their operators now meet all civil airworthiness
standards (i.e., Part 61, 91, 121, 135). This will no doubt
be a difficult task in the maintenance area what with the
usual state of military maintenance records and the
reluctance of civil operators (those considered public
operators) to spend the money to bring their aircraft up
to civil airworthiness standards! Moreover, their inability
to obtain an airworthiness certificate under the standard
classification would relegate the aircraft to the special
airworthiness area, i.e. restricted, limited, provisional or
experimental (FAR 21.175 a, b.).
Needless to say, absent an approved application for
certificate of airworthiness, the aircraft could not be
legally operated! A senior FAA lawyer stated this new
statute is going to be very difficult to deal with, and it
has some strange twists and turns. Suffice it to say, if
you perform maintenance or operate any of these air-
craft, you are going to have to seek special counsel and
more importantly, clarification from your insurance
company as to the state of your coverage, in view of the
new rule. We all know that when FAA lawyers are uncer-
tain about new rules it's time to cover yourself. Get
professional advice and a written clarification of cover-
age from your insurance company as soon as possible.
Consider, for example ex-military Lockheed G130s.
Many of these aircraft have worked their way into the
civil operating fleet by various means, some rather devi-
ous. A recent national TV show featured a story on this
very subject. These aircraft are being operated, mostly as
cargo carriers and for fire suppression in the United
States and around the world. This new legislation will
have an impact on all of these former military types
because in order to operate them lawfully, they will need
to be brought up to civil certification standards. Among
other requirements, you must be able to show that Air-
worthiness Directives were performed on aircraft,
engines, and propellers. Lacking any definitive paper
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Staying Lsgai
trail, operators will have to disassemble engines or
propellers to determine applicability of ADS and if not
verified, complete the work! If you happen to have four
engines on an aircraft your maintenance costs have just
hit the ceiling! The same scenario fits most former
military aircraft in the public fleet.
Another example of a problem area, according to the
FAA, is your typical county sheriff's department, or city
police departments operating public aircraft, both heli-
copter and fixed wing. Maintenance activities may now
be subjected to closer scrutiny by FAA inspectors
because of the new rule. More importantly, if these air-
craft are going to be used for any job that is beyond the
usual scope of law enforcement activities, (i.e., Medivac,
prisoner transport, personnel transport, etc.), then these
aircraft will have to be brought up to civil airworthiness
standards in order to comply with the law and satisfy
liability requirements. Furthermore, if any kind of com-
pensation or credit is received by an agency for service,
they will have to acquire an air carrier ceMicate under
Part 135 or Part 121 and therefore be subject to further
FAA oversight and inspection. Absent this, they are out
of business! As soon as the insurance industrv or in the
case of seIf-insured agencies, their insurance managers,
get wind of this new legislation and how it applies to the
aircraft that they insure, the ax will fall. That is, insur-
ance coverage will be pulled or restricted, effectively
grounding the aircraft until certification is accomplished!
92 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
In many cases this will not be coskffective and they wih
have to be sold or scrapped.
Exemptions, of course, are the ordinary relief sought
in these cases; however, one must consider the reason
for this rule in order to predict the outcome of any peti-
tion. Petitions for exemptions from the rules (FARs) are
routinely submitted by operators and should be carefully
drafted. The fact is, however, they are just as routinely
denied! There will be few if any exemptions granted
simply because of the potential liability involved.
The new rule is generally believed to be a legislative
response to enhance safety as a result of a maintenance
related accident, among other reasons. Allegedly, a public
aircraft was being used to transport passengers who
were not related to the specific mission of the aircraft
and agency. Following an accident, there was the usual
finger pointing by a cadre of lawyers. The airworthiness
of the aircraft comes into question, along with the stan-
dards that governed maintenance. The results again
were predictable.
Manufacturers, needless to say, will support this
new rule because it removes a potential source of liabil-
ity in the case of some public aircraft. Industry supports
the enhancement of safety, and of course, the obvious
benefit of increased maintenance revenue for those
providing services to operators of public aircraft. El
May/June 1995
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FAR Part 121 rules for all
Commuter safety issues
By Stephen I? Prentice
B
ecause of recent accidents and incidents involving
commuter airplanes, there is now a big push
to apply FAR Part 121 rules to air carrier opera-
tions that, at the moment, operate under the less com-
plex rules of FAR Part 135.
Indeed, recent commuter accidents have hastened
the process even though some of the carriers involved
already operate, by choice, under the more stringent
rules of FAR 121. The National Transportation Safety
Board has made recommendations that the Federal
Aviation Administration is in the process of translating
into regulatory mandate.
Some argue that the push is part of an overall plan
to simply include more activities under the mantel of
FAR 121 and thus create a bigger bureaucracy. For
example, recent irresponsible statements by proponents
in the air carrier field, with their own agenda, make
statements like: "Hying on Part 135 carriers is safe,
but over the years the accident rates typically have been
significant& higher than those for Part 121 airlines."
This is nothing but self-serving rhetoric and definitely
not good for passenger comfort! Naturally the accident
rates are higher! The fact is that the Part 135 carriers
have significantly higher exposure. Smaller commuters
fly many more takeoff and landing cycles and have much
higher exposure to the more dangerous phases of flight
than do the larger Part 121 carriers.
In the air carrier business it is axiomatic that flying
a large Part 121 jet transport is a less demanding job
than flying a Part 135 under-3lseat commuter-style
aircraft. By the way, remember that the DG3 was a 21-
passenger aircraft! If the big boys had to land and take
off as much as the little guys do, there is no question
about risks expanding. The only s g d i c a n t problem is
that commuter pilots, technicians, and staff are not
paid for the extra efforts required. Therein lies most of
the problem.
The FAA recognizes on the other had that there
should be a sensible program to address alleged prob
lems with Part 135 operations. This is logical and more
in line with the special needs of the Part 135 commu-
nity. FAA correctly believes there is no mandate for
wholesale application of Part 121 rules. Likewise, the
inclusion of all elements of FAR Part 121 rules can place
an onerous burden on small airports involving crash and
rescue capability and perimeter fencing as called for in
FAR 139. These costs would simply be passed on by way
of increased landing fees for commuter operations.
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Similarly, the application of FAR 121 maintenance
rules can be quite burdensome and certainly more
expensive when compared to the companion rules of
FAR 135. These rules need not apply to all operations.
Commuter air carriers operating under the rules of FAR
135 will need to reeducate their technicians on the
details of FAR 121. In addition, they need to computer-
ize maintenance records, if they have not already done
so. There simply are too much paperwork and reporting
requirements involved with Part 121 operations. Compub
erization of maintenance, training and duty time data
will be a first step in application of FAR 121 rules.
Records showing training requirements and technician
duty times and rest times, that are peculiar to Part 121
operations, will require additional record keeping.
Duty times with attendant rest periods are spelled
out in FAR 121.377, and interestingly, they only apply to
domestic operations:
FAR 121.377
'Within the United states each certificate holder...
shall relieve each person performing maintenance... from
duty for a period of at least 24 consecutive hours during
any seven consecutive days, or the equivalent thereof
within any one calendar month."
In addition, stricter training requirements will be
imposed by virtue of FAR 121.375 which is the general
guideline of training rules expansion that will be
required.
Reporting requirements are reputed to be the most
labor intensive mandate of the regulations and are
usually the basis for audits and any resulting sanctions.
Strange as it might seem, most air carriers are found in
default of various maintenance regulations by virtue of
their own reports and records that they provide to the
FAA via routine contacts with FAA inspection personnel.
Further, many examinations result in both civil
ceMicate actions, that can suspend, revoke or impose
fines, andlor criminal charges of fraud or intentional
misrepresentation of maintenance operations data. The
latter is, of course, the more serious simply because they
can result in jail time! The most recent example of this
was the eastern Airlines enforcement proceedings a few
years back.
Dispatch rules related to 121 operations will also be
included along with the training and maintenance rules,
thereby expanding the reach of Part 121. Will you as the
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine i73
Staylng Legal
technician releasing an aircraft through an airworthiness
release (FAR 121 709, 135.443) be held more accountable
for any discrepancies that would otherwise make the air-
craft unairworthy? To complicate matters, many carriers,
under Part 121, make use of an additional release that is
not specifically described in the FAR and that is a
swalled maintenance release. The maintenance release
simply c e e i e s the last airworthiness release is
still valid.
Keep in mind an airworthiness release is some
thing the technician himself is responsible for, and a
maintenance release, on the other hand, is issued by
dispatch personnel.
94 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
The answer to the responsibility question is a
resounding yes! Essentially there are two levels of
responsibility with this system.
Some air carrier technicians believe they are insu-
lated from certificate action or worse, fines by the FAA,
simply because they are employees working under the
rules of Part 121, and that now dispatch carries the
responsibility ball. If you believe this,then I've got a
bridge to sell you. Qa March'April1995
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 Retesting nightmare!
How secure is your license?
By Stephen P1 Prentice
I
f you think Bob Hoover got a raw deal from the
FAA on his medical turndown, listen to this tale
of woe from down San Antonio way. This FAA
faux pax involves some 250 A&P technicians and the
summary suspension of their validly issued certificates.
Many of you will recall the fads from a previous
report regarding the legalities of the retesting problem
in San Antonio. The story has to do with ongoing efforts
by the FAA to retest some 250 licensed A&P technicians.
The FAA had decided that its designated examiner did
not administer the oral and practical exams properly
during the course of some two years.
It all began when the FAA started their national
audit of designated examiners for both pilots and techni-
cians. This was a broad based effort to look into the
quality of the examinations that were being given by
FAAdesignated examiners.
In this case, there were reports the examiner had not
conducted his tests in accord with the requirements of
the FAA Examiners Handbook. (Order 8610.4C). The
testing procedure to be followed is quite specific, but
does leave some discretion to the examiner. It was
alleged that the testa were abbreviated and significant
testing areas were left out.
In order to make their case against the examiner, the
FAA selected certain technicians and invited them to the
FSDO for interviews. Many refused to go. Those that did
respond were clearly intimidated by representatives of
the FAA and Inspector General's office.
Some technicians were given statements to sign that
had been prepared for them. The statements described
the alleged unacceptable conduct of the examiner, more
exactly, what he failed to include in the testing process.
Little did the technicians know that by giving statements
supporting the charges against the examiner, they unwit
tingly, through no fault of their own, caused the suspen-
sion of not only their own certificates but those of over
200 others!
Needless to say, they were not advised in advance
that this could be a result of their testimony. Based on
these statements and other fads, the FAA decided to
suspend, on an emergency basis, all the cert5cates
issued by the examiner reaching back almost two years.
They invoked Section 609 of the Federal Aviation Act.
Under Section 609 of the 1958 ad, the FAA has the
power to demand retesting when they think there is a
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reasonable basis for the retesting. All licensed airmen
are covered by this section, including pilots and A m
personnel, among others.
The FAA usually invokes this tough rule when an
airman has done somethmg wrong. In this case, how-
ever, the technicians did nothing wrong! Here the FAA
did something wrong; that is, it failed to exercise super-
vision over its own designated examiner.
This of course meant that the technicians lost their
certificates immediately. Some efforts were made to
retest on a reduced content basis. Review sessions were
also offered, but this approach did not meet with wide
spread acceptance. Some 10 or so airmen elected to
retest and only a third of those were passed.
Initially, two airmen refused to give up their certifi-
cates, which they had a right to do under the 609 regula-
tion, and they demanded a hearing on the issue.
In due course they had a hearing before Judge
Mullins of the NTSB. After listening to the FAA and the
airmen, he decided that the FAA was wrong and that the
airmen were correct in refusing to give up their ticket!
The FAA appealed to the NTSB full board and they
prevailed! The board said that the judge was wrong and
the FAA was right! The airmen then appealed this deci-
sion to the next higher forum which is the U.S. District
Court of Appeals in Washington, D.C.
The decision in this case was decided and handed
down on Nov. 14, 1994. The court wasted no time find-
ing in favor of the FAA and against the airmen. The
court simply said that there was a reasonable basis for
retesting the airmen.
The court, which is made up of three judges, went on
to say:
The Petition for Review is denied. m e administrator
issued emergency orders suspending petitioners' mechan-
ic certificates pending reexamination of their qualifica-
tions. These orders were based on a reasonable belief
that, through no fault of their own, petitioners' ce&ca-
tion examinations were not conducted in accordance
with the requirements of the Aviation Mechanic
Examiner Handbook. merefore, the administrator
reasonably found that petitioners' certificates were
improperly issued and reexamination was necessary.
The administrator's reasonable belief was supported by
substantial evidence.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 95
StaylngLegal
It would appear from the language of the decision
that the court completely ignored the f a d it had abso-
lutelv no evidence in the record on how the exams were
conducted except for the handful of airmen who were
interviewed.
There were only a few cases where airmen were
personally interviewed to have them relate the content
of their exam. In addition. there were manv others who
were tested by the man before this partic& group.
Should they not be retested also?
Where did the FAA decide to draw the line? Many in
the field have seen this decision as out of line. Indeed,
Judge Mullins described the case as one having "a dis-
tinct odor about it..." Many are of the opinion that the
case is wrong and based on very weak evidence at best.
In the meantime, the plot back in San Antonio has
thickened. Another case, involving two more airmen, was
again heard before Judge Mullins, and he again found
in favor of the airmen. The FAA appealed this case, just
like it did the first case. The board again found in favor
of the FAA and reinstated the suspensions pending
retesting.
The airmen appealed to the U.S. Circuit Court of
Appeals. This appeal is now pending. But, since the
Court of Appeals found in favor of the government in
I The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
the first case, it appears that all the men will face retesti
ing unless there are further legal moves.
The bottom line is that the FAA does not have a
valid reason to retest these airmen. An Fudesignated
examiner performed the tests. If the FAA thinks he did
not perform the tests in strid accordance w i t h its rules,
then that should be a matter between the FAA and the
examiner. (It already has forced that man to give up all
of his certScates!)
The FAA should not be allowed to summarily cashier
the tickets of over 200 airmen and demand retesting
simply because it thinks that its own selected examiner
did not do the job corredly in every single case. Yet, the
FAA has no specific proof of this fad.
There has to be some middle ground. None has
appeared to date. The U.S. Court of Appeals has made
a decision on this thorny issue that will continue to
create bad feelings between the FAA and the working
technicians.
It appears likely that all the men will be forced to
retest in some fashion before they can get their certifi-
cate back. The NTSB and the Court of Appeals continue
to listen to the FAA's siren song of safety ad nauseam! It
has no application in this case, and 'Irinder and gentler"
does not apply. El Januazyflebruaty 1995
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Goodbye FAR Part 65, hello Part 66!
Highlights of new regulation
By Stephen I? Prentice
M
ost technicians should at least be aware by
now that changes are in the works for the
certification requirements of FAR Part 65. The
proposed changes have recently been published. I will
review and comment on some of them here.
The FAR says that because of the significant techni-
cal changes in the industry as a whole, and especially
the changes in the training environment, we must
modernize FAR 65. Therefore, they have proposed new
FAR Part 66, which will give maintenance its own
section, apart from other regulations affecting airmen.
The idea is to enhance technical skills and raise the
level of professionalism within the aviation community,
which certainly makes sense.
We are all aware, for example, that mechanics in
Canada are called aircraft maintenance engineers and as
such appear to have a somewhat higher level of profes-
sionalism. In order to have the regulations reflect a
higher level of expertise, our mechanics will now have
the formal title of aircraft maintenance technician. In
addition, the new regulation will of course be gender
neutral, since we have seen an increased participation
of women in the maintenance of aircraft. Furthermore.
repairmen will now be called aviation repair specialists.
A sidcant testing change will expand the knowl-
edge requirements beyond those found solely in Parts 43
and 91 to include the applicable maintenance provisions
of the entire contents of Chapter 14! Just what this
means is anyone's guess at this point, but there is no
doubt that the test is going to be more complex and
longer. We can assume that pertinent parts of FAR Part
121, 135 and 145, at a minimum, will be included in the
new test questions.
Also, because of some confusion regarding FAR Part
65.75b, which requires you to pass each section of the
written test before applying for the oral and practical
tests, the new proposal will clearly state that you must
pass all written tests before being allowed to take the
oral and practical. This has usually been the general
interpretation of the section, but it will be set out clearly
in the new regulation.
Another area that will be tightened up is the experi-
ence requirement used to support technician applica-
tions. Currently it is expressed in months, and the new
regulation will set out an hourly requirement in its place.
This may stretch out the experience necessary simply
because there are theoretically only eight working hours
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in a day. The FAA says that by using hours it will allow
them to measure and verify work experience more
accurately. This new rule will simply codify the current
practice which already allows inspectors to use the
hourly system for measuring parbtime work.
A new proposed provision that will greatly aid com-
mercial operations is one that will allow technicians to
perform specific tasks without having performed them
in the past. Take the case of an airline technician at a
remote station being faced with a repair job that he has
never performed. Technically, the FAR would require the
company to send someone out to assist and supervise
that job for the on-site technician. The new proposal
will allow the on-site technician to use what is called
equipmenbspecific training to obtain the competency
that would otherwise be acquired by experience. Let's
keep in mind what FAR 65.81 says:
FAR Part 65.81
"...a technician may not supervise the maintenance,
preventive maintenance, or alteration of.. any aircraft..,
unless he has satisfactorily performed the work at an
earlier date...
"
This FAR as noted, causes added expense for air
carriers who operate modern complex aircraft of various
types. The new revised section in FAR 66 will allow a
technician to approve an item for return to service
without previously having performed the work! This is
n o w more than recognition that the experience neces-
sary and required by 65.81 can be acquired through
special training equal to the technical knowledge gained
through experience. This addition clearly makes sense in
the new training environment and is a useful addition to
the regulations.
Aviation maintenance instructors are further recog-
nized in the new regulation as performing an important
job, and the FAA proposes to add a rule that would
expand Part 65.83, recent currency requirements.
Instructors would be allowed to apply their teaching time
toward work currency requirements so that they can
keep their certificates active. This is a logical step and
is a long time coming. Since the purpose of currency
requirements in 65.83 is to ensure that all aviation tech-
nicians are familiar with current maintenance practices
and the FARs, it makes good sense to include teaching
of such practices and the applicable regulations as a
credited event. Teachers are continually exposed to
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 97
8taylng Legal
current maintenance practices and often educate the
aviation community in advance of the introduction of
new equipment and procedures.
Along the same lines, annual training requirements
for working technicians will be established. Yes, you will
be required to get recurrent training. However, don't
worry; it is a rather modest step and will be somewhat
painless.
To begin with, under the proposed rule you will be
required to get at least 16 hours of training in a tweyear
period. For example, attendance at an IA refresher
course would constitute training that would be accepb
able. For the most part, any type of training appropriate
to your duties will apply. One of the good results will be
that equipmenbspecific training will also apply toward
the proposed annual training requirements.
Fhght instructors renew their certificates every two
years. In order to be somewhat uniform, it is proposed
that IAs likewise renew their authorization every two
years. This is designed to reduce the administrative bur-
den which, in these hard times of reduced staff, makes
good sense since it does not compromise safety in any
way. As a logical follow on, the training seminar option
for renewing your IA would be raised to 16 hours for the
two-year period. If an IA attends a current inspection
training program recommended by an aircraft, engine or
98 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
appliance manufacturer, these training programs will
also suffice to support renewal of the IA certificate. In
addition, it is proposed that home study and video
courses could also be acceptable to complete your train-
ing requirements.
Well, it doesn't take much to f i e out that the FAA
has a primary goal in mind with these new changes, and
that is education and training. Recurrent training is the
basis for increased maintenance productivity and quality.
If technicians can simply reduce the amount of time it
takes to troubleshoot systems and find the problems,
unnecessary repairs will be avoided, with obvious savings
to all concerned.
These changes to Part 65 have been a long time
coming and hopefully they will be made the law shortly.
Keep in mind that your input as a working technician,
inspector or teacher is still sought by the FAA in order
to refine what has already been placed on the record.
The regulatory changes were brought about by the joint
efforts of many people in the industry working together
on the Aviation Rulemaking Advisory Committees
(ARAC). I am confident the FAA and various committee
members would be delighted to hear from you. This
regulation is a step in the right direction for a change!
NovemberLDecember 1994
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Pirate the STC?
You'd better think twice!
By Stephen t? Prentice
upplemental Type Certificates (STCs) have always
S played a major role in providing additional
improvements to aircraft, but these ceflicates
have caused much distress to their originator/owners
when others use them without recognition-and more
importantly, without paying for use.
STCs, as the name implies, certdy changes to air-
craft, engines or other aviation appliances which are
already type certificated. If you wish to alter any of
these, you must first obtain approval from the FAA
through an STC application.
The Supplemental Type CeM1cat.e serves the same
function that the Type Certificate does for initial manu-
facture, that is, it allows the FAA to shorten the process
of further type ceflication by simply allowing you to
incorporate in a similar type, an already approved d e
sign, contained in the STC. Remember that STCs are
acquired through the same difficult and lengthy process
as original type certification, with no illusions as to the
amount of work you have in taking on the FAA bureau-
cracy. You basically have to prove the airworthiness of
the change that you propose to make.
Some STCs consist simply of engineering research,
incorporating extensive flight tests, with little, or in
some cases, no actual hardware involved. A good
example is the EAA auto-gas STC for small piston
engined aircraft. Other STCs provide for add-on hard-
ware to improve performance, like vortex generators
added to lifting surfaces. Still others provide engine
additions, like turbochargers, to enhance performance
at altitude.
An STC that allows you to increase gross weight of
an aircraft with some simple flight techniques and
perhaps a couple of additional and more accurate instru-
ments in the cockpit is another example. Individuals
who are successful in obtaining an STC after extensive
flight tests, time, money and engineering are certainly
entitled to payment for its use. And you might expect
the FAA to protect the ownership interest in these STCs,
or at least prevent approval of STCs that were not
properly acquired.
However, what follows is a case in point that demon-
strates that some individuals don't believe these two
points:
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This particular STC allowed for an increase in gross
weight of an aircraft and was used by an operator with-
out permission. He simply decided to pirate the STC.
He had his technicians copy the supplemental flight
manual from one already supplied and obtained the
instruments from a separate source. He then copied
all of the relevant FAA paperwork and submitted it for
approval. The FAA certified the installation and the air-
craft as airworthy.
Needless to say, the guy who developed the STC
howled and demanded payment for ita use. A long series
of negotiations did not resolve the issue. He complained
to the FAA and they refused to interfere in what they
described as a civil matter. The operator simply ignored
the demands for payment.
The STC owner eventually sued the operator for
appropriating and using the STC and, alleged further,
that he was therefore unjustly enriched! The case went
to trial before a U.S. District Court Judge and the Judge
threw him out and found in favor of the operator! The
court simply said that there was no protedable property
interest in the STC and even if there was, the lawsuit
was preempted (superseded) by federal copyright and
patent laws. (i.e., the STC owner had not secured patent
or copyright protection).
The battle was lost for the owner but not the war. He
appealed to the next higher court.
When the case was heard in the appellate court, the
court had a different view. It said, in general, that devel-
opers of STCs were innovators and thus had an exclusive
right to reap the benefits of their own efforts. It men-
tioned further that if the STC proved defective, the
originator could be sued on a produds liability theory
for any damage his defective STC might cause.
He was also found to have generated the data that
was required to comply with Federal Air Regulations and
other administrative requirements and thus was entitled
to be compensated for his work.
An STC is issued to a particular individual and
thereby entitles him to specific privileges (FAR 21.119).
Further, the STC is transferable and may be licensed
for further use, in accordance with the regulations
(FAR 21.47).
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Staying Leflal
FAR 21.119 Privileges (Subpart E)
"The holder or licensee of a supplemental type certifi-
cate may...
(a) In the case of aircraft, obtain airworthiness
certificate;
(b) In the case of other products, obtain approval for
installation on certificated aircraft;
(c) Obtain a production c e f i c a t e for the change in
the type design that was approved by the STC..."
FAR 21.47 Transferability (Subpart B)
"A type certificate may be transferred to, or made
available to third persons by licensing agreements."
The court also questioned the fact that the FAA did
not inquire as to whether or not the operator actually
owned the STC in question, either by way of a license or
outxight purchase. The FAA apparently does not choose
to police who actually owns an STC, and perhaps rightly
so. It would be faced with a large task in keeping track
of d the STCs that are issued, ownership issues, and
who might be using STCs without permission.
100 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
It's a civil matter and should be sorted out in the
civil courts, if that becomes necessary. The job would
just be too big, and add another level of responsibility to
the overburdened FAA bureaucrats. If you don't believe
they are overburdened, just try to get a field approval
with a 337 form!
In this case the fads were quite clear as far as using
the STC without authorization is concerned. The pirate
in this case took a chance and gambled on not being
bothered by the STC owner. He guessed wrong, but by
the time the case was finally completed on appeal, sev-
eral years had passed. He had the benefit of the use of
the STC during all that time, and probably made money
on it as he could make more efficient use of his aircraft.
Ultimately, however, he had to pay for the initial use
and for the several years of use thereafter. In addition,
he was also forced to pick up the legal fees in the case,
which were no small change.
So be safe, check with your friendly aviation counsel
before launching off as a pirate. And remember, there's
no free lunch! UU September/October 1994
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Mega-regulations, ready for more
FAR 121 rules and alcohol testing
By Stephen F! Prentice
A
recent commuter crash in Minnesota has
prompted another cry from the bureaucrats to
impose strider maintenance and training
requirements on Part 135 operators. In this accident the
crew appeared to lose ground orientation and impacted
the side of a hill during an instrument approach.
The direction is set. and the ultimate effect on small
carriers is clear to many. The proposal is yet another
step in the long-standing effo@ by the FAA to combine
Part 121 rules with those of Part 135.
It's aimed primarily at the regional carriers who
operate under FAR 135 rules, but the result most likely,
in the long run, will be additional costs of maintenance
and operations for all of the Part 135 operators. This
seems to go far beyond what might be needed and is
considered by many to be an unnecessary response to a
tragic, yet uncomplicated accident. Most believe that the
overreaction is the result of new bureaucrats who have
forgotten the history of the so-called Part 135 operators
and are simply driven by a need to respond to some
noisy politicians. Let's review some history.
A brief review
Years ago, 135 operators were called air taxis and
were regulated as such with minimum supervision in
order to allow a greater degree of freedom and flexibility
in the ondemand air taxi business. Air taxi went hand
in hand with flight training and sightseeing flights
and aided the expansion of the general aviation field.
Likewise, the maintenance requirements for air taxi
operations under Part 135 are less complicated than
those of a major air carrier, and the reasons for this are
easy to understand.
When the regional carriers came into being, they
immediately saw the advantage in operating under 135
rules. Maintenance and operating expenses were s u b
stantially lowered. To say now that these operations
are so sophisticated as to demand additional oversight
through application of Part 121 rules is absurd. It seems
like a typical kneejerk reaction.
Just because there is an accident involving a Part 135
regional carrier is no basis to begin the application of
Part 121 rules to them. After all, it seems we have had
far more serious Part 121 accidents in recent years,
involving many more passengers, than we have had with
the regional 135 carriers!
Many call it more "regulatory creep." The legalities of
regulating are such that the FAA's long sought goal of
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combining the rules of Part 135 with those of Part 121
will be realized sooner rather than later. This is coming
even though inspection oversight is minimal now with
the current 121 carriers. Gee, we will have to hire more
inspectors I guess!
As a first step, the intent is to impose what is c d e d
"training parity" that will eventually lead to the homog-
enizing of Part 135 and 121 pilots. The pilots flying
under 135 rules in aircraft with 30 seats or less will be
required to maintain the same training and technical
standards as Part 121 crews.
Along with the push for Part 121 rules on flight
operations will come the application of Part 121 mainte-
nance rules and regulations to Part 135 operations. Plus,
it can be expected that the mandate of the dispatch rules
of 121.591 will have to be complied with as well. These
requirements, if implemented, will add great additional
cost to the FAR 135 operators, and incidentally, hope
fully expand the job opportunities for maintenance
technicians.
What many will propose is a separation of the com-
muter Part 135 operations from the pure local shorthaul
air taxi operations. Many regional carriers today operate
under the rules of Part 121 anyway so why bother with
any additional regulations?
One more for the road!
Shades of prohibition... alcohol testing is coming!
Just like the drug testing requirements that have
already been imposed on air carriers and people provid-
ing service to them, alcohol testing will soon be in effect.
Just think about it. First, fill the bottle and then blow
in the tube! The dates are rapidly approaching. If you
are an air carrier (121 or 135) offering transportation
for hire or providing maintenance services to such air
carriers, you are going to have to comply with the alce
hol testing mandates. This includes small maintenance
shops with and without Part 145 repair station status.
The additional testing requirements, on top of the drug
testing rules already existing, are going to impose still
more regulations that will cost additional millions of
dollars to put into effect. But remember, these rules are
here to help you!
The new rules will require that 25 percent of a
company's safety sensitive employees, which includes
all maintenance technicians, be randomly tested, on a
routine schedule, for any sign of alcohol in their system.
Alcohol testing must also take place during preemploy-
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 1M
Staying Legal
ment, posbaccident, and in general if there is reasonable
suspicion of usage.
Testing, of course, includes maintenance personnel,
as well as pilots, dispatchers, and various security
persons. Also, any contractor providing maintenance
services would be included as well.
Here is an interesting sidelight however: Overseas or
foreign maintenance facilities working on U.S. registered
aircraft will not have to impose alcohol or for that mat-
ter any drug testing requirements on their employees!
The reason for this seeming fluke in the regulation is
that the DOT claims they could not resolve the simple
problem of going overseas to get the job done, and there
could be problems of enforcement with foreign govern-
ments. This is just nonsense!
102 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Our own FAA must approve all foreign repair station
certificates not only initially but 24 months thereafter,
FAR 145.17b. Without a repair station ~ e ~ c afrom t e
the FAA they can't work on U.S. registered aircraft
except in emergencies. No routine scheduled mainte
nance is supposed to be performed by foreign repair
facilities. AU the FAA would need to do is impose a drug
and alcohol testing requirement as a further condition of
issuance of a U.S. repair station certScate!
July 1, 1995 is supposed to be the starting date for
all Part 121 carriers and those Part 135 carriers with
50 or more employees. By January 1, 1996 testing
will be required of all carriers, support personnel and
contractors. 6El July/August 1994
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 Sfay/ng legal

Ask before you act

Asking for clarification of the regulations
after the fact may get you in trouble

By Stephen I? Prentice

technician, who was also an IA, called his FSDO

A
to ask if he could use his inspection authority
to inspect an aircraft when his A&P ceMicate
was suspended.
The inspector he talked to said he was not positive
on that, but he would check the regulations and get back
to him. We don't know for sure if the inspector ever
got back to the airman with an answer to his question,
but what follows may offer some idea of what happened
subsequently:
The airman was concerned because his A&P was
suspended for 30 days for a minor infraction. During
this time, he had performed an annual inspection on an
aircraft, but didn't exercise the privileges of his A&P. He
didn't realize that this was a problem until it came up in
discussions with other technicians at his place of employ-
ment. Subsequent concern for his certificate spurred the
call to the FSDO for an answer.
Coincidentally, during this time, the FAA was inspect
ing a local flight school on a routine check of its aircraft,
and it came to light that this same IA had performed an
annual inspection on one of the school's aircraft at the
time his A&P certificate was suspended. Unfortunately
for him, the same inspector he directed his question to
at the FSDO was involved.
The inspector did not ask for explanations and sent
the case to the regional counsel with a recommendation
for emergency revocation of all of the airman's certifi-
cates. The regional counsel agreed, and an enforcement
action followed. The FAA revoked his certificates, includ-
ing his inspection authorization, on an emergency basis.
An appeal was filed by the airman, and the case was
argued before an NTSB administrative law judge.
It turns out that there was some valid basis for
confusion on the technician's part. The regulations are
clear in some areas, but in others, can be somewhat
misleading. For example:
FAR 65.92a
"...the holder of an inspedion authorization may
exercise the privileges of that authorization only when he
holds a currently effectivemechanic certificate with both
a currently effectiveairframe rating and a currently
effective powerplant rating. "
This part of the regulation is quite clear, but if you
read on...
FAR 65.92b
"...an inspection authorization ceases to be effective...
(1) ...when it is surrendered...
(2) ...no fied base of operation exists...
(3) ...no longer has equipment, facilities..."
This part of the regulation states that an inspection
authorization ceases to be effective on the occurrence
of specific events. It says, among other things, that it's
ineffective when it's surrendered or revoked. Other
events are mentioned, but none include any spec8c
reference to the suspension of the A&P certificate.
This was the argument presented by the technician in
this case. He simply suggested that since the section
clearly sets out how the authorization ceases to be
effective, failure to include in this subsection the require
ment of having a valid A&P should mean that he could
continue to use his inspection authorization while his
A&P was suspended, regardless of what subsection (a)
said. Needless to say, this argument fell on deaf ears. It
was not the first time, however, that it had been raised
as an explanation for the use of the IA privilege under
similar circumstances.
The ignorance of a regulation is no excuse. Likewise,
the lack of any intent to violate the regulation also offers
no excuse. However, intent is an important factor in
regard to sanction. The judge in this case was convinced
that the airman did not intend to violate the rule and
the fact that he asked for a ruling on the question also
supported him in seeking a reduced sanction.
Keep in mind that a single incident of regulatory
noncompliance may compel a finding that the ceflicate
holder lacks the qualifkation to hold the ceMicate.
Further, a violation that involves your qualification to
hold your certificate will result in an emergency revoca-
tion every time. In order to relate the violation to the
quNication issue, the fads would have to amount to
something described as gross indifference to the require
ments of air safety, as was stated In one similar case.

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The judge in this case allowed that there must be
some confusion in the field. Mter all, the inspector him-
self was not sure of the regulation and its application.
He could have read 65.92b by itself and concluded that
the IA certificate was valid since having a valid A&P
certificate was not included.
The law judge found that the airman's violation of
FAR 65.92a was unintentional, and the FAA didn't
dispute the findings. However, the FAA still held out for
revocation, notwithstanding the finding of no intent, but
it failed to cite any authority to support its position.
That position being, that a single, inadvertent and
unintentional violation of the FAA warrants the most
severe sanction of revocation.
The FAA contended that revocation was required be-
cause the airman here deliberately performed an annual
inspection knowing that there might be some question as
to the validity of his certificate. The judge did not agree,
and stated that it is deliberate violations, not deliberate
actions that should raise questions about qualifications.
Further, there was no support for the contention by
the FAA that ignorance of the rule always amounts to
contempt or disdain for the regulations sufficient to
revoke a certificate.
The other observation that was interesting about this
case was that the 30-day suspension of the airman's A&P
certificate that caused the problem in the first place did
not specifically include the suspension of his inspection
104 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
authorization. One might conclude, as the technician
initially did, that his competency to exercise the IA
privilege was not an issue in this case, and therefore, he
could continue to exercise the privilege.
It was argued that the man simply assumed, quite
reasonably, that because the suspension order did not
mention his inspection authority, he could continue to
use it. There seems little doubt that if the FAA had
added the man's inspection authority to the 30-day
suspension order, this case never would have occurred
at all.
It's important to understand that revocation of a
certificate is mandated in all cases where, for example,
an airman operates an aircraft when his certificate is
suspended. Likewise, if this airman had exercised the
privileges of his A&P certificate while suspended, he
would have been subjected to summary revocation. All
cases involving revocations include willful violations
of the regulations. Revocations are painful results of
flagrant conduct, and they are tough to deal with, much
less defend.
Fortunately, in the case described, the judge had the
insight to apply common sense and a simple solution to
what in fact was a rather minor inaction. The man had
his A&P and his Inspection Authorization suspended for
an additional 60 days - a far cry from a revocation. rimI
May/June 1994
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Beware the trap
By Stephen F? Prentice
W
e've all seen it-the magic words in the
advertisement that says... "Fresh annual with
purchase ..."The salesmen love it and it helps
the sales effort. But occasionally, technicians get lured
into the trap of bending too far to sign off an annual
before it's complete, or worse, let an aircraft fly before
completing the paperwork for the annual-all for the
purpose of a quick sale.
Here's a case in point. An aircraft's engine was over-
hauled by a technician who happened to own the aircraft
and a notation was made in the engine and airframe
logbooks.
Some seven months later, the aircraft was advertised
for sale with a "fresh annual." The purchaser had his
own technician look the plane over and it was noted that
there was no annual inspection entered in the log.
The seller assured the new owner that he had per-
formed the inspection a week earlier, but didn't make the
entry simply because he didn't have the logbooks handy.
A month or so later the new owner brought the logbooks
to the technician (seller) and he entered the annual
inspection. Curiously, even though there was some time
put on the engine, he entered the same tach hours that
he had entered some seven months earlier when he
made the engine overhaul entry (3402 hours). After
putting two hours on the ship since purchase, the new
owner had some additional problems and had a different
technician look closer a t the aircraft. Numerous defects
were found that rendered the aircraft unairworthy.
Understandably, the owner complained to the FAA.
FAA maintenance personnel looked at the aircraft
and agreed that the aircraft was not airworthy. The FAA
inspectors concluded that the defects they noted could
not have occurred in the few hours since the alleged
annual inspection was entered and they decided that the
technician had not, in fad, performed the annual inspec-
tion as he had claimed. The FAA inspector concluded
that the technician had made an intentionally false
logbook entry regarding the annual inspection. An emer-
gency revocation of the technician's certificate followed.
FAR 43.12(a) Maintenance records: falsEcation...
"(a) No person may make or cause to be made: (1)
Any fraudulent or intentionally false entry in any record
or report that is required to be made, kept, or used to
show compliance with any requirement under this part.
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&) The commission by any person of an act prohib
ited under paragraph (a) of this section is a basis for
suspending or revoking the applicable airman, operator
or production certificate... "
The airman appealed the revocation and the law
judge affirmed the revocation order. The interesting
thing was that the law judge decided that making the
same entry of tach hours when he signed off the annual
as he did when he overhauled the engine some seven
months earlier was sufficient to justify the revocation
under FAR 43.12 (a). He reasoned that since the techni-
cian knew the aircraft had flown at least two hours since
the engine overhaul some seven months before, he must
have known that his Iater sign& of the annual with the
same figure was false.
The airman appealed again to the full Board and they
sustained the revocation. He made his final appeal to the
Federal Appeals Court with what was a rather novel
theory. Keeping in mind that the law judge never had to
decide and did not decide whether the annual was in f a d
performed, the airman suggested the following:
He stated that "the tach entry of 3402 was not false
because he intended the 3402 entry to express a range
from 3402.00 to 3402.99 and this could be concluded
from the lack of decimal point in the previous entry and,
therefore, one could conclude that the blank space to the
right of the entry could be for the possibility of adding
tenths of hundredths of an hour."
Well, if you can believe this,let alone understand
it, I've got a bridge to sell you. Seriously, this is the
primary argument made on appeal in this case to U.S.
Court of Appeals.
Needless to say, the court rejected this, calling it
"far-fetched." It had to for two basic reasons: (1)the
airman did not raise this argument at the hearing before
the law judge,(this was fatal by itself), and (2) the
evidence was substantial in support of the f a d that the
entry was false (his defense was too far-fetched).
In a further attempt to persuade the court of his
innocence, the airman contended that: even assuming
the tach entry was incorrect, he did not intend to make
a false logbook entry. He claimed that he was not near
the aircraft when he made the entry and he simply made
a reasonable estimate of the tach time. He suggested
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 105
Staying Legal
that this action was at best neghgent. He stated further
that he had nothing to gain by falsifying the logbook.
This, at least, sounded better than his previous theory.
But the final argument, I believe, had the best ring
to it. He said that the entry was not material (it didn't
matter). He said the since the FAA uses the tach time
to determine when a lO(lhour inspection is due and
because they give you a l@hour grace period, hia
erroneous entry was de minimis, i.e., it didn't make
any difference.
The court felt, however, that this simply missed
the point. The entry was material since he had made
the entry knowingly. The court also quoted from
another case:
ld6 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
"A technician who knowingly misrepresents a log
entzy bearing on the condition of an aircraft he owns
for the purposes of enhancing its salability reveals a
willingness to place personal gain ahead of professional
responsibility that is incompatible with the position of
public trust he occupies. Such individual clearly lacks the
judgment a qualified certificate holder is expected and
required to possess."
The conclusion was simply that the airman had
violated FAR 43.12(a) by making an intentionally false
logbook entry regarding the tachometer reading.
Remember, intentional falsification is a serious
offense for which the FAA will, in virtually all cases,
revoke your ceMicates. Ba March/April1994
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 Staying Legal

NAFTA
Trick or treat for U.S. technicians

By Stephen I? Prentice

AFTA (the North American Free Trade Agree First, our FAA already provides for extensive work

N ment by now), was recently signed by the United

States, Canada and Mexico. Many technicians
and various related business activities, along with many
politicians, have voiced some concern that Mexico will
to be done outside our borders through the procedures
contained in FAR 145 Subpart C. The section starts out:
"A repair station certificate with appropriate ratings
attract overhaul activities related to aircraft repair may be issued for a foreign repair station if the Adminis-
because of the anticipated lower costs. Is this a valid trator determines that it will be necessary for maintain-
concern for U.S. technicians? Will it affect their jobs? ing or altering US. registered a i r c r d and engines for
Let's look at some of the issues. use on U.S. registered aircraft. A foreign repair station
FAR 43.17 already addresses work that can be done must meet the requirements of a domestic repair station
in Canada by Canadian technicians (aircraft mainte- certificate, except those in FAR 145.39 through 145.43."
nance engineers), and approved inspectors. Except for
It's fair to say, that with respect to repair stations,
annual inspections, these people may conduct any inspec-
that the die is already cast. The FAA can issue what are,
tion required by FAR 91.169 and perform preventive
in effect, work permits to foreign entities so that they
maintenance and alterations on U.S. registered aircraft
can solicit U.S. business. There are several hundred a p
in Canada. plications on file with the FAA for repair station status
Canadian technicians have enjoyed virtually an identi- by foreign entities, many of which have been approved.
cal status with their U.S. counterparts. Many of our Granting repair station privileges to foreign repair
private, corporate and air carrier aircraft have work per-
shops for other than emergency repair is a relatively
formed on them in Canada sometimes for convenience new innovation. Prior to 1988, only emergency work
and other times as a matter of expertise in specialized could be performed on U.S. registered aircraft by foreign
areas. However, Mexican technicians and facilities have
facilities. This rule was often ignored and was difficult
not enjoyed such status.
to enforce. So the FAA, in its great wisdom, and with
Although the Mexican technician is trained in a
pressure from foreign governments and our Congress,
similar manner as their U.S. and Canadian counterpart,
decided to grant overseas facilities repair station
our FAA has not adopted similar rules for Mexican work.
certificates.
This should change under N m A . A recent political candidate discussed what he
NAFTA provides for broad certification of most
described as a "giant sucking sound" which will be the
professions so that they will be recognized in the United
loss of U.S. jobs to the Mexican market due to lower
States as soon as the act is put into effect. Many techni-
labor costs. If we look at where the business in f a d goes,
cal trades such as: nurses, lawyers, CPAs, dentists,
at least in general aviation, we find virtually all Mexican
physicians, teachers and the like, will be allowed to prac- engine overhaul, repair and parts sales occur in the
tice their trades across the border. Those of us who live
United States. Commuter operators, private pilots,
close to the border areas will see a large increase in
agricultural operators and others in great numbers use
Mexican trucking and air freight activities as the rules
border states repair and sales facilities to keep their
of agreement allow for deregulation of the cross-border
aircraft flying.
inspections process.
A cursory stroll through many repair facilities in the
Mexican air carrier activity has already increased
border states supports this fact. Mexican operators have
with several new domestic entries into the long haul
always preferred to use U.S. facilities because they know
business. Air freight activity will probably double in
they are the best. There is no reason to believe that this
volume. Names such as Taesa and PanAmericana are
will change with NAFTA.
seen along with the traditional Aeromexico and
Interestingly, Mexican facilities going in along the
Mexicana aircraft flag carriers. The forecast appears
border will employ U.S. technicians and management-
bright on the horizon for these operations.
along with Mexican nationals. Jobs are being created for
Well, with all this anticipated activity will our techni-
our technicians as well as their own. For example, a new
cians and repair stations enjoy increased business as
well, or will it all go to Mexico, as many have suggested?

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facility under construction across the border from San
Diego is already employing some U.S. personnel and the
facility is not even open.
A tour through the facility shows nothing but U.S.
products and supplies all over the place. Ground support
equipment, machine tools, park stock, engine and
airframe tooling, and much more. It goes without saying
that this single facility contributes a good deal to the
1U8 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
creation of additional jobs at manufacturing facilities
in the United States and will continue to do so in
the future.
Contrary to some dire predictions, it appears jobs will
be created for the United States not only indirectly,
through p& and equipment purchases, but through
employment of U.S. technical personnel.
January/Fbruary 1994
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Federal faux
By Stephen I? Prentice
F
aux pas is simply French for blunder or serious
mistake. For a variety of reasons, there seems to
be more and more efforts by the feds that have
been turning into faux pas.
Included in the group are blunders by U.S. attorneys,
the Inspedor General of the FAA, and in one recent
case, the FBI. These agencies are all involved at various
levels and intensity with proceedings that attempt to
ferret out what they perceive to be illegal activity.
This series of gaffs would be laughable if it were not
for the fact that serious and expensive damages result
for the involved parties. The mistakes seem to be the
result, in many cases, of uninformed, poorly trained and
overzealous investigators and attorneys who are more
bent on making a name for themselves rather than
seeking true facts.
In some cases, informants are solicited to go after
suspect activities. Examples of loose cannons in the in-
vestigative and prosecution arena abound. What follows
is yet another recent episode that illustrates this point...
An employee of a Midwest air carrier stole certain
parts from his employer and brought them to a promi-
nent parts dealer for sale. The parts, in most cases, were
used and/or refurbished and seemed to be properly
identified and otherwise bona fide. The parties struck
a deal and the parts were funneled into the stream
of commerce.
Unbeknownst to the parts dealer, however, the seller
(thief) was being watched by the feds. The feds assumed
that the parts dealer was in cahoots with the thief and
that the dealer was really a fencing operation designed
to "wash" suspected parts. As a result, a large assort
ment of parts was confiscated and the dealer interro-
gated at length.
Now for most of us, our maintenance business would
not be able to exist without the used parts segment of
the trade. But how can one tell if a part is stolen, i.e.,
"bogus" or not?
The most obvious way is to check the computerized
nationwide listing of stolen parts and make other obvi-
ous inquiries of the seller as to where he got the parts.
If you should deal in Part 121 parts, parts for air
carrier aircraft, use extreme caution. The feds pay
particular attention to this area of the trade. Demand to
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know from whence they came so that you can personally
check with the prior owner. You should also be aware
that many sophisticated parts that are "lost" in the
industry are not reported as stolen. Moreover, they
frequently don't have any identification, other than the
original PMA (Parts Manufacturer's Approval) markings.
Keep in mind that this story could just as easily
apply to unapproved parts as well as stolen parts. Stolen
parts are unapproved parts, and the same statutes apply.
Another point: If you buy things that turn out to
have been stolen property, you don't own them. Even
though you have paid big bucks to someone, the rightful
owner can reclaim them without recourse on your part.
Outside of the threat of criminal prosecution, the com-
mercial loss to you in dollars could be catastrophic. Usu-
ally, the cops or the former owner get to keep the goods,
while the thief has your money and you have nothing.
You might also think that since you didn't know that
certain parts were stolen, you can't be prosecuted.
Wrong again. Knowledge of stolen property, for example,
can be inferred from a continuing course of conduct over
a period of time with the same person. This is another
reason to use due diligence in regard to tracing the ori-
gin of the goods. Keep in mind that under current regu-
lations, you have to be able to prove traceability if asked.
Never deal with strangers! They may be trying to set
you up. Consider the f a d that the feds prosecute many
violations with the aid of plants and informants.
So what happened in the case of the Midwest parts
dealer? The feds eventually elected not to prosecute the
dealer, citing lack of evidence. Regardless, the business
was effectively destroyed because of the intrusive nature
of the investigation and the parts concerned were a loss
to the dealer.
What's more... the dealer is still trying to recover
confiscated parts that were not part of the lot purchased
from the thief. However, the feds are holding these parts
as evidence. In addition, a civil lawsuit continues to go
on between the dealer and the air carrier from which
some of the parts came.
And the thief? He was sentenced to the federal pen
after being tried for interstate transportation of stolen
property. He'll be back on the street after a year in
custody. So much for justice! Dl November/December 1993
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 109
Staying Le#a/
The police arm of the FAA
By Stephen I? Prentice
H
ow many of you are aware of the f a d that the
FAA has a criminal investigative office with a
staff of criminal investigators in the field?
Probably not too many of you know about them, much
less ever met up with one.
The Eastern Airlines technicians who were indicted
during 1990, when EAL had ongoing strife with its
unions, ultimately shut down the airline. Those criminal
actions for violation of various Federal Air Regulations
were given wide exposure in the press at the time. The
government used this to show the muscle of the enforce
ment arm of the DOT, the FAA and the U.S. attorney in
the Southern District of New York.
Now, similarly, recent well-publicized criminal pros-
ecutions of bogus parts vendors and manufacturers
have been circulated in the aviation press. This again,
designed to focus attention on the activity of the FAA
and DOT; this time, in ferreting out bogus parts. Among
the cases publicized, as of late, is a story about a guy
selling overhauled engines that contained unapproved
parts. That case is still in the criminal courts. Then
there's the large turbine engine parts refurbisher who's
paying fines in excess of $112 million for its failures
(in regard to repairing turbine blades) plus a threat of
individual criminal prosecution of some of its officers
to boot.
Let's look at some of the government's tactics. The
government can actually use three parallel proceedings
if it chooses, all at the same time: (1) criminal action,
against both individuals and corporations, imposing jail
time and fines; (2) administrative action, against indi-
vidual and facility certifkates, imposing revocations and
suspensions; and (3) civil adion causing further lawsuits
and junctions, halting a l I production.
Here's a primer on the usual charges...
The standard criminal charges will always include the
following:
18 USC 1001-Making false statements in a matter
within the jurisdiction of an agency of the United
States
18 USC 371 -Conspiracy to commit offenseagainst
the United States
These broad charges cover just about all dealings
with the U.S. government. In addition there can be a
laundry list of additional charges including wire fraud, if
110 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
interstate lines of communication were used, and a very
recent interesting application of the various anti-terrorist
statutes for endangering aircraft.
Government prosecutors do make mistakes, however.
In one case a man was charged with just such crimes
and was likened to a terrorist who might have placed a
bomb on an aircraft. The device in this case turned out
to be a suspected unapproved turbine blade. The man
and his company were exonerated and the criminal
charges against him were dismissed after arrest, arraign-
ment, release on bail and dl the attendant bad publicity
that goes along with such procedures.
This was clearly an error on the part of the FAA, the
Office of the Inspector General and the U.S. attorney.
Nonetheless these officers were all guilty of grievous
mistakes in judgment in their zeal to pursue what they
thought were bogus parts. In this case, the man's
business was ruined and he owed his lawyers a ton of
money-even though he was clearly innocent of any
wrongdoing.
The Office of the Inspector General of the FAA is the
office charged with the duty of overseeing the activities
of FAA personnel. Recent experience, such as in the case
cited above and others, would suggest that not enough
attention is given to the overzealous actions of some
government enforcers to include such people as FAA
criminal investigators.
These guys are similar to maintenance inspectors
when the inspectors are investigating an accident or
incident. They are vested with a big badge and are, of
course, quite intimidating in their presentation. Anytime
the FAA wants to inject some melodrama into an investi-
gation it will include a criminal investigator for whatr
ever effect necessary. Some advice: Whenever you're
confronted with any of these types, the only response,
should be ''talk to my lawyer.,."
Rest assured, if you're suspected of dealing in bogus
parts or anything that remotely resembles the same,
you'll receive a visit from a criminal investigator and of
course a PMI or maintenance inspector. No, they won't
be after your repair station or A&P certificate; they'll
want to put you in the federal pen and/or collect a
substantial fine.
Keep in mind also that there is a big, potential pock-
etbook difference between criminal action and civil
action. The law provides for reimbursement of attorneys'
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fees and other expenses in agency administrative adom
where the agency fails to prevail and the case is not
substantially jusMied. This reimbursement action, is
granted pursuant to the Equal Access to Justice Act
(5 USC 504) which provides for a petition to the Admin-
istrative Law Judge on the case for such reimbursement.
If FAA administrative action is found not substantially
justified, an award can be made.
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No such provision exists for unjustified criminal
action where there's either a dismissal of an action or
if one is found not guilty by a judge or a jury. If a U.S.
attorney is forced to withdraw his criminal indictment or
complaint, you're left with nothing but unpaid attorney
bills. The innocent are free but usually have gone broke
in the process of defending themselves. Then, the next
step is the bankruptcy court. But maybe that is the
point... September/October 1993
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 111
Staying Legal
You win some, you lose some!
More on re-examination
By Stephen P. Prentice
T here have been developments concerning a previ-
ous article dealmg with the issue of reexamina-
tion and Section 609. As the previous article
states, there have to be good reasons related to errors,
on the part of technicians, in order for the FAA to
request a re-examination.
This specific case dealt with two technicians who
cooperated with the FAA and gave statements regarding
a DME (Designated Mechanic's Examiner) whose license
was subsequently revoked. The technicians were students
of this DME and were subsequently asked to retest. The
technicians refused to be retested and requested a hear-
ing on the issue. A hearing was held before an adminis-
trative law judge as provided for in the regulations.
Keep in mind that at this point, these airmen had
done nothing wrong or had not committed any error in
their work that might make their qual3cations suspect.
Over a year previously, they had completed a course of
instruction lasting one year at an FAA-approved Part 147
school. This schooling cost them each $10,000 in tuition,
and now the FAA was coming after them because of
alleged failings of their FAA-appointed examiner.
And what's more, the FAA elected to randomly rein-
sped certain graduates of the school, but not all of the
graduates. Why retest randomly and base the retesting
on the luck of the draw?
The hearing proceeded before a judge who had great
difficulty understanding this vendetta against the exam-
inees. After all,most of the DME's students had gradu-
ated and been tested over a year previously. The DME
had his certifkates revoked and yet they wanted more?
The judge had a problem with the way the investiga-
tions were handled. According to the judge's report: The
FAA thoroughly intimidated the technicians by, at one
point, threatening criminal prosecutions of them if they
didn't give accurate information relative to the alleged
mistakes of their examiner. The FAA also failed to tell
the airmen that they were not required by law to speak
with them and that they would be subject to reexamina-
tion even if they would cooperate.
112 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
The judge's decision seemed to agree with what
appears to be logical and sensible thinking in this case.
The judgment was in favor of the airmen and against the
FAA. He described the case in his decision as follows:
"The case has two odors about it,... the first odor is
that these gentlemen... were good students, perhaps top
students, at a school operated and/or licensed by the
Administrator... They completed that school... and they
were examined by a designated maintenance examiner
and that designation comes from ... the Administrator...
Now the Admhistrator says in this proceeding, well, this
guy that represented us didn't do his job and so there
fore we're coming after you folks... there's sometlung
sort of inherently upsetting about that. The second...
thzng that has a . odor is the way the investigation
was conducted,... I guess the bottom line for me, the
evidence that the Administrator wants me to consider
today is vew disturbing; the way it was obtained, the
time frame."
The FAA had a number of problems in this case.
Among them were the challenge of getting the techni-
cians to appear and give a statement, and the potential
of having to reexamine every person that the DME had
ever licensed. It did not want to be put to that position.
Many would suggest that the FAA should simply do
its job in a case such as this by leaving the technicians
(innocent victims in this case) alone and simply following
up on job performance, as it's supposed to do anyhow.
But the FAA didn't stop there. The final irony of this
case is that the FAA appealed the judge's decision to the
NTSB (it always does when it loses), and the NTSB has
sided with the FAA on this case and issued an order
reversing the judge's decision. So much for justice!
The NTSB could not understand the judge's feelings
on the case with regard to the conduct of the FAA
investigators. In criminal law, when the conduct of the
officers of the government is found to be out of order,
cases are often dismissed. The NTSB's final remarks in
the decision were simply as follows:
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 "...the additional burdens imposed on the respondents
by requiring that they be retested do not outweigh the
Administrator's interest in ensuring that u n q u a e d
individuals not be allowed to perform maintenance
on aircraft. "
The case will be appealed further.
The lessons to be learned from all of this are as
follows: First, it seldom pays to discuss matters with
FAA representatives when there's a potential for charges
against you. Second, a hearing should be demanded on
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any issue involving retesting or qualification so that a
full disclosure of any FAA tactics can be determined.
And fmally, always consider asking for an "Agreement of
immunity" from any action against you in return for any
information that you provide. The doctrine of immunity
from i rose cut ion is commonlv used in the law when the
government has a pressing need for information and
there's a possibility of adverse action against the person
giving the information. El July/August 1993
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 113
Staying Legal
Watch your parts or
someone else will!
By Stephen P. Prentice
R
ecently a report described how a shop acquired
an overhauled engine for installation in a
customer's aircraft and on examination noted
that it looked a little strange. The customer had ordered
the engine job himself and had it shipped to his local
shop for the installation. The engine case was secured
with an unapproved type of self-locking nuts.
This prompted a closer detailed examination, and a
complete teardown under the watchful eye of an FAA
representative. A laundry list of unapproved parts
(NAPA bearings, etc.) and poor workmanship were dis-
covered and documented. The FAA went after the sup
posed overhaul shop, and, in due course, the FBI and the
U.S. Attorney took their turns. The case still drags on.
The bottom line, however, is that the shop and the
customer are out their money and probably will never
see any. The customer lost his payment for the engine
since the alleged overhaul shop was located out of town
and required payment in advance.
Needless to say the customer did not want to pay his
shop for the labor on the uncompleted job. Also, the
shop had to absorb the shipping costs because it signed
for the engine on arrival. The aircraft still sits waiting
for an engine.
Although this story is an isolated event, similar tales
have been recorded, and the result is always the same.
Everybody loses! In these hard economic times, all are
looking for the so-called good deal and a cheap price.
Quality is seldom cheap and approved parts are never
cheap. The best advice technicians can give their custom-
ers is to forget about the s d e d bargains. If they can't
afford to fix it right, then don't. Wait until they can do
the job, whatever it is, the right way. It is always a
shock to find out cruising at 6,000 feet that the bargain
cylinder job was something less, when the head flies off
through the cowling-or a marginal exhaust valve lets go
and wrecks an aircraft!
Teach your customers that there is no room for com-
promise on parts quality when you are off the ground.
Remember, if the price seems too good to be true, it is.
When buying parts for the shop, watch for the red flags
that should alert both you and your customers.
114 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
The primary red flag is unconditional payment in
advance. Traditionally, any customer has a right under
most commercial transactions to inspect goods on arrival
and reject them if there's a problem. A partial payment
on an account will usually secure a job until completed
to your satisfaction. Be suspicious if the price is too far
out of line.
When dealing with an unknown repair facility with
no sigdkant track record, why not ask for copies of
repair station certificates andlor technicians' certifi-
cates? If they are a bona fide business they must surely
have a local license as well. Most reputable firms are not
afraid of inspection or scrutiny. They are usually glad
to provide proof of their various certifications which
probably were awarded after a long period of testing.
Keep in mind further that a shop should be able to
provide a traceable chain of possession for all aeronauti-
cal and modification parts under current rules. This
simply means that you should be prepared to show that
all parta in inventory are labeled appropriately and have
invoices to show when purchased, and from whom. This
not only applies to things like fuel pumps, fuel nozzles,
cylinders and other aircraft or engine parts but also to
any hardware items.
The present spotlight on the detection of bogus parts,
including hardware items, should alert us all to the
probability of an avalanche of parts and hardware hitting
the market in the very near future at so-called bargain
prices, when the FAA decides to get tough on parts and
hardware traceability. Again, know your parts source.
Most of us, therefore, should be aware of the current
emphasis on the legitimacy of aeronautical parts and
their traceability from recent announcements by the FAA
in Washington. Indeed, this has spurred the creation of
the Approved Parts Seminar put on by FAA personnel
that will soon be the popular show in many areas around
the country. The Approved Parts Seminar is described as
an eighthour, allday program, designed to make persons
maintaining U.S.certificated aircraft aware of what is
considered to be approved aeronautical replacement and
modification parts.
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Unfortunately, the FAA has canceled the initial series
of seminars to revamp the presentation somewhat, and
all have been rescheduled for 1993. Check with your local
FSDO for the current dates. Many have speculated that
FAA had to redesign its presentation after numerous
complaints were received regarding the compliance
protocols described in the presentation.
Needless to say, technicians and operators should be
aware that substantial civil penalties and! or certificate
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Staying Legal
actions are available to the enforcement people at FAA
when they find evidence showing use of unapproved or
otherwise bogus parts.
Be sure to protect yourself and your business by
being ready to show a legitimate chain of custody from
the manufacturer to yourself, including paperwork from
the intermediate distributors. The paper you save will
protect your pocketbook and! or your certificates. r,;:!I
May/June 1993
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 115
Staying Legal
The threat from Section 609
Are you prepared?
By Stephen I? Prentice
I
t does not happen very often, but when it does,
it throws fear into the hearts of all. What is it?
The FAA's power to require reexamination of any
airman on his or her qualification to hold a certificate.
Recently, in different parts of the country, this power
is being exercised by some FSDO inspectors upon c e f l i -
cated technicians. Several incidents have prompted inter-
est, with calls from airmen making inquiries as to how
the FAA can do this. Many have stated that the whole
process reeks of intimidation. Maybe it does, but it's still
the law.
Technicians should be aware of the fact that the FAA
can, at any time, exert its reexamination authority and
attempt to force a technician to submit himself or herself
for reexamination in all or some specific part of their
certificated area. (Section 609 FAA Act of 1958, com-
monly called 49 USC 91429).
The process usually starts out with a request to the
airman to come into the FAA office for an interview.
Even though it could get the information it desires by
way of a few questions in a letter, the FAA will attempt
to discuss the matter with you in its surroundings, and
usually with another FAA person present. In one particu-
lar case, it has used this threat to get testimony from
technicians that was designed to be used against another
technician and, in some cases, their employers.
Obviously, there has to be some fadual basis to
require a reexamination. The FAA cannot just come
off the wall and say it needs to do a reexamination. In
short, it has to have good cause and there has to be
some relevance of the request to an incident or accident
that bears directly on the testing issue. Here's the
substance of the pertinent legal statute:
49 U.S.C. Section 1429(a)
"The Secretary o f Transportation may, from time,...
reexamine any civil airman. If.. h e determines that
safety in air commerce... requires, the Secretary of
Transportation may issue an order... suspending or
revoking... any certificate. Prior to... suspending or
revoking. .. any certificate the Secretary... shall advise the
holder... as to any charges or other reasons relied upon
by the Secretary...for his proposed action... and... shall
provide the holder o f such certScate an opportun.r*tyto
answer any charges and be heard as to why such certifi-
cate should not be... suspended or revoked. Any person
whose certificate is d e c t e d b y such an order... may
appeal... the order... to the National Transportation
Safety Board."
116 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
What the airmen must remember at the outset is
that there is no requirement a t all that they respond to
any request from a field inspector for any information
whatsoever. This is still a free country, and we all have a
right to remain silent. If you look at the record, and
FAA lawyers will tell you this in private, 90 percent of
enforcement cases are made from the mouths of accused
airmen. So, if your friendly inspector invites you to his
office to interview you on some subject, keep in mind
that there is absolutely no reason in the world to agree
to meet with him. There are, on the other hand, many
reasons not to meet with him. Tell him to write you
a letter regarding what he wants to know, and then
discuss any demands for information with a counselor
before responding.
If there is some evidence to support a request for
reexamination, the FAA will send a letter demanding
that you appear on a specific date for a re-examination.
If you think that this is all unjuswied, and no basis
exists for ita demand or you simply want a full hearing
on the issue, ignore the request, or simply drop a note
and decline the invitation.
What you now have done is forced the inspector
to make another big decision. That is, to involve the
Regional Counsels Office. A decision has to be made,
based on the evidence in hand, on whether or not to
proceed with a proposed suspension or revocation of
your certificaMs) pending a hearing on the issue. Keep
in mind, that you're entitled to a hearing before an
NTSB administrative law judge on the single issue of
the reasonableness and relevancy of the request for r e
examination.
Further, the burden of proof at the hearing is on the
government. There is a laundry list of timeconsuming
things to be done by both the FSDO and the Regional
Counsels Office, not to mention the law judges prepara-
tion and hearing.
Many times there will be no interest in pursuing an
otherwise weak case. But, even if you do lose on the
hearing before the administrative law judge, you only
lose your right to refuse a reexamination. If you want
your certificate, you have to be retested. The retesting
cannot be a broad-based retesting of everything con-
cerned with your certificate. The retesting, if it becomes
necessary, must be reasonably focused on those areas in
which the airman has demonstrated a lack of knowledge.
a MarcWApril1993
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Tort reform for product liability
Doubtful at best!
By Stephen P. Prentice
M any of us in the industry have harbored the
hope that perhaps at long last we would see
some changes in our tort law system (civil
harms). We would all like to see just and fair compensa-
tion for persons injured due to aviation accidents or
products, but this has to be balanced against the ability
of manufacturers to supply aircraft and parts at a rea-
sonable price without being put out of business by litiga-
tion costs. Alas, although we came close, still no cigar.
At the tail end of the last Congress, the Senate came
close to approving the Kasten Bill (S-640) which was a
broad-based general tort reform package that provided
relief in many areas. If this bill had been approved,
the Kassebaum bill would have been available for consid-
eration.
Kassebaum's bill specifically targeted general aviation
for relief by, among other things, preventing litigation
on aircraft that were in service for 20 years or more.
Congress obviously was not in the mood to make any
changes just before the election. The Kasten Bill failed
on procedural grounds to get to a vote, so it just died.
The general consensus is that the new administration
wiU be hostile to any tinkering with the tort laws as they
now exist. There are several reasons for this but the
most obvious one is the fad, as many have noted, that
the great majority of trial lawyer associations around
the country threw their support to Gov. Clinton for his
expected support in maintaining the status quo.
Product liability relates directly to general aviation
when you consider the increased cost to individuals and
operators. Virtually every facet of business is priced with
product liability threats in mind.
Repair stations and individual technicians today have
to consider the cost of their insurance protection in pric-
ing out their work. Likewise, many of the manufacturers
in general aviation make no secret of their higher prices
because of the threat of product liability litigation.
Take, for example, the recent requirement by Conti-
nental to replace all non-VAR (vacuum arc remelt)
crankshafts in virtually all TCM 0360s and 520 Series
engines. There's no doubt that this requirement comes
about because of fear of a failure and subsequent
lawsuits relating to the non-VAR cranks. Is this over-
reaction? Continental's mandatory service bulletin (not
an AD) is at the same time carefully drafted to skirt the
necessity of an AD pronouncement by the FAA.
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There's no specific data presented to support the
recall, simply a vague reference to field service data.
It's called compromise of sorts. TCM wants the cranks
removed from service, but with an acceptable level of
disturbance to the operators, and a reasonable profit if
any on the sale of new cranks, but, at the same time,
removing the potential threat of a product lawsuit. It
seems to be a fair balance of the various interests
concerned.
Compare general aviation's treatment with a typical
recall in the consumer automobile area. Currently, for
another example, there are a large number of Chevrolet
pickups that are allegedly dangerous because of the loca-
tion of the fuel tanks. The media has commented widely
on the subject, and now, a large industry insurance
group is urging GM to recall the vehicles dating back to
1973 so that protection can be installed around the
tanks. All this, naturally, at no cost to the consumer.
The insurance industry obviously sees a threat to their
pocketbook.
Nothing like this occurs in general aviation, probably,
because of the fewer numbers involved. But the dangers
are still present. Whether it's faulty gas tank design or
defective casting processes, the results are similar. Why
not the same treatment? Auto manufacturers are prompt
in their attention to any safety-related item, but usually
at little or no cost to the consumer. Not so in general
aviation!
On the upside, there's now a case of major impor-
tance before the Tenth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals
that for the first time has the United States joining
Piper in seeking to overturn a particularly bad decision
involving a collision between a Piper Cub and a vehicle
on a runway. The injured party is alleging, among other
things, that the Cub was defectively designed because
you cannot see from the rear seat.
Piper and the government are arguing that the
federal government has exclusive authority over matters
pertaining to aircraft design and air safety, and they
therefore preempt all other law.
The argument goes like this. Aircraft or any other
FAA-approved items are subjected to rigid federal
standards before approved for use. They meet all
requirements for design, production and airworthiness.
Therefore, you can't allow these items to be subjected
to a myriad of different state laws or standards.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 117
Staying Legal
The big news in this case is simply that the govern-
ment through the FAA has intervened on the side of
industry for the first time, in an attempt to say that it
controls all aspeds of aircraft accident law and the r e
sponsibility for the results, and that Piper, therefore, is
off the hook. The government is not a defendant in this
case.
This is pretty heady stuff which could have far-reach-
ing effects beyond this one case. The ultimate decision is
expected to go all the way to the Supremes, and only
time will tell what they have to say.
118 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
But, back to politics for the moment. Remember, the
current administration controls what the FAA does. Ad-
ministrator Harris, appointed by the outgoing president,
is supporting Piper in putting forward the preemption
argument. He's probably history on January 20. When
the case gets to the Supremes, it'll be the new president
who decides whether or not the government will argue
for or against the proposition. President Clinton's
administrator may have some different ideas about the
dilemma of product liability litigation. We'll have to wait
and see. Wl January/February 1993
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New tools for civil penalties
and enforcement
By Stephen F! Prentice
A
few issues back we discussed the Civil Penalty
Assessment Demonstration program which was
put in place by Congress back in December 1987.
The reasons for the program included putting in place a
system to expedite collection of penalties (fines) resulting
from violations of FARs. The program brought the trial
of these civil penalty cases "in house," to the FAA.
We've always had civil penalties, but prior to '87 they
were used sparingly-because the FAA did not control
their collection. The FAA had to let the U.S. attorney
colled the fines.
The assessment program was only supposed to be
a temporary tweyear experiment, but, like so many
government programs, was extended several times.
In what has frequently been described as a "kangaroo
court" system, there was no separation of the prosecutor
functions from the trial and appeal functions. The FAA/
DOT system excluded the National Transportation Safety
Board N S B ) in the civil penalty area. The appeals of
these cases were decided by an FAA decision maker, who
was usudy the chief litigation counsel of the FAA.
Because it was just not fair to have all the marbles in
the FAA's court, general aviation groups argued for over
three years that civil penalty hearings and appeals
should be placed back into the hands of the NTSB where
they belong. (Remember, the board is independent of
the FAA.)
Well, guess what? On June 25, 1992, the Aviation
Subcommittee of the House of Representatives, in a split
vote, and over the strong opposition of government
representatives, agreed to return pilot and flight engi-
neer civil penalty cases to the NTSB for hearing and
appeal. Several days later, technicians and repairmen
were added to the transfer.
The revisions to FAR 13 transfers civil penalty m a t
ters pertaining to pilots, flight engineers and technicians
back to the jurisdiction of the NTSB for hearing and
appeal purposes. Certificate actions have always been
heard before this board, and this, of course, will con-
tinue. The remainder of the demonstration program
enforcement procedures will now become permanent,
and apply only to cases concerning weapons on aircraft,
tampering with smoke detectors, smoking in aircraft and
hazardous materials.
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In addition, cases pertaining to air carriers and
repair stations that are processed as civil penalty cases
will remain under the jurisdiction of the FAAIDOT for
the purpose of hearings and appeals. The right to a jury
trial in a U.S. District Court, however, only applies to
government attempts at collecting civil penalties in
excess of $50,000.
Remember, we have always had a civil penalty fine
system in the FAA, but it was usually only used against
air carriers. The return of airmen's cases to the NTSB
for appeal at least correds the clear appearance of bias
in the former procedure and also prevents "forum shop
ping" by the FAA lawyers. The general consensus is that
we now have a more fair and impartial system, at least
in regard to the hearings on civil penalties for alleged
FAR violations.
One of the good results of the revised civil penalty
system will be to provide more flexibility in negotiating
settlements of violation cases than had existed in the
past. Also, cases that start out as certificate actions can
be settled prior to hearing with a fine, rather than
action against the certificate holder, if the circumstances
are consistent with a fine. But that's the good news, now
for some of the bad.
For some time now those of us in the enforcement
defense bar have noticed an increase in the use of the
"emergency" revocation or suspension powers of the
FAA. This, of course, is a powerful tool for the FAA
because it shuts down the operator or airman and stops
income instantly.
In the past it was only used for the most serious
violations, on the part of airmen or operators, that
clearly affected public safety. However, a recent obscure
order for amendment of the FAA's enforcement hand-
book (Order 2150.3A change 11) has added a mandatory
emergency proceeding in every case where an operator
or airman's qua.Zitications are in question.
It doesn't take a mental genius to f i e out a way to
expand simple violations into a qualification issue and
use it to intimidate and threaten.
Outside of being shut down immediately, the big
problem to the airman or operator in an emergency
proceeding is the f a d that it must be heard very quickly.
This requirement, although designed to give a speedy
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 119
Staylng Legal
result in the case, provides little time to seek counsel
and organize a defense to the complaint.
In addition, the use of the qualification issue also
avoids a form of statute of limitations inherent in the
NTSB's Rules of Practice, called the stale complaint rule.
The rule states that the FAA must notify an airman of
the reasons for a certificate action within six months
of the alleged violation, or have its complaint subject to
dismissal. Thk rule does not apply in civil penalty cases,
however.
For example, a recent skydiving crash in California
resulted in a technician having his certificates revoked
on an emergency basis forcing him to aggressively
defend himself. Some two months later, however, the
FAA was forced to return his certificates because it
120 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
could not prove the allegations supporting the revoca-
tion. The FAA frequently has a "kneejerk" reaction to
accident situations because of public pressure for some
kind of action. It's not the first time that overt action of
FAA's part has resulted in grief for a technician, nor will
it be the last.
This technician has further recourse, however, and
can make application to have his costs of defense
returned to him through the Equal Access to Justice A d
(49 CFR Part 826) proceedings, which can in some cases
, result in reimbursement of expenses for unfounded and
unjustified actions. We should all be aware that the
emergency revocation~suspensionprocedure may become
the enforcement tool of choice that will place the ceMi-
cate holder at great risk. El November/December 1992
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Director of maintenance?
Well, maybe!!
By Stephen /? Prentice
H ave you ever been asked to be a director of
maintenance @OM)? Chances are you've
thought about it from time to time, perhaps to
acquire some extra outside income or increase your
present salary.
You might think of the job as a step up and indeed
the FARs describe the job as a "management" position
(FAR 135.37). Many qualified technicians act as DOMs
on a partrtime basis and still hold regular jobs at an
FBO. Be wary of this arrangement; it has many pitfalls!
Before you launch off into the lofty heights of man-
agement positions, consider the following: First, you'll
have greater exposure to FAA sanctions. For example,
consider the case of a DOM working for an air carrier.
If the air carrier's ceMicate should for some reason be
suspended or revoked, your employment prospects for
the future may be affected. Consider the following:
FAR 135. 13(b)1,2
"(b) The Administrator may deny any applicant a cer-
Mcate under this Part if the Administrator fimds: (2)
That a person who was employed in a position similar to
general manager, director o f operations, director of
maintenance, chief pilot, or chief inspector, or who has
exercised control with respect to any ATCO operating
certificate holder air carrier, or commercial operator
whose operating certificate has been revoked, will be em-
ployed in any o f those positions or a similar position, or
will be in control of or have a substantial ownership in-
terest in the applicant, and that person's employment or
control contributed materiaLly to the reasons for revok-
ing that certificate."
Although the words are laborious, the gist is that if
you're tainted by the condud that results in a sanction,
you'll have difficulty getting employment with another
carrier as a DOM, or serving in any other management
position.
Note that the key words in the FAR are... "contrib
uted materially ..."The FAA usually has little difficulty
connecting the principal's conduct to the reasons for
the sanctions.
This "taint," incidentally need not have resulted in
certificate action against the DOM in order to affect
h i s h e r ability to participate as a defined principal in
another air carrier operation.
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Consider this example: A Part 135 operator's certifi-
cate was recently revoked. One of the reasons was that
his boss was using aircraft that were not approved or
listed in the operations specifications. Although the
DOM had little control over the aircraft operated by his
boss, he did supervise or perform the maintenance on
them. Under these conditions, the DOM is presumed to
be aware of the contents of the operations specifications.
When, as in the example, he claimed he was innocent
of any wrongdoing on this point, the FAA said he was
responsible for aircraft operated in violation of the FARs
and his own operations specifications.
What should he have done? In order to protect him-
self he would have been wise to give the boss a written
memo reminding him of the requirements of the opera-
tions specifications and the danger involved in using
unauthorized aircraft in the operation. Also, he should
have kept a dated copy of his memo for his own file.
The knowledge of an apparent violation of the FAR
doesn't mean that the DOM should go running to the
FAA. Instead, he should be in a position to state that
due diligence was exercised. Failure to advise manage-
ment of apparent violations of the FARs would tend
to taint the DOM. Remaining silent in this case isn't
advised. You've got to document your position on an
issue in order to state that you measured up to the
responsibilities of your job.
Here's another risky situation. Today, many privately
owned light twins, turboprops, and jets are acquired and
placed on an obliging operator's Part 135 certificate.
This is done primarily to avoid sales tax. In fad, 135
operations are sometimes formed for this reason. m e r e
is a federal exemption from state sales taxes when the
aircraft is used in "air commerce.")
Of course there are certain rules requiring proof of
commercial operations, along with records to support
such activities. These ceMicate holders often have a
designated DOM who rarely spends time in the opera-
tion. We call this person, the "phantom DOM." This
phantom DOM often has another full-time position at an
FBO. The DOM might not know it, but they're treadmg
on thin ice, and should reevaluate their position, or
demand higher pay for higher risks!
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 121
Staying Legal
The key problem for the DOMs, in these cases, is that
they simply are not around enough to be aware of all of
the irregularities, yet w i l l be charged with knowledge
of the same in accord w i t h the applicable FARs and the
operations specifications.
You shouldn't perform this type of DOM function
without comprehensive insurance protection for your
performance as an employee of the certificate holder.
122 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Additionally, you should also inform your full-time
employer of your partitime activities so that an analysis
of their potential liabilities can be made. Your outside
activities may involve your full-time employer in some
costly problems. a September/October 1992
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Are you protected?
Be aware of your liability exposure
By Stephen P Prentice
In aviation, a slight mistake can trigger severe results.
the liability-charged
Technicians atmosphere
are painfully aware of that surrounds
the legions
bureaucrats and lawyers waiting to pounce on any inci-
of
dent or accident. The FAA, as we all know, can pursue
us with certificate actions or civil penalties, either of
which can severely affect our pocketbooks.
Along these lines, I am frequently asked by techni-
cians to explain the different threats they face in their
particular employment situation. It should be clear that
where you work and what you do generally define the
relative responsibility and associated exposure you
have. Let's look at some typical situations and review
some basics.
Employed as an individual, the technician should be
prepared to stand behind all work, be in a position to
take all the heat and have some insurance protection.
When under the umbrella of the repair station certifi-
cate, however, all work is accomplished in the name of
the repair station and, theoretically, the repair station
returns the aircraft to service after maintenance. Part
145.51 says, "A certified repair station may approve for
return to service any article for which it is rated after it
has been maintained or altered ... "
As far as civil matters are concerned, you're usually
protected by the repair station's insurance coverage for
completed operations. Make sure your repair station
has coverage.
There are exceptions, though, where the repair
station certificate won't insulate you. Criminal actions,
such as falsification of records under FAR 43.12, for
example, allow the FAA to take action against any
certificate it issues.
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In addition, the FAA can turn over what it has to the
U.S. Attorney's office for further action. This recently
occurred in a well-publicized case of falsified documenta-
tion involving a fuel tank overhauler down South and an
accessories overhauler in the Midwest. Both defendants
will pay heavy penalties, before a U.S. District Court.
What about the non-repair station, Part 135 opera-
tion? If you're employed by the typical Part 135 operator,
do you have similar protection? Consider this regulation
Part 135.413(a), "Each certificate holder is primarily
responsible for the airworthiness of its aircraft ..." Does
this section place responsibility for aircraft condition
on the certificate holder rather than the technician? It
sure does.
Who releases the aircraft for return to service? The
technician, the inspector or the director of maintenance?
None of the above.
Look to Part 135.437(b), "A certificate holder may
approve any airframe ... for return to service after main-
tenance ...," and also FAR Part 135.443(a), "No certificate
holder may operate an aircraft after maintenance ...
unless the certificate holder prepares ... an airworthiness
release ... "
From the language in this regulation the intent is to
place responsibility for airworthiness on the air carrier,
similar to the situation where the repair station returns
aircraft to service.
But even with the protection afforded by the air
carrier certificate, always be aware that at any time the
FAA may choose to take action directly against the
technician-regardless of which certificate the work was
signed off under. m July/August 1992
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 123
Staying Legal
Where there3 smoke...
thereyspoison gas
By Stephen P Prentice
I t was New Year's Eve, Dec. 31, 1985, when the
lumbering old DC-3 cruised serenely through the
early evening sky toward a nightclub engagement,
another "gig" in Dallas, TX.
The band had just left a gig in Alabama and was look-
ing forward to seeing the brighter lights of Big D.
It was cold, however, and the band members requested
that the captain turn up the heat. The large gas combus-
tion heater in the tail had been somewhat erratic in
operation and, in fact, had been worked on recently, so
the f a d that it would not light off was not surprising
to the crew.
Wisps of smoke were first noticed by the passengers
back near the aft baggage area, where the heater was
also located. The captain was called to investigate. As
he was looking into the area of the heater, he detected
increased smoke concentration. He discharged a fire
extinguisher into the area and secured the access door.
He reported seeing no flames at that time.
Returning to his seat in the cockpit, he immediately
called ATC and requested a vector to the nearest airport.
This was to be Texarkana, some 40 miles behind the
aircraft. Seconds later the captain advised ATC that he
had smoke in the cockpit and that he was making an
immediate descent. Thev made it into a farmer's field.
gear down and came to rest in a clump of trees after
taking down a small pole and some wires.
The crew crawled out their respective side windows
and fell some 12 feet or so to the ground. The co-pilot
was barely conscious and the captain was in shock.
The total elapsed time from initial wisps of smoke to
impact with the ground was some 12 to 14 minutes.
During this relatively short period of time all passengers
were felled with toxic fumes and the crew barely escaped
the same fate.
This accident was indeed tragic but what can we
learn from it? Like manv crash/fire accidents this one
may have been survivable for the passengers if not
for the toxic gases from bag plastics and, particularly,
polyurethane foam.
What are the technician's responsibilities in this
area? Federal Air Regulations have, in recent years, been
tightened up with regards to flammability of materials
used in aircraft interiors. The use of polyurethane
materials is still permitted, despite its severe toxicity
when burning.
FAR Section 25.853 and Appendix I?, Part 11 of Part
25 deal with most of the requirements. Air carriers are
124 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
discussed in Part4 121.312 and 135.169. When the tech-
nician detects a recent interior replacement, he should
pay particular attention to the aircraft records that
detail the installation. When in doubt about the require
ments, seek consultation with your local FAA inspector
or a Designated Engineering Representative (DER) who
specializes in aircraft interiors.
Too many interiors are installed by automobile
technicians or furniture specialists who aren't familiar
with aircraft systems. Keep in mind,also that the FAR
does allow owners to install interiors themselves. In
such cases, the technician should also ensure that an
appropriate entry is made by the owner in the aircraft
records.
The technician has a duty to educate owners and
operators on the dangers involving firerelated accidents
in both general aviation and air carrier operations.
Owners and operators should be counseled on the finer
points of selecting proper materials, and seeing to it that
they at least meet the minimum FAR requirements, if
not the higher air carrier standards.
Fire blocking of any polyurethane material should be
mandatory, keeping in mind the speed with which it
reaches its maximum toxicity when it starts burning.
Many newer foams now have superior fireresistant quali-
ties, even though they're more expensive to purchase.
Many private and air carrier aircraft have substan-
dard or non-approved illegal interior components
installed. Any technician who performs an annual or
other periodic inspection should take more than a casual
look at any newly installed interiors and spend the time
to review the aircraft records that support the installa-
tion. The technician who approves an aircraft for return
to service has to stand behind his statement that the
aircraft is airworthy. It, therefore, would be prudent
to cover all the bases and review all the details of any
installation.
Oh yes! I knew you would ask... A big lawsuit
resulted from the accident described above and indeed
the installers and distributors of the various fabrics and
other materials involved were all defendants in the litiga-
tion. As usual, various maintenance facilities and techni-
cians were also involved and again, as usual, the guys
who touched the heater last took most of the heat. The
case was ultimately settled by all parties on the day set
for trial some five years after the accident. 6Dl
May/June 1992
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Hard times
A comment on job rights
By Stephen I? Prentice
Y ou don't need a degree in economics to be famil-
iar with what's been going on for the past several
years in aviation. We have recently seen the end
of Eastern Air Lines, Pan Am, Midway and other carri-
ers who were either absorbed or put out of business.
The Eastern case was simply a matter of the union
and management's inability to reach a compromise.
The result is that over 25,000 airline employees are out
of work since the downturn began in late 1987. Many
technicians are now unemployed or at the very least
underemployed.
The loss of employment due to the shutdown of a
company provides little recourse to an employee. There
are often handouts of various vested retirement benefits,
continued medical coverage and unemployment compen-
sation. However, outside of these few benefits, there is
little left to do but find another job!
However, what if you're let go for no apparent reason
from a company that's stiU in business? What rights do
you have? Well, it depends on the circumstances. Let's
review some history first.
Employment at Will
Historically, you and your employer have an unwrit
ten common law employment arrangement called
employment at will. All this means is that your employer
can dismiss you for any reason, or for that matter, no
reason at all. The employee is likewise free to quit at any
time for any reason. The employer could also let anyone
go for, say, economic reasons if it wanted to. The
company doesn't owe you a living.
On the other side of the coin, union workers, public
employees and those employees having some sort of em-
ployment contract can generally only be let go for cause.
Wrongful Discharge
Things have recently changed, however, to benefit
the employee, with regard to the "employment at will"
concept. The rules, though, vary from place to place.
Many states now subscribe to the proposition that an
employer must follow an implied agreement of good faith
and fair dealing.
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All this means is that if you are let go, and the
company has in some way led you to believe you have job
security, it can be held accountable for damages. If
you're let go for no apparent reason, you must look to
such things as your employment handbook and other
statements of company policy to prove this. If the
company appears to be violating its own written or
verbal policies, then you might have some recourse. The
legal action that you'd take is called a complaint for
wrongful discharge.
There are many factors which determine whether or
not you have been wrongfully discharged. The following
are questions to ask when making this determination:
What was the understanding when you were hired?
Were any special promises made to you? What were
you told about the job? Does the company have an
employment handbook? Did you read it? Does it describe
company policy? Did you give up any other job opportu-
nities because the boss or any supervisor said you would
get a raise or promotion? What does your employment
file say? Are you a valued employee? Did anybody say
that you should not worry about getting laid off? How
long have you been with the company? Have all of the
rules and policies of the company been followed?
When answering these questions, keep in mind that
long-time employees generally acquire certain rights that
protect their status. Also, you should always retain a
copy of your employment application because many
times company policy is described on it.
If it appears that several of the factors outlined above
are relevant concerning your termination, you may have
some recourse depending on your state's particular laws
on the subject.
The landmark case in California is called Cleary vs.
American Airlines (1980). Cleary worked for American
some 18 years and was hastily fired when suspected of
theft. He was not afforded any impartial or objective
hearing as called for in the employment handbook.
Cleary prevailed in court. The employment manual
stated that Cleary should have been afforded a hearing
before being fired. In this case, the company had
violated its own rules regarding employee termination.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 125
StayingLegal
On the other hand, a recent case denying benefits
involved a company called Air Jamaica turned out in
favor of the company. Here an employee was laid off and
claimed layoff benefits as described in the employment
handbook. The company changed the benefits in the
handbook the day before the layoff! The employee
prevailed at the trial level but the decision was reversed
on appeal by the company.
126 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
The higher court ruled that since Air Jamaica had
reserved the right to make changes and determine
benefits on a casebycase basis, it could do so. Interest
ingly, though, the federal law that addresses this issue,
c d e d the Employment Retirement Income Security Act,
(ERISA), says that benefits have to be "certain." The
company's conduct seems to have violated the law. As
it stands now, a further appeal by the employee is still
pending. The bottom line is that these cases can go both
ways. El March/April 1992
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Owner performed maintenance
Another Catch-22
By Stephen I? Prentice
T he Cessna 210 had disappeared into the side of a
hill after taking off with a moderate load at a
popular ski resort. The result was almost predid-
able when a ski container that had been inserted into
the fuselage, worked loose, and apparently became
entangled in the aft control system. The position of the
container and control cables suggested a critical control
problem occurred, causing the accident. Investigation
would reveal no paperwork for the installation much less
a maintenance record en-.
A Beech Bonanza ownekperator brought his aircraft
into a maintenance facility after experiencing a problem
with a "buzz feeling" in the control system during flight.
He told the shop that an automotive paint shop had
recently painted the aircraft. The technician noted that
there was no record of the paint job in the maintenance
records. Further, there was no indication that any
control surfaces had been balanced.
In another instance, an owneraperator noted abnor-
mal wear on his tires after he had replaced them himself
a few weeks earlier. After bringing it into the shop, a
technician discovered that the axle nuts were improperly
secured. Again, it was noted that there was no entry in
the logbook for the maintenance performed.
These examples are all incidences that resulted from
owner-operator performed maintenance. Unfortunately,
one of them even resulted in a fatality.
The FAA, in many of its current publications and
indeed in the FARs, encourages owneroperators to
perform various inspections and maintenance on their
aircraft. This encouragement is given with little apparent
regard for the technicians and inspectors who are also
involved and liable for the same aircraft. For instance, a
mild warning appears in one FAA publication as follows:
"Although the above work is allowed by the FARs,
each individual should make a seIfgnalysis as to whether
or not he/she has the ability to perform the work
satisfactoriy."
Instead, the FAA should give more emphasis to
warning owner-operators about the risks inherent in
performing their own maintenance. A better statement
would include suggestions that the work be looked at by
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a licensed technician to ensure that minimum standards
of safety are met.
FAR 43 Appendix A sets out in detail, a long laundry
list of maintenance items that can legally be performed
by the owneroperator. However, all too often, these
maintenance items result in accidents or incidents, as
did the examples above.
This unsupervised maintenance presents a serious
liability risk to the repair shop or technician who per-
forms annual or other periodic inspections. Failure to
note and investigate any owner-performed maintenance
may well lead to trouble if some incident occurs because
of it.
Indeed, many owners aren't aware of and don't com-
ply with the requirements of FAR 91.407(2)-a regulation
that sets out the need to make a maintenance record
entry for any maintenance performed by an owner.
Also, many owners don't know that the FARs require
their signature for any work they perform even if a
licensed technician signs the entry and returns the
aircraft to service. They must also be in compliance
with 433(g) and have at least a private pilot certificate
(43.70).
AU too frequently, the technician is unaware of
owner-performed maintenance until after something has
gone wrong. The ski container accident, for example,
would put the technician who performed the most cur-
rent inspection in great legal jeopardy. This includes the
threat of action by the FAA and the usual hoard of civil
litigants. Keep in mind also, that the owner may not be
around to offer an examination.
There's really no protection for the technician against
the prospect of unauthorized or poorly performed owner
maintenance except for the technician's own vigilance.
It follows then that the technician must be on the
lookout for owner-performed maintenance. If you suspect
that work has been done outside your shop with no
notation in the books, it's your responsibility to ask
the owner about any maintenance that may have been
performed since the last inspection. A complete history
is imperative as a foundation of good maintenance
practice. Januaty/February 1992
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 127
Staying Legal
Lien lessons
How to guarantee payment
By Stephen I? Prentice
M
ost technicians and shops are familiar with the
dispute that often arises over an aircraft or
engine repair bill. The owner is frequently
surprised by the size of the bill and the cost of parts
used in making repairs or simply performing routine
maintenance. What do you do when the customer or
owner refuses to pay his bill?
Well, there are many considerations to look at, such
as whether or not the bill is fair and sets out in detail
the work performed.
Under the laws of all states that follow common law
principles, every repair person has what is called a lien
for the compensation he or she is legally due for making
repairs to or providing parts and supplies for such
things as aircraft, boats, cars, houses, etc. A lien is noth-
ing more or less than a claim against another's property
as security for the payment of a legal debt. This lien
usually arises at the time a written statement or bill is
presented for payment to the customer. They are com-
monly called mechanic's or artisan's liens.
The key to the lien for payment is possession of the
item worked on. That is, you must have physical posses-
sion of an aircraft in order to exert your lien. So if the
customer won't pay, just hang onto the plane until he
does. This may seem like an oversimplification, but it is
in essence the rule. The reverse, however, is also true.
That is, if you lose possession for any reason, you gener-
ally lose your ability to exert your lien!
Now, you might say, what's the big deal about this
lien stuff? Simply put, it allows you to get paid in a
minimum period of time, short of using an enforcer, by
selling the thmg that you worked on.
The important effect of the lien sale threat is that the
non-paying customer usually becomes much more reason-
able once he is advised of your upcoming lien sale. So,
you must hang onto the aircraft in order to make use of
this effective collection tool.
In most states you must also take additional steps-
like filing your lien notice with your county clerk or pub
lishing a sale notice to perfect your position. These are
usually small effo* when compared with other alterna-
tives for collection, like lawsuits.
Most of the problems in this area are related to what
happens after possession of the aircraft is given up with-
out the bill being paid. The primary resource available
at this point is simply a lawsuit in an appropriate court
alleging the unpaid service bill. But, this of course takes
128 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
time, money and maybe a lawyer to complete; and at the
end of the legal game, all you get is a judgment. You
may or may not be able to collect on this judgment. By
far, your best leverage for payment is possession.
Suppose now, in some way or another, you regain
possession of the aircraft. Is your mechanic's lien
revived? Depends on where you live. The general rule
says that a common-law or other type of lien (which
depends on possession or control of the article) is lost
when the holder voluntarily parts with possession of the
item, and such a lien cannot ordinarily be restored by
repossession.
For example, in Wyoming this general rule applies.
But California, on the other hand, allows for reinstate
ment of the lien, on repossession-particularly if it was
taken through trick or fraud, like a bounced check.
Another course of action for the non-paying customer
who gains possession of the aircraft by trick or fraud is
to advise him that he may have committed a crime-
depending on what your state's laws say on the subject.
This usually gets the customer's attention. But be care
ful, you cannot threaten criminal action because this
smacks of extortion. You can advise the non-paying
party, however, of what the law says!
"Well," you might say, "I don't have the aircraft, but
I do have the logbooks and maintenance records." In
the situation where the aircraft might be taken without
paying the bill can these items be withheld pending
payment?
FAR 91.407 (old FAR 91.167) says that "...no person
may operate an aircraft after maintenance until it is
approved for return to service by an authorized person
and the maintenance record entry has been made..."
Many a shop has refused to make an entry pursuant to
FAR 91.407 until the aircraft owner has paid his bill!
In one reported case the owners complained to the
FAA about not getting the maintenance records back
from the shop after work was performed on the aircraft.
The owner had retrieved the aircraft without paying the
bill, before the shop had released it for return to service.
When the FAA requested the maintenance records, the
shop, correctly, refused on the theory that the aircraft
was taken before the work was completed.
This case subsequently went to the National Trans-
portation Safety Board (NTSB). The board had no
problem with the shop's refusal to complete the records,
stating among other things... "the record does not
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disclose whether respondent (shop) had completed all
of the engine work it intended to perform or whether
respondent had made all of the inspections necessay to
return the plane to service before it was taken away. In
these circumstances we cannot find that the respondent
violated any duty it may have had to cert;ify the airwor-
thiness of the aircraft engines..."
The tone of this case makes it clear that any threat
from an errant owner to go crying to the FAA regarding
his maintenance records will be met with deaf ears. He
may be entitled to his logs but not a release or the
shop's maintenance records.
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The shop's position should simply be that the job isn't
complete until the paperwork is complete, and the paper-
work isn't complete until the bill is paid!
One final point. If you haven't been paid and have
had little success in collecting your biU, don't forget to
file notice of a lien with the FAA Aircraft Registry
center. This tells the whole world that the aircraft owes
you money, and usually results in your getting paid
when and if a transfer takes place or a loan is taken out
against the aircraft. When in doubt, the best solution
is to get payment in advance or at least a substantial
deposit on account. November/Zlecember 1991
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 129
StaylngLegal
Supplemental n p e Certificates
By S t e p h e n P Prentice
I t was an inky black night in winter when the
DeHavilland Dove launched from Las Vegas on an
air taxi flight back to San Diego. Unfortunately, the
aircraft was seen trailing flames immediately after the
takeoff and it plunged into the ground not far from the
airport. Most of the aircraft was consumed in the fire
and all aboard perished.
Lhu-ing the investigation the gas combustion heater
in the nose of the aircraft became suspect. The heater
had been added to the aircraft at the direction of the
previous air carrier owner by an approved shop under a
Supplemental Q p e Certificate approval.
Let's review for a moment what we all know about
STCs. To put it succinctly, the Supplemental m e Cer-
tificate, or for that matter the type ceflicate, is simply
the "seal o f approval" which results from the FAA's ex-
amination of all new aircraft, accessories and component
parts to determine airworthiness. The FAA, through the
A d of 1958, regulates every aspect of aviation in the
United States under its duty to promote, encourage and
develop civil aeronautics. The STC is simply an extension
of this authority allowing certain changes to an existing
type ceMicate.
In the process of reviewing the request for an STC
the FAA, according to its own manuals, must use the
same methods of determining compliance with applicable
requirements, i.e., airworthiness, as those used for the
basic type design ceMication. A Supplemental Type
CeMicate will only be issued (1)if the pertinent techni-
cal data have been examined and are found satisfactory;
(2) all necessary tests and compliance inspections have
been satisfactorily completed; and (3) the modification
has been found to conform with various technical data.
Further, a compliance inspection has to be performed by
FAA personnel to determine compliance with FAR
requirements, which cannot be determined adequately
from an evaluation of the technical data. The rules
require personal inspection by FAA people appropriately
qualified in the respective areas. After all this, the FAA
may issue the STC.
Well, back to the story. The heater STC was approved
for only two aircraft, the Dove that crashed and a sister
ship that was still back at base. You can guess what
happened. All the experts converged on the sister ship
and awed over it. There was a consensus that the fuel
line carrying combustion fuel from the primer system to
the heater had failed forward of the cabin bulkhead.
130 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
By viewing the surviving installation in the sister
ship many agreed that the installation was flawed from
the outset by a failure to adequately secure the fuel line
and also by connecting a copper portion of the fuel line
to a stainless-steel portion. The finger of guilt was point
ing strongly at the FAA for negligent approval and
inspection of the heater installation. After all they had
put their "seal of approval" on the installation. They had
gone through all the steps in the STC protocol outlined
above, and even inspected the installation personally as
the regulations required.
Lead pipe cinch case, you say. Well, not quite. As you
would suspect, the relatives of the deceased passengers
and crew brought suit against the government and the
FAA for their negligent approval and inspection, and
they won their case! Not once, but twice in the U.S.
District Court. The government was found to be at fault
by the court and judgment was entered in favor of the
plaintiffs. Needless to say, an appeal was taken by the
government to the U.S. Supreme Court and lo and
behold the Supreme Court turned it around, and said
the government wins. So much for the law, and by the
way, justice.
The interesting point out of all of this is the way the
government representatives argued the case both in the
trial court and during the appeals. They said, among
other things, that even if they had been negligent in
their approval, it was of no concern, because after their
approval the aircraft had been inspected many times
by various technicians and returned to service. Their
argument was that these technicians should have found
and corrected any deficiencies in either the hardware or
the installation.
But wait a minute! Can we as technicians change or
otherwise tamper with an STC'd installation? You better
not! You would be in violation if you did. Of course, you
inspect for obvious defects like leaking fuel lines, but you
certainly can't make any changes to the system without
suffering threats to your ceMicate and maybe your
pocketbook. Wow, you say? Well that's the way it is.
We should point out at this time that the Supreme
Court did not find that the FAA was without negligence
in this case. It simply said that the claims were barred
because what the FAA was doing was simply a "discre
tionary function" and as such, it was totally insulated
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from any liability for anything that might go wrong.
Simply put, under the current state of the law, when the
FAA inspectors perform inspection functions and put
their "seal of approval" on something, they can't gener-
ally be held accountable if something goes wrong. All the
other folks in the chain can be accountable, i.e., the tech-
nicians, the FBO, the manufacturer, but not the FAA.
This interpretation of the law has the effect of insulating
FAA employees from their own a d s of negligence on
behalf of the government while performing their jobs.
Good for the government, not good for injured citizens.
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The technician and the IA should pay special atten-
tion to STC'd installations on any aircraft they are
concerned with. The FAA apparently will expect the tech-
nician to pick up any design or installation defeds and
perhaps remedy them, before returning the aircraft to
service. This practice, of course, has many risks as men-
tioned above. If a question should come up regarding an
installed STC'd item, it would clearly call for some care
ful handling. Keep in mind, however, the current state of
the law. Namely, that the FAA can't be held responsible!
Guess who might be? kBi September/October 1991
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 131
Staying Legal
A matter of reliance
re .li.ance. .. 1: the at? of relying; 2: the condition or attitude
of one who relies, dependence. (Source: Webster's)
By Stephen F! Prentice
uring an annual, an IA makes a list of discrepan-
D cies: Corrosion, a sticky prop control, fuel system
contamination and intake manifold leaks. Subse
quently, he is told by a technician working under him,
that these discrepancies have cleared up. The IA then
signs off the aircraft as airworthy.
He writes the usual statement in the logbooks that
he has performed an annual inspection and has found
the aircraft airworthy, Then, there's an incident, the
aircraft has to make an emergency landing with engine
trouble. An inspection turns up the same discrepancies
plus some new ones. The FAA gets involved and certifi-
cate action follows. The IA is then hit with a revocation
of his IA authority-sound familiar?
This scenario is repeated far too often and therefore
deserves some follow-up discussion. Let's review the
fads. First, we all know that the IA must personally
perform an annual inspection (FAR 65.95.a2). Remem-
ber, in the case of landing gear retraction tests, the IA
must personally inspect the operation. He cannot rely
on a technician to check the gear operation. The IA can
further delegate repairs or perform them himself.
The basic issue that always arises is simply whether
or not the IA should be held responsible for fading to
assure that the discrepancies he noted were in f a d
corrected through visual inspection of the plane prior to
his signing it off as airworthy. In other words, was the
IA's reliance on the technician's statements reasonable?
It was clear, according to the NTSB, that his reliance
was not reasonable in this situation.
But the board does make it clear that the IA's respon-
sibility is limited. This limitation is based on two points:
his inspection was reasonable and proper under the
circumstances and that a diligent inspection would not
have uncovered the discrepancies.
Where it's impossible to reasonably insped parts of
an aircraft engine, the board has consistently held that
these standards will apply. Obviously, the IA must rely
on the technician's statements with respect to internal
engine parts and parts of the aircraft that aren't possible
to inspect without substantial disassembly.
On the other hand, the board is also concerned with
so-called strict liability or openended liability of the IA
where he ceflies an aircraft as airworthy. This state
ment of airworthiness, after all, has been held to be an
express warranty in civil litigation.
132 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
The bottom line, though, is that there has to be some
reasonable reliance by the IA on the individual techni-
cian he deals with. This relationship of trust is usually
established over a long period of time during which the
inspector gets to know and respect the quality of work
that the technician performs.
But, what if the IA does have some reservations
about the technician's work? Does he just walk away
from the job? This is, of course, one alternative but it
will hardly provide a continuing work schedule for the
IA. Keep this in mind. There is no necessity for the IA
to ensure that all discrepancies he notes during an
inspection are in f a d cleared up.
The IA is first and foremost an inspector. The annual
inspection is complete when the inspection is complete.
For example, if the inspector is a visitor to the repair
facility, he can complete his inspection and leave. All he
needs to do is indicate, in the logs, that the annual
inspection is complete and a dated list of discrepancies
and unairworthy items have been provided for the air-
craft owner or operator (FAR 43.11 (a) @)).
It then becomes the responsibility of the technician
to clear up the listed problems and return the aircraft
to service.
Of course, the IA has the responsibility to do an AD
compliance check and note any ADS that need to be com-
plied with. He cannot delegate this function because it
involves the inspection process, which belongs to the IA.
Incidentally, it's no longer a requirement that discrep
ancy lists be forwarded to the local FAA District Office.
The IA should always keep in mind that he under-
takes an awesome responsibility when he says the magic
words... "I certify that this aircraft or engine is airwor-
thy..." The aircraft must meet its type design and be in
safe condition for flight. And in the course of ensuring
that the aircraft is airworthy the IA must, of necessity,
place his reliance on the technician he's dealing with.
Reliance is a requirement in aircraft maintenance-like
it or not! JuZy/August 1991
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Technicians' toxic tips
By Stephen P Prentice
F
ew technicians have the time to examine in any
detail the toxic dangers that surround us in our
daily work environment. Toxic substances have
always been around, and since the advent of the EPA
(Environmental Protection Agency), they have achieved
star status. The use of paints, solvents, oils, asbestos
fibers and the methods of their disposal have become of
paramount importance to technicians in the typical
maintenance setting. Let's look at a few of the examples.
Used oil and solvents are among the most common
toxics we encounter in the maintenance arena. We all
drain oil and use solvents of various types to clean up.
Current federal regulations require special handling
for these items, although used oil has not yet been
designated as a Ylazardous substance."
Most solvents today are specially formulated products
that no longer contain benzine or other toxic petroleum
bases. It wasn't too many years ago that benzine was a
common cleaning solvent found around the shop. No
more, since it has been determined to be a carcinogen.
There's evidence to suggest used oil is in the same
category and that you should take the time to rinse
thoroughly after exposure to used oil products. Needless
to say, be careful how you dispose of used oil and
solvents; otherwise, you'll have the ERA or other local
environmental units down on you.
Used oil should be carefully stored and picked up
by an appropriate disposal unit. Many times it can be
rerefined and used again. In the past it was possible to
purchase rerefined used oil for automobile and aircraft
use, but the EPA put many of the companies out of busi-
ness by imposing stringent operational requirements.
When and if the EPA designates used oil as a hazard-
ous waste, it will require new and more expensive stan-
dards for its disposal. For example, in the case of some
degreasing agents that are used for cleaning engine
parts during overhaul it costs more to get rid of the
spent cleaning materials than the stuff cost to begin
with! Shops that do engine overhaul are thus faced with
the double whammy of paying for high-priced materials,
then having to pay to have them carted off.
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Degreasing agents pose special problems because
they can also pollute the air that we breathe. The Clean
Air Act requires special attention because of the strict
limits it places on the use of cleaning solvents and
chemical paint strippers and the disposal of their resi-
due. The new portions of the Clean Air Act prohibit the
use of the common degreasing agent methlchloroform.
The EPA is looking at other degreasers and solvents to
determine toxicity and the effect upon the ozone.
Asbestos and asbestos residue are probably the next
most commonly found toxic agents in and around the
workplace. Asbestos fibers are carcinogenic. The fibers
are most commonly found in building materials, insula-
tion products and various brake linings.
The hazard is in the air that you breathe. Shop man-
agers should be careful about disturbing any asbestos
without technical advice, for example, during renovation
projects. Also, the technician should be careful not to
disturb any asbestos dust particles in and around brake
installations.
Another area of concern is waste water. Late last
year, the EPA published rules covering industrial storm
and waste water discharges. As a result, you will no
longer be permitted to wash aircraft or engines and
remove paint materials without a permit. Letting this
waste drain into regular drains in your hangar or wash
rack may be a thing of the past. The EPA will require
that you cease discharging these waste products into any
drain if there is danger of contaminating the ground-
water supply. You can expect new regulations regarding
hangar floor drains and how to dispose of waste
products. Further, if the waste products are defined
as hazardous, additional rules restricting the discharge
will apply.
In addition, those who operate in cold climates will
no longer be permitted to let glycol deicing product fall
to the ground during application. The threat is that it
will contaminate the groundwater through the drain
system. Special areas will have to be set aside to apply
glycol so as to control the runoff of product.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 133
Staying Legal
Radiation is another type of toxic hazard that can
impact the technician in the maintenance environment.
Radiation threats come in various ways. Aircraft weather
radar units and excessive exposure to the power source
pose a threat to your health. This somewhat obscure
threat is called non-ionizing electronic radiation or
NIEMR for short. This is simply the radiation that
comes from radio transmitters, radars and similar high-
power transmission sources.
The most frequently associated harm with prolonged
exposure to radiation is the increased threat of cancer.
134 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Electronic technicians should take special note of the
dangers of radiation.
There's no doubt that toxic awareness is here to stay.
The EPA is also here to stay.
Technicians, repair stations and other operators will
face substantially increased operating costs in order to
comply with all of these new regulations. It's, therefore,
extremely important for all of us to be aware of the new
regulations and, more importantly, to stay ahead of and
plan for their implementation. El May/June 1991
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Drug testing
Technician requirements
By Stephen F? Prentice
I
f you are employed by a major Part 121 air carrier
or a large Part 135 carrier, you no doubt are
already involved in a drug-testing program man-
dated by the new FAA regulations. Preemployment
screening is, of course, required and random testing,
without probable cause, has been upheld in the courts.
Many observers have felt that random testing, without
probable cause, is an unwarranted intrusion into an
airman's privacy.
Those of you who are maintenance contractors
should also be aware that your contractor testing
program should be implemented by now as well. That is
to say, if you or your maintenance firm provides mainte-
nance services, and some other specified contract
services, to a Part 121 or large Part 135 air carrier you
must have a drug-testing program in place at this time.
If you provide service to the smaller Part 135
(less than 10 employees) carriers, you are given to
April 8, 1991, to submit your plan, and as presently
set, you must implement your testing no later than
August 8, 1991.
Technicians and other maintenance providers like
small repair stations, may reduce their costs consider-
ably by simply tagging onto the drug-testing program of
one of their air carrier customers. Individual technicians
could also tag on to the drug-testing program of a
nearby repair station or other operator with a program
in place. Whether or not costs would be collected directly
could be worked out between the parties. These types of
arrangements make a lot of sense and no doubt reduce
the costs of preparing and implementing a drug-testing
plan to a minimum.
The costs could even be worked into some overall
pricing structure that would be beneficial to the techni-
cian and the company with the drug-testing plan in
place. Bear in mind that it's the air carrier's responsibil-
ity to ensure that any contractor or technician that it
accepts service from, is covered under a drug-testing
program that's approved by the FAA. What better way
to ensure this than to offer to include the party in its
own program.
Examples of technician and other contractor services
that are covered under the drug-testing rule include,
but are not limited to: Repair of ceMied parts or com-
ponents that require an airworthiness release, any
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supervisor or quality control person who must sign such
release, engine overhaul or repair, airframe overhaul
or repair, painting of aircraft, repair of seat belts and
security services relating to passengers or baggage.
It's interesting to note that manufacturers of aircraft,
engines or components and suppliers of parts are not
covered by the rules. Likewise, cleaning, washing and
fuel service personnel are excluded from the require
ments of testing. Security personnel not located on the
airport are similarly excluded.
If you happen to be a part of what's referred to as
"Part 135.1~"(other operators), which includes people
such as flight instructors, crop dusters and the like,
you need not be concerned for the time being. The FAA
has decided that there is no need now to implement a
program to include the other operators as described in
FAR 135.1~.This extension has been shelved indefinitely
and hopefully will not be found to be necessary.
The reasoning for this is perhaps twofold. One-the
logistics of supervising such an expansion of the p r e
gram would be overwhelming. We could very well have
a third of the FAA enforcement personnel involved in
covering drug testing and compliance.
Further, and much more significant, are the recent
statistics released by the FAA which show a surprisingly
low number of positive results in the first group exam-
ined. The percentage released was 0.465 percent of the
group examined (120,642 total people examined). The
number is further reduced by the fact that over half of
the positive results were on preemployment people. That
is, people who were not even working in the industry. If
we subtract out the preemployment people from this
group we come up with an overall 0.179 percent positive
of people in the industry. The FAA had predicted over
7.0 percent would be found in the industry.
One of the more disturbing aspects of the data, how-
ever, was that by far, the largest number of positive tests
were found in the ranks of the maintenance personnel.
The reason for this is simply that they were the largest
group. Nonetheless, some 300 persons, half of which
perhaps were applicants for jobs, were found to test
positive. The administrator said in comment to the
statistics... "These statistics indicate that drug use in
aviation is not widespread, but even one drug user is
too many and will not be tolerated."
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 135
SfayIng Legal
We should keep in mind that positive test results on
preemployment or random drug tests don't mean we're
going to lose our job. There's a detailed protocol to
further examine the test and the specimen, and do
alternate testing before an- like being fired or
released is considered.
Enforcement and threats of enforcement of the
drug-testing rules will come mainly from field audits of
some air carriers and contractors who provide covered
functions to air carriers and others affected by the
requirements. When deficiencies are found, the FA4
says that corrections will be made, and more than likely,
what is referred to as 'appropriaten enforcement action
will be taken.
This can, of course, involve fines in the form of civil
penalties, andlor actions against the particular certifi-
136 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
cates concerned. This could also include suspension,
revocation or some other form of restricted use, that
would impact the pocketbook of the firm or person
concerned. The FAA has stated on several occasions,
however, that it is not interested particularly in punitive
measures for noncompliance, what it wants is full test
ing compliance.
Drug testing in the aviation industry is by far one
of the most controversial measures taken by government
in recent years. It impads virtually everyone on the
flightline and in the operational part of aviation. It is
here to stay. If we do have a problem in this area we
should take steps to clean up our a d now or be prepared
to face the prospect of getting out of the business! FDi
MarchLApd 1991
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Product liability
Where are we now?
By Stephen I? Prentice
M
ost, if not all of us, have by now heard of the
expression product liability and how it may be
contributing to the demise of our general avia-
tion production activity. The fads speak for themselves.
In 1989 we produced only 8 percent of the aircraft we
produced in 1978, which was a peak year. In 10 years,
production has virtually disappeared in the piston area.
It is no small wonder that the industry is concerned
about this continuing threat.
Industry, in general, has for the past five years or so
raised serious concerns in regard to the effects of strict
product liability on the production of everything from
soup to airplanes. For the fourth straight year in a row
Congress has had an opportunity to consider several
pieces of legislation that would have offered some relief.
Alas, nothing has happened to date! Perhaps next year.
But, what about this strict product liability? Where
did it come from? Let's take a look at some history and
examine it closer.
In California, as well as most other states. strict
product liability'is a fairly recent concept in the law.
Prior to the formulation of this concept, the manufac-
turer had numerous defense ~ositionshe could take
and present a balanced defense to any claims. We just
did not have the largescale aggressive product liability
litigation we have today.
Strict product liability in California, and indeed in
much of the rest of the country, came about in 1963
from a case that was called Greenman vs. Yuba Power
Products. A man was injured by a tool called a
Shopsmith. He sued the manufacturer for alleged design
defects and he lost. A jury did not feel he made his case.
His counsel appealed and the California Supreme Court,
in a unanimous decision, reversed the lower court
decision and announced the concept of strict product
liability.
Greenman recovered $65,000 in damages. A momen-
tous case, not because of what it did for Greenman, but
rather, because it triggered a multitude of subsequent
cases that have paid billions of dollars in damage claims
to injured consumers. The court said:
"A manufacturer is strictly liable when an article he
places on the market, knowing that it is to be used
without inspection for defects, proves to have a defect
that causes i n j q to a human being.
!l'he purposes o f such (strict) liability is to ensure that
the costs of injuries resulting from defective products are
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borne by the manufacturers that put such products on
the market rather than the injured persons who are
powerless to protect themselves. "
There you have it! The court made a decision that
was to affect the law of the land for years to come and
cost industry billions. Yet today, few remember the
names of the players.
Since that decision, the generally accepted standard
that is applied in product liability cases simply says that
if a product does not meet the reasonable expectations of
the ordinary consumer or user as to its safety) and if
that consumer or user is injured, the manufacturer is
responsible for the injuries. In other words, if someone
is injured using the product, due to a safety defect, the
manufacturer must pay.
Later, the rule was extended to dealers and others in
the chain of distribution in a case called Vandermark vs.
Ford Motor Co., also a California case which was decided
a year or so later. This case said:
"Retailers, like manufacturers, are engaged in the
business of distributing goods to the public and are an
integral part of the overall producing and marketing
enterprise that should bear the cost of injuries from
defective products. "
What happened after these decisions were made was
quite predictable. The so-called floodgates were opened,
and we embarked on a frenzy of litigation which still
continues to this day in the products area. Insurance
rates have skyrocketed and the cost of doing business
has increased dramatically. Even though insurance
covers these matters, it's the consumers who pay for it
in the long run.
So much for history! The matter of product liability
costs, both to defend cases and to pay ultimate judg-
ments, has since become so high that the business com-
munity is striving with legislation to bring some order to
what appears to be chaos to many observers.
We have to keep in mind that most business observ-
ers feel that the overall problem not only stifles current
production or stops it altogether in some cases, but also
has a chilling effect on the development of new and inn@
vative products. For example, a magneto manufacturer
recently stated that it could not proceed with a new elec-
tronic ignition product that would sigmficantly improve
performance of today's piston engines. The reason for
this, it said, was its inability to face the risk and expense
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 137
Staying Legal
by product liability litigation with a new product. It is
my concern that this thinking may be pervasive through-
out our industry. This is clearly part of the reason we
have not seen any si*cant improvement in design
of piston engines and airframes since the early days.
Where are the innovative breakthroughs going to
come from?
We have already seen how foreign competition is
taking away our production facilities and our jobs in
other areas. For example, what kind of a car do you
drive? It won't be long before we see strong competition
in the aircraft engine and airframe business and indeed
there is some evidence of it already in the press.
138 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
So what are we to do? Since the legal profession,
judges and juries seem unable to bring about any
equitable changes in the system; it remains for the
legislature to hopefully provide a way out through the
enactment of new rules that can be supported by both
the business and the legal sector. The legal side must be
allowed to place its input into the system of modification
if the reforms that are needed are to be implemented.
We should all think seriously about giving our
support to any steps in g o v e k e n t that might lessen
the economic attack on our business. Otherwise, we shall
only have ourselves to blame when we are buried in
foreign competition. Januaxy/Februaxy 1991
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 Update-civil penalty assessment
demonstration program
By Stephen P Prentice
M ost of us by now should have heard of the Civil
Penalty Assessment Demonstration Program
which was created by Congress in December
1987 as part of the Airport and Airway Safety and
Expansion A d of 1987. In case we missed it, let's review
where and why it came about.
Congress passed this legislation because of wide
spread concern over aircraft maintenance at that time.
Senator Pete Wilson (R-CA) introduced the bill that
authorized the program and, in effect, increased the
maximum civil penalty from $1,000 to $10,000 for
typical air carrier violations. Even though the legislation
gave authority to enforce other laws, its primary thrust
was to focus on improving aircraft maintenance. Senator
Wilson's statement in regard to the law is quoted as
follows in part:
"It is the Congress' responsibility to ensure that the
FAA has the took that it needs to prosecute commercial
airlines and the general aviation community for violating
its maintenance and other safety rules... W e as passen-
gers do not see the myriad of hoses, switches, other
equipment, which must work perfectly for the planes to
get o f f the ground, to perform flawlessly in fight and
then to land safely. This amendment (i.e., the Demon-
stration Program) provides an incentive for airlines to
ensure that these systems are maintained at the highest
standards."
We should all take note of the Senator's use of the
words prosecute and general aviation. If the purpose of
this new program was to ensure the highest standards,
then what standards have we been working with so far?
Keep in mind that this civil penalty program was to
be a temporary measure for two years. Well, two years
have long since passed and the program is still in effect.
It was attacked quite strongly by the alphabet organiza-
tions (NATA, NBAA, AOPA), and a lawsuit was filed
which succeeded in postponing its effect for a time. The
suit was won on a very narrow point, namely that the
FAA failed to properly provide for sufficient rulemaking
notice prior to enactment of the program. But the FAA
has since complied with the appropriate rulemaking
requirements and it is now in the process of going
forward with the program. And Congress has very
conveniently complied with the FAA's request to extend
the program regardless of the very strong objections of
the aviation community.
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So much for the history. What seems strange to me
is the fact that we already had an adequate Civil Penalty
provision in effect. Section 901 of the Federal Aviation
Act of 1958 has always provided for civil penalties (i.e.,
fines) in lieu of certificate action. The FAA has always
had the choice of using either certificate action (i.e.,
suspending or revoking your certificates) or civil penal-
ties (fines).
So if we already had this civil penalty provision, why
did we need the assessment program? The answer is
that the FAA was interested in revamping the way it
collected these civil penalties so that it could do it more
efficiently and with fewer procedural headaches. More
importantly, under the new assessment program, the
whole affair would be handled "in-house;" meaning that
the FAA would not only be the investigator and prosecu-
tor, but also the trial judge and appeal judge. Let me
explain further.
Under the assessment program, if the FAA eleds to
zap you with a civil penalty assessment letter for an
alleged infraction of the FARs, you have an opportunity
for a hearing before a Federal Aviation Administration/
Department of Transportation (F'AMDOT) hearing
officer. This "judge" is not the type of judge who is
accustomed to hearing similar matters. Under the previ-
ous rules you were entitled to a hearing before an NTSB
administrative law judge who was not connected to the
FAA in any way whatsoever.
The FAA/DOT officer, however, is an employee of the
same DOT that pays the FAA personnel. In addition, if
you lose at this hearing, you can only appeal to the "FAA
Decision-maker," (the single most unfair part of the
program). Here you are charged by the FAA, tried by the
FAA and finally, your appeal is heard by the FAA.
Just where are the sympathies of the FAA Decision-
maker going to lie? Incidentally, the FAA Decision-maker
(appeal judge) will be none other than the office of the
chief counsel of, you guessed it, the FAA. If you don't
like this guy's decision, you can appeal further to the
U.S. Court of Appeals, clearly a separate forum removed
from the FAA. However, at this point, costs begin to
escalate. To carry an appeal this far would tax the r e
sources of most individuals and many small air carriers.
The civil penalty system we already had in place
under Section 609 of the Act allowed the FAA to seek
penalties for alleged violations pertaining to the security
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 139
Staying Legal
of air carrier activities, the maintenance of aircraft and
the operation of aircraft. The administrative law judges
of the NTSB have heard these types of violations for
years and have acquired great skill in handling these
cases. The NTSB would then hear appeals from these
hearims.
Wh;r we don't continue this practice is hard to under-
stand. The only explanation seems to be that the FAA
wants to exert greater procedural control over all these
cases and further wishes to remove many of the proce
dural safeguards which protect airmen and operators.
The new program will clearly be more time-efficient and
speed up the disposition of civil penalty cases. However,
there will be fewer procedural safeguards to protect the
airman or operator from the excesses of the FAA.
The ability of the FAA to dispose of many enforce
ment cases by the simple expediency of a ticket and a
fine, similar to traffic cases, is generally not opposed in
the industry. Far too many ceH1cate action cases are
brought that could be better processed by way of a civil
penalty, i.e., fine. The objection from the industry is the
procedure used to carry out this program.
Let's look at a recent case to see how the new rules
might operate. The NTSB recently decided a case called
FAA vs. U.S.Jet Lnc., EZ3150, May 1990. Without going
into details of the underlying alleged violations, a hear-
ing was held and, in the course of the appeal, the FAA
failed to get its appeal brief in on time. The FAA was
three weeks late. The board dismissed the case against
U.S. Jet. It simply said that there was no good cause for
the FAA's delay in filing its grief.
140 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
The FAA argued on petition for reconsideration that
it really did not have any excuse but that the board
should accept its late filing out of what it described as
"public interest." The board refused and said that the
best measure of importance (i.e., public interest) a party
attaches to a case is the care that the party exercises in
handling the case.
The point to be made is simply this. What would
have been the result of this late filing if the FAA
Decision-maker was the one deciding the issue? Would
he have found it in the "public interest" to allow the late
filing? The reasons behind a completely independent
appeal forum are very obvious. How can the FAA avoid
the appearance of impropriety when its own personnel
hear their own appeals? No way!
It's important to remember that this civil penalty
program is still in the assessment stage. That is, it can
be modified if the situation calls for such action. Those
in the industry urge that the appeal process be placed in
the hands of the NTSB where it rightfully belongs to
ensure an independent forum. Admiral Bussey, our
administrator, argues strongly for a kinder and gentler
enforcement climate based on education and cooperation
between the FAA personnel and industry. We have to
remember, however, that the administrator merely sets
the policy, and it is up to the over 50,000 FAA employees
in the ranks to carry out the policy.
NovemberlDecember 1990
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The lurking criminal charge threat
By Stephen I? Prentice
W
e are all no doubt aware of the recent federal
criminal indictments lodged against Eastern
Airlines and numerous individuals in the
maintenance department chain of command. These
included the vice president of maintenance and various
maintenance supervisors.
What we may not be aware of and should remember
is that every time an entry is made on a government
form, or related document, we subject ourselves to poten-
tial criminal action by the United States. Sure, we all
know about certificates, but lurking behind all of these
civil or administrative proceedmgs is the threat of crimi-
nal action as can be seen from the Eastern Airlines
criminal indictments.
These criminal indictments are preceded by the usual
civil inquiry in which the FAA personnel go over the
records and find the usual laundry list of infractions
they often find in virtually any field audit of a Part 121
or 135 operation. The big difference here is simply that
they turned over what they found, i.e., all the evidence,
to the U.S. Attorney for investigation of any criminal
violations.
Well, so much for kinder and gentler, as promised by
the new administrator! Make no mistakes about it. A
criminal charge can be made out of most all mainte
nance irregularities found by FAA personnel. The Easb
ern indictments may very well have a political flavor
to them, especially in view of the recent turmoil a t the
airline. However, all maintenance personnel from the
vice president of maintenance right down to the working
technician on the ramp, should keep in mind the
possibilities of criminal proceedings in the event of
an internal dispute within the industry.
What, if anything, can prevent the FAA, for example,
from threatening criminal action while pursuing a certifi-
cate or civil penalty, in order to force a disposition in the
civil action? The answer is, simply, nothing! 'rhe only
traditional reason to avoid the criminal action was usu-
ally that the U.S. Attorney had bigger fish to fry, like
organized crime.
There is simply no particular mileage to be gained
from pursuing airplane technicians, unless it is a note
worthy event. When compared to organized or white
collar crime, it clearly pales. I personally think that the
U.S. Attorney has more important things to pursue
than some technicians who are alleged to have failed to
drain sumps, lubricate flap tracks or wash out a heat
exchanger!
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You may further recall a second recent example of
federal criminal action in the attack on various pilots in
the southeastern United States for failing to include vari-
ous misfortunes dealing with alcohol or drug convictions
on their medical application forms. Those cases were,
you will recall, all dismissed for several reasons, not the
least of which was the vagueness of the questions on the
medcal form in question. The FAA has indicated that it
will tie together state DMV records with FAA computer
records so that one will alert the other of any infractions
relating to alcohol or drugs. The new rules will subject
airmen to suspension or revocation of their certificates
for two or more DWIs within a threeyear period. Kinder
and gentler?
We all might review the code section that is most
frequently cited in regard to the matter in question:
US.Code, Title 18, Sec. 1001
"Whoever in any matter within the jm'sdiction of any
department or agency of the United States knowingly
and willfully falsifies, conceals or covers up by any trick,
scheme or device a material tact, or who makes any
false, fictitious or fraudulent statements or representa-
tions, or makes or uses any false writing or document
knowing the same to contain any false, fictitious or
fraudulent statement or entry, shall be fined not more
than $10,000 or imprisoned not more than five years,
or both. "
So much for the law! This is probably the broadest
catchall piece of federal law available to the prosecutors.
It is routinely used for just about any type of activity
that involves federal jurisdiction. Just think of the num-
ber of times that you put your name on a government
form or any other piece of paper involving... "any matter
within the jurisdiction of any department or agency of
the United States ..."
Just about anything written down in the maintenance
field qualifies for the above section in one way or
another.
Routinely, through the years, no great emphasis
has been placed on the criminal aspects of aircraft
maintenance. But rest assured, it will be looked at very
carefully in the future, if we are to believe Andrew J .
Maloney, the prosecutor in the Eastern case. He recently
stated that he sees the Eastern case as... "an example to
the entire airline industry."
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 141
Staying Legal
The indictment states, among other things, that East
ern personnel installed defective or untested electronic
parts, including cockpit instruments and other critical
navigation equipment Further, it states, that personnel
failed to perform repairs, and then doctored records to
indicate the work had been done.
Pretty strong stuff. But where does that leave the
employee who is required to sign off on something or
suffer some dire result like getting fired? The so-called
example of this Eastern action will place an enormous
burden on all Part 121 and 135 maintenance personnel
and their managers to ensure that all the rules are
followed to the letter of the law. Needless to say, Part 91
operations are also included. Is this the kinder and
gentler environment we were promised? I guess we all
remember what happened to the system when the air
traffic controllers decided to follow the letter of the law;
it was total chaos!
So what is the technician to do? The persons
indicted in the Eastern matter certainly never dreamed
that they would be alleged to be criminals. I guess the
142 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
best we can do is to avoid any signature duties. Perhaps
we should demand hazard pay in anticipation of the
possibility of being tagged a criminal? At the very least,
perhaps some form of indemnity should be provided by
the employer to protect employees from potential costs
of the defense of a criminal charge. Who can tell? What
we do know is that the Eastern action should make us
all aware of what can happen if we are in the wrong
place at the wrong t h e !
As we all know, the system is not controlled by the
people who make a difference. The day-today operations
of the air carrier business is best left to the people who
know something about it. Administrator Bussey had it
right when he suggested that a system of air carrier
self-audit is a more appropriate step than the imposition
of sanctions. Perhaps the sell-audit system should be
made part of the basic procedure, rather than threaten-
ing fines and jail. Otherwise, the Eastern indictment
will have a substantial chilling effect on the everyday
functions of aircraft maintenance in general. EQl
September/October 1990
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 The checklist-use it!
By Stephen F? Prentice
ost if not a l l technicians are familiar with the
general requirement of FAR 43.15c, which man-
dates the use of a checklist while performing
an annual or lO@hour inspection. The FAR further states
that the checklist may be one made by the technician,
the manufacturer, or some other source, and must
include the scope and detail of the items contained in
Appendix D of Part 43. In the case of rotorcraft, para-
graph (b) of 43.15 must also be followed.
These checklists should be made available to the 1.4
or other inspector for his use in reviewing the inspection
and work performed. The checklist, or a copy, should be
made a part of the aircraft file and the original retained
by the facility or the technician concerned. The techni-
cian should always keep a log of the work performed by
himself, noting the aircraft identification and the date
of performance of the work. This is a good practice,
and can be used in many instances to aid in providing
substance to any inquiry about your work.
This is all quite clear, but what about general trouble
shooting inspections and repair work performed outside
the annual or lO@hourinspection requirements? Are we
required to use a checklist for this kind of inspection?
The answer can be yes, under certain circumstances.
Under the rules of FAR Part 135, the answer is
clearly yes for several reasons, not the least of which is
to make a clear record of the work performed. Any fol-
low-up troubleshooting by other persons can be examined
and enhanced in this way.
The reasoning behind using a checklist for trouble
shooting in a Part 135 maintenance operation goes
like this...
FAR Part 135 operators must use and follow their
operations manual as described in FAR 135.21. The
manual generally requires that the manufacturer's
inspection and repair specifications be followed by the
operator. The manufacturer's handbooks and manuals
contain troubleshooting guides to correct various operat
ing discrepancies. Therefore, in order to comply with
your own operations manual, you must use any
manufacturer's troubleshooting checklist that may be
available. If none is available for a particular operation,
you should devise your own. We do this in many
instances anyway, although we rarely write down the
procedure we are using. A written checklist is the way
to go. Let's review the FAR:
FAR 135.421 Additional maintenance requirements
"(a) Each certificate holder who operates an aircraft
type certificated for a passenger seating configuration
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excluding any pilot seat, of nine seats or less, must com-
ply with the manufacturer's recommended maintenance
programs, or a program approved by the Administrator,
for each aircraft engine, propeller, rotor and each item
of emergency equipment required by this chapter. (b)
For the purpose of this section, a manufacturer's mainte-
nance program is one which is contained in the mainte-
nance manual or maintenance instructions set forth by
the manufacturer as required by this chapter for the
aircraft, aircraft engine, propeller, rotor or item of
emergency equipment."
So there is a clear requirement to follow the check-
lists, certainly with respect to Part 135 operations, and
probably under Part 91 rules, as a matter of good operat
ing procedure.
Here is a specific case where the matter came up.
The aircraft was a Piper product and the engines
were manufactured by Lycoming. Scheduled mainte
nance, i.e., a lOOhour check resulted in replacement
of a cylinder with a new one due to low compression.
There were several instances of the pilot reporting the
engine as running rough. On at least two occasions, the
technicians cleaned the fuel nozzles and did some other
unrelated repairs to the engine.
The aircraft, incidentally, was used in Part 135 opera-
tions. The shop was aware of this and was the desig-
nated repair facility. The routine troubleshooting of the
rough running engine on each occasion seemed to cor-
rect the problem. However, some four or five hours later,
the engine failed in flight and resulted in a crash land-
ing. The pilot, who was alone in the aircraft, was killed.
Experts later determined that the engine failed
because of a crack in the same cylinder that had been
installed during the previous lO@hourinspection. This
was determined to be the result of a defect in the cast.
ing incurred during manufacturing.
The inevitable lawsuit, of course, followed. And the
case was readily disposed of, with respect to the liability
of Lycoming. It was possible to escape the obvious prod-
uct defect. In case we might have forgotten, everyone in
the chain of distribution has responsibility under most
current product liability laws. This simply means that
responsibility for placing the product in the "stream of
commerce" is shared by dl.
So therein lies the reason, among others, that the
repair shop was included in the lawsuit. There was little
doubt as to the general responsibility under the product
liability rules of the game; however, the parties and the
court wrestled with the notion that the shop was also
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 143
negligent in its inspection and troubleshooting of the
rough running engine. The feeling being that if a more
thorough inspection had been made, then maybe the
crack could have been detected prior to the failure of
the engine.
The lawsuit alleged that the maintenance facility was
liable because it had negligently inspected and main-
tained the aircraft. The evidence at trial suggested that
the technician did not at all times use a checklist while
inspecting or troubleshooting.
Again, the record further supported the feeling that
if a checklist had been properly utilized, and the m e
chanical history of the aircraft and engines properly no-
ticed, the crack in the cylinder would have been
discovered. Whether or not the crack opened up and let
go during the four or five hours post troubleshooting, is
certainly arguable.
Not only did the shop have responsibility for install-
ing the cylinder that had the defective casting under
144 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
product liability rules, but it was also found to be negli-
gent in its inspection and repair of the engine. Makes
you wonder why we are in this business!
What you have to keep in mind is that in this case
the Part 43 sections pertaining to inspection require
ments, i.e., 43.13, 43.15 and 135.421, were all read to the
jury as instructions.
The bottom line is simply this: The repair shop was
found to be negligent because it failed to sufficiently
document its troubleshooting efforts. And more impor-
tantly, it failed to follow a checklist in doing its trouble
shooting, as required by the FARs. Strong stuff, but it
shows what happens when the spotlight of the courtroom
focuses on your efforts. Although the ultimate result
was the same, the final appeal on this case changed
procedural aspects somewhat. But the lesson is clear-
use a checklist- and more importantly, document its
use by way of a form or some other piece of paper, and
save it! El July/August 1990
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of hazardous substances
By John Boyce
H
OUSTON, TX-Technicians, take care of
yourselves.
There are laws and regulations on the books
to protect you from harmful substances that are com-
monplace in the hangar. But no matter how conscien-
tious your employer is in following those laws, you are
ultimately responsible for your own protection.
That was part of the message delivered by Linda
Wereley of J.J. Keller & Associates, a technical publisher
and regulatory consulting firm, at her seminar on chemi-
cals in the workplace at the recent Professional Aviation
Maintenance Association (PAMA) convention.
"You (the worker) always have a responsibility that's
going to go beyond what any government regulation is,"
said Wereley in an interview following the seminar.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) demands, through its Hazard Communication
Standard (HCS), that employers inform employees of the
dangers or potential dangers of exposure to any material
in the workplace. OSHA estimates that there are 575,000
chemical products.
But while employers have a legal responsibility to
protect employees, it is up to you, the employee, to make
sure that legal responsibility is met. It is your health,
your future; it is you who could suffer dire consequences
20 or 25 years down the road from something you are
working with now.
"Hazard communication has been around since
1985," Wereley said. "Obviously, the worker in 1984
didn't have it and he still had a responsibility to find out
what he was working with. One should always know as
much as one can about what you're working with.
"I just can't imagine working day in and day out
exposed to something and not caring enough to find out
what it is. But I know it happens all the time."
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The process of informing the employee is not a
matter of simply saying, "Hey, be careful with that stuff,
it could be dangerous." In the aircraft maintenance
context, the shop managers must ensure that the techni-
cians understand the dangers and that all information
pertaining to the substances be accessible to the
technician.
"Understanding is the key," said Wereley during
her presentation. "The employer has to make sure the
employee understands the dangers."
OSHA, in its HCS, says that to ensure that under-
standing, the employer must provide a planned, struc-
tured training program that instructs in the short
and long-term hazards and potential hazards of any
substances in the workplace.
"Training is critical to hazard communication,"
Wereley said. "OSHA says it must be done and it must
be done to the level of the personnel."
In addition to formal training, employers are required
to provide adequate container labeling and accessible
material safety data sheets (MSDS) for each chemical or
potentially harmful substance in the workplace.
OSHA, in a booklet explaining HCS, says, "Chemical
manufacturers and importers must develop MSDS for
each hazardous chemical they produce or import, and
must provide the MSDS automatically at the time of
the initial shipment of a hazardous chemical to a down-
stream distributor or user.
"...Copies of the MSDS for hazardous chemicals in a
given worksite are to be readily accessible to employees
in that area. As a source of detailed information on
hazards, they must be located close to workers and
readily available to them during each workshift."
May/June 1990
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 145
Staying Legal
Parts, the "bogus bogeyman"
By Stephen P Prentice
"bogus parts." We have heard the FAA express
All itstechnicians are familiar
fears that such with
parts will the expression
corrupt and imperil
the general aviation fleet as well as our Part 121 and
135 cousins. Is there really a threat? Is it real? Let's take
a look.
We are all painfully familiar with the relatively high
prices placed upon some general aviation aircraft and
engine parts. So we should not be surprised to learn
that people seek serviceable parts at lower cost, some-
times from military surplus.
The argument usually stated by original manufactur-
ers regarding the use of all alternate source and non-
approved parts is a legitimate one and usually is as
follows: We have spent the lion's share of the money in
design, development and production of the parts. There-
fore, the manufacturer, after getting his PMA (Parts
Manufacturer Approval) or other form of approval must
attempt to recoup his investment through profits from
the sale of the parts.
In addition, the manufacturer must bear an addi-
tional, very substantial risk. That is, the necessity to be
prepared to stand behind the product when and if it
should fail. This can take enormous resources in capital
or insurance protection premiums. Remember, Cessna
stated that it got out of the single-engine business
because of the costs associated with liability. The manu-
facturer's concern is real and its right to profit is justi-
fied. But this doesn't mean that we can't shop around
for the best price.
We should, however, be aware of where our parts
are coming from, and more importantly, that they are
approved for our particular aircraft, engine or appliance.
But what about "bogus" parts? Bogus parts can best
be described as any parts used on an aircraft or engine
that do not conform to the aircraft or engine type certifi-
cate or aircraft specification and are designed to replace
original manufacturer supplied parts.
Remember, FAR 21.31 defines a type design and tells
us it includes the drawings and specifications necessary
to define the part, information relating to structural
strength and anything else that will assist in a determi-
nation of airworthiness. Since the manufacturers of air-
craft or engines have a type certificate for the product,
they can obtain approval of replacement parts for the
product. It goes with the type certificate (FAR 21.45).
In order to have a valid type certificate the type
design specifications must be followed. So if the part
does not comply, it will effectively validate the airworthi-
ness certificate of the aircraft or engine.
146 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
We don't want the airworthiness certificate validated
by the use of an unauthorized part, so be careful. An
owner's insurance policy could be in jeopardy as a result
of using an unauthorized part.
Let's go one step further. FAR 21.303 says that all
parts must have PMA approval for installation on a type
certificated product. However, the rule provides for
significant exceptions. The key exception is 21.303(b)(2).
This section provides that we can use other than PMA
parts if we produce them as an owner or operator for
the maintenance of our own aircraft or engine. How
about that!
We could therefore, in my opinion, obtain parts
from whatever source, work on them, repair them and
otherwise "produce" them in accord with this section.
The parts then could be legitimately used on our own
aircraft.
The governing standard for the Part 21.303(b)(2)
exception would be FAR 43.13(b). It allows wide discre-
tion on the part of the technician in regard to the
"quality" of parts "produced" under 21.303(b)(2).
FAR 43.13(b)
"Each person maintaining or altering, or performing
preventative maintenance, shall do that work in such a
manner and use materials of such quality, that the condi-
tion of the aircraft, airframe, aircraft engine, propeller
or appliance worked on will be at least equal to its
original or properly altered condition (with regard to
aerodynamic function, structural strength, resistance to
vibration and deterioration and other qualities affecting
airworthiness.)"
So we can use parts that are not PMA as long as we
follow the rule of 21.303(b)(2). Parts that would other-
wise be "bogus" will be non-bogus under this section.
If an owner is faced with the cost of replacing a com-
plete engine exhaust system or repairing an otherwise
non-repairable exhaust part (wastegate assembly), what
can he do? He can produce the part himself, i.e., have it
repaired by a competent shop, see that it complies with
43.13(b) and AC 43.13(1A/3), and make an appropriate
notation that the part is used in accordance with FAR
21.303(b)(2). Bogus part? Not in the least.
Somebody of course has to stand behind the part and
that would be the technician who approves it for return
to service under FAR 43.13(b). So long as he is satisfied
that the part complies with this section and will do the
job. The "quality" of the part must be in accord with
43.13(b), and the repair standards (welding and the like)
must be in accord with AC 43.13(1A13).
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Remember, that in order for the part to be legitimate
under 21.303@)(2), the owner must "produce" it for his
own use. In this case the owner could use anyone as his
agent to assist in producing the part for the owner's use.
A word of caution. I would have the owner's written
approval for the use of 21.303@)(2) parts and have the
owner endorse the logbook entry, with his approval.
Needless to say, keep copies...
The real threat that exists in the area of bogus parts
comes from defective hardware, including nuts, bolts,
seals and similar AN and MS style items. These items
are also specifically excluded from the requirement that
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Staying Legal
they have PMA approval. (FAR 21.303@)(4)).They are
considered to be standard parts conforming to estab
lished U.S. standards.
The problem is that there seems to be a large num-
ber of hardware items that are coming from foreign
sources and do not meet minimum specifications.
Unfortunately, there really is no way to trace the
origin of standard hardware items. So take a look in
your hardware bins and see if you don't agree that there
is a wide difference in finish, fit and markings. Paying
special attention to this hardware may be a good start
in finding the bogus part. May/June 1990
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 147
Sfaying Legal
Technicians advised to be informed
on drug testing
I
gnorance is bliss in some things, but when it comes
to federal rules that affect and govern your job, it
can be folly.
For instance, take the FAA's new anti-drug program
for aviation personnel in safety and security sensitive
positions. It would be nice to ignore the new drug rules
because they appear formidable and even a little scary.
But for the aircraft technician who ~ l a n to
s continue
his career, the antidote to the apprehension he might
feel about the new drug testing rules is information.
"My best advice to the professional technician," says
David Wadsworth, executive director of PAMA, "is to
become informed about the rules and testing procedures
so that he knows where he stands from the beginning.
His employer has to provide that information. The
employers have the guidelines."
According to Andy Cebula, director of government
affairs for the National Air Transportation Association
(NATA), the first thing the technician and others in
safety and security jobs have to do is to come to terms
with the rules.
"It's a mandated federal law." Cebula savs. "Aviation
people in the covered areas have no choice.
"I would tell people to look at it positively; you can
take drugs if you want, but you can't work in aviation."
Technicians working for companies which operate
under FAR Parts 65 andlor 145 as a contractor to air
carriers or technicians who work for a Part 135 opera-
tion are subject to testing of six types: preemployment,
periodic, random, reasonable cause, return to duty and
post accident.
Richard Xifo, manager of Flight Operations at NATA,
suggests that when taking a drug test the technician
should be candid with the Medical Review Officer
(MRO), the physician contracted by the company to over-
see the testing.
148 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
"They (technicians) should tell the MRO about any
medications they might be taking, regardless of what it
is," Xifo says. "They should tell all extenuating circum-
stances and get everything on to the chain of custody
form. It's for their protection."
The chain of custody form is the paperwork upon
which all information pertaining to the test is entered.
The frankness of the meeting with the MRO should,
Cebula adds, include any casual use of drugs such as
the taking of someone else's medication, even if it only
happened once. Visits to the dentist during which
Novocain was used should also be reported.
According to Xifo, technicians should also report
instances of being in the same room where marijuana
was smoked. However, "The threshold levels (allowable
amounts) are high enough that casual contact such as
that is not going to register," Xifo says.
Additionally, complete frankness, which could
explain why a test came back positive, could result in
saving money.
The initial test is paid for by the employer but in the
event of a positive test that the employee disputes, the
cost of a retest requested by the employee is the respon-
sibility of the employee.
Cebula points out that a retest does not mean the
employee gives another urine sample; it simply means
that another, different, test is done on the original
sample.
Wadsworth at PAMA adds, "A positive drug test
doesn't immediately mean drug abuse or habitual use.
The MRO must review the results with the technician to
determine if there could be another cause.
"The MRO must review the positive test with the em-
ployee before he reports it to the employer. The gives the
technician the opportunity to retest before his employer
knows about the positive test." Marh'April1990
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''ICertify"... or do I?
By Stephen F! Prentice
11 too often technicians use the words "I cerhfy"
A
for frequent airframe and engine logbook entries
without spending much time considering the
importance and signifkance of the term.
Let's consider some applications. Remember, these
are magic words when maintenance or inspections are
performed. When push comes to shove, after some inci-
dent, you can rest assured that your name wiU jump
right upfront when inquiries are made.
Certification
The most common certification, of course, is the
one found in the language of Part 43.11, that approves
for return to service after an inspection has been
performed.
"I certify that this aircraft has been inspected in
accordance with inspection and was determined to be
in airworthy condition." (Part 43.1 l(a)(4)Jn
As we all know, it is usually common to find that this
expression is also placed in the engine logbook when an
annual inspection or other hourly inspection has been
performed.
Likewise. Section 43.9 deals with the work verformed
and requires an entry that indirectly, if not expressly,
certifies that what was done, was in accordance with the
acceptable standards and the technician is approving
(i.e., certifying) the aircraft for return to service, only for
the work he performed.
On the other hand,. A~vendixB of Part 43 deals with
major repairs or alterations and points out that this
record can be done in two ways. Use a 337 form or, in
the case of a repair station, following a manual or speci-
fication, and making a statement that is usually called a
maintenance release. This simply states that something
was repaired and inspected in accord with the FAR and
found airworthy for return to service. It is dated, some
times refers to a work order, and is usually signed by
the technician or an inspector, or other representative
of the station.
It is interesting to note that this document or state
ment doesn't have-to be signed by the person that did
the work. This type of release is set out in detail in
Appendix B, Part 43. The section is also the obvious
basis for the common "yellow tag" that is used in all
parts of the industry. Shops that don't have repair sta-
tion status must use the 337 form for any major work.
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Is your statement a warranty?
Well, what about this certification, airworthiness and
return to service language? What does this mean to me?
First, as we all know, certdy simply means to declare
that the statement is true and accurate, i.e., in this case,
that the aircraft or component is airworthy.
OK. So what does airworthy mean? Airworthy has
always been a little bit of an illusive concept, but gener-
ally, when an aircraft or part is airworthy, it conforms to
its type certification data or other approved data and
complies with any applicable airworthiness directives.
How does all this relate?
Consider the warranty that you get when you pur-
chase a washer or dryer from a retailer. It usually states
that if the machine fails within a certain period of time
it will be repaired or replaced. A warranty is nothing
more or less than a promise that a specific variety of
performance can be expected from a product or, in some
cases, a service.
Warranties that are written are called express
warranties. Does this mean that the technician is provid-
ing a warranty to the maintenance customer? You bet
it does. In fact, there is case law in most areas that
supports this and states clearly that a technician's or
repair station's certification of airworthiness is an
express warranty.
This means that you are No. 1 if something goes
wrong and your liability extends not only to the FAA in
regard to enforcement actions, but also to the customer
and anyone else affected by the warranty or its failure.
Keep in mind, however, that Part 43.9 only ties you up
for the work you have performed, which is only logical.
When the LA or repair station says that an aircraft is
airworthy, we know that it must conform to its type
certifiication data. For example, remember the old early
Beech stall warning devices on the V-tail Bonanzas? How
many of those aircraft are still flying and are certified
with either part or all of the device missing? The next
time you visit the airport, take a look.
b y items that relate to flight safety directly, includ-
ing things like gas combustion heaters, should get your
special attention.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 149
StayinflLegal
Let the FAA decide
Some areas of the country are experiencing unusual
focus by the FAA locals in the area of Parts 43.9, 43.11
and Appendix B. Frequently, however, FAA personnel
do not agree on how to classify a major repair, minor
repair or alteration, even though they are spelled out in
Appendix A. If you have any doubt, let the FAA decide
the issue and get a written document from them on the
point. If you ask an inspector for a verbal opinion on the
point, and he gives one, simply write him a letter and
confirm what he said to you on the issue.
150 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Keep this in mind also. If you have parts repaired by
other than approved repair stations and they arrive with-
out a yellow tag, you are the one responsible for their
conformance with acceptable practices and standards.
This is not to say that non-repair station shops can't
do a good job; they usually do. However, you have to be
prepared to stand behind their work.
Finally, be precise about how you certify an aircraft
or its components and what endorsements are required-
the aggravation you prevent may be your own! EPl
March/April 1990
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Insurance, to have or
By Stephen I? Prentice
I
nsurance protection is frequently described as and
likened to motherhood, apple pie and Ronald
Reagan. That is, somethmg that is difficult to argue
against, but if you are economically depressed, it may be
out of reach.
Insurance protection today enters every facet of our
lives and has become a necessary item. In many cases it
has become a requirement. Let's see how it applies to
the aircraft technician.
Who and what is covered?
The technician- as an employee at an FBO or other
service facility technicians are usually provided with
insurance coverage that, among other things, covers
work-related injuries. This coverage is usually called
workers' compensation. In addition, some variety of
medical coverage for sickness or illness and the Social
Security program (which is a form of insurance) are
usually present to provide personal coverage.
The employer- generally speaking, the employer will
provide at his fixed place of business, some form of
hangarkeeper's insurance and protection for what is usu-
ally called completed operations. The first simply covers
the customer's aircraft from damage while in the care
and custody of the shop. The second protects the firm
and its employees against any allegations of negligence
on the part of the shop in performing or failing to per-
form some maintenance function, which ultimately might
cause injury to persons or property.
It is this completed operations coverage that for the
most part is the expensive item to purchase in today's
insurance market. The reason is obvious. Simply put, the
risk is somewhat open-ended. The underwriter must pro-
vide for liability claims that can routinely far exceed the
simple value of the hardware. The underwriter tradition-
ally looks at the relative risk involved and sets an appro-
priate premium. In some cases the premium is adjust
able, depending on claims history.
Moonlighting
As an employee, you are generally fully protected
against any errors or omissions that might be alleged.
But, what about the work that you do on weekends or
after hours? Are you protected from adverse claims in
that area?
Probably not.
The coverage provided by your employer does not
normally extend beyond your working environment and
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not!
customer aircraft. If you perform services for your own
account, outside of your employer's place of business,
you are on your own.
So it follows that if you do a lot of your own work,
you may want to consider your own coverage. However,
the decision to obtain coverage should be made based on
the amount of risk you plan to take.
Consider this. If you, as an IA or A&P, perform inci-
dental maintenance or even an occasional annual inspec-
tion for friends or acquaintances, you probably can get
along without any coverage. The theory here would be
that your exposure is relatively minor. Sure, there is
some, but the costs on balance would far outweigh the
need for protection.
On the other hand, if the level of maintenance is
substantial and includes numerous annual inspections,
engine or accessory overhaul and the like, then you had
better consider some kind of broad-based liability protec-
tion including completed operations.
Between these two variations of service is what can
only be described as a gray area. That is, an area where
the need for coverage is graduated depending on the
relative risk involved and the cost of coverage. Simply,
this means that you must make an individual assess-
ment. An individual assessment must obviously include
such factors as:
What the risks are to the assets of the technician.
If there are any risks that are exposed.
If there is any real threat of allegations of negligence.
What equipment and personnel are exposed.
You must discuss your individual needs with your
personal adviser and from time to time, update your
assessment.
Reducing the threat
Can we operate in such a fashion to reduce the
threat of claims? Yes, we can. Let's consider some of
them.
If the technician is providing services outside his
normal workplace, can he be covered under the policy
that provides protection for work done at the FBO or
other service facility?
This is possible.
One can only discuss it with the insurance person
concerned with the policy at work. Keep in mind, how-
ever, that the employer may take a dim view of and not
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 151
approve of outside work by the employee. The reasoning
here could run the gamut from conflict of interest, i.e.,
taking his customers away, to the threat of liability for
your outside work. So you must be discrete with regard
to how you approach this area.
Another possible answer might be found in seeking
insurance coverage under the policy that the aircraft
operator provides. This would be a case where you are
perhaps assisting in the routine maintenance of a Part
91 or 135 operator's turbine aircraft. This is a fairly
common situation since, as a practical matter, routine
maintenance can be handled by parbtime assistance
where costs are paramount. As a condition of the service
you provide, the operator would simply agree to arrange
for and perhaps pay for some form of protection for
your work.
The simplest solution is, of course, to arrange
through your individual insurance broker for coverage.
Some of the larger underwriters provide this kind
of coverage for both fixed-base operators and the
smaller shops.
152 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
NO coverage
Another answer is to "go bare" (no coverage), as
many physicians have done in the medical field. We all
know that those costs went out of sight in the past few
years and many physicians simply gave up buying protec-
tion. They simply restricted their practice to the areas of
least exposure.
We have also been aware of the fact that Cessna has
stated that the reason it gave up the singleengine line
was that the cost of product liability insurance just got
too expensive. It elected to just get rid of the product
and thus reduce not only its risk but also costa as well.
A drastic step to say the least, but in their judgment,
necessary. Only time wiU tell if this move was prudent
or necessary.
The final comment on outside service should simply
be for the technician to be rather circumspect about the
volume of service performed and, more importantly, who
he is doing it for; otherwise, the risk can outweigh the
advantages. El JanuaqYFebruary 1990
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FAA enforcement
By Stephen P. Prentice
I t should come as no surprise to those of us in the
general aviation field that the Federal Aviation
Administration has in the last two years increased
its enforcement compliance activity across the board.
Witness the increase in the number of inspectors
hired by the agency and the additional FAA attorneys
hired to process the increased paperwork load that is
necessarily created. The result is closer attention to regu-
latory compliance at all levels, but especially, in the FAR
Part 135 activitv area. This is not to sav that the indi-
vidual technician is not singled out for compliance
checks. Quite the contrary. Whenever somebody makes a
complaint (irate private plane renter or owner), the
agency will follow up with an inspector breathing down
your neck if the matter involved a maintenance item,
looking for some basis to "write you up ..."
Many observers have noted that in their zealous pur-
suit of the "safety mandate," the FAA has lost sight of
its mandate to "foster the develo~mentof aviation." I
agree. Indeed, had the present ekorcement frenzy ex-
isted early on, we would have no aviation industry as we
know it today. It would have been suppressed.
Technicians, be aware that unless your personal expe
rience proves otherwise, FAA inspection personnel, as a
general rule, will not be looking at your operation to fos-
ter its development. Of course there are exceptions. How-
ever, chances are they are there to look into some
complaint matter that has somehow focused on you.
A couple of points to remember
Do I as a licensed technician have to talk to FAA in-
spection personnel?
I am frequently asked this question by the technician
and, of course, the answer is clearly no. This is still a
free country and with a minor exception, you are best to
keep quiet. Obviously, if an inspector asks to see your
license while on the job, you are obliged to show it. But
that is all. You need not answer any questions or discuss
anything, and it is usually prudent to avoid this kind of
conversation with any FAA inspection personnel.
I always suggest that one be courteous at all times,
but if the inspector arrives in the shop unannounced and
without an appointment, politely advise him that you are
very busy at the moment and that, if he will write you a
letter, you will get back to him as soon as you can to ad-
dress any concerns. You can suggest an appointment in
the future if you feel that a personal discussion is in
your best interest. (It usually is not!) Everyone is entitled
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to reasonable notice of a visit from the FAA at his place
of business.
There are some exceptions to the notice requirement,
most prominently in the case of the air taxi operation,
which can be inspected at any time in accord with FAR
135.73.
Needless to say, be wary of discussing anything on
the telephone. If anyone calls requesting any kind of in-
formation on the telephone, tell the person to write you
a letter and then hang up.
It is always much easier to respond to an inquiry
from the FAA after you have been able to kick it around
for a few days and perhaps after discussing it further
with an adviser. There are times when a written r e
sponse is useful; however, I suggest it very rarely b e
cause it usually comes back to haunt you.
Keep this in mind... the FAA generally has great diffi-
culty in putting together a case against you for FAR vio-
lations, unless they have your cooperation. In other
words, you usually wind up convicting yourself with your
own statements, written or in conversations with FAA
personnel. FAA lawyers have repeatedly suggested that
without the admissions of the airman they could not go
forward and make their case in over onehalf of the mat.
ters with which they are concerned. So, a word to the
wise!
Point No. 2: The NASA form.
If you suspect that an inspector is focusing his atten-
tion on you in regard to some alleged infraction of the
FAR, you should do what many pilots and other aviation
personnel do; namely, file a NASA form. This form is
properly captioned Aviation Safety Reporting Form No.
NASA ARC 277. These forms should be available at your
local GAD0 or FSDO, right at the front counter.
This report, commonly called the NASA form, is
filled in by the airman. It is designed to advise NASA of
safety-related matters pertaining to aircraft operations.
Filing such a form insulates the airman from the im-
position of any sanction that might result from the fads
of the matter. A violation can be Tied and, if a sanction
is imposed, you simply show your proof of filing the
NASA form; the sanction, in most cases, is then waived.
There are some exceptions obviously for criminal actions
and the like.
There are other restrictions such as filing the form
within 10 days of the "incident." I always suggest filing
the form in any case; you can argue about the date of
the incident later.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 153
 Incidentally, I don't believe you have to show the ac-
tual report to the FAA, only the receipt thereof, properly
identified as relating to the matter at hand. Simply refer-
ence the matter on the receipt when you send in the d e
tailed report. Any further details on the use of the form
can be obtained from FAA Advisory Circular 0M6c.
New Texas law makes it easier for shops
to collect bad debts
AUSTIN, TX-The Texas legislature has made it easier
for an aircraft maintenance shop to collect past due bills
from customers.
In their recently convened session, Texas lawmakers
passed into law the Aircraft Repair and Maintenance
Lien bill which gives maintenance facilities the right
to sell a customer's aircraft to satisfy an outstandmg
maintenance debt.
According to Rep. James E. "Pete" Laney of Hale
Center in west Texas who sponsored the bill in the Texas
House, the legislation passed both houses with little
opposition.
In the past, aircraft maintenance shops in Texas,
faced with an unpaid bill by a bankrupt customer, had to
wait in line behind banks and other institutions that
might have liens against the aircraft. Now they are first
in line.
"Not many people were aware that aircraft mainte
nance shops had no recourse if somebody didn't pay
their bill," said Laney, who owns two aircraft. "It
was needed."
154 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Always consider the safety reporting form in any
case, even where there is no apparent threat of an adion
against you by the FAA. Like the saying goes, safety is
everybody's business... NASA will love you for it.
The law, which went into effect Sept. 1, 1989, allows
the person who repairs or performs maintenance on an
aircraft to take a priority lien on the aircraft. If the
amount due is unpaid after 60 days from the time
the work was performed, the aircraft can be sold at a
public sale.
"He can keep possession of the airplane in his
hangar," Laney said, "or he can go out and repossess
the airplane, regardless of what other liens are held
against the airplane."
As the bill reads, following notification of the owner
and after the 60th day, "The holder of the lien may sell
the aircraft at a public sale and apply the proceeds to
the amount due. The lienholder shall pay any excess
proceeds to the person entitled to them."
Laney pointed out, however, that the provisions of
the bill apply only to "a legitimate shop, not a shadetree
mechanic." El November/December 1989
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New policy for IA renewal
By Bill O'Brien
F
or those A&P/IAs who are lucky enough in this
day and age to have busy, full-time jobs in busy
repair stations or FBOs, the IA renewal process is
nothing to get excited about. Most of these folks figure
the IA renewal process is "just" a government paperwork
exercise that comes due every March so the FAA can
update their IA data base.
However, for IAs looking at an empty hangar floor
three days out of five, meeting the IA renewal require
ments every March can be a serious concern, a concern
because these technicians might not have enough annu-
als completed or Form 337s filled out to meet the Inspec-
tion Authorization (IA) renewal requirements of FAR
Part 65, Section 65.93.
Renewal requirements
What are the requirements? The IA renewal require
ments are spelled out in FAR 65, Section 65.93: IA
renewal. Paraphrasing the requirements an IA can renew
if he or she:
1. Still meets the requirements of Section 65.91 such
as having a fixed base of operations, current data,
actively engaged, etc.
2. Performed one annual for each 90 days the IA was
held, or
3. Performed two major repairs or alterations for each
90 days the IA was held, or
4. Performed or supervised and approved one progres-
sive inspection, or
5. Attended and successfully completed an eighbhour
refresher course acceptable to the FAA, or
6. Successfully completed an oral test given by an FAA
inspector on the current regulations and standards
applicable to an IA.
For some strange reason no one here in Washington
can fathom, even experienced IAs who did annuals on
the Wright Brothers' flyer are reluctant to take advan-
tage of the oral exam.
If an IA for any number of reasons, does not meet
renewal requirements of No. 2, No. 3, or No. 4 above, an
oral exam is not considered an option to the individual,
then the next best bet is requirement is to complete a
refresher course to satisfy the feds. Unfortunately, the
refresher course option, the eighbhour FAA IA road
show that over onethird of the IAs relied on to get
renewed, is no longer an alternative.
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What happened to the FAA
eight-hour seminar?
For the last 20 years an average of 3,500 IAs a year
have parked their rumps on hardback chairs for eight
hours, overdosed on bitter coffee, and nibbled on a gran-
ite hard donut or two while Listening to FAA instructors
give them the definitive word on the Federal Aviation
Regulations.
For 18 of those years the eighbhour renewal course
was free. All an IA had to do was show up. The FAA
picked up all the training costs and sometimes even
the coffee. But for the last two years, due to severe
budget cuts and reorganization, Flight Standards Service
was forced to charge the IA $60 for the eight-hour
renewal course.
Despite the best FAA attempts at explaining the reali-
ties of a fiscally responsible government (and we weren't
making a dime over expenses), IAs nationwide rebelled
at the idea of a government user fee for something that
was free for so many years. So they voiced their opinion
with their feet, and beginning in April of last year, IAs
stayed away from the FAA scheduled courses in droves.
The FAA, like any other business, when it runs out
of customers, money, and ideas all at the same time,
was forced to shut down. Fortunately, to their credit, the
folks in Oklahoma City left the door open for customers'
requests for ondemand IA presentations.
The fix is in?
Beginning October 1, 1995, AFS-340, General
Aviation and Commercial Branch (Airworthiness) in
Washington, D.C., initiated new policy concerning IA
Renewal Seminar Acceptance procedures. For you
purists out there, the information is found in FAA Flight
Standards Handbook Bulletin HBAW 95-03A.
The first big policy change states that your local
Flight Standards District Office (FSDO) IA renewal
meeting will NOT be considered part of the eight-hour
renewal training seminar. Why not?
For the uninitiated, the FSDO's IA renewal meeting
happens one time a year-usually in March. On a given
date, time, and place, IAs mass to renew their inspection
authorization. The renewal meeting could be identified
as a "one part social hour" and "one part business." The
social part comes in when LAs engage in small talk with
their assigned FAA airworthiness inspector in a thinly
disguised attempt to find out when the fed is coming out
to do an IA surveillance check on them.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 157
FAA Feedback
A few IAs circulate around the crowd and feign good
fellowship with their competitors. Others painstakingly
fill out the renewal paperwork with a borrowed govern-
ment pen which they never return.
The business part of the meeting comes in play in
the last two hours or so which are spent nodding to a
sermon on filling out Form 337 and M&D reports
from the FSDO's new FAA airworthiness inspector. In
contrast to the FAA inspector's shaky public speaking
debut, the end of the IA's renewal meeting is a little
more formal up to a point.
The senior FAA inspector, following strict rules
of etiquette and decorum, calls each IA's name and
presents the IA his newly signed IA card. The ceremony
is followed by a quick volley of good-byes, and a hasty
retreat to the parking lot by both the IAs and FAA
inspectors. Despite my slight embellishment of the truth,
I think you now can see Washmgton rational why we
don't consider the renewal meeting-Training.
The next big change is that anyone, and this includes
the local FAA FSDO, who wants to put on maintenance
training,such as Federal Aviation Regulations, aircraft
systems, maintenance procedures, etc., must get the
training course "accepted by an FAA regional office.
The only exception to this new policy change is that
training conducted by aircraft, engine, propeller, or
appliance manufacturers or their authorized representa-
tives is considered "acceptable" to the FAA without
further showing.
What kind of maintenance training
is "acceptable?"
LA refresher training must be directly related to
regulations, FAA policy, maintenance, inspection, repair,
or alteration of aircraft, and their related parts. The
training cannot be an infomercial for a new or existing
product, or a collection of war stories that is long on
B.S. but short on substance. All training that is p r e
sented for IA renewal must be kept current at all times.
Training received on military aircraft such as C130,
F-15, or F-18 and related systems is NOT acceptable b e
cause military aircraft do not meet FAA-type design
standards. However, military training on similar civilian
maintenancerelated subjects such as corrosion control,
NDI, or basic electrical system troubleshooting is
acceptable.
The FAA will also accept training on large civilian
multiengine turbine, or transport category aircraft and
related systems, even though the IA will never sign off
an annual on these kinds of aircraft. This kind of train-
ing on large multiengine turbine or transport category
aircraft must be done by the manufacturer or his authe
rized representative.
The required eight hours of training can be obtained
at anytime during the 12-month period from April to
March of the following year. If desired the renewal train-
ing can be broken up into eight onehour sessions or in
158 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
two-hour session blocks or larger. However, the FAA will
not accept training less than one hour long.
How does the training become
"FAA accepted?"
FAA has set in place two binds of acceptance proce
dures to handle both "individually" developed IA renewal
training and training put on by a large organization like
PAMA, NATA, NBAA, etc.
In order for the training to become "accepted," both
the individual and large organization must submit an
overview or outline of the course material that wiU be
presented. The overview must have sufficient scope and
detail so the FAA can determine that the requirements
of FAR 65, Section 65.93 can be met.
Procedures for individually produced training
For an individually produced and developed IA train-
ing program, the individual must send it to the FAA r e
gional airworthiness safety program manager. (The local
FSDO can give you his or her name and address.) Once
the training program is "accepted by the regional folks,
the training can be presented anywhere in the world,
and it would be accepted by the FAA for IA renewal.
I know that there has to be at least one IA out there
with an overactive imagination. So in his or her interest
and the FAA, I offer the following heads up: If an IA
goes to the same oneour training program, let's say it's
on airconditioning servicing, at eight different locations
at different times during the year, with the expectation
of meeting the rule, I don't recommend it. To be brief
and blunt, the IA will not get renewed in March because
repeats don't count.
Application procedures for large organizations
For an IA program presented by a large organization,
the applicant must send it to:
FAA Headquarters
Attention: Ed Ortiz, AFS340
800 Independence Ave., S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20591
If the training package is accepted by AFS-340, the
organization can present the training program anywhere
in the world and it would be accepted by all FAA FSDOs
for IA renewal.
So you won't be left hanging around waiting for an
answer, in both cases, the individual developed training
and the large organization developed training, the FAA
must either accept or deny the training package within
30 days of receipt of the training program.
If the applicant is successful, he or she will receive a
letter of acceptance which says the training program is
accepted for one year. This original letter of acceptance
or a copy must be available at each training session for
review by both the attendees and the FAA.
I
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What happens if the FAA says "NO!"
In the interest of preventing mass civil unrest in the
aviation maintenance community, the FAA has come up
with the counterpart of a Federal Court of Appeals to
hear complaints. If an applicant's training program is
rejected by the FAA, the applicant can ask for a recon-
sideration of their training program by the Aircraft
Maintenance Division in Washington. The training
program wiU receive a onetime review by senior FAA
management, and the applicant will receive a final
decision to a f f i , m o w , or reverse the initial decision
within 30 days of receipt of the request.
Responsibilities of the trainer
The training organization or individual is required to
keep the following documentation:
1. Letter of acceptance.
2. Name, date and description of the training course.
3. Each course instructor's name and his or her
affiliation.
4. Length in hours of the training presented.
5. List of attendees. m s list is kept for two years)
6. Ensure that the course material is current.
7. N o w the local FSDO in writing at least 30 days
before the training is presented.
8. Allow the FAA to audit the course without charge.
9. Provide course material to the FAA without charge.
10. Provide a ceMicate of training for each attendee.
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When the "accepted course is revised or updated,
the new training material must be reviewed by the FAA
organization that issued the original letter of acceptance.
Once the new training material is "accepted" another
letter of acceptance will be issued by the FAA. This
new letter of acceptance must be attached to the original
letter. But be advised that the revision's letter of
acceptance will not change the original letter's oneyear
effective date.
To reinstate the training program after the oneyear
effective date, all the trainer has to do is send a letter
to the FAA shop who originally accepted the training
program and include a statement that declares the
training course material is current. Then you are back
in business for another year. Dl NovemberLDecember 1995
I I Bill O'Brien is the air-
worthiness program
manager for the Federal
Aviation Administration
in Washington, D.C.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 158
FAA Feedback
Checklists for parts
By Bill O'Brien
W
hen I worked for a living, I taped on the
inside lid of my top box of my roll-away a
"quotable quoten from Reader's Digest that
said: "I have a very responsible job around here; every
time there is a problem, I am responsible."
Things haven't changed a bit in the 15 years I've
been with the FAA and forced to wear a tie. The techni-
cian is still responsible, especially for making sure the
parts put on an aircraft are FAA approved (ref: FAR
21.303, FAR 43.13 and FAR 145.57).
It's bad enough for technicians to have to shoulder
the responsibility for installing parts, but today it is even
harder for the folks on the hangar floor. This is mainly
because the confusion over what an approved part is has
increased over the last three years by a factor of 10.
This tenfold increase in confusion is due in part to
the hashing and rehashing of the suspected unapproved
parts issue at hundreds of separate industry meetings, in
media events, and maintenance seminars.
So the problem of determining what is an approved
part or what is not, has for many technicians, become a
question with a level of difficulty that is right up there
with solving the riddle of the Sphinx.
To make matters a little worse, some technicians are
under the impression that an "approved" part is auto-
matically an "airworthy part."
Not so! An approved part and an airworthy part are
not one and the same. To help you solve the suspected
unapproved parts riddle, I have developed some defini-
tions, along with checklists and a little advice, to help
guide you through the maze. I can only hope this will
clear up the confusion rather than add to it.
Approved parts
An approved part is a part that meets one of the
following standards:
1. Parts produced by the type certificate production
approval holder (PAH), (e.g., the manufacturer of
the aircraft or one of its components).
2. Replacements parts with a parts manufacturer's
approval (FMA).
3. Standard parts which are parts or materials manufac-
tured in conformity with a specification that meets
an established U.S. or foreign standard or a
manufacturer's standard which is freely available
without proprietary limitations. Items such as fasten-
ers, O-rings, gaskets, etc., meet this criterion.
1&0 [he Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
4. Parts manufactured under a technical standard order
(TSO) such as radios, life rafts, ELTs, etc.
5. Owners/operators who produce parts manufactured
for their own product as long as that part was built
in accordance with design and performance data that
meets the requirements of the FAR under which the
type certificate was issued.
6. Parts produced by a foreign country with whom the
United States has a bilateral agreement that allows
for the acceptance of parts.
Unapproved parts
Unapproved parts fit into one of two categories:
counterfeit or undocumented parts.
Counterfeit park: A counterfeit part is a clone of the
original part. It may or may not function with the same
high level of reliability and performance as the original.
In my opinion, the producers of counterfeit aviation
parts are thieves. For money, they steal another man's
sweat, and ideas. For money, they knowingly put inno-
cent lives at risk. For money, they sell the integrity of
our profession.
If you spot a counterfeit part or know of anyone mak-
ing this bind of aviation junk, I want you to become part
of the solution, not part of the problem. Please fill out
an FAA form 8120-11 Suspected Unapproved Parts
Notification, or notdy the local Flight Standards District
Office or call the FAA Aviation Safety Hotline at (800)
255-1111 and give us information. No one who knows
right from w;ng will call you a snitch, and you might
save a life or two.
Undocumented parts: The second and largest cat
egory of unapproved parts is called undocumented parts.
The vast majority of these parts pose no direct safety
problem. The problem with these parts lies with the
paperwork, or I should say the lack of paperwork. Used
parts, military parts, salvage parts, and new or over-
hauled parts of unknown origin fit into this category.
Without documentation, a technician can't determine
if the part was manufactured under FAR Part 21, or if
the part was previously determined to be airworthy by a
ce cated person. Also, in the case of a lifelimited
part, it's impossible to know the part's current status as
far as accumulated cycles, hours, or maintenance history.
Incoming inspection checklist
Keeping an eye out for counterfeit parts shouldn't
start with the person installing them on the aircraft;
instead, it should start when the part is received in the
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parts department. Oftentimes, the condition of the pack-
age or the part upon arrival can alert the parts depart.
ment that there may be a problem. When a part is
delivered, inspect the part and container for the follow-
ing, and if any of the following items are found, reject
the part:
1. There is obvious damage to the part or container
in shipment.
2. The containerhox has been previously opened and
resealed by someone other than the part supplier.
3. The packaging, preservation of the part, or labeling
of the part does not conform to the contractual
requirements or the standard practices of the
part supplier.
4. The part's data plate, serial number, or other
identification means are missing or have been
tampered with.
5. The part has surface defects or abnormalities such as
an altered or unusual surface, absence of required
plating or coating, evidence of prior usage, scratches,
new paint, dirt, pitting, or evidence of corrosion.
6. Incomplete or no documentation.
Documentation checklist
AU incoming parts must have some kind of documen-
tation. Here is what to look for:
Parts produced by a production certificate holder
(PCH) PMA, or TSO For part tracking you should
have an invoice with the parts supplier's name,
address, and telephone number. The invoice should
also identxfy the part by PC, PMA, or TSO number,
and should identify the part by, but not limited to,
nomenclature, part number, serial number, identifica-
tion stamp, or casting marks, symbols, or bar codes.
Owner-produced parts-the owner should provide you
with documentation or a maintenance entry that says
at least the following: The owner produced the part,
the part meets the design and performance specifica-
tions of the original part, and what those design
standards were. Also, the owner must state that the
part is airworthy, and sign and date the document
or maintenance entry.
3. Overhauled parts - should have an invoice and a
maintenance entry that satisfies FAR 43.9. If the
overhaul was a major repair, in addition to the in-
voice, appropriate documentation can be an FAA
Form 8 1 3 M airworthiness approval tag, or an
FAA c e s i c a t e d repair station maintenance release
that meets Appendix B of Part 43, or a Form 337
Major Repair.
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4. Lifelimited parts-in addition to the invoice, the
maintenance record requirements must include the
cycles, time, hours or other reference(s) that the
part's life limit is measured by.
5. Salvage parts-If you harvest a part off a boneyard
aircraft, first you must make sure that the donor
aircraft was U.S. registered and maintained in accor-
dance with a U.S. Standard Airworthiness Certifi-
cate. Parts taken from a foreign registered aircraft,
even if it has a U.S. type certificate, are unapproved
because the aircraft was not maintained under the
FARs. Next, make out a maintenance record for
installing the part on your aircraft in accordance
with Part 43.9. Be sure that you include in your
maintenance entry the N number and serial number
of the donor aircraft, engine, or propeller from which
you removed the part.
Remember, FAR 43.9 states that your signature
and certificate number is a declaration the part and
its installation is airworthy. When you make this
statement, you are also telling the FAA you are
trained to do the inspection and qualified to deter-
mine the airworthiness status of the part.
Don't forget to identify the actual time on the part
if it is a lifelimited part, and note that you perform-
ed a form, fit, and function inspection prior to
installing the part. You also have to perform an AD
check and describe the current data you used to
perform the 3 "F" inspection, (e.g., manufacturer's
maintenance manual or service instructions). Record
the results of any applicable operational check after
you install the part. Repair stations and air carriers
must inspect salvage parts in accordance with their
inspection procedures manual or air carrier manual.
6. Military parts-With the exception of some restricted
use, (exhibition, research and development and
amateur-built category aircraft operating under a
Special Airworthiness ceMicate) military surplus
parts are not permitted to be used on FAA type
ce&icated aircraft-even if they were once used on
a public aircraft. The reason is that these parts may
not have been manufactured under an FAA-approved
quality assurance system.
Liars and cheats ID checklist
This checklist, in my opinion, lets you identify liars
and cheats who think they are doing industry a favor by
peddling unapproved parts. Here's what to look for:
1. Inventory reduction sale or liquidation sale peddled
in trade magazines or flyers featuring prices 50
percent less than prices quoted by other suppliers of
the same part. There is a good chance that these
parts are unapproved.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 161
F M Feedback
2. A part's delivery that approaches Mach 3 when com-
pared with the time it takes to deliver the same part
supplied by other parts dealers. Be real suspicious,
especially if the part is hard to get and everybody
else has it back-ordered. Ask the person peddling the
part this question, "How come you have sources that
no one else has?" If he/she only smiles, and talks
about their "friends" in the parts business, then
there is a good chance they are trying to sell you an
unapproved part.
3. No supporting paperwork with the part showing FAA
approval, or data showing conformity to the part.
Usually the liar accounts for the nonexistent paper-
work with a lame excuse like-"It blew out the win-
dow," or "my dog ate it." Or the all-time favorite
lie-"I'll mail the paperwork to you next week after
your check clears the bank."
4. Repair stations and parts distributors should also be
careful of production approval holder vendors who
overproduce a particular line of parts and offer the
part overrun at substantially reduced prices. The
parts will typically have the data plates and marking,
etc., but no manufacturer's paperwork. These parts
are often unapproved.
5. Be wary of PAH vendors who ship parts directly to
you without direct ship authority from the PAH.
Check the vendors invoice for the PAH direct ship
authority statement. If there is no such statement,
those parts identified on the invoice are unapproved.
6. Be careful of out-of-state or little known repair
stations advertizing themselves as "FAA Approved"
and offering "overhauled or "rebuilt" parts for sale
at bargain basement prices. Before you deal with
these folks, ask your local FAA office to check them
out and see if they are properly rated for the work
they are advertising. In many cases, the FAA will
never have heard of them, and you can bet your last
torque wrench that the parts for sale are unapproved.
162 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
7. Be suspicious of airline surplus parts sales. In some
cases the parts are approved, but in other cases the
parts have little or no paperwork accompanying
them. What is even scarier is that some of these
parts may have been modified per the air carrier's
engineering order, and the paperwork may not reflect
the alteration, or there may, be no paperwork at
all. If this is the case, you'll end up with an unfair
worthy part.
8. A good rule of thumb for buying parts is never, ever,
buy a part that has been in a fire, suffered sudden
stoppage, taken a lightening strike, participated in
a hard landing, or made an unplanned saltwater
landing.
9. Carefully check out all parts that are double pack-
aged. It's possible that someone wiU sell you a part
or batch of parts that have exceeded their shelf life
but are trying to hide it by repackaging the outof-
date parts in outer bags labeled with current shelf
life dates.
10. And finally, this last item is perhaps the best piece
of advice I can give you. If the price is too good to
be true, if the delivery time is too good to be true,
if everything about the sale is too good to be true,
then the whole deal is too good to be true and don't
buy into it.
I'll close with two personal observations and a
request.
I believe that 50 percent of the unapproved parts
problem in the United States would disappear if fixed
base operators, repair stations, air carriers, and indi-
vidual technicians would take a ~ersonalinterest in what
parts arrive at their parts roomAdoorand make sure
each part is approved.
Another 20 percent reduction in the unapproved
parts problem could happen overnight if we could have
the same operators get rid of their scrap parts in accor-
dance with Advisory Circular (AC) 2138 Disposition of
Scrap Parts. Help rid our industry of unapproved parts.
Make the 70 percent reduction in unapproved parts
happen today! Ell September/Odober 1995
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Who in the world needs an M.E.L.?
By Bill 0'Brien
.E.L. stands for Minimum Equipment List, and
M many super smart aviation folks are surprised
to find that an M.E.L. is, in maintenance
terms, a Supplemental Type Certificate (STC).
A n M.E.L. is an STC because it modifies the original
aircraft's type ceHicate to allow operators to legally
operate their Part 91 aircraft with inoperative, nonessen-
tial instruments and equipment on board.
Most operators of large, corporateowned, Part 91,
heavy iron aircraft think that an M.E.L. is required by
the FAAs. Not so! You don't need one if an operator
complies with FAR Part 91, Sedion 91.405 and keeps
all of the aircraft's equipment and instruments in work-
ing order.
Unfortunately, in the real world, not everything
works all the time, so every aircraft operator must have
some legal way to defer inoperative equipment before
they fly. One way is to develop an M.E.L.
What exactly is an M.E.L.?
A n M.E.L. is a precise listing of instruments, equip
ment and procedures that allows an aircraft to be
operated under specific conditions with inoperative
equipment with no decrease in the level of safety.
It is typically developed by an operator for a specific
aircraft using an FAA developed Master Minimum
Equipment List (M.M.E.L.) and incorporating any modi-
fications that may have been made to the aircraft with
STCs or field approvals.
Which FARs apply to the M.E.L.?
If we look deep in the dark, greasy bowels of Part 91,
General Operating and Flight Rules, there are two rules
that refer to M.E.L.s. The first one, as I mentioned
earlier, is FAR Section 91.405, Maintenance Required.
Briefly summarizing this rule: Owners or operators are
required to have all discrepancies on an aircraft repaired
between inspections, and prior t o further flight.
This rule can be quite restrictive when applied to
real-world situations. Se a few years ago, a couple of
FAA rulemeisters, who were blessed with real-world
experience, decided to fix this. In effect, they left the
door open for operators to fly their aircraft with inop
erative equipment by adding paragraph (c) to FAR
Section 91.405. This paragraph allows an M.E.L. to be
developed in accordance with another rule, FAR Section
91.213, Inoperative Instruments and Equipment.
These same individuals also added another para-
graph: (d) to another rule, FAR Section 91.213. Over the
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years this has become fondly known in some FAR circles
as the "M.E.L. get out of jail free card." I'll fill you in on
using the card a little bit later.
Which aircraft should be operated under
an M.E.L.?
From a maintenance perspective, I would not recom-
mend using an M.E.L for general aviation aircraft oper-
ated under Part 91 such as the Cessna 182 size and
smaller. These aircraft are not complex enough to justtfy
creating an M.E.L. However, if an owner/operator really
wants one, the FAA has developed a generic, Master
Minimum Equipment List (M.M.E.L.) for these small
singleengine aircraft.
I strongly recommend, however, developing an M.E.L.
for larger, faster, more complex turbine-powered aircraft.
Why? I don't think it's fair for a pilot of a Falcon 50,
sitting on a ramp at Whitefish, MT, with an angry CEO
and an inoperative piece of equipment on board, to be
forced into making a very technical, go/no-go decision
without additional operational and maintenance input.
The best way for that pilot to make that very important
safety decision is to use an M.E.L. The M.E.L. spells out
clearly which equipment is critical to flight and which
equipment isn't.
How do I get an M.E.L.?
First the good news, getting an M.E.L. is easy. All
you have to do is to talk to the friendly folks at the local
Flight Standards District Office (FSDO) and tell them
you would like a Part 91 M.E.L. for your aircraft. But
before you do so, make sure that you fully understand
the M.E.L. process.
To help you unwind the deep, dark secrets of the
M.E.L. process, I recommend that you carefully read
FAA Advisory Circular (AC) 9187 titled: Minimum
Equipment Requirements for General Aviation Aircraft
Operations Under Part 91.
When you arrive at the ADO at the appointed time,
the inspector will review the M.E.L. process with you, go
over the M.M.E.L. preamble, and ask a lot of questions.
If you successfully impressed the inspector with your
vast knowledge of the M.E.L. process, he will then give
you a copy of the M.M.E.L., which in fact becomes your
M.E.L., a copy of the preamble, and a letter of authoriza-
tion and sends you on your way.
I know what some of you are thinking: Where is the
blood, torture, bamboo slivers under the fingernails?
Where are the red ink corrections?
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 163
FAA Feedback
There are none. This is the only FAA policy that I
can think of that the FAA does not approve or accept
anything from the applicant; we put all the blame in
your pocket. Like I told you, it's easy.
Well, it's not that easy!
Even though you just received an M.M.E.L. from the
FAA, (which has now become your M.E.L), a preamble,
and a letter of authorization (LOA), you can't use the
M.E.L. just yet. You really have got to look over the
M.M.E.L. very carefully. It's a generic document and
may not reflect the equipment on your aircraft. In addi-
tion you can't use the M.E.L. until you develop a proce
dures manual which explains what you are going to use
when a piece of M.E.L. equipment fails.
In addition, the procedures manual identifies any
inspections, placards, pilot and mechanic record keeping,
and any maintenance and preventive maintenance steps
to be undertaken when you deactivate a piece of inopera-
tive equipment in accordance with your M.E.L.
Who should develop the M.E.L.?
Despite the fact that many pilots consider an M.E.L.
an "operations" document, it really is an STC. And since
all M.E.L.6 address maintenancerelated functions, equip
ment on board, and airworthiness directives, I recom-
mend that both a technician and a pilot sit down and
jointly develop the M.E.L. and the procedures manual.
Professionalizing your M.E.L.
First read the copy of AC 9167 over again. This AC
has ALL and I do mean ALL the information you need
to develop your M.E.L. This is your M.E.L. bible and you
should even read the AC only if you plan to use the
alternative "get out of jail free card" to fly your small
GA aircraft with inoperative equipment.
The next step is to go down the M.M.E.L. items and
cross out any reference to requirements for the same
aircraft operated under Part 121, 125, 129 or 135. With
the AC serving as your guide, now compare your
aircraft's equipment list against the M.M.E.L. items, and
create a list of identical components you can put on your
M.E.L. Call this list: Tentative M.E.L.
Next, compare your AD checklist against your aircraft
equipment list. If you have an AD requiring that instru-
mentation or equipment must be working, or a piece of
equipment required by Section 91.205 that requires a
particular piece of equipment to be operative for a s p e
cific operation, list that piece of equipment and its func-
tion on a separate list titled: Required Equipment List.
Use the same procedure with any of the aircraft's
equipment that was added by STC or FAA Form 337,
Major Repairs or Alterations and if a piece of equipment
is required to be operative by the STC or Form 337 or
required by emergency procedures, then add this
componenHs) to the Required Equipment List.
164 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Now subtract the required equipment list items from
thetentative M.E.L. list; in other words decide what you
must have in the aircraft vs. what you don't need. This
procedure will take you some time to sort through before
you create your first draft M.E.L. But I want you to r e
member that you must be thorough and accurate. Also,
remember that your M.E.L. cannot be less restrictive
than the original M.M.E.L.
Also, if you don't mention a piece of equipment or
instrumentation in the M.E.L., then that equipment/
instrumentation must be operative at all times.
What should the M.E.L. look like?
I recommend that your M.E.L. mirror the FAA's
M.M.E.L. column format. It should list each individual
piece of equipment items by system as identified by the
ATA code in Column 1. When describing each system,
make sure that you completely detail the interface of the
equipment with the crew, its location, and what it does.
In Column 2 list the number of items on board. List the
number of required items for dispatch in Column 3, and
in Column 4 put any remarks or exceptions.
The deactivation procedures are divided into two
areas: operations and maintenance. Operations proce
dures are identified with an "0" in the column alongside
the piece of inoperative equipment. These procedures are
usually performed by pilots. Maintenance deactivation
procedures are identified with an "M," and these proce
dures are usually performed by mechanics. However,
other personnel may be q u a l e d and authorized to
perform the procedure.
Here's a "heads up" to save time and frustration
when you're developing your M.E.L.: On the FAA's
M.M.E.L. where it lists a piece of equipment that may be
inoperative (e.g., clock), it may say in the procedures
block on the same line as the word, "clock," something
like "as required by the FAR." In your M.E.L. procedures
block, don't repeat the words "as required by the FAR."
This will just drive the FAA inspector, who does a ramp
check of your aircraft's M.E.L., bonkers. Just state: "May
be inoperative for VFR."
Without direct FAA district office oversight you
might yield to temptation and fudge the M.E.L creation
process a bit. However, this is not the time to be
sloppy because if you have an accident, the FAA will
examine your M.E.L. and your procedure manual with a
jaundice eye.
Additional M.E.L. items
Remember, the M.M.E.L is based on the
manufacturer's "standard" confiiation. So the FAA's
M.M.E.L. may not include, your STC for the nuclear-
powered microwave in your aircraft's galley, or FAA
Form 337 Field Approval for the gold-plated toilet bowl
with the electrically warmed, and thermostatically
controlled, marble potty seat.
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If you want to operate with these items inoperative,
you will have to petition the FAA to put those items on
your M.E.L. The way you do this is to send a letter to
the FSDO requesting that the FAA's Flight Operations
Evaluation Board (FOEB) put these items on the
M.M.E.L. If the FSDO had determined that the equip
ment(s) has not previously been denied and forwards it
to the FOEB, you can still include those items on your
M.E.L. and operate with them inoperative until notified
otherwise by the FAA.
When the FAA revises the M.M.E.L. for the aircraft,
the owner of the aircraft will be notified of the revision.
The owner/operator is responsible for obtaining the
revised M.M.E.L. from the FSDO and then has 30 days
to replace the old M.E.L. with the revised version. The
operator performs this revision of the M.E.L. on his
own; there is no interface with the local office.
What happens to your M.E.L. if you decide to install
a new piece of equipment like a computerized, neon, tire
pressure checker and you want to put it on your M.E.L.?
No sweat, all you have to do is petition the FOEB,
through the FSDO, to revise the M.M.E.L. within 10
days after installing it on your aircraft. Unless you hear
othenvise, you can keep the neon pressure checker on
the M.E.L. But 10 days is the magic number. If you wait
longer than 10 days to petition the FOEB, then the
pressure checker must be operative at all times.
Get out of jail free card-an easier way?
Not all operators will want to go through the required
pain and suffering of developing an M.E.L. So there is
an alternative way-a legal way-in which you can defer
inoperative equipment on your aircraft and still stay free
of the clutches of the logbook police. One catch, however:
it's limited to rotorcraft, nonturbine powered aircraft,
gliders, or lighter-than-air aircraft.
This "get out of jail free c a r d is found in FAR
Section 91.213, paragraph (d). The rule sets a checklist
or decision sequence a pilot or mechanic must go
through before flying with inoperative equipment.
For example, let's say your navigation lights are inop
erative on your Cessna 150. You physically check them
and they are still attached to the aircraft but inoperative.
To see if you can defer this item under FAR Section
91.213 (d), you must first check your aircraft's equip
ment list, type ceM1cate data sheet, and applicable
kinds of operation equipment list and see if the navi-
gation lights are required equipment. Let's say they
are not.
Next check and see if the nav lights are required to
be operative by FAR Section 91.205 or any other FAR
operating rule. OK, the rule says they are required for
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night VFR but not for day VFR. Next check if the nav
lights are required to be working by an airworthiness
directive or STC. In this case they are not.
Now you can deactivate the nav lights in accordance
with FAR Section 43.13 and placard it as "inoperative."
For the last step the pilot or technician must make a
signed logbook entry in accordance with FAR Section
43.9 stating that "the navigation hghts are deferred
for VFR flight only and do not constitute a hazard to
the aircraft."
Inspection of inoperative equipment
When a Part 91 operator exercises his right to defer
inoperative equipment and instruments under an M.E.L.,
there is no FAA requirement that requires the operator
or the technician to fix that piece of M.E.L. deferred
equipment.
The compliance times for deferred items on the
M.M.E.L. are for Part 121, 125, 129 and 135 operators
only. Unless the operator's M.E.L. says otherwise, there
is no FAA requirement to fix a deferred item because it
was deferred in accordance with an STC, and the FAA
considers the aircraft in a properly altered condition
acceptable to the administrator.
When you're performing an inspection on an M.E.L.
equipped aircraft and you are confronted with a deferred
item, and the owner doesn't want you to fii it, you still
must check and see if the item is on the M.E.L. Then,
make sure the item was properly deferred, and all the
procedures in the procedures manual have been satis-
fied. Finally, ensure that the deferred item is not in
conflict with any new AD or STC that has come along.
Once you are satisfied that the deferred item(s) meet
the requirements of the M.E.L., or new AD or STC, then
issue the owner/operator a signed and dated list of all
M.E.L. discrepancies that you did not repair. Then sign
off the inspection as usual.
If you're doing an inspection on one of the "get out
of jail free card" user's aircraft, FAR Section 91.405(c)
says that inoperative equipment deferred under FAR
Section 91.203(d) (2) gives the owner/operator four
choices on handling inoperative equipment. The deferred
items must be either repaired, replaced, removed, or
inspected at the next required inspection. If the owner
only wants those deferred items inspected, see if those
items still meet FAR Section 91.203(d) and sign it off in
the logbook stating that those specific deferred items
still meet the rule. July/August 1995
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 165
FAA Feedback
To become an /A, you must become a true leader
By Bill O'Brien
s an FAA airworthiness inspector, I still must
perform enroute inspections. So the other day, I
found myself lashed to the jump seat of a fully
loaded MD-80. Sitting there, wedged between the bulk-
heads, I was pondering the prospect of a three-hour ride
back to DCA when Mr. Murphy struck.
The captain could not get the APU to turn over. The
crew ran down the APU troubleshooting checklist,
pressed all the buttons, exercised all the circuit breakers
and prayed to the APU god, but it still didn't start, so
the co-pilot called maintenance. In five minutes or so, a
technician came over and started to troubleshoot the
problem.
While the technician was back in the tail looking at
the APU, a ramp agent ran down the jet way and asked
one of the flight attendants standing by the left main
entry door how long would it take the "grease monkey"
to fix the problem, because we were blocking the gate
and another plane was waiting.
Sitting there, overhearing that same old put-down, I
felt the Irish boil up from my belly and turn my cheeks
red. Just as quickly I let it pass. This was not the time
and not the place to make a ramp agent a little wiser
about our profession, I rationalized. Too many witnesses.
I knew the technician would understand. He, like
many of us, just tries to make our little corner of avia-
tion a little safer each day. And a couple of harsh words
about us won't change the way we think of ourselves
and our profession. But still, despite our profession's
coverup, the lack of respect from one's peers always
hurta a bit.
But among us there is one member of our aviation
maintenance profession that very rarely gets beat up.
General aviation A&P technicians know thk individual
as an IA. The rest of the IA industry knows the IA as a
"Silverback," the 80Gpound gorilla of general aviation
maintenance.
"Silverbacksn are not to be trifled with. IAs can
ground airplanes, approve data, perform annuals, and
approve for return to service major repairs and major
alterations. They are a walking, talking, two-legged
repair station.
I A requirements
To become a Silverback you must first meet all the
regulatory requirements in Part 65. But before I go over
the FAR for IA, may I offer you potential Silverbacks a
bit of advice? Before you earn the right to exercise the
166 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
awesome power that an IA wields, you must first have a
total commitment and accountability to aviation safety.
This total commitment is shown in the way you
prepare for the IA test. Your preparation should be long
and thorough. A couple of hours each night for three
months, should be spent studying the FAR, Advisory
Circulars, ADS, type cerScates and running practice
annual inspection logbook reviews on different aircraft.
You read right, at least three months. And this indi-
vidual self-study doesn't stop when you pass the test. It
should remain a continuing, repetitive educational pro-
cess, for each year, and every year that you hold the IA.
Regrettably, there is no fast, or inexpensive way to
become an IA. I do not recommend the "quickien IA
weekend schools or "guaranteed to pass the first time"
IA courses that are routinely advertised in trade maga-
zines. These educational fast food establishments might
give you enough sustenance to pass the test, but you will
be starving for more information later on.
Without additional study and preparation on your
part, you will remain forever, an undernourished
5Gpound gorilla, woefully unprepared to discharge your
duty as an IA and unfit to hold the title of Silverback.
The second virtue you must possess is accountability.
Once an IA signs an annual off in a logbook, or approves
an FAA Form 337, that IA has assumed responsibility
and accountability for his or her actions. This account
ability is not transferable nor can it be delegated to
someone else. Right or wrong, if there is an accident or
a problem with the work you have approved, then it is
the IA that is the first one the FAA or NTSB investiga-
tor interviews. If you find this accountability concept
difficult to swallow, then maybe, becoming a Silverback
is not for you.
Getting ready
First pick up a copy of Advisory Circular 65-19G,
Inspection Authorization Study Guide. Your local FSDO
should have a couple.
Go to Appendix 2 of the AC and check and see if you
already have all the publications that you should have
with you when you take the test. If you are missing
some publications, get them. Take my word for it, at
least one question will come from each of those refer-
enced publications.
Some of the publications, like ADS, are expensive to
buy. You are not required to own your own personal AD
listing. FAR 65.91 (4) says that the IA should have the
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inspection data "available" to him. So if you work for an
airline or a repair station and you have your company's
permission to use the data, then it is OK with the FAA.
However, it would be a good idea to get that OK in
writing just in case the FAA inspector gets a little suspi-
cious if you walk in for the LA test with a company's logo
all over the tech data.
The requirements
There are just four rules in Part 65 that directly
address IAs.
The first rule: 65.91 Inspection Authorization sets the
eligibility requirements for the IA. The first requirement
is that the IA applicant must hold a current A&P techni-
cian certifkate for a total of three years.
During those three years the applicant must have
been actively engaged (working) for a two-year period
maintaining civil aircraft. The applicant must have a
fixed base of operation where he or she can be reached
by telephone during a normal work week. The applicant
must have the necessary equipment, facilities, and in-
spection data available to properly inspect aircraft and
their related parts. And last, the applicant must pass a
diffkult written test.
Although the rule does not actually state it, the mini-
mum age for an IA is 21. This is based on the fact that
FAR 65.71 requires that a technician must be a t least 18
years of age before the A&P technician certificate can be
issued. So if you must be 18 years old to be an A&P, and
you need at least three years' experience to be eligible to
be an IA, it doesn't take a degree in quantum physics to
f i e out that an applicant must be at least 21 years of
age to order to take the IA test.
The second rule, FAR 65.92 talks about the duration
of the IA. Since the IA is an authorization, not a rating
or a certificate, it is life limited. Every IA authorization
expires on March 31 of every year. The IA can also be
suspended by the local FAA office if the IA no longer
has the inspection data available, or if the local sheriff
confiscates the IA's equipment or padlocks his facilities
so he can no longer perform the functions of an IA.
The FAA can also suspend or revoke the IA if they
found that the IA was improperly performing the duties
of an IA. And if for any reason one or both of the IA's
airframe or powerplant rating is surrendered, suspended,
or revoked by the FAA, the Inspection Authorization is
no longer in effect.
The third rule, FAR 65.93 talks about IA renewal.
There are five ways to renew the IA:
1. The IA must perform at least one annual inspection
for each 90 days the applicant held the IA: No, this
does not mean that an IA must perform at least one
annual for each threemonth quarter (every 90 days).
It means that if you were an IA for a year, you need
four annuals to meet the renewal requirements. All
four annuals could have been performed in the last
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two weeks of the last quarter before you applied to
renewal. Another way to explain this requirement
is if you were only an IA for six months (180 days),
then you need just two annuals to renew, or
you could:
2. Sign off two major repairs or two major alterations
for each 90 days you were an IA. So if you were an
IA for a year, you must show that you signed off
eight FAA Form 337s. Or if you were only an IA for
six months, you could be renewed if you only had
four Form 337s signed off. You can't mix annuals and
Form 337 such as performing three annuals and two
Form 337s and expect to get renewed; however, you
are allowed to mix up major repairs and major alter-
ations any way you want and still get renewed, or:
3. The IA must have performed or supervised and
approved at least one progressive inspection during
the past year. That means the whole inspection, if the
progressive has five phases and the IA only finished
three phases because the first inspection started in
August, then the progressive inspection was not com-
pleted. Therefore it cannot count for renewal of the
IA, or you could:
4. Attend and successfully complete an eighthour
refresher course acceptable to the FAA. This is
quickly becoming one of the more popular forms of
IA renewal, because of the decline of GA activity.
Or you could:
5. Pass an oral test given by an FAA inspector. For
some unknown reason this form of IA renewal is
rarely exercised by the 13,000 plus IAs that renew
each year.
The fourth rule, FAR 65.95 Privileges and Limita-
tions. This rule declares that an IA can perform annual
inspections, perform or supervise a progressive inspec-
tion, and approve for return to service major alterations
and major repairs on Part 91 and Part 135, nine or
fewer aircraft.
This same rule d o w s an IA to change his fixed base
of operation from one airport to another, from one flight
standards district office to another. This allows an IA
enormous flexibility and freedom to earn a living;
however, the IA cannot perform the functions of an IA
until he or she has notified by letter the district office
who is responsible for that geographic location he or
she has moved to.
The I A test
h k any Silverback if they would rather sit on a hard,
straight back chair for 24 hours, listening to me for 24
hours straight with no potty breaks or take the IA test
over again. They would take the 24-hour option.
This is one tough test. It takes a minimum of five
hours but usually runs seven. The test is designed to
determine the ability of the applicant to accurately use
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 167
FAA Feedback
the proper technical data while inspeding an aircraft;
this also includes approving a major repair or major
alteration.
The test is given at the local FSDO by an FAA
airworthiness inspector who never smiles. You must
arrive on time on the appointed day. You must supply
all your own technical data and FAA publications. The
publications and data can be on microfiche or paper,
but there cannot be any margin notes or "ponies." I
recommend that you take a hand-held nonprogrammable
calculator so you can work out the inevitable weight and
balance problem.
The test is divided into two parts. Part I consists of
10 multiple questions based on the privileges, limita-
tions, and basic functions of an IA: This is a closed-book
test, which means you must have pretty well memorized
the four Part 65 IA rules by heart.
Most unprepared IA applicants figure a multi-answer
test is another federal giveaway program until they read
the directions and find out that the FAA allows two
hours to take the test. When you finish Part I, the FAA
inspector grades it right there in front of you. If you
pass, you go on to take Part 11. If you fail Part I, the
FAA inspector is not allowed to tell you what questions
you failed, only how many. The inspector will then hand
you an FAA Form 80605 Notice of Disapproval of
Application and tell you that you will have to wait 90
days to take the test again.
Part I1 has a time limit of four hours. The FAA
inspector assigns you an airplane. Pray that it is not a
Beech 18! Then you have to answer the 20 test questions
as they relate to your assigned airplane, such as, list
all the applicable ADS, or work a weight and balance
problem, or fill out a major repair or alteration, make a
logbook entry, or explain the type certificate require
ments for the aircraft, engine, and propeller. Part 11 also
throws in some questions on the FARs, and AC 43.131A
and 2A just to make life interesting.
168 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Since this is a timed test, completed or not, you are
finished in four hours. I have seen many a good techni-
cian fail Part 11 because they were not fast enough. They
spent two much time searching for the information, in-
stead of knowing where it was. Speed is the payoff for
spending a couple of hours a night with the books for
three months. Speed and accuracy sorting through the
ADS, rules, and type certificate paper or fiche is a skill
that is honed over a long period of time. It is not a skill
picked up from a three-day weekend course. Like Part I,
Part I1 is graded right in front of you. If you fail, you
are told how may questions you failed and regrettably
you are given the 8060-5 and reminded of the 9May
waiting period. If you pass, and you need a 70 percent
on each test to pass, the FAA inspector will go over
each question on each test you failed to ensure you
know the right answer when you walk under your own
steam or are helped out the FSDO front door.
The FAA inspector lets you alone while he fiUs out
block 14 of your FAA Form 8610-1 Mechanic's Applica-
tion for Inspection Authorization and types up your FAA
Form 831M IA card, dates it and signs it. And along
with a smile, a handshake, and some final words of
advice, the inspector presents you a reminder of your
hard work, a little 3 1/2" x 2 1/2" buffcolored IA card.
In the FSDO parking lot, you steal another look at
the card. It's not very impressive as federal documents
go, but boy are you happy to see your name on it.
Carefully you slide the card back in your wallet, and
whistling an old country and western tune, you stroll
toward your car. Just before you unlock your car door,
you become aware of a new and strange sensation. It is
hard to explain, but you feel that your upper back and
shoulders are beginning to itch, and even stranger, you
feel as if you are getting heavier. iQ May/June 1995
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Minefields
F
or the last 10 years, I have been traveling around
the country representing the FAA Washington
headquarters, Aircraft Maintenance Division at
maintenance seminars, 1.4 meetings, trade conventions,
and PAMA chapter meetings.
While I am serving as the FAA's representative at
these events, technicians frequently corner me and
complain they must walk across regulatory minefields
and negotiate bureaucratic barb wire every day just to
make a living in aviation maintenance.
Their biggest complaint is that they get in trouble
with the FAA because they don't know that a rule exists!
An NTSB administrative law judge would declare
"that ignorance of the law is no defense," but I also find
myself agreeing somewhat with the technicians.
Some of the requirements of the regulations are
camouflaged in boring, dry, 'lawyer language" that
makes the meaning of the rule all but invisible to the
unpracticed eye.
So to help you avoid these land mines, I will
markeight most common ones for you. It's up to you,
however, to dig them up and neutralize them. Also, this
is going to require some homework on your part.
Definitions of maintenance terms
Without a doubt the biggest problem technicians
have, myself included, is that sometimes they don't know
what we are t a m about. Before you take offense, let
me explain.
Technicians use words like maintenance, preventive
maintenance, major repair, major alteration, total time,
overhauled, and rebuilt every day without knowing what
they mean in regulatory terms.
To prove my point, how about a self-test?
Starting with the word "main~nance," define each of
the seven italicized maintenance terms in the above
paragraph. You don't have to be as dead on as a parale
gal would be, but you should be close enough to give a
Philadelphia lawyer second thoughts about challenging
your answer.
The answers for the first five words are found in FAR
1, Definition and Abbreviations. The last two words,
overhauled and rebuilt are found in FAR 43.2, Record of
overhaul and rebuild.
If you get three right out of seven, you're about aver-
age. However, being average won't cut it when wandering
around in a regulatory minefield.
Before this self-test there was a good chance that
you would have signed off a part as "rebuilt" when
according to FAR 43.2 you just "overhauled" it, or that
last annual inspection you performed you put down
some other "time" rather than "total time" as required
by FAR 43,11,
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FAR 2130-instructions for continued
airworthiness and manufacturer's
maintenance manuals having airworthiness
limitations sections
In a nut shell, paragraph (b) says that a holder of a
type design for an aircraft, engine, or propeller or a
holder of Supplemental Type Certificate (STC) who
made application to the FAA after Jan. 28, 1981 must
supply one set of complete instructions for continued
airworthiness. OK, where is the land mine?
The land mine that technicians trip off begins when
they perform an inspection on an aircraft, for example,
let's say a Gulfstream 111, modified with 5 STCs. The
technician accomplishes the inspection using only the
Gulfstream maintenance manual inspection instructions
and then signs it off.
However, since the technician ignored or forgot that
there are instructions for continued airworthiness for
the 5 STCs that are on the aircraft, he did not perform
a valid inspection in accordance with FAR 43.13 Perfor-
mance Rules. The airplane then goes on a trip, the pilots
have a hard landing, the FAA investigates, and among
other things find that the inspections for the STC's
installations were not performed. Boom!
Remember that this land mine has a start date of
Jan. 28, 1981. Any STC that was applied for after that
date and installed on the aircraft, engine, or propeller
must be inspected per the STC's instructions.
Also, some older, prdanuary 1981 STCs came with
maintenance instructions on how to maintain and
inspect the installation. It would be wise to incorporate
these instructions into the inspection program for the
applicable aircraft that you maintain.
Data-acceptable and approved
Technicians get trapped in regdatory minefields all
the time because many have a lot of trouble with the
concept of "acceptable and approved data."
First, let me clarrfy the word "data." Data can be in-
structions, drawings, pictures, photographs, etc. that are
used to "describe" a Type Certificate product such as
manufacturer's engineering drawings or alterations to
Type Certificated product such as an STC. Data can
also be instructions to "maintain" a Type Certificated
product. One example is the manufacturer's mainte
nance manual.
The words, "acceptable" and "approvedn are how the
FAA describes the kinds of data available and what each
type can be used for. However, the terms acceptable and
approved data can be confusing. The words sound alike
and have very similar dictionary definitions.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 169
FAA Feedback
I try to remember the difference between the two
words this way: "Acceptable" is the same level of trust
the FAA has in data, as a father of a beautiful lf3-year-
old teen-age daughter has in a hormonedriven 17-year-
old boy. The father lets him take her to a church dance
but only on the condition that he drives them there
and back.
"Approved is the same level of trust the FAA has in
the data a s the same father has in the 17-yearald boy-
when he gives his permission to marry his daughter.
The following data is considered acceptable by
the FAA:
Advisory Circulars (AC) 43.13-lA and AC 43.13-2A.
Manufacturer's maintenance manuals.
Manufacturer's service bulletins.
Part 121/135 air carrier manuals.
Acceptable data is data that technicians can use to
perform all kinds of maintenance on aircraft and parts
except major repairs or major alterations.
The following data is considered approved by
the FAA:
Type Certificate data.
Supplemental Type Ceflicate data.
Airworthiness Directives.
Designated Engineering Representative data.
Designated Alterations Station data.
Appliance manufacturers' manuals.
Anything stamped "FAA-approved."
AC 43.13-1A (under certain conditions).
"Approved data" is data that technicians must use for
all major repairs and major alterations on aircraft and
its component parts.
Approved data can be used in place for "acceptable
data" but never the other way around. When the FAA
finds out that a technician has used "acceptable data"
for major repairs or alterations, without going through
the field approval process or satisfying the three require
ments in AC 43.13-lA, another land mine explodes.
Misuse of AC 43.1 3-1A
Technicians misuse the data found in AC 43.13-1A
every day for three major reasons.
1. Technicians reference "data" found in the AC for any
repair or alteration. They fail to understand the lim-
its of AC 43.13-1A. The AC is not the universal, o n e
sizefits-aJl maintenance manual. The intent of the AC
is to provide data for inspection and repairs to un-
pressurized, 1950 and older vintage aircraft, and it
should NEVER be used for alterations.
170 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
2. When making a major repair and "approving" the
repair with the AC's "acceptable" data, many techni-
cians fail to consider the three requirements that the
AC's data must meet (found on the first page of the
AC). The data must be:
Appropriate to the product being repaired,
Directly applicable to the repair being made and...
Not contrary to the manufacturer's data.
3. Some technicians (either on purpose or possibly suf-
fering a momentary lapse of cognitive functions) fail
to properly identify in Block 8 of FAA Form 337, the
AC's chapter and verse where the data is taken.
This omission drives FAA inspectors in the district
office crazy, and many times it's the FAA themselves
who pull the trip wire to the land mine the technician is
standing on.
What sounds right-ain't so
The next land mine is hidden in an ancient techni-
cian saying that goes like this: To keep the FAA off your
back make sure that all repairs that you make are "equal
to or better than the onl?ginal."
This old saying is DEAD WRONG for two reasons.
First: FAR 43.13 Performance rules, paragraph (b) only
requires that final condition of the product worked on
will be at least "equal to" its original or properly altered
condition. Second: the instant you make the product
"better than" the original, you are altering it either in a
major or minor way.
In any case, the alteration will require either using
acceptable or approved data, a logbook entry, and/or
filling out an FAA Form 337.
FAR 43.9 The requirements for
maintenance sign-offs
In these times of "owner-assistedn repairs, many
technicians allow owners to perform maintenance under
their "supervision."
However, these same technicians fail to include the
name of the person who performed the work in the
maintenance sign-off as required by FAR 43.9.
While this "land mine" won't always kill you, it can
take off a couple of toes.
On the same issue of maintenance sign-off: Some
technicians mistakenly believe that they are protected
from land mines by a bureaucratic loophole called the
"loophole land mine defense."
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The defense goes like this: The technician enters the
date in the logbook, describes the data used, the repair
work performed, and then signs it off-just like the FAR
43.9 requires. They then claim that they cannot be held
responsible for maintenance performed because the rule
does not require an "approval for return to service" (as
FAR 43.11 does for ins~ections).
"If I didn't approve the repair for return to service in
writing, then it's not approved for return to service," is
their defense.
Sorry, hangar lawyers, there is no loophole in this
rule. If you look into the regulatory belly of FAR 43.9
(a)(4), the rule says that the "signature of the certifi-
cated technician" constitutes the approval for return to
service for the repair(s) performed.
Limits of responsibilities
Technicians often trip multiple land mines because
they don't know what kind of responsibility they assume
when they sign off a maintenance record.
If you sign off a repair in accordance with FAR 43.9,
you are held responsible for the airworthiness of that
repair until that repair has been replaced, removed,
altered, or inspected.
Remember, when you perform a repair, you are
buying the future of that repair, be it for one day or for
one year.
When you sign off an inspection under FAR 43.11,
however, you are only held responsible for the future air-
worthiness of that aircraft until the ink on the last letter
of your signature dries. That is why the rule requires
both the date, and the total time of the aircraft be part
of the logbook entry. With the "date" and "total time"
you freeze a moment in time when you declare that the
aircraft is airworthy.
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However, here's a land mine: With an annual or
lO@hour inspection, unlike a repair, the technician or IA
buys the past. With an annual or 10@hoursign-off, the
FAA holds a technician or IA responsible for the airwor-
thiness of every repair, every alteration, every AD, every
STC, and any other maintenance performed on that air-
craft all the way back in time to the date on the airwor-
thiness certificate, be it six months or 60 years ago.
FAR 91.207 Emergency Locator
Transmitters (ELT)
This old rule has been revised into a "see me now or
see me later" land mine. "See me now" began on June
21, 1994, the effective date of the new rule change. This
change declared that all ELTs must be inspected within
12 calendar months since the last inspection for:
1. Proper installation.
2. Battery corrosion.
3. Proper operation of the controls and crash sensor.
4. Presence of a sufficient signal radiated from
its antenna.
The "see me later" begins on June 21, 1995 when
ELTs that meet the requirements of TSO-C91 may not be
used for new installations.
Make a note of this FAR factoid; it may save you
some grief and your customer some money.
MarUApril 1995
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 171
FAA Feedback
A review of Part 135 (10 or more)
maintenance requirements
By Bill O'Brien
A by the federal government that has the authority
Partconduct
to 135 operator is an air carrier
flight operations certificated of
in air commerce
persons or property for hire. The authorization to con-
duct operations is spelled out on the operator's Air
Agency certificate and the accompanying operations
specifications. For maintenance purposes Part 135 is
broken into two separate categories, nine passenger
seats or less, and 10 passenger seats or more.
Who is responsible for keeping Part 135
aircraft airworthy?
Federal Aviation Regulation (FAR) Section 135.413
clearly states that the operator is responsible for the
airworthiness of the aircraft they operate.
But the person in the Part 135 organization given
all the maintenance responsibility is formally called the
director of maintenance.
Any individual who holds the position of director of
maintenance (DOM) for a Part 135, operating 10 or
more passenger seats aircraft, is performing similar
duties and shares similar responsibility and levels of
stress as a DOM for a major Part 121 air carrier.
This is because the maintenance requirements for
both Part 121 and Part 135 are regulatory twins that are
very close in scope and detail.
Therefore, the FAA expects the same level of profes-
sionalism from a Part 135, 10 or more, DOM as it does
from a DOM of a major air carrier .
Depending on the amount of responsibility the DOM
is charged with, there may be a number of other pro-
grams that the DOM may be responsible for. Some
of these include: managing the operator's reliability
program, parts pooling, developing prorated times for
components, arranging and monitoring contract mainte-
nance, and performing maintenance for other operators.
This article, however, only covers the essential
programs related to Part 135, 10 or more maintenance.
These are:
• Continuing analysis and surveillance program.
• Training program for maintenance and inspection
personnel.
• Mechanical reliability report.
• Mechanical interruption summary report.
172 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Continuous analysis and surveillance
program (CASP)
A continuous analysis and surveillance program
(CASP) has two functions: an audit function and a
performance/ analysis function.
The audit function examines the administrative and
supervisory maintenance procedures including work
performed by contractors, other air operators, and repair
stations. The audit for maintenance is a continuous
program and should concentrate on at least the
following areas:
• Review maintenance procedures in the CAMP manual
to ensure they are current, reasonable, efficient,
and effective.
• Ensure that maintenance publications and data are
current and available to mechanics and inspectors.
• Ensure that major repairs and major alterations are
classified properly, accomplished with approved data,
and recorded in the aircraft's maintenance records.
• Review maintenance records for accuracy and com-
pleteness as ~ell as ensuring that carryover items
and deferred maintenance are properly handled.
• Inspect contractors and ensure they are properly
staffed, have the current data and instructions, and
are qualified and equipped to perform the functions
called out in the operator's manual.
• Ensure that part distributors are reliable, and that
they supply only FAA-approved PMA, TSO, or manu-
facturer's produced parts by inspecting the part, the
invoices, parts tags, and any other additional mainte-
nance records.
• Determine if calibrated tools and test equipment
are maintained and have the current inspection or
calibration date.
The "performance analysis function" of the CASP is a
must-perform daily management task. CASP looks at two
important performance areas: equipment and people who
maintain that equipment.
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Equipment
CASP should include daily and long-term monitoring
of aircraft performance, including the individual perfor-
mance and reliability of critical components such as
engines, brakes, landing gear, propellers, etc. Additional
items that should be monitored include:
Review of daily mechanical failures.
Deferred maintenance items including excessive
number and recurrent items, be it on one aircraft
or the fleet.
Pilot reports (ATA code) in the maintenance record.
Mechanical interruption reports.
Engine failures and their causes.
Identifying high number of component failures.
Number of reworked items.
People
CASP should concentrate on the performance of the
maintenance folks-not only the people who work on the
aircraft, but the parts department, and the inspection
department as well.
Begin by just asking some questions:
When did these failures take place?
Are there more write-ups in the maintenance record
a couple of days after a major inspection than what
was there before the inspection?
Was there a high number of failures on replacement
parts?
Can these failures be traced back to an individual
mechanic or maintenance crew?
Is an excessive amount of time taken by maintenance
personnel to "fix" a problem?
Are problems fixed or are just parts replaced?
Do your mechanics need training? Special tools?
Is employee morale the problem?
Analysis
After a problem is identified, then the DOM and
their team must find the cause of and the solution for
the problem. For example, if the audit section of CASP
uncovers a problem dealing with incomplete or sloppy
record keeping, then a little training in record keeping
might be the solution. If there is a problem with continu-
ing failure of a certain component, then the cause might
be the part, the accuracy of the instructions on how to
install the part, or the mechanic who installed it.
A CASP program if properly followed and maintained
will keep burnishing away all your organizational warts
and blemishes almost without pain or disruption of your
daily routine. On the other hand, a haphazard or care
lessly run CASP program will never warn you when you
are in trouble.
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Training program for inspection and
maintenance personnel
FAR 135.433 requires all Part 135 operators or
persons performing maintenance for Part 135 operators
to have a training program for both mechanics and
inspectors. This is to ensure that maintenance personnel
are fully informed about new procedures or new equip
ment and are competent to perform their duties.
Mechanical reliability reports
The operator (usually the DOM) is required by
135.415 to report any occurrence or malfunction, or
defects found in one or more of the 16 following aircraft
systems -specifically:
Fires during flight and if the fire warning system
' worked properly.
Fires during flight not protected by a fire warning
system.
I
I
False fire warnings during flight.
Exhaust systems that cause damage to the aircraft
during flight.
Smoke or noxious fumes in the crew or passenger
compartments.
I Engine shutdowns during flight due to flame-outs.
Engine shutdowns in flight that cause external
damage to the engine or aircraft.
Engine shutdowns due to icing or FOD ingestion.
Multiple engine shutdowns during flight.
Propeller feathering systems activated or failure of
the systems to control propeller overspeed.
Fuel or fuel dumping systems that affect safety
of flight.
Unwanted gear extension or retraction including
opening or closing of landing gear doors during
flight.
Loss of brakes or brake component failures while the
aircraft is in motion.
Major repairs performed on the aircraft structure.
Any cracks, permanent deformation, or corrosion
that exceeds the manufacturer or FAA standards.
Any failure of any system in flight that requires the
crew to take emergency action.
And finally, there's the paragraph which states that
any failure that scares the bejeebers out of flight
crew or maintenance crew must be reported.
If any of the above failures occur, then the operator
has 72 hours to send a written report covering the
24hour period (9 a.m. to 9 a.m. the next day) in which
the failure took place, and send it to the local Flight
Standards District Office.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 173
F M Feedback
Mechanical interruption summary report
This is a monthly report due the 10th of the following
month if any interruption to a flight, unscheduled
change of aircraft en route, or unscheduled stop or
diversion from a route is caused by known or suspected
mechanical malfunctions or if problems arise that are
not covered by the mechanical reliability report.
Summary of Part 135 (10 or more)
maintenance requirements
A DOM of a 10-passenger seat Part 135 has similar
duties and responsibilities as a DOM of a Part 121
major air carrier. The DOM literally holds the lives
of the crew and passengers in their hands.
The Part 135 manual and operation specifications
define the organization, its limits, and management's
duties and responsibilities. If the manual is badly
written or even worse, not followed, the maintenance
shop will be unorganized, inefficient, ineffective, and
in time-dangerous.
174 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
CASP (continuous analysis and surveillance program)
is a required program that establishes a quality
control system to check on the management perfor-
mance of the DOM.
It's an economic truth that training programs for
technicians and inspectors cost every operator
money. It is also an economic truth that no training
generates "hidden costs" in the form of longer time
to troubleshoot and repair problems, longer downtime
for aircraft, and lower employee morale.
Mechanical reliability and interruption summary
reports are required items. If the DOM properly
incorporates these reports into the CASP program,
they can provide a structure to help the DOM
develop the big aircraft fleet picture and monitor
maintenance "trends."
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Going Part I 4 5
Tips for starting a repair station
By Bill O'Brien
o you've decided you want to get certified as a
S Part 145 repair station? Whether you are an exist-
ing maintenance facility wishing to become certi-
fied, or are a starbup business, consider the following:
For starters, an FAA certificate hanging on a mainte-
nance facility's wall opens many business opportunities.
Many corporate operators, Part 121, and Part 135 air
carriers have written policy that limits maintenance per-
formed on their aircraft to only FAA Part 145 repair sta-
tions. A Part 145 repair station ceMicate will also allow
you to petition the Joint Aviation Authority (JAA) for its
certification and a chance to compete in Europe. But the
most important reason is that a Part 145 certificate tells
the world that you subscribe to a higher standard of
accountability and performance.
There are a few negative aspects hanging out there
when you apply for, and after you earn the Part 145
certificate; the certification process is tough on first-
timers. Another unique challenge is in the interpretation
of the 5 6 y e m l d Part 145 rule. But there's no question
that the benefits of being a Part 145 repair station far
outweigh the drawbacks.
What follows is a good overview of the FAA certifica-
tion process that you can include in your business plan.
The six steps of the certification process
The FAA has developed a generic process for certifi-
cating organizations. The process contains six phases or
steps, if you include the informal inquiry. They are:
Informal inquiry
Preapplication
Formal application
Document compliance
Demonstration and inspection
Certification
Informal inquiry
This is the initial meeting, held at your place or at
the Flight Standards District Office (FSDO). It is sup
posed to be a relaxed meeting between you and FAA
inspectors. However, some applicants have remarked
that this meeting is a lot like the first time you met your
future in-laws and just as stressful.
During the informal meeting both sides seek to
uncover the other's intentions. The applicant wants to
find out if the FAA inspectors are fair and reasonable
individuals who will actively support the request for
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certification or if they are tourists, on a vacation, from a
tar pit in Hell.
On the FAA side of the table, the inspectors behave
a lot like experienced bettors at the race track. They
will try to gauge the applicant's experience, knowledge,
and determination to see if they should bet the govern-
ment's time and resources on this person or wait for the
next race.
Part of the FAA inspector's process of picking the
winners from the starry-eyed applicants begins by asking
them tricky, "makeyou-think" questions like: What kind
of a rating do you want? What kind of data will you use?
How are you going to keep the data current? When do
you expect to be ready for certification? Etc!
If the applicant answers most of the FAA questions
without showing too many "deer caught in the head-
lights" expressions, and if both parties are now satisfied
with the results of this initial touchy-feely kind of infor-
mal inquiry, then the next step is a little more formal
and is called the "preapplication meeting." Before this
meeting the FAA will probably ask you to provide them
with at least three choices for a threeletter identifier
that will prefix your certificate number, and they will
explain how to fill out a preapplication statement of in-
tent FAA Form 84006) which should detail the kind of
maintenance you wish to perform (ratings), the facilities
and equipment you will use, and the date when you plan
to begin operating.
Before you meet again, the FAA district office man-
ager will do some homework and form a ceMication
team, making one of the inspectors the certification
project manager (CPM). The CPM is the individual
who is responsible for keeping the certification process
on schedule.
Preapplication meeting
This is a sitdown, formal affair that is usually held at
the local FAA district office. Most of the time there are
two or more FAA inspectors present. I am told by knowl-
edgeable industry folks that some applicants suspect that
the FAA inspectors have been given secret instructions
from Washington, not to smile.
The preapplication meeting will include, but is not
limited to, the following:
Introducing the members of the FAA ceMication
team. A review of the preapplication statement of
intent (PASI, FAA Form 84006) on how to complete
the form,
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 175
FAA Feedback
A review of applicable FARs and advisory circulars.
A review and discussion of certification procedures.
A discussion centering on what the applicant must
provide.
A discussion on the proposed organizational structure
and facilities.
Special tools, manuals, data, and test equipment
required.
A discussion on drafting a letter of compliance.
A letter of compliance is a letter listing the applicable
FAR that your repair station must comply with. (Start
with FAR 145, but do not forget to include applicable
rules in Part 21, 39, 43, 65, and 91.) After each rule,
write a short summary of each rule. Then under the
summary address how you are going to comply with that
rule in your repair station.
The main purpose of this meeting is to see if the
applicant has done his homework and is mentally and
financially prepared to take on the certification process.
The preapplication meeting is also a learning session in
which all the pertinent FAR and Advisory Circulars are
reviewed and instructions on completing the application
for a repair station (FAA Form 83103) are reviewed.
Unfortunately, at least 50 percent of the folks who do
summon up enough courage to darken the door of an
FAA FSDO for a preapplication meeting either die of
fright or trash the idea of becoming a repair station
after listening to the preapplication's daunting FAA
requirements that must be satisfied.
From our point of view the FAA has done these folks
a big favor. The government tested their mettle and
found them wanting. (This may seem harsh, but we
believe that if an applicant cannot pass the FAA certifica-
tion process, the chances are very remote that they
could have survived a year in today's tough aviation
business climate.)
If it becomes obvious to the FAA the applicant is not
ready or is not able to satisfy the requirements, the
FAA will terminate the ce&ication process. Of the 50
percent who survive the preapplication gauntlet the next
step is to submit the initial paperwork.
The formal application
This begins when the applicant formally submits the
application package. The package is initially reviewed
by the FAA usually within five working days and is
either accepted or rejected. The FAA is looking at the
following items:
1. Completed application (FAA Form 813@3).
2. Proof that the applicant has use of the facilities.
3. Proof that the applicant has current manuals
and data.
4. Letter of Compliance.
176 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
5. Two copies of any contraded functions to be
performed.
6. Two copies of the Inspection Procedures
Manual (IPM).
Item "6" requires some explanation: The biggest
problem that all new applicants face is the development
of an acceptable Inspection Procedures Manual (IPM).
The IPM should explain in detail: how a part or a
product enters the applicant facility; how incoming and
hidden damage inspections are performed; as well as
describe tear down, assembly, final inspection, training,
duties and responsibilities of supervisors and employees,
how paperwork is handled, how approval for return to
service is signed off; and more.
Sadly, many applicants seek to avoid this wearisome
stepby-step description of how they are going to do
business by buying a generic manual(s) and cutting and
pasting bits and pieces of appropriate sounding phases
and paragraphs together to create their own IPM.
Instead of creating a living document that explains
how the repair station will comply with the FAR, the
applicant has put together a Frankenstein monster.
A more sensible approach to creating the LPM is to
take the letter of compliance that you submitted earlier
and write your manual in your own words. But always
refer back to your letter of compliance to ensure you did
not omit any rules. When the IPM is finished, check that
you've addressed every rule and make a reference under
each rule in the letter of compliance to the chapter or
page number in the IPM that complies with that rule.
Keep a crib sheet of references.
This procedure has a couple of pluses going for it: It
will force you to address important compliance issues in
a professional manner, and in doing so you will have a
better understanding and appreciation of the regulations
as you create a worldclass IPM. In addition, when you
submit your IPM to the FAA and your letter of compli-
ance, make sure that you tell them about the crib sheet
that you've created. The FAA, like you, has to ensure
that you've addressed each rule; a handy guide that
tells them where each rule is addressed in the IPM is
a real time saver. Why, you might even see one of them
smile prematurely.
Most of the time there will be a formal application
meeting where all members of the FAA certification
team will meet with the applicant to hash out any differ-
ences, and resolve discrepancies. If agreement cannot be
reached in any areas, the FAA ceM1cation team may
terminate the meeting. The applicant would then have
his formal application package returned-followed later
by a letter of rejection that will formally explain why the
FAA refused the application.
If the FAA certification team accepts the application,
the applicant will receive a letter of acceptance shortly
after the meeting.
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The letter of acceptance might seem a waste of the
government's time and resources when a telephone call
or a firm hand shake would suffice. However, this letter
signifies a lot more.
When the FAA formally "accepts" your application
by letter, it declares that the FAA is willing to commit
manpower and resources to complete the applicant's
certification process. The letter of acceptance also marks
the "true beginningn of the ce cation process. The
clock is now running and the document compliance
phase can begin.
Document compliance phase
During this phase, the FAArtifi
inspectors put on their
green eye shades and read every line in your paperwork
and manuals. This is also the phase where we lose
another 15 to 20 percent of the applicants that are shot
down due to bad manuals and paperwork.
But the IPM is not the only document that's carefully
examined. The team could also examine process specifi-
cations, approved data, reference documents, and if
applicable, the repairman application along with its letter
of recommendation. All documents in the package must
be examined by the FAA. Each one of them must be
individually reviewed and either accepted or rejected. If a
document or the IPM is reiected. it will be returned to
the applicant with a letter explaining why the document
was refused.
Documents and IPM are not the only items placed
under the jaundiced eye of the FAA. The FSDO will also
run the applicant's profile through the agency's I n t e
grated Safety Information Subsystem. If the inspector
finds that the applicant has a suspension or revocation
order in effect, the certification process comes immedi-
ately to a screeching halt
If the manuals, documents, and humans pass the
FAA physical, it's on to the next phase, demonstration
and inspection. This is where the repair station concept
of compliance with the F A h in the real world will
be examined.
Demonstration and inspection phase
Sometimes referred to for no apparent reason, as the
"hairy armpit" phase, the demonstration and inspection
phase is when the FAA ceMication team inspects the
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applicant's facilities and check out the equipment. They
observe personnel in the performance of their duties and
ask them enigmatic questions like "Please tell me what
you are doing, how you are doing it, and why?"
Next, the FAA team must determine in this phase
that the applicant is in compliance with the IPM, FAA,
and performs maintenance in accordance with safe
operation practices. It is not as easy as it sounds. So,
the size and complexity of the applicant's operation
determines the length of time it will take for the FAA
to make its determination.
If a deficiency is noted, it's usually corrected on the
spot, with a manual revision if applicable. If the demon-
stration of compliance phase uncovers too many problem
areas, then the FAA ceflication team will end the
inspection and discuss with the applicant how to correct
the problems andlor reschedule the inspection as
necessary.
The FAA team follows up the discussion with a letter
describing the discrepancies, the applicant's proposed
plan of action, and the date of the next inspection.
When the reinspection is satisfactory, the FAA team
then ends the demonstration and inspection phase,
and the last and easiest part of the certification
phase begins.
The certification phase
This phase is the easiest for the applicant because
all they have to do is to show up at the FSDO at the
appointed time, and do just three things:
1. Grin like a brand new parent.
2. Shake the FSDO manager's hand when handed the
Part 145 repair station certificate
3. Make politically correct comments, like "I really
learned a lot" and "Gee, it was great working
with you."
When the certification process is completed, the
brand-new dream-maker can leave the FSDO with the
repair station certificates in their hot little hands.
NovembedDecember 1994
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 177
FAA Feedback
Forgotten heros
By Bill O'Brien
L ast year I was honored to introduce in this
column the long awaited FAA recognition of tech-
nicians in the form of the Aviation Maintenance
Technician Awards Program, and our Master Mechanics
Award. Both programs are experiencing an unparalleled
acceptance from industry and continue to grow.
But in our haste to recognize the obvious, it seems to
me that we bypassed a group of deserving individuals
who make a positive impact on the maintenance career
of many technicians. Some of these individuals we loved,
some we hated, and some we respected, but like death
and taxes, we never could ignore them. When we part
company with these Individuals and go our separate
ways, we often tend to forget who give us the gifts of
knowledge that turn us into technicians.
Who are these "forgotten ones?" They are the
instructors in FAA ceMicated Part 147 schools. The
men and women who teach us the ancient art of tying
a modified seine knot, reading the new sign language
of electrical schematics and learning the mathematical
complexity of bend allowance and weight and balance.
Teaching, I have found out from personal experience,
is a very difficult profession. A wise man once said:
"To teach is to learn twice." Not only must one have a
great deal of knowledge stored but also a great deal of
patience is needed to transfer that knowledge to
minds that are initially unwilling or unable to accept
that transfer.
Going back to my own class of '68 I seem to recall
that the composition of that class was approximately
onequarter fresh out of high school. The rest of us
were Vietnam veterans, cocky, airplane smart, noticeably
nervous types who jumped every time a welding
torch popped.
When mixed together we became a class from hell.
No amount of money would entice me to go back to 1968
and teach that class.
So what does it take to become an instructor and
face a class from hell? I won't pretend to know the
answer, but I'm sure it is not the salary-especially when
in a couple of years the average student will make more
money than the instructor!
178 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
So why become an instructor? Obviously the desire to
teach is a prime ingredient. What drives that desire
could be many reasons.
Of the instructors I talked with over the last 10
years, two of the more common reasons given to explain
the desire to teach were: the need to give back to the
profession that you love, and just seeing the way a
student's eyes light up when he or she understands a
complex technical procedure. Many other reasons I heard
are quite personal in nature.
Now to the real reason for this article. I am consider-
ing developing a staff study for a new program that
would give recognition to forgotten ones, the Part 147
instructors. The program would be jointly developed by
the FAA and industry, and be run by industry. It would
be similar to the existing program for Flight Instructor
and Mechanic of the year program that has run every
year since 1971. I would like anyone who has any addi-
tional ideas on this subject to fax me at (202) 267-5115
or write to me at:
FAA Headquarters
Attention: Bill O'Brien
AFS-340
800 Independence Ave. S.W.
Washington, D.C.20591
I caution you that I'm only requesting information so
I can write a staff study to "just& the implementation"
of this new recognition program. I am NOT announcing
a new program at this time. Right now, the program
is just a vague idea bubbling around in the murky
recesses of my mind. So I need your input to give it
form on paper.
When you write to me, please explain in detail how
you think the recognition program should look and how
it should be run. Also, I would appreciate it if you keep
the KISS principle in mind when sending in your sugges-
tions, and If at all possible try to design the program to
run on air instead of money. Wl September/October 1994
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Comrade customer
"Such a deal I have for you!"
By Bill 0'Brien
F OR SALE: Supersonic Mig 29, Twin Tumansky
R330 turbo fans, rated at 11,240 pounds standard
thrust. 18,300 pounds of thrust with afterburner.
Top speed 2.3 mach (1,500 mph), only 765 hours since
new. A steal at $3 million U.S. dollars. Ferry tanks, pilot
training, cannons, ammo, air to air missiles and delivery
extra. Be the first on your block to break the sound
barrier, call Bob Henley at (800) 5551212 for details.
Now-is that an advertisement that would make any
middle age, chunky jet pilot wanba-be, wet his lips in
anticipation. But wait, there's more, read on. If you are
a little more conservative, consider a Yak 18, Yak 50/52,
An-2, SU-27, Mig 15, 19, 21, or perhaps a Mil 24 heli-
copter gun ship. Additional makes and models are also
available for your collection.
"Why there's nothing to it my friend," says the man
on the other end of the 1-800 number listed in the ad.
"Just plunk your dollars down and get the war bird of
your dreams. Are they certified? My friend, of course
they are certified, depending on the make and model.
They are certified by the Russian or the Chinese or
Romanian military. Is it hard to get FAA airworthiness
certificate?-no problem! Just fill out the FAA forms at
the local flight standards district office. Maintenance,-
no problem! Maintenance manuals,-no problem, why
some are even in English."
The quandry
In the last two years there has been an increasing
number of applicants requesting the FAA to issue
Experimental Exhibition Airworthiness ceflicates for
non-U.S., non-typedcertificated aircraft that have been
either flown into the United States under a Special
Flight Authorization (SFA) or unceremoniously arriving
on our shores in a wooden crate.
The vast majority of these aircraft are ex-Soviet
Union surplus military aircraft of questionable vintage.
They are being imported by brokers who buy two or
more aircraft. After the aircraft arrives here in the
states, the broker can request a Special Airworthiness
Certificate: experimentallexhibition category from the
FAA prior to marketing them to prospective buyers, or
they can eliminate the bureaucracy and sell the aircraft
in a crate "as is" and let the new owner apply to the
FAA for the Special Airworthiness Certificate.
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The rule
FAR 21.191(d) is the rule which allows the issuing
of Special Airworthiness, ExperimentaVExhibition
Certificate. It was never intended to help improve the
former communist nations' balance of payments by
increasing their exports for hard currency. Neither was
the rule intended to allow brokerage or marketing of
foreign military surplus aircraft on an assembly line
concept and thus bypass FAA type certification require
ments and liability concerns.
The rule 21.191(d) was created to allow individuals
to exhibit aircraft of unusual configuration at air shows,
motion pictures, television, and similar productions. It
was not created to provide individuals with high-speed
personal transport or to hop rides at $25 a seat for 15
minutes at air shows.
FAA concerns
The FAA is held responsible for the safety oversight
of aircraft operating in U.S. airspace. An aircraft design
is safe when it is built and maintained to a known "air-
worthiness standard set by the United States govern-
ment. That is why the FAA under FAR Parts 23 and 25
and its predecessor, the CAA, under CAR 3 and 4B
issued type certificates for aircraft, engines, and propel-
lers. Once an approved "airworthiness standard" is
established the next step is to establish a "performance
standard (Part 43) to ensure that those aircraft will
always be maintained to meet its type design.
The biggest problem with these foreign military air-
craft is the FAA doesn't have the slightest idea what
airworthiness standard these aircraft were built to. With-
out knowing the approved standard there's no way, for
instance, to know whether or not the aircraft has pulled
a high "G" load in excess of its design standards.
Not that everyone of these aircraft is unairworthy,
but without knowledge of the original design airworthi-
ness standard, it's impossible to inspect or maintain
it properly.
Because we do not know the design standard, the
aircraft must be placed in the Experimental Category.
Before I go over the FAA requirements to get a
Special Airworthiness Certificate for Experimental,
Exhibition aircraft, I would like to go over some impor-
tant questions that technicians should ask before the
owner baptizes you with Russian vodka, and names you
his crew chief.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 179
FAA Feedback
Questions a prospective crew
chief should ask
There are five primary areas of interest that you
should question. These are:
First-Are all the aircraft's maintenance manuals in
English, including the accessory manuals? If not, how
much will the translation into English cost? If it is
already in English, can you get a sample of a manual?
Can you understand it?
Second-Are spare parts available? Is there a spare
parts list? Is there a parts manual? How much wiU parts
manuals and spares cost? How long will it take to get
replacement parts? Will the broker still be in business a
year from now? Will any revisions to any of the manuals
be forthcoming?
Third-What kind of guarantee does the owner get
for his money? If you open a crate and expect to find a
sleek fighter and instead find a military reject from the
Afghanistan War, what happens next? What happens if
some parts are missing or damaged in shipment? Do
you get assembly instructions like the kind you get in
a model airplane kit or perhaps something a lot less
detailed?
Fourth-Will you need special tools to work on the
engine or airframe? If you do, can you get them? Even
simple items like jack pads, rigging pins, external power
plugs and hydraulic hose connections, will all take time
to reverse engineer and duplicate.
Fifth-This is perhaps the most important area to
inquire about-maintenance training. While all aircraft
must satisfy the laws of physics to fly, not all aircraft
are built to the same standard. How do you, as a mainte-
nance professional, know that the standard you apply
is the right one? These are very sophisticated, high-
performance and complex military aircraft. Are you
w i l h g to risk the pilot's life and those on the ground by
giving yourself a self-taught course in fighter aircraft r e
pair from maintenance manuals translated into English?
The procedure: (ref: FAA AIR-200lAFS-300
Memorandum, dated: 8118/93)
Be aware that the following importation and certi-
fication procedures can be long and complicated and
because foreign countries are involved, policy on this
subject can be changed at any time. Any application to
bring a military aircraft into the United States will
require an extensive review by the government agencies,
starting with Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms,
customs of course, in some cases the state department,
and winding up with the FAA.
Be advised that anyone who is caught knowingly and
willfully falsifying, concealing, or covering up any infor-
mation requested by the United States government may
be subject to a $250,000 fine andlor up to five years in a
federal jail cell with a 250-pound Bubba who will look at
you funny under hooded eyes. (ref: US Code: 1001;3571)
180 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
In case you're still convinced you still want to
proceed, here's how:
S7EP I : ATF: First government agency you must
work with is the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and
Firearms (ATF). Go to the library and check Title 27 of
the Code of Federal Regulations, Part 47, Subpart C.
Section 47.21 United States Munitions Import List. Go
to Category 8, Aircraft, Spacecraft, and associated equip
ment to see if the aircraft (e.g., Suhkoi SU-27) you
intend to purchase is considered a military aircraft.
If the aircraft was NOT a fighter/bomber/airborne
warning, etc. but a military cargo aircraft, or a trainer
using reciprocating engines or turboprop engines of less
the 600 S.H.P., or an observation aircraft, the ATF
doesn't want to talk to you. Those types of aircraft are
not on the list.
However, using our "example aircraft" Suhkoi Su27,
ATF will check Jane's All the World Aircraft where a
SU-27 it is identified as a fighter. Congratulations!!
Your aircraft made the list and now you must move on
to Step 2.
STEP 2: If you plan to import several aircraft, you
need to register as an importer by filing an ATF Form
4587. The registration fee for one year is $250. If you are
only importing an aircraft for your own personal use and
you do not intend to offer it for resale, then you don't
have to fi out an ATF Form 4587 or pay a fee.
STEP 3: For each aircraft you are importing, regard-
less of the number, everyone (broker or private indi-
vidual) must fill out an ATF Form 6 Part 1 for each
aircraft and submit it to the nearest ATF office. If you
need additional information from ATF, you can contact
them at:
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms
650 Massachusetts Ave. N.W.
Attention: Firearms Technical Branch
Room 6450
Washington, D.C. 20226
Tel: (202) 927-8320
STEP 4: State Department: If the aircraft comes
from one of the following countries: Albania, Bulgaria,
Cuba, Kampuchea, North Korea, Outer Mongolia,
Rumania, South Africa, Vietnam and successor govern-
ments of the former Soviet Union, then ATF will ask
the Department of State, Office of Political and
Military Affairs to approve the aircraft for import into
this country.
STEP 5: Customs: There are customs documents in
addition to an invoice and ATE documentation that
needs to be completed for proper importation. These
documents may vary due to the reason for importation,
the value of the aircraft, the exporting country, etc.
Since the import rules are always changing, it would be
wise to contact U.S. Customs at:
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U.S. Customs Service
Office of Inspection and Control
55 E. Monroe St:
Chicago, IL 60603
Be advised that a customs inspector will check the
aircraft and its paperwork with a jaundice eye.
S!l!EP 6: FAA: If you want to fly your military SU-27
aircraft into the United States, a Special Flight Authori-
zation (SFA) from the FAA is required as per FAR
Section 91.715. An SFA is a onetime authorization to
bring an aircraft into the United States under certain
stringent conditions.
You make application at the regional flight standards
office or to one of the regional aircraft certification
directorate managers. The regional office will want to
see copies of your ATF forms and invoices. You can get
either one of the regional offices' addresses from the
local Flight Standards District Office (FSDO).
Two important requirements of issuing an SFA are:
A determination of the proper certification and compe
tency of the pilot to operate in U.S. airspace and that
the aircraft is airworthy and capable of safe flight.
Typical SFAs have a 14-day window in which the
aircraft has to land at the designated airport. Once on
the ground customs will inspect the aircraft and its
paperwork.
STEP 7: After customs it's FAA's turn. First you have
to "demilitarize" the aircraft before you make application
for the Special Airworthiness Certificate. You'd be
amazed to learn how much equipment on civilian aircraft
such as cannons, rocket pods, armed ejector seats, exter-
nal jettisonable fuel tanks, and machine guns is frowned
upon by both the FAA and the Pentagon.
STEP 8: Next, you will need to request an Experi-
mental Airworthiness Certificate by using an FAA Form
8130-6 Application for Airworthiness certificate. Non-U.S.
manufactured aircraft that are U.S. registered MAY be
considered for airworthiness ceflication for the purpose
of exhibition or air racing if the applicant meets the
requirements of Part 21, Section 21.191 (d) or (e).
STEP 9: Along with your application form you must
supply the FAA with a program letter setting forth the
purpose for which the experimental aircraft is to be
used. This includes the names and locations of the air
shows or races the aircraft will be flown to. In the case
of a TV or movie production, the date and location of
the production is needed. Applicants who do not submit
a specific program letter will not be issued an experi-
mental ~ e ~ c a t e .
STEP 10: In addition to the application, and program
letter, the owner of the SU-27 must supply an inspection
program that meets the requirements of FAR Section
91.409(eXf)(4). The applicant must also show the FAA
that he/she has flight, maintenance, and inspection
manuals, along with the flight and maintenance logbooks
all translated into English.
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STEP 11: The FAA will then inspect the aircraft to
ensure that the applicant has accomplished an inspection
in accordance with the appropriate military/manufac-
turer maintenance instructions, the aircraft is properly
registered, and the word experimental is displayed in
accordance with FAR Section 45.23 03). Any placards,
instrument markings, and instruments must be identi-
fied in English and those instruments necessary for
operations in U.S. airspace replaced by instruments
meeting U.S. standards.
STEP 12 If eve- checks out the, FAA inspector
signs the logbook that states that the Special Airworthi-
ness Certificate, Experimental, Exhibition and a set of
Operating Limitations which spells out a flight test area,
flight corridors over congested areas, flight test time,
noise requirements, and authorized areas of operation
has been issued. The Special Airworthiness Certificate
and operating limitations will be good for one year
or less.
STEP 13: The applicant also is required to sign a
statement in the logbook stating that they understand
the limitations of an Experimental, Exhibition airworthi-
ness certification and will only fly the aircraft in accor-
dance with those operating limitations.
STEP 14: When the original owner of the aircraft
sells the Su-27, the new owner cannot operate the
aircraft outside the area described in the original limita-
tions until those limitations are changed by the FAA
or a new Experimental Airworthiness Certificate with
appropriate limitations is issued.
STEP 15: All flights must be recorded in a logbook
that must be carried on board the aircraft: Each entry
must list the purpose of the flight, airports, fuel stops,
destination, arrival, and total flight time.
Inspection and maintenance of
experimental aircraft
Inspection: As the aircraft's crew chief you must care-
fully read the aircraft's operating limitations section that
deals with inspections. It is this document that requires
that the aircraft must be inspected under FAA Approved
Inspection Program (ref. FAR 91.409 (e)(f)(4).
For our sample aircraft, the Su-27 Operating Limita-
tions should reference the approved inspection program
the owner submitted with his application. You must
inspect each item listed at the required inspection inter-
val and approve the aircraft for return to service in
the aircraft's maintenance record using your name and
certificate number.
Maintenance: Unlike performing maintenance on
U.S.-registered, typecertificated aircraft that require a
certificated person to sign off the work, maintenance on
experimental aircraft can be performed by anyone. Why?
Because FAR 43, Section 43.1 Applicability, states that
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 181
FAR 43 does not apply to aircraft that have never had
any kind of airworthiness cert5cate (e.g., SU-27)
and have been issued an Experimental Airworthiness
Certificate.
Why? Because it's unfair for the FAA to hold a
certificated technician responsible to a performance
standard (part 43) when there's no recognized airworthi-
ness standard (Part 2325) to meet.
So when you're called in to perform an approved
inspection program, be very careful, professional, and
suspicious when working on these kinds of aircraft.
182 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technolo~yMagazine
Check everything twice-especially areas where any
maintenance was performed. You never know if Bubba's
brother Bo was called in and he made some questionable
field repairs.
Additional information on this subject can be found
in FAA Order 8130.64 Experimental Certification
Requirements and Operating Limitation for Surplus
Military Turbine Powered Aircraft, FAA Order 8130.2B,
Airworthiness Certification of Aircraft and Related
Approvals, and FAA Order 8300.10 Airworthiness
Inspectors Handbook. July/August 1994
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 FAA Feedback

Form 8130-3
The Airworthiness Approval Tag worth waiting for

By Bill O'Brien

To fully understand the new form's potential all of us

form's assigned FAA No. is 8130-3, and it was will first have to change some of the old concepts on
On January 3"The
christened a new FAA "Form"Approval
Airworthiness was born.Tag."
The how to ship or approving parts for return to service.
The form's father was the "harmonization" process For example, if you are going to ship new or newly
(Code name: global hug) that is going on right now overhauled parts, start thinking of the 8130-3 Form as
between the Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) in Europe the part's "birth certificate." The form will serve as the
and the FAA. The form's biological mother was FAA part/component's birth certificate and follow the part
Order 8130.21A, with midwife duties performed by AIR- throughout its service life.
200. These are folks that work the manufacturing side of When you use an 8130-3 Form as "approving a com-
the Aircraft Certification Service here in Washington. ponent for return to service," the form is no longer a
birth certificate but an "adoption certificate" by which
What can the new form do? the air carrier or repair station assumes all airworthi-
Unlike most new government forms that are as ness responsibility for any minor or major repair or
welcome by the public as mud slides in California, this alterations it performs on the part until that part is
"form" was eagerly awaited by the aviation industry again repaired, replaced, altered, or inspected.
because this particular form is a multitalented child that
can do the following amazing things. Disclaimer
1. It can be used to make a conformity determination The FAA has designed the 8130-3 Form to become
for Class II and Class III products. the form for shipment of parts and components and for
"approval for return to service." I must caution you that
2. It can be used in the identification of "new" parts even though 8130-3 is recognized by many countries it
and products that are being shipped. often doesn't satisfy all export paperwork.
3. It can be used as an export airworthiness approval
for Class II and Class

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maintenance, preven-
tive maintenance, and
alteration.
The FAA designed this
form in cooperation with
other Civil Air Authorities
(CAA). For example the
8130-3 Form and the JAA
Form One are now equiva-
lent. It is FAA's hope that,
"in time," this single form
will be all that is required
to ship a Class II or Class
III aviation part from a
repair station or a distri-
butor in Kalispell, MT, to
customers in Phoenix, AZ,
or London, England.

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FAA Feedback
This is primarily because we don't have global Bilat-
eral Airworthiness Safety Agreements (BASA) in place
with all foreign countries. We do have "firm handshake
agreements" with many CAAs, but no BAS& have
been signed as of this date. So for the time being, and
depending on what you're shipping and where you're
shipping it to, there may be other FAA and Civil Air
Authorities requirements that have to be met in addition
to filling out Form 8130-3. Please check Advisory Circu-
lar 21-2G (Export Airworthiness Approval Procedures,
dated 7/9/92) and your local FAA Flight Standards
District Office (FSDO) for the latest information on
export airworthiness approval procedures.
What can 81 30-3be used for?
Before we cover the four uses of 8130-3, it might
be helpful to review the definitions of words used on
the form.
FAR Part 21.321 defines "newly overhauled" as prod-
ucta that have been overhauled, but except for testing,
have not been placed in service.
FAR Part 21.321 also defines Class I1 and Class I11
products. A Class I1 product is a major component of an
aircraft, aircraft engine, or propeller that if it fails will
jeopardize the safety of that aircraft, engine, or propeller.
A Class I1 product is also considered to be any product
that has been approved and manufactured under a
Technical Standard Order (TSO).
A Class 111 product is defined generally as a small
part or minor assembly whose failure would not jeopar-
dize the safety of the aircraft.
Most Class I1 and Class 111 products are easy to iden-
tify. For example, a replacement cylinder for an 10-360
Lycoming engine is a Class 11, while standard rocker
box gaskets, fasteners, and parts such as AN, NAS, and
SAE hardware are Class I11 products. However, if you're
not sure of a particular part, call the local FSDO for a
determination.
Don't jump to the conclusion that the FAA considers
a Class 111 part a minor player in the overall airworthi-
ness of the aircraft; or that a missing screw here and a
stripped bolt there won't affect the airworthiness condi-
tion of an aircraft. The Class I1 and I11 definition for a
part or product is for export/shipping purposes only-
not for airworthiness determination.
Form 81 30-3for conformity determination
A conformity determination is an examination andlor
testing of a part to determine that it conforms to speci-
fied data. The 8130-3 Form should be used by manufac-
turers for a conformity determination only at the request
of the importing country's CAA and only for new or
newly overhauled parts. When the form is used for
conformity certification of "prototype" produds, a State
ment of Conformity (F!AA Form 81309) from the manu-
1lM The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
facturer and a Conformity Inspection Record (FAA
Form 8100-1) may be required to meet type ceMication
program requirements.
Form 8130-3for identification
of new products
This is where aviation parts manufacturers can use
the form as a birth certificate for their new parts and
components. Signing and attaching a form to each of
their products before they ship them out to customers
or distributors will help ensure the part's traceability
and accountability.
A secondary benefit in these days of unapproved,
bogus, counterfeit parts is: use of the 813M will give
technicians at the other end of the parts supply chain
a warm and fuzzy feeling that the parts have been
properly identified as genuine aviation parts.
Manufacturers who wish to use the 8130-3 Form
for pa& identification purposes must first revise their
quality system procedures before incorporating it into
their system.
Form 8130-3for export airworthiness
approval for new or newly
overhauled products
Class I1 products: Federal Aviation Regulation 21.323
provides that any exporter or exporter's representative
may obtain an export airworthiness approval for a Class
11 product.
In other words, any manufacturer, distributor, or pri-
vate citizen can ship Class I1 parts as long as the 8130-3
Form is signed by either the FAA inspector or an appre
priately authorized FAA designee such as a Designated
Manufacturing Inspection Representative (DMIR) or a
Designated Airworthiness Representative OAR), or an
Organizational DAR.
This question is bound to come up. "What about part
distributors, with thousands of new or newly overhauled
parts sitting on shelves and all of them conspicuously
naked of the new 8130-3 Forms; how are they going to
ship these parts overseas?"
Answer: At this time, for domestic shipping you don't
need the form. However, if you ship overseas many coun-
tries give you two choices. Either have the manufacturer
give you a signed 813M Form for the part, or have an
appropriately authorized Designated Airworthiness
Representative PAR) sign off a form for each part you
want to ship overseas.
Class I11 products: Only manufacturers, or their
authorized suppliers, that hold a production certificate,
an Approved Production Inspection System (APIS), a
Parts Manufacturer Approval (PMA), or a Technical
Standard Order (TSO authorization to make a Class 111
product (e.g., NAS Hardware) with a Designated Manu-
facturer's Inspection Representative in their employ,
can sign 81303.
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Form 8130-3 for export airworthiness
approval for used products
The part of the form for export airworthiness
approval for used produds should become quite rare in
the future. This is because the majority of the countries
covered in AC21-2 have indicated that they will accept
the form for used products only if it's signed by an air
carrier or a repair station.
In other words, the foreign civil air authorities prefer
that U.S air carriers or repair stations take responsibility
for approving used parts for return to service, not, for
example, parts distributors, that may just be shipping
parts overseas that were removed from parted out
aircraft.
However, if you should desire to ship a part without
the benefit of a signature by an air carrier or repair
station, you'll have to take these additional steps:
1. You'll need a statement from the importing foreign
Civil Aviation Authority that it is willing to accept the
part (ref. FAR 21.325(c), Export Airworthiness
Approval Exceptions).
2. The application for exemption must be accompanied
by a written statement listing any requirement that
the part does not meet, (ref. FAR 21.327(e)(4), FAR
21.331 (b), and FAR 21.33303)).
Form 8130-3 for an approval for
return to service
8130-3 can be used as an approval for return to ser-
vice for Class I1 and Class Ill produds after performing
maintenance or alterations, as long as the work accom-
plished was performed by either an air carrier holding a
Part 121 or Part 135 operating certificate or a Part 145
repair station, and the form has all the information
required by FAR Part 43.9 Maintenance record entries.
OK what does this mean? Right now the form is
optional if you ship stateside. For example, if you are a
repair station or an air carrier and you repair an M U ,
you can ship it to your customer in Philadelphia using
the same procedures presently called out in your manual.
However, if you are shipping parts overseas, the vast
majority of the importing countries now require an FAA
Form 8130-3 to accompany the part.
Employing two separate procedures (domestic and
oversees) for "approval for return to service" is not
cost-effective, so I recommend that you consider making
some changes to your manual and quality control
systems to incorporate the use of the new 8130-3 Form.
Minor repairs and alterations
If you are an air carrier or a FAA repair station and
you're shipping Class I1 or Class 111 parts locally or world-
wide after making a minor repair or a minor alteration,
then in most cases, fillng out the form is the only paper-
work you have to generate. This is because the approval
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for return to service statement and additional informa-
tion on the 8130-3 Form meets FAR 43.9 record-keeping
requirements for maintenance.
Major repairs and alterations
If an air carrier or the repair station performs a
major repair or a major alteration on a Class I1 or Class
III product, and it will be shipped either locally or world-
wide, it still has to comply with FAR 43.9. For example,
if a major repair or alteration was performed by an
air carrier on a fuel control servo, then Form 337 or
required air carrier records must be attached to the
8130-3 Form. If a repair station performs a major repair
or alteration on a Class I1 or Class I11 product, then it
has a choice of either attaching a Form 337 or a signed
copy of the work order as required in Appendix B of
Part 43 to the 8130-3 Form. In any case when a Federal
Aviation Regulation requires an additional form like a
Form 337 to be attached, then all forms and the dates
the forms were issued/approved must be identified in
the remarks section on the 8130 Form.
Rules of thumb for filling out an 8130-3 Form:
1. The 8130-3 Form must be made in duplicate. The
original accompanies the part and the other copy is
kept in a secure file at the repair facility for at least
two years.
2. If the 8130-3 Form has been issued for one function,
for example: part identification, it must be reissued
you are going use it for another function; like approv-
ing a part for return to service and then exporting
the part overseas.
3. Block 3 on the form makes a murky reference to a
"System Tracking Reference" number that is FAA
approved. This means that the repair station or air
carrier has the responsibility to come up with an
813(13 Form tracking system that includes a means
of cross-referencing number(s) and products(s) being
shipped. The number tracking system should then be
identified and explained in a revision to the repair
station's or air carrier's manual.
Then all an air carrier or repair station has to do
to have an FAA approved "System Tracking
Number" is to get the manual revision approved by
the local FAA district office.
4. The 8130-3 Form can be computer-generated; it can
also be reduced in size to fit a logbook page, but
don't make it so small that your customer will need
an electron microscope to read it.
You are also allowed to preprint some of the infor-
mation such as the organization name or sequenced
tracking numbers. However, you are not allowed to
change, add to, or alter, either the 8130-3 Form's
words or format. If you do mess around with the
form, your government will hurt you.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 185
FAA Feedback
5. If the Form 81303 is used for airworthiness, approval
or conformity determination, a separate form may be
issued for each part number, or a single form with
multiple part numbers may be used. Multiple items
should be numbered in sequence. If a separate list is
used, enter the words "List Attached" in Block 7 of
the form.
6. When the form is used as an approval for return to
service, you must fill out the Remarks section of the
form with the data required by FAR 43.9 as follows:
a. A description of the work performed
b. The date of completion of the work performed
c. The name of the person performing the work
In addition you should identity the type certificate
product that you removed the part from by listing
its TC number.
186 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
7. Remember, the 81303 Form can be used for either
shipping or approval for return to service after main-
tenance for Class I1 or Class I11 products, but not for
both functions at the same time.
If you are using it to ship a part (Export,
Conformity, or Identification), then fill out only
Blocks 14 through 18.
If you are approving a part for return to service,
then fill out Blocks 19 through 23. If you fill out all
the blocks on the form you will incur global
bureaucratic wrath.
May/June 1994
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By Bill O'Brien
0
ne of the benefits or drawbacks of being a D.C.
suit is that on occasions you're invited to make
speeches at award ceremonies. In November of
last year I was invited to Chicago by the Du Page, IL,
Flight Standards District Office (J?SDO) to give the
closing remarks at a presentation honoring 18 Master
Mechanic award winners.
This was the first "Master Mechanic" presentation
that I was invited to attend. I knew this would not be an
ordinary retirement ceremony or recognition award.
This presentation was very special. Just to be nominated
for the Master Mechanic Award you must have spent
50 years in aviation maintenance, be a U.S. citizen,
and be recommended in writing by at least three A&P
mechanics.
While reading the recipients' biographies it became
very apparent that these were the mechanics who wrote
our aviation maintenance history. AU are IAs and the
majority are pilots. The average ages of these master
mechanics is 73 to 93. Most are World War I1 veterans,
but perhaps the most interesting fact is that most of
the 18 master mechanics are still working at least part
time in aviation maintenance, including the senior
Master Mechanic.
Intuitively, I knew as I finished reading the last biog-
raphy that I was not the right guy to say what should
be said. Only a "Master Mechanic" could say the right
words at the right time. I felt-small.
The award presentation
The Du Page FSDO knows how to put on a first class
Master Mechanic award ceremony. It was held at Lewis
University's new aviation building on the evening of
Saturday, November 20th. The auditorium was laid out
in a half circle that seated over 350 folks and almost
every seat was taken by family and friends of the award
winners. Being a D.C. suit, I got to sit up front facing
the audience, which was fine for me but visually hard on
the people in the first five rows.
The award ceremony started right on time with all
the proper ruffles and flourishes. After brief introduc-
tions, the audience was introduced, via an old newsreel
clip, to Mr. Charles Taylor, the Wright Brothers mecha-
nic, and the individual who the Master Mechanic award
is named after. After the film we were also given some
personal insights into the first aviation mechanic from
Mr. Taylor's grandson and great grandson.
About an hour into the program it was time for the
awards. The master of ceremonies spent about two
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FAA Feedback
minutes filling in the details of what would happen next.
In a clear voice he began: "As each Master Mechanic's
name is called in alphabetical order, please come for-
ward, and a list of his aviation accomplishments will be
read by a narrator. It was previously agreed upon," he
continued, "that due to time restrictions, the reading of
each of the Master Mechanic's accomplishments will be
limited to just 5 minutes."
Up until the master of ceremonies opening address, I
was content to sit stiffly, cross legged in my chair, with
my hands on my knees. I remembered that I was vaguely
concerned about the possibility that the sock on my
cross leg would roll down by itself, thereby forcing me
to commit a breach of political incorrectness by treating
the audience to a view of an inch of my pasty white
calf skin.
But the part about "limited to five minutes" really
awakened my attention and I forgot about my errant
sock. If I died today, I thought, even a priest born in
Ireland would be hard pressed to fill a one-minute eulogy
with my aviation maintenance accomplishments.
Even that stray thought died as I focused in on the
first name that was called and the long list accomplish-
ments for a narrator to read within an impossibly short
fiveminute time limit.
One by one, these men stood up and moved to the
front of the auditorium. As the fifth Master Mechanic
approached the lectern to receive his award, I began to
notice that something magical was happening, and that
this magic was common to all the award winners.
As each recipient's name was called, they stood up
slowly, getting the blood running again. Then, they
looked at their family and friends for a second and then
slowly started to walk towards the front of the room.
They grew taller, their backs became straighter,
their strides stronger, their heads more erect. And once
reaching the lectern, they stood at attention, chest out,
with their thumbs resting on the outside seam of their
trousers-just like they were taught to do when they
were in boot camp so long ago.
With the list of their accomplishments read aloud,
and on receiving the award, each new Master Mechanic
quietly acknowledged the audience's applause with a
wave, thanked the narrator and turned and walked back
to his seat-his eyes shining with pride. They were
young men again, filled with promise and purpose.
Master Mechanics who just received the highest award in
the aviation maintenance profession.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 187
FAA Feedback
Closing remarks
When the last Master Mechanic sat down, the master
of ceremonies called my name. It was time for the clos-
ing remarks. I discreetly puled up my errant sock, stood
up slowly to get the blood running again and walked
slowly to the lectern. I grasped the lectern firmly, smiled
to the audience with my "hopemy-so~kdoesn't~falldown
smile" and at the same time concentrated on keeping my
knees from knocking. Smiling once again, I began.
Good evening, fellow mechanics, technicians, ladies,
gentlemen and honored guests. It is a great honor,
and real personal privilege for me to be here with you
tonight.
I have been asked to make this special evening's
closing remarks. However, ladies and gentlemen, I must
share with you that it is one of the most dficult assign-
ments I have ever attempted. How does one find the
appropriate words to recognize each of our aviation
professionals for dedicating more than 50 years of
service to the aviation maintenance profession?
Fifty years, fifty years in one profession! My profes-
sion, your profession. Frfty years each, spent working
on airplanes.
How does one conceptualize 50 years, let alone recog-
nize it with words? I first tried to address it in units of
time. Let's see.
lWy years -that is over 100,000 hours or six million
minutes minimum of aviation '%andson experience."
Next I tried making 50 years real-in human terms by
calculating that 50 years equaled 8,000,000 heartbeats,
or maybe 50 years could be measured in the amount of
scar tissue on a mechanics hands, face, and arms-the
result of painful encounters with upturned safety wire or
cotter pins. I even speculated that maybe 50 years could
be measured by the number of empty 55gallon contain-
ers of G d o hand cleaner.
But the bottom line to understanding the significance
of the "Charles Taylor Master Mechanic" award is this:
These 18 individuals that are sitting here represent over
900 hundred years of "professionnal aviation experience
and have earned the title "Master Mechanic" in the eyes
of their peers and the FAA.
I would now like to address the award winners
personally:
"Master Mechanics," no doubt some younger mechan-
ics sitting in this room just see you as 18 people in their
seventies or more. Old timers who started on their avia-
tion career working on round engines and dope and fab
ric airplanes, maybe even W W I militmy aircraft, years
before they were a twinkle in their father's eye.
If that's all the younger mechanics see in you gentle
men, then they are blind. Please forgive them. Forgive
the shorbsightedness and arrogance of youth. They fail
to remember that you held our hand, prepared the way,
and brought us into the jet age-and in the long process
you made our industry safer and our profession better,
188 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
These youngsters just lack the experience and matun'ty.
With time and experience they will learn to recognize
Giants when they see them.
Yes-Giants, ladies and gentlemen-Giants! These
professionals, these mechanics are giants. These 18
individuals have for the last 50 years have left their
mark all over our aviation profession.
What do Giants do? They hold up the values of our
profession, teach new mechanics the importance of trust
and integrity, and share with others the skills that others
have taught them. They are our profession$ heart, soul,
and corporative memory. They make a Merence.
Are these just nice words for a nice occasion? No,
there are really such things as Giants. They are real-for
I met one when I was a young and arrogant mechanic,
and when you meet a Giant, ladies and gentlemen, you
are never quite the same afterwards. May I spend just
three minutes and share with you m y experience?
Time: Spring 1971, Place: North Philadelphia
Au-port-Inside an old gray T-hangar stands a Twin
Comanche all opened up for an annual inspection. I was
twentyeight years old with an A&P ticket that was just a
little over a year old. I was doing a freelance inspection
to earn some money to pay o f f a private loan against m y
1969 VW. I asked George Garabedian, LA, to do the
annual. George, who had his A&P ticket for over 25
years, was working for Aero Services, an aerial survey
company located right on the field. George arrived on
time and I watched him carefully begin the inspection.
He carefully checked the ADS and the paperwork. Then
with flashlight and mirror in hand he inspected the
aircraft. He looked in places I would never look and all
the time he told me why he was doing it.
Finally he was at the tail and he asked me if I
checked the cable pulleys in back of the fuselage because
"it was a tight fit back by the tail." I told him that I
shined a flashlight at them from the cabin rear bulkhead
access panel opening, and they looked OK. George's eyes
kind of squinted up as he looked me straight in the eye
and he asked m e again-"Did you check those pulleys
and cables, Obie?"
Now let me tell you folks, despite being younger and
taller than George, I knew better than to lie to a Giant.
"No, George, I did not" was m y shameful reply. George's
eyes never left mine and without changing his tone
of voice, he simply said: "Obie, we don't do that in
aviation '-and with saying that-he climbed back into
J
the tail, turned on his flashlight and checked the
pulleys himself
With just seven words, "OBIE, W e don't do that in
Aviation," George "The Giant" Garabedian taught a
pimplefaced Irish kid, in just three seconds, everything
about maintenance profession values that three years'
experience working on army helicopters and 22 months
in A&P school and a year in industry did not.
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I'm sure that other mechanics sitting here and techni-
cians working at other airports worldwide can share
similar stories with us about the 18 Giants we are recog-
nizing today, My only regret is that I did not meet these
other Giants earlier in m y aviation maintenance career,
for I'm sure I would have been a better technician for
the experience. But I'm glad that I still have the opportu-
nity to seek their advice, benefit from their experiences,
and profit from their wisdom. Hopefully I'll be a better
aviation FAA inspector for the experience.
Up until now I have shared m y own ideas and experi-
ences about what 50 years in a profession means to m e
and what giants are.
If I may be so bold, and with great respect, I would
like to offer our Giants a personal observation or two for
their careful consideration and evaluation.
Gentlemen, the awards that you received tonight do
not signify or in any way mark the last milestone of
your aviation maintenance career.
These awards you received tonight are not presented
to you as an aviation good-bye gift or final salute. W e
members of the aviation maintenance profession are not
as short-sighted as other professions who send their
most experienced people out to pasture with a slap on
the back, a free dinner and a cheap watch. W e would
never do that. Mechanics are called many things but we
are never called fools!
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The Charles Taylor Master Mechanic awards that
you just received are a formal recognition of your knowl-
edge, skill and high level of professionalism that you
have demonstrated to this point in your aviation mainte
nance career.
The Aviation Maintenance profession still needs your
experience, your wisdom, your common sense. W e need
you! I need you! Your job here with us is still not
finished! You still have a lot to share with the rest of
us! You must show us how to become more professional,
you must teach us your values and you must teach us
to be-Giants.
God Bless you all and thank you.
Coffee and cake followed and I had the great pleasure
to spend some time with each of the master mechanics.
When it was all over, and everyone was putting on coats,
Rich Mileham, Airworthiness Inspector from the FSDO,
asked me what the Du Page office could do to make the
Master Mechanic presentation better. "Everything was
just great!" was my honest reply. "But even though we
were pushing the maximum capacity of the room, I
would have liked to have seen more younger mechanics
at the presentation. Just to talk to these giants was a
rare experience, not to be missed," I added. "How will
we get more of the younger mechanics to attend these
events?" Rich asked. "Industry and the FAA have got to
tell them about Giants among us," was my response.
LlVl MarcWApril 1994
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 189
FAA Feedback
Harmonization, bilaterals and
other scary things
By Bill O'Brien
L
ike most technicians, I have labored hard all my
life to make my aviation maintenance world as
cozy and predictable as possible. My little world is
not very big but it is a happy one.
In my world, I do the same things everyday. I talk to
the same folks, and do the same work the same way. I
like my world for I control my fate.
On Jan. 1, 1994, I lost some control. My ship lurched
30 degrees to port, and someone knocked on the door of
my domain. On that day my aviation maintenance world
got a lot bigger, a little more uncomfortable and just a
tad scarier. So, my friends, did your world.
What happened on New Year's Day? A major change
happened in the aviation maintenance community. Starb
ing on Jan. 1, 1994, the Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA)
of Europe will recognize, without a bilateral agreement,
U.S. certif~edrepair station's maintenance performed
on JAA aircraft-only if that maintenance is conducted
in accordance with JAA supplement to their Part 145
Inspections procedures manual, and the repair station
is on their accepted list of maintenance facilities.
Jan. 1, 1994 is also the day we began the harmoniza-
tion process in earnest.
What is harmonization?
First of all, this particular maintenance harmoniza-
tion process with the JAA has been going on for over
seven years, so it's not a new idea. The United States
has signed aircraft certification agreements with other
countries dating as far back as 1927.
Harmonization is simply the means of making FAA
and JAA and other foreign Civil Aviation Authorities
(CAA) regulations meet a similar airworthiness standard.
Another definition of harmonization is an attempt at the
leveling of global competition on the aviation mainte
nance playing field. Still, another way of looking at this
harmonization process is as "Day 1" in the genesis of a
global airworthiness standard recognition system.
Why harmonize?
FAA and JAA are harmonizing their regulations
because the aviation community, on either side of the
Atlantic, can no longer afford the high costs associated
with manufacturing, selling, leasing or maintaining the
world's air carrier aircraft fleet using 20+ different sets
of Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) Regulations.
1 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
What's causing these high costs? Bureaucracy for
one. Too many governments having too many rules
which say the same thing. Government imposed regula-
tory compliance costs to the aviation industry are
unbelievably high. Boeing has estimated that it cost an
additional billion dollars to the EL747 development p r e
gram just to satisfy all the world's aviation regulatory
requirements.
Similar regulatory restrictions have added operating
costs to U.S. operators of foreign manufactured aircraft
when specialized maintenance or component overhauls
are done overseas. Mountains of bureaucratic red tape
at every border have cost aviation jobs, slowed economic
growth and increased the bureaucracy.
In addition the U.S. taxpayer is hurt. John Q. Public
must pay the cost of maintaining FAA surveillance and
initial and recertification costs of over 235 foreign FAA
repair stations in Europe. If we harmonize our rules, we
can reduce the costs of government oversight and speed
up the transfer of goods and services between countries.
So why is this harmonization process a big deal for
technicians? The big deal is-harmonization is bringing
change and change is always scary.
Let's look the devil in his eye and see what the real
impact is. In a "harmonized" aviation maintenance envi-
ronment an FAA certificated domestic Part 145 repair
station with JAA authority will have an easier access to
a highly technical European market of over 350 million
people and thousands of JAA air carrier aircraft.
JAA member countries, with whom we will have a
bilateral agreement with, will recognize work performed
on JAA air carrier aircraft and components that are
signed off by these same domestic JAA approved FAA
Part 145 repair stations. Harmonization means a bigger
market, more customers and more profits.
The foreign FAA repair stations in Europe will have
the same access to over 5,500 U.S. registered air carrier
aircraft and their maintenance needs just like they
always have. The FAA will recognize work performed
and signed off on U.S. registered air carrier aircraft and
their components by foreign FAA Part 145 approved
repair stations located in JAA member countries.
Harmonization means a level playing field for global
competition. Harmonization also means we all must
adopt a professional and more competitive way of
doing business.
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How is it going to work?
FAA and JAA are going to facilitate the harmoniza-
tion process by recognizing each other's regulations and
by signing a proposed government to government agree
ment called a bilateral. Seventeen of the 23 member
countries of the JAA will participate. An FAA suggested
format for a bilateral would address reciprocal mainte
nance procedures and would be composed of two parts:
The first part would be an umbrella agreement. This
would be a government to government agreement that
would be negotiated and entered into through an
exchange of diplomatic notes. The umbrella document
would be of a general nature, and provide guidance on
the mutual cooperation and responsibilities between the
Civil Aviation Authorities (CAA). This first part of the
proposed bilateral would be essentially identical from
country to country.
The second part of the proposed bilateral document
would be the technical implementation procedures,
referred to as the "IPS." The IPS are the portion of the
bilateral that maintenance personnel would be the most
concerned with, for they contain the standards, policies
and procedures under which each civil aviation authority
has agreed to use or follow when performing work on
behalf of another CAA. There could be IPS for a variety
of technical subjects, such as aircraft certification,
maintenance, approvals, simulators and environmental
concerns.
The best part of having the IPSis that they would be
negotiated between the technical staff at the FAA and
the CAA and would be signed by the FAA Administrator
and his CAA counterpart.
Unlike the umbrella portion of the proposed bilateral,
the IPS may differ between countries, depending on
various levels of work each country agrees to perform
for each other.
It should be kept in mind the signing of an IP in no
way relieves the FAA or the CAA of their responsibilities
under the laws and regulations of their own countries.
The IP process is merely a way to allow the FAA and
Civil Aviation Authority to confirm data for each other
by using agreed upon procedures.
How long will it take to get bilaterals?
It could be along time. Due to the fact the JAA is not
a recognized Civil Air Authority but a committee formed
of all of the JAA member nations. we must have a
bilateral with each of the 17 countries that are members
of the JAA.
Those of us who have worked for, or have done busi-
ness in the European market, can attest to the magni-
tude of effort it will take to interact successfully and get
bilateral agreements with 17 different state departments
and Civil Aviation Authorities.
The United States is not exactly moving into these
bilateral agreements at warp speed either. As of Dec. 13,
1993, the FAA received "provisional" approval from the
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U.S. State Department for the format to be used in the
new bilaterals. Once the State Department has given
its OK on the bilateral concept, the FAA must take the
proposal to the full Interagency Group for International
Aviation for U.S. government policy approval. This too
will take some time.
The only sure thing we can count on in developing
these proposed bilaterals, even in this wondrous and
fast-paced age of spandex tights vs. cellulite, instant
global communication, and in-flight repair of near-
sighted space telescopes, is that diplomacy has been,
and forever will remain, a slow, tiresome and murky
bureaucratic business.
What's going to happen in the meantime?
We first have to nail down a few bureaucratic fads.
Remember, it was a JAA requirement to have all FAA
domestic repair stations doing business in Europe get
"JAA Approval," not an FAA requirement.
Second, by law, the FAA can't enter into any agree
ment with another country unless it's a bilateral. So if
we did nothmg, on Jan. 1, 1994, the JAA requirement
would have expired from FAA domestic repair stations,
which would then be unable to compete in Europe. We
need some sort of process to do work with one another
until the diplomatic wrinkles are ironed out.
In an effort to turbocharge the sloth-like governmen-
tal process, small understandings between countries are
vital. Therefore, last year the FAA and JAA have agreed
to develop a process for assessing each other's (FAA's
and CAA's) ability to provide surveillance to repair sta-
tions that perform work only on air carrier equipment.
The FAA/JAA have already "assessedn five repair
stations here in the southwestern United States. Those
repair stations did just fine.
Now, F M J A A teams are performing assessments on
five repair stations each, in the United Kingdom, France
and Germany to see how they fare.
Besides validating the F M J A A assessment plan,
these initial assessments will serve two major purposes:
First as a confidence builder in each Civil Air
Authority's abilities and application of the Federal
Aviation Regulations (MR) and the Joint Airworthiness
Regulations (JAR). Second, it will identify points that
must be included in the technical portion of the bilateral
agreement.
A detailed report on these initial assessment findings
is due June 27, 1994. I believe that shortly afterward,
information covering the assessment process will be
presented to industry on both sides of the Atlantic.
Understand that neither the FAA or JAA is required
to accept the finished "process" for joint assessments.
This kind of "definite maybe" way of doing business may
sound strange. But to reach a government to govern-
ment consensus, the use of soft words like "may, initial,
proposed and "assessments," are the built-in safeguards
that allow governments maneuvering room in high-level
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 191
FAA Feedback
talks. Besides, any kind of agreements between countries
should be approached with the same care and caution as
porcupines making love, in order to ensure a "win-win"
situation.
While this process is being worked on, the JAA has
initially agreed to accept all work performed by FAA
domestic repair stations who apply to the JAA and sub-
mit a supplement to their inspection procedures manual.
Does anyone care here in the United States
about being harmonized?
Early last year the FAA sent letters to all FAA repair
stations notifying them of JAA intentions of limiting the
European market to only those repair stations that have
JAA approval. Over 1,000 U.S. domestic repair stations,
almost one-fourth of the total number of repair stations,
have notified the JAA prior to the Sept. 30, 1993 dead-
line, of their intention to become JAA approved.
For an FAA repair station to comply with the JAA
mandate, it requires a supplement to existing FAA Part
145 repair station's Inspection Procedures Manual. The
supplement must spell out the additional JAA require-
ments the repair station must meet, as well as to serve
as a reminder that the organization is now performing
maintenance in accordance with an international
agreement.
What additional requirements will
the supplement address?
The following is an overview of the supplement and
the areas that it must address:
• Scope of work: In other words, what are you
approved to work on by the FAA?
• Access by both the FAA and the JAA: This includes a
statement allowing a JAA inspector or FAA inspector
to perform a JAA inspection of your facilities.
• Work orders and customer instructions: A statement
that states that a foreign operator must supply you
with clear instructions and any additional mainte-
nance related data that you might not have access
to -like an Airworthiness Directive issued by a
foreign country.
• Approved design engineering data: Data must be
approved by either the type certificate holder, or data
supplied by the customer and approved either by the
FAA or the appropriate JAA Civil Air Authority.
• Airworthiness Directives: The customer will supply
any Airworthiness Directives that are applicable to
his or her aircraft. If there is no customer, then the
repair station will comply with any applicable FAA-
issued Airworthiness Directive.
192 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
• Major repairs, alterations and modifications: For JAA
aircraft, the customer is responsible for providing the
repair station with the appropriate data. If there is
no customer, then FAA approval will be required.
• Release of components after maintenance: All work
must be returned to service in accordance with FAR
Part 43, Section 43.9, and any additional require-
ments called out in the JAA amendment.
• Validating the Certificate of Airworthiness Effective-
ness: Almost all JAA aircraft Certificates of Airwor-
thiness (C of A) have an expiration date. The repair
station will be required to check the date and see if
the C of A is current. If the C of A is out of date,
the repair station must inform the customer that his
airworthiness certificate is not valid. If the customer
still does not renew the C of A, then the repair sta-
tion will include a reference to the invalid certificate
in the approval to return to service statement.
• Release of the aircraft after maintenance: This
paragraph is applicable to FAR 145 repair stations
with an aircraft rating. It spells out the proper main-
tenance certification to be used for releasing an
aircraft to service after all the work has been accom-
plished, and the entry to be used when not all main-
tenance is completed.
• Reporting of unairworthy conditions: This paragraph
in the amendment requires the repair station to
report all serious defects to the JAA customer.
• Quality monitoring system: This is a different concept
than the quality control or inspection system found
in most FAA Part 145 repair stations. A Quality
Monitoring (QM) system is an independent, top level
review, that includes monitoring the overall repair
station operation including the inspection process.
The QM system will focus on whether the stated pro-
cedures and standards in the repair station manual
are actually being followed, and whether they are
effective in meeting the overall goals for maintaining
airworthy products.
Once the supplement to the repair station manual is
accepted by the JAA, the FAA repair station is approved
and placed on an acceptance list. This list will be
updated by the JAA quarterly. If your repair station did
not make the list in time for the JAA Sept. 30, 1993,
deadline, then you cannot perform maintenance on JAA
aircraft or component parts as of Jan. 1, 1994.
However there is a small possibility that some FAA
repair stations may receive a letter from the JAA autho-
rizing them to perform maintenance on JAA aircraft,
even though they are not yet on the first quarter's list.
Either way letter-authorized repair stations and new
repair stations must apply for the acceptance list prior
to the last day of April in order to perform maintenance
on JAA aircraft starting on May 1. You may contact the
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JAA for further information at:
JAA Headquarters
Saturnusstraat 10
P.O. Box 3000
2130 KA Hoofddorp
Netherlands
Attention: Robert Williams, Maintenance Director
JAA telephone: 31 2503.24112 (International) JAA
fax: 31 2503.21714 (International)
In addition to the supplement to the repair station
manual, a payment of a yet undetermined fee (my best
guess is $1,000) will be charged by the JAA. Then finally,
a sampling of approximately 10 percent of the FAA d e
mestic repair stations will be assessed to see if they do
indeed meet all the requirements of JAA supplement and
FAA Part 145 by a team of FAA and JAA inspectors.
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Some closing thoughts
Even as you read this article, Flight Standards
District Office FAA airworthiness inspectors will have
just finished a t w d a y training course in Washington on
JAA requirements. They have received the very latest
information on harmonization, bilaterals and other scary
things from FAA headquarters and JAA representatives.
If you want to be a JAA certified repair station, talk
to your inspector after Feb. 1. He or she should be able
to help you to compete in a global market.
The FAAJJAA Part 145 repair stations with the best
people, the best manual, the best on-time delivery and
the best quality control will win, and win big in this
brave, new, harmonized world.
Those that are too comfortable to compete, too cozy
to move from its little niche, happy doing business as
usual, will lose.
In the final analysis, I can't guarantee you that
this harmonization process will be pain-free, but I will
guarantee you that it will be interesting. EQI
Januruy/Februruy 1994
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 193
By Bill OIBrien
w arning: For the next 2,288 words, I'd like to
go over the seven kinds of general aviation
inspections that are called out in the Federal
Aviation Regulations (FAR). I must caution you that if
you continue reading this article one of three things will
happen to you.
-Many of you will switch off before you are halfway
through and turn to the editor's column in this magazine
to search for hidden truths or splashes of technical
humor that on rare occasions can be found there.
-Still others will finish the article, pick up the phone
and make that long postponed call to a periodontist.
They will call, because in the five minutes it takes to
read this article they have seen and felt real pain-and
the thought of a 200-pound man rummaging through
their root canals no longer holds any fear for them.
-Still others will receive illumination in the regula-
tions and the concepts behind them.
With unrealistic hlgh hopes that the majority will
experience the last option, let us begin.
Since inspections of various kinds are performed on
every aircraft in the U.S. fleet at least once a year, you'd
think that all inspections are pretty much alike. That's
not true. FAA inspection requirements differ for non-
revenue and revenue operations, general aviation, large
or turbinepowered aircraft and for air carrier aircraft.
Many technicians tend to blur the terms inspections
and maintenance together as if they mean the same
thing. But that's often a mistake. When you perform
maintenance as defined by FAR 1, you perform an
inspection on the aircraft and/or components to deter-
mine the need and extent of the repair or alteration, and
then perform the work necessary to make the aircraft/
component airworthy.
However, when you perform an inspection, you deter-
mine the airworthiness status of the aircraft or compo-
nent only, nothing more. Think of an inspection as an
exercise in a "yes it is airworthy or no it is not" decision-
making process. Making repairs or alterations to main-
tain or restore the airworthiness of the aircraft is not an
inspection - it's maintenance.
Some of you will also point out that preventive main-
tenance is maintenance. However, remember that the
maintenance definition in FAR 1 excludes preventive
maintenance. So preventive maintenance items that are
usually called out in the manufacturer's annuaV100-hour
inspection sheet and performed by the LA are considered
part of the inspection; so a separate preventive mainte-
nance entry is not required.
194 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Additionally, inspections are kept separate from main-
tenance by requiring a separate entry for inspections
(ref. FAR 43.11) and a separate entry for maintenance
(ref. FAR 43.9) in the maintenance records.
For inspections, the record-keeping requirement is
found in FAR 43.11. It requires that a technician make
an entry describing the kind of inspection performed,
date, total time, and declare the aircraft or component
part as either airworthy or unairworthy with hisher
signature and certificate number. If maintenance was
performed during the inspection then the entry must
also meet the requirement of FAR 43.9.
General aviation inspections
For the purpose of this discussion, I will define gen-
eral aviation (GA) aircraft as aircraft operated under
Part 91 with a maximum takeoff weight that is less than
12,500 pounds, which may include revenueproducing
aircraft.
There are three major kinds of general aviation
aircraft inspections: annual, 10Ghour and progressive.
AU three types of inspections require an examination of
the entire aircraft. The only difference between these
three kinds of inspections are when the inspections are
performed and who performs them.
Annual inspection
For all GA aircraft operated under Part 91, an annual
inspection must be performed at least once every 12
calendar months. So if an annual inspection is compleb
ed on Oct. 5, 1993, the next annual inspection comes
due after Oct. 30, 1994.
An annual inspection must be performed by a techni-
cian who holds an Inspection Authorization (IA) or by an
inspector authorized under an appropriately rated Part
145 repair station. FAR 43.15 (c) requires an inspection
checklist to be used for the annual, and it must meet
the scope and detail of the checklist found in Appendix
D of Part 43.
Can an Winspector have other technicians pull
panels and do preventive maintenance on the aircraft?
Sure, but the bottom line is, it's the IA who must
perform the inspection. The IA inspector must inspect
aJl the nooks and crannies of the aircraft and cannot
delegate unpleasant "hell hole" inspections to the new
guy. It's the Winspector alone, who takes the responsi-
bility for signing off the annual inspection, by determin-
ing if the "aircraft" is airworthy.
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Annual inspection sign-off
The IA needs only to make one annual inspection
entry in the maintenance records. This is because the
entry required by FAR 43.11 refers to the term "air
craft," which includes the airframe, engine, propeller
and all other component parts.
I recommend that the IA's annual inspection entry be
recorded in the airframe maintenance record (logbook).
This is because the entire life history of the aircraft is
recorded in the airframe maintenance record, and this
is the only logbook that stays with the aircraft until the
end of the aircraft's useful life, unlike engine(s) or
propeller(s) logbooks that are periodically replaced.
Even so, many IAs have gotten into the habit of
using the same annual inspection entry in the engine
and propeller maintenance records as well. If you make
but a single entry, I recommend that you include the
engine and propeller make/model and serial number.
If you want to make several annual inspedion entries
in the engine and propeller maintenance logs for record-
keeping purposes, you are free to do so. I promise,
though, with the sincerity of a used car salesman that
either way, the logbook police will not hassle you.
The annual inspection signed off by the Part 145
repair station inspector must be done in accordance with
the established procedures in the Part 145 inspection
procedures manual.
100-hour inspections
These inspections are performed on revenueproduc-
ing GA aircraft used for such activities such as sight
seeing and flight instruction. The 100-hour inspection
must meet the same minimum inspection checklist
criteria in Appendix D of Part 43 as an annual inspec-
tion. So for all intents and purposes the two inspections
are identical.
There are, however, two subtle differences between
the two inspections besides the obvious of doing a 10@
hour inspection every 100 hours for revenueproducing
aircraft. The differences are in who can sign the 100-
hour inspection off, and the 10-hour reprieve.
100-hour sign-off
A 100-hour inspection can be signed off by an A&P
technician or a rated Part 145 repair station. Just like
an IA or Part 145 inspector performing an annual in-
spection, a single Airframe and Powerplant technician
can perform the inspection. He or she cannot delegate
this responsibility to anyone though.
Again, I recommend that the 100-hour entry is made
in the airframe maintenance record if a single A&P
technician completes the entire 100-hour inspection. If a
single entry is used, be sure the term "aircraft" (signify-
ing the entire aircraft) is used in the maintenance entry
and substitute the term "100-hour" for the word "annual."
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Unlike annual inspections, one or more technicians
can sign off individual 100-hour inspections on the type
certificated components on the same aircraft; as long as
the word "aircraft" is replaced with the appropriate
word: airframe, engine or propeller, and the word
"annual" is replaced with "100-hour" in the appropriate
logbook. Again, Part 145 inspectors must follow their
repair station manual.
10-hour reprieve
The good news for an aircraft operator who uses
100-hour inspections is 100-hour limitations can be
exceeded by 10 hours while en route to reach a place
where the next 100-hour inspection can be performed.
The bad news is the extra time is subtracted from the
100 hours until your next inspection. For example, if
your regular 100-hour inspection was due at 3,450 hours,
and the operator flies an extra four and onehalf hours
to bring the aircraft back to its maintenance base-
where the 100-hour inspection is performed at 3,454.5
hours-the next inspection will still be due at 3,550
hours, regardless of the fact that there were only 95.5
hours between inspections.
Progressive inspection
My personal concept of a progressive inspection is
that of a single annual inspection spread over 12 calen-
dar months. The major benefit of a progressive inspec-
tion is that it limits inspection downtime to a few hours
minimum, or to a day or two maximum, rather than a
week or more.
Progressive inspections are divided into routine
inspections, that take a generalized look at the whole
aircraft, and detail inspections, which are in depth in
nature covering single major areas or components such
as: fuselage, engines, propellers, landing gear, etc., until
the entire aircraft is inspected.
The minimum number of inspections you must per-
form to qurrllfv for a progressive inspection would be
two, (just one inspection would be an annual). Theoreti-
cally, there is no upper limit to the number of routine
and detailed inspections you could perform. You simply
need to satisfy the requirement that the entire aircraft
be inspected within the d o t t e d 12 calendar months.
There are two major differences between progressive
inspections and annual/lO@hour inspections. First: The
W P a r t 145 inspector can either perform or supervise
the progressive inspection. This means that the Lt can
delegate routine/demand segments of the inspection to
someone else to perform. Despite the fact that the air-
craft can be inspected by someone else, the W P a r t 145
inspector still holds the responsibility for the airworthi-
ness of the aircraft.
The second major difference is how a progressive
inspection is initiated and canceled. A progressive
inspection program begins with a letter to the FAA local
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 195
FAA Feedback
district office describing the progressive inspection in
accordance with FAR 91.409(d), and the completion of
an annual-type inspection to serve as a benchmark from
which all detailed and routine progressive inspection
intervals are taken.
For any reason if an operator decides to go back to
an annual inspection format he/she must inform the
FAA District Office in writing of that intent and estab
lish the due date for the next annual inspection.
In such a case, the next annual inspection is due 12
calendar months from the month of the last fully
"completed" progressive inspection program, not the last
routine or detailed inspection. Or, if it's been less than
a year since the progressive inspection program was
initiated, the due date is 12 calendar months from the
last annual inspection.
Large or turbine-powered aircraft
The GA Part 91 heavy iron operators and turbine
drivers have a choice of four inspection programs called
out in FAR 91.409 (e)(f). One exception to this rule
relates to turbinepowered helicopters. Helicopter opera-
tors have all seven inspection programs to choose from.
They are not limited to FAR 91.409 (eXf) programs only.
Before we look at these FAR 91.409 (eXf) inspection
programs individually, the rule specifically spells out
that all four inspection programs must have procedures
in place to properly inspect lifelimited parts, survival
and emergency equipment along with airframe, engines,
propellers and accessories. The four choices you have are:
1. A continuous airworthiness inspection program
that's part of a continuous airworthiness mainte
nance program currently in use by a Part 121, 127
and 135 air carrier. (Note the separation of inspec-
tion from maintenance in this regulation.)
2. An approved aircraft inspection program approved
under 135.419 currently in use by an active 135
operator.
3. A current inspection program recommended by the
manufacturer.
4. An inspection program established by the registered
owner or operator and approved by the FAA.
196 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
I underlined the word "currenfly)" in the first three
inspection programs because inspection programs based
on outdated manufacturer, air carrier or Part 135 opera-
tor inspection programs no longer meet the intent of
FAR 91.409 (e#f). You must either match the changes to
air carriers/Part 135 inspection program or develop your
own inspection program under option four.
It's easy to put your eligible aircraft into one of these
programs. First select the inspection program. Include
the name and address of the person responsible for
scheduling the inspections, and make sure that you have
a copy of the program available for use by the person
performing the inspection and a copy of the program
available for the FAA upon request.
If you make a change from one FAR 91.409 (eXf)
inspection program to another, be sure that the old
inspection time in service, calendar times or cycles
under the previous program are applied determining
inspection due times.
If you want to make any changes to your FAR 91.409
(eX0, (option 4) approved aircraft inspection program, it
must first be approved by the local FAA district office.
Also, the rule allows the FAA district office to change an
operator's approved inspection program if the FAA fiids
that changes are necessary to ensure that the inspection
program remains adequate.
The FAR allows operators under FAR 91.415 (for
option 4) to petition the FAA to reconsider any FAA r e
quired changes. The petition must be filed with the FAA
district office within 30 days after the operator received
the initial notice to change hisher inspection program.
Except in the case of emergency, requiring immediate
action in the interest of safety, the filing of the petition
by the operator stays the initial FAA notice requiring
changing the inspection program, pending a decision bv
the FAA.
Well, you got through it. Now that's not so painful,
is it? NovemberDecember 1993
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Visions of director of maintenance?
Know what you're getting yourself into before taking the leap
By Bill 0'Brien
I
t's late Friday afternoon, it's raining and the
hangar's empty. You're getting ready to go home
when a struggling Part 135 operator you know,
walks up and greets you with a weak handshake and a
toothy grin. He says his director of maintenance just left
him, and he offers you the position of parttime h e c t o r
of maintenance for his two-plane cargo operation. The
aroma of found money suddenly fiUs the air.
You are seduced by visions of having enough money
to buy your kids new shoes, an important sounding title
to impress your mother-in-law, and for yourself, a vague
promise of your own desk with a personalized plastic
name plate.
You start negotiating. In the next 10 minutes, some
where between "How much work must be done" and
"How much does it pay," you ask: "What does the direc-
tor of maintenance have to do?" "Keep the airplanes
flying," was his immediate reply. "You're an IA, just do
annuals, routine maintenance, and ADS as they come
along. The job is a piece of cake."
You buy in big time and within an aviation nano-
second you're in trouble up to your clavicle with the FAA
for violating a Part 135 rule or two. Why? You didn't ask
all the right questions. You took a parbtirne approach to
a full-time position.
Let's go over some of the questions you should ask if
you're about to become a director of maintenance for a
nineseat or less, air cargo operator. Later I would also
like to offer some additional suggestions to consider
when offered a director of maintenance position.
What is Part 135 operation?
It is an authority from the federal government in the
form of an Air Agency Certificate and operations specifi-
cations to conduct carriage in air commerce of persons
or property for hire. Aircraft operating under Part 135
are limited to type certificated aircraft having 30 passen-
ger seats or less and 7,500 pounds or less. For mainte
nance purposes it's further divided into type certificated
aircraft with nineseat or less and 10-seat or more.
What is the biggest difference between
nine-seat or less and 10-seat or more
Part 135 maintenance?
The biggest difference between maintaining a nine
seat or less operator and a 10-seat or more operator is
how the maintenance and inspections are performed and
how that work is signed off.
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Nine or less Part 135 operations can perform aircraft
inspections (annual, lOCkhour, Progressive, etc.) under
Part 91.409 inspection programs just like Part 91 opera-
tors. Routine maintenance is performed in accordance
with Part 43.
Part 135, nine or less aircraft also have additional
maintenance requirements that are spelled out by FAR
135.421. These requirements specify that the operator
maintain the aircraft's engines, propeUers/rotors and
emergency equipment in accordance with the manu-
facturer's recommended maintenance requirements or in
accordance with a maintenance program developed by
the operator and approved by the FAA.
This additional maintenance program must be
described or referenced in the operator's manual. Any
change to the operator's additional maintenance
program requires FAA approval.
Inspections, routine maintenance and additional
maintenance requirements for nineseat or less aircraft
must be signed off by a certificated technician/IA or a
properly rated Part 145 repair station or another Part
135 certificate holder (ref. FAR 135.437).
A 10-seat or more Part 135 aircraft operator, by com-
parison, must have separate maintenance and inspection
procedures spelled out in their manual. These procedures
are contained in a continuous airworthiness mainte
nance program developed by the operator, for the opera-
tor, and approved by the FAA on the operating
specifications. The continuous airworthiness mainte
nance program is a complex maintenance program both
in scope and detail and very similar in design to the way
maintenance is performed by FAR Part 121 Air Carriers.
What are the FAA qualifications for a director
of maintenance? (ref. FAR 135.39)
To be eligible to hold the position of director of
maintenance, an individual must meet the following
qualifications:
1. Hold an FAA Airframe and Powerplant mechanic
certificate
2. Have three years of maintenance experience
3. Meet the recent experience requirements of FAR
65.83 in the same category and class aircraft used by
the Part 135 operator. Or have at least three years of
experience working in a certificated airframe repair
station including working one of those years in the
capacity of approving aircraft for return to service.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 197
FAA Feedback
If you meet only some of these requirements, you
still can be a director of maintenance by requesting a
deviation from the rule from the FAA regional flight
standards division manager.
What is the director of maintenance required
to know? (ref. FAR 135.39)
FAR 135.39 qualifications specify what you need to
know. First, you must know the contents of the Part 135
operator's manual and the operations specifications. You
must know and understand all the applicable rules of
FAR 135. And the real kicker: You must also know all
other applicable regulations related to your duties and
responsibilities.
At minimum, a good director of maintenance should
arm himself or herself with a good working knowledge of
the following FAR Parts: 1, 21, 39, 43, 65, 91, 135 and
Advisory Circular (AC) 1353B air taxi operators, and AC
1357 additional maintenance requirements for nineseat
or less passenger seats.
An upwardly mobile director of maintenance should
try to get a copy of FAA Order 8300.10 FAA Airworthi-
ness Inspector's Handbook. The FAA Inspector's Hand-
book is constantly being updated, so the number of
current copies available to the public are limited and
sometimes hard to get.
All of these documents are available for home study
from The U.S. Government Printing Office, or govern-
ment book stores. FAA regulations, AC and FAA orders
are also available on microfiche or computer programs
from private companies.
What kind of work does a director of
maintenance perform?
Besides the obvious responsibility of keeping the
aircraft in your care airworthy, a description of your
duties and additional responsibilities are listed in FAR
Part 135, as well as the Operators Part 135 Manual and
Operations specifications. Read them carefully. You
might be surprised by the tasks that must be performed
by the director of maintenance as specified in the
operator's manual.
What kind of aircraft inspections are required
for cargo operations?
Under FAR 91.409, a nineseat or less cargo operator
is only required to perform an annual or complete a
progressive inspection once a year. Cargo operations for
revenue purposes are exempt from 100-hour inspections
by FAR 91.409 (b), even if a hundred hours or more a
month are placed on the aircraft.
198 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
However the operator's principal FAA airworthiness
inspector can, if they have good reason, require any
nineseat or less Part 135 operator to comply with an
Approved Aircraft Inspection Program (AAIP) under
FAR 135.419.
What is an Approved Aircraft
Inspection Program?
Think of an AAIP as a customized aircraft inspection
program that takes into consideration the operator's
areas of operation, types of equipment, past history and
the kind of maintenance and inspection organization
they employ.
FAR 135.419 requires that the AAIP contain func-
tions and procedures for conduct of aircraft inspections
including the scope and detail of the inspection to be
performed on the airframe, engine(s), propellers/rotors,
appliances and emergency equipment.
The AMP must provide a schedule for the perfor-
mance of these inspections. Inspection ties can be
expressed in calendar time, service time, cycles or any
combinations thereof.
Remember, not all of the operator's aircraft need to
be on the AAIP program. Some aircraft could be on
annuals, progressives or under one of the programs
identified under FAR 91.409(e)(Q, as well as an AAIP.
Only those aircraft identified in the operations specifica-
tions by registration number, must be inspected in
accordance with the AAIP.
What kind of maintenance records
are required to be kept?
Maintenance records required to be kept are
addressed in FAR 135.439. Records such as total time
service for airframe, engine and propeller/rotor, current
status of lifelimited parts, time since last required
overhauls, current inspection status of the aircraft and
current status of ADS are very similar to the record
keeping that's required for Part 91 operators under
FAR 91.416 maintenance records.
However, there are two notable differences between
the two rules. FAR 135.439 requires a list of current
major alterations and major repairs performed on the
aircraft. 91.416 only requires copies of FAA Form 337
for major alterations.
The second difference is operators must keep records
that prove they have complied with FAR 135.433, mainte
nance and preventive maintenance training program.
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A few suggestions for the aspiring
director of maintenance
By Bill O'Brien
Before accepting a position of director of maintenance
for any Part 135 operations, consider the following
suggestions:
First read the operator's manual to determine what
inspection program the aircraft are operated under.
Remember that an AAIP requires more work than a
straight annual inspection, and an AAIP is directly
wired to the PMI desk at the local FAA district office.
Check the aircraft and the aircraft's records for the
quality and quantity of maintenance performed. If
the records tell you one thing and the aircraft tells
you another, say thanks but no thanks to the offer.
Get a handle on the aircraft's lifelimited parts
picture. These parts are expensive to replace. If
several lifelimited parts are due to be replaced, and
the operator's profit picture is poor, it is a good
chance you will be laid off as soon as the parts are
required to be changed.
Avoid being director of maintenance for two or more
Part 135 operators even though they may be part
time and fly infrequently. When you split your
loyalty, you halve your level of performance.
Make sure that you are trained in the aircraft you
are signing off and can prove it. I assure you that
the FAA airworthiness inspector will ask for that
information when inspecting your operation.
Check the operator's credit rating with parts
distributors, and the FBO that sells it tiedown space
and fuel. If its credit history is poor, or the company
is on a cash only basis, it's pretty likely that the first
thing the operator will cut when things go bad is
maintenance. Not only would your aircraft's
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airworthiness suffer, but your own personal reputa-
tion will become entwined with the operators and be
considered the same by your peers.
Find out who must supply the technical library and
the revisions to keep it current. If you have to, you
might want to reconsider asking the operator for a
higher salary to absorb that cost. You might want to
ask the same questions about who pays for test
equipment, special tools and their calibration.
Get to know the operator's FAA principal mainte
nance inspector. Find out what they expect. If you're
an IA and a director of maintenance for an air taxi
operator, it's a sure bet that this person will pay you
frequent visits; possibly even show up on weekends
and nights just to check on the quality and quantity
of maintenance you're performing.
Before accepting the position, spend at least 40 hours
studying, not just reading the regulations. Talk to
other directors of maintenance, find out some of
their problems and discuss their solutions to those
problems. Also, talk to the FAA and get the local
inspector's insight into some of the more common
problems the industry is facing. Do a lot of research
upfront to avoid a lot of pain further down the line.
Finally, keep in mind that the position of Part 135
director of maintenance, be it for a small Cessna 172
operation or a fleet of 50+ aircraft, is a position
"required" by Federal Aviation Regulations. You're
not just an IA with a fancy title. It's serious business
requiring an individual to bring a professional
attitude and professional skills to the position.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 199
FAA Feedback
User fees for [As!
By Bill O'Brien
ell, it was bound to happen. The impact of the
W budget deficit has hit the FAA operating fund
with all the force of a 3,00@voltcattle prod.
Alter much leaping, shouting and rubbing of the bureau-
cratic tectonic plates, FAA headquarters has determined
that the following cosbsaving measures will be taken.
As of May 17, 1993 the FAA Regulatory Support Divi-
sion (AFSBOO) in Oklahoma will be charging "user fees"
for initial and recurrent "mandatory" standardization
seminars for: Designated Written Test Examiners, Desig-
nated Mechanic Examiners, Designated Airworthiness
Representatives, and Designated Alteration Stations.
And although the IA renewal seminar, sometimes
known as the FAA IA Road Show, is not a mandatory
seminar for 1.4 renewal, it too will also be subject to a
fee. The user fees d help defray the current cost of
putting on 110 FAA seminars nationwide.
Will it cost you?
How much? In addition to your own travel and lodg-
ing costs to attend a meeting, you will be initially asked
to pay $60 for each day you spend at an FAA Oklahoma
City standardization seminar. For example, a threeday
seminar for IA renewal and Designated Mechanic Exam-
iner refresher course will cost you $180.
The user fees are not fixed by any regulation, but are
FAA policy only. The fees may be adjusted up or down
every FAA budget quarter. The quarterly fee structure
will be based on the number of people attending the
seminar and FAA travel and operating costs. So it
stands to reason if the attendance stays up, the fee will
remain the same or drop. If the attendance drops, the
fee will increase.
To get information on the quarterly fee, the proce
dure for payment of the fee for the standardization and
IA seminars in your area call this toll free number (800)
862-4832. If you live in Oklahoma call (405) 954-8292.
Please remember that these fees are only for FAA
standardization and IA renewal courses given by the
folks from Oklahoma City. There is no FAA Washington
policy presently in place to charge fees for IA renewal
seminars given by the local FAA district office.
It's not hard to predict that if the budget picture gets
any worse, user fees will become part of the FAA culture
as it has with other foreign Civil Air Authorities.
If that happens it is possible that additional future
user fees will be considered for FAA District Office
services such as A&P certification, IA renewal, Form 337
field approval, ferry permits, Part 121, 135, 145 and 147
certification and inspections.
200 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
What are "public aircraft?"
Governmentawned aircraft are a strange breed of
flying machines that range from VIP transportation,
to water bombers. These aircraft are squeezed into a
narrow aviation regulatory realm that separates FAA-
certificated aircraft from military aircraft. This dark
and foreboding place is called "public aircraft."
It's a fact that a considerable number of FAA-
certificated technicians maintain several thousand public
aircraft for state and local governments. Very little has
been written on public-use aircraft. It's also a f a d that
most of the FAA-certificated technicians that work on
public aircraft are not quite sure whether they should
stand at attention, laugh or run when an FAA inspector
shows up at the hangar door. I hope the following infor-
mation will be helpful for those FAA-certificated techni-
cians who presently lack an appropriate response when
visited by an inspector from Hell FSDO.
Public aircraft explained
As defined by the Federal Aviation Act of 1958 and
amended in 1987 by Public Law 10@233,a public air-
craft means: "any aircraft used exclusively in the service
of any government or of any political subdivision thereof
including the government of any state, territory or
possession of the United States, or District of Columbia,
but does not include any governmenhwned aircraft
engaged in carrying persons or property for commercial
purposes.
For the purpose of this paragraph, "used exclusively
in the service o f means, for other than the federal gov-
ernment, and aircraft which is owned and operated by a
governmental entity for other than commercial purposes
or which is exclusively leased by such governmental
entity for not less than 90 continuous days.
The a d does require public aircraft to have a registra-
tion certificate in accordance with Part 47 and have an
"N" number marked in accordance with Part 45 but does
not require them to have an airworthiness certificate.
No airworthiness certificate means that the public-use
aircraft are not required to have maintenance, preventive
maintenance and alterations performed in accordance
with Parts 21, 43 and 91 of the FAR.
To put it another way, for public-use aircraft techni-
cians do not have to use FAA-approved parts on the
aircraft, the maintenance performed does not have to
meet any kind of standard or performance level, and the
annual inspection requirements are not binding.
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Obviously the vast majority of state and local govern-
ments maintain their aircraft in accordance with the
minimum standards set by the FARs while preserving
their public-use status.
What is the FAA authority concerning
public.use aircraft?
Not a whole lot! Even if the FAA catches certificated
technicians performing shoddy or substandard work on
public-use aircraft, the FAA cannot take enforcement
action against them for a violation of the FAR even if
they installed a bogus part, made a bad repair or signed
off an inspection on paper only.
Why not? Again, because no maintenance or inspec-
tion rule was broken; the applicable maintenance-related
rules in Parts 21, 43 and 91 do not apply. Those public-
use aircraft technicians who did poor work are home
free because the FAA has no legal authority to act when
there is no airworthiness certificate in the aircraft.
The bottom line is public-use aircraft, except for meet-
ing the registration and N number markings, along with
the technicians who work on them, are invisible to the
FAA for all maintenance-related regulatory and enforce-
ment purposes.
Now if a government entity wants to apply for an
FAA airworthiness certificate for their aircraft, they
may. Why should they? Believe it or not there are some
benefits for the state or local government to give up the
1920' s approach toward regulations and climb in bed
with the FAA.
Just by slapping an FAA airworthiness certificate in
their aircraft, state and local governments might expect
a break on insurance rates, and by having an IA sign off
of annual inspections and major repairs and alterations
instead of a noncertificated technician would raise the
credibility factor of the logbooks.
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Additional costs can be avoided if the aircraft, main-
tained under an airworthiness certificate, is put up for
sale. The FAA-maintained aircraft would avoid a very
long and expensive conformity inspection that is
required for public aircraft without airworthiness certifi-
cates. The purpose of the conformity inspection is to
ensure that the public aircraft now meets the aircraft,
engine, propeller (if applicable) type certificates, or
approved alterations and is in a condition for safe opera-
tion. Think of it as a super annual inspection that would
take almost twice as long to do as a regular inspection.
However a few government organizations, sporting
FAA airworthiness certificates on their aircraft, have
been known to hide behind the mantle of public use
when they find it convenient. They think that by just
removing or replacing the FAA airworthiness certificate
they can switch from standard/utility category to public
use or back again.
Putting the FAA airworthiness certificate in the
aircraft for insurance purposes or when it is up for sale,
and then taking it back out in order to add an unap-
proved alteration, or fly a trip when an annual inspec-
tion is due is living an aviation lie and a gross example
of betrayal of the public trust.
If a government entity wants to surrender its FAA
airworthiness certificate to the local FAA district office
and go only with the privileges associated with public
use, they can. There is no penalty.
However, once the FAA issues the airworthiness
certificate we except compliance. That "public-owned"
aircraft no longer falls under the privileges of a "public
use." The aircraft and the technicians that work on it
are subject to the same requirements under the Federal
Aviation Regulations as the technicians who work for the
airlines or the local FBO.
The Best at Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 201
FAA Feedback
Charles Taylor Master Mechanic award
By Bill O'Brien
I'm pleased to announce that Advisory Circular (AC)
65-26, the 'Charles Taylor Master Mechanic Awardn has
been signed, and copies of the AC and Award Certifi-
cates have been sent to all the Fhght Standards District
Offices (FSDO) as of May 25.
The Master Mechanic award was named after Charles
Taylor, the first aircraft mechanic. Taylor designed and
built the Wright Brothers engine and worked for the
Wrights for several years afterward maintaining the
Flyer. He remained in aviation maintenance for the rest
of his adult life.
The Charles Taylor Master Mechanic program will
provide the FAA and industry with the perfect vehicle to
recognize the 'quiet heros," the men and women whose
everyday hard work, lifetime of dedication and profes-
sionalism took us from recips to jets.
Eligibility
The Master Mechanic award will be granted to any
U.S. citizen who has spent 50 years in the aviation main-
tenance industry either in general aviation or air carrier
202 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
or both. Forty of those 50 years of experience must be
named as an FAAcertificated technician or repairman.
The remaining 10 years of experience could be earned
working in either the aviation industry or in military
aviation.
How to apply
First read Advisory Circular (AC) 65-26 carefully. It
will tell you that a quwied individual or a friend of a
q u a l e d individual may submit a notarized letter to the
local FAA district office requesting award consideration.
The selection of the award winners will be done by
a committee formed by the local FAA district office
airworthiness supervisor and at least two industry
representatives.
After the award is presented, the FAA district office
will then send the name of the award winner to the
Aircraft Maintenance Division where his or her name
will be inscribed in a Roll of Honor and displayed in the
FAA Headquarters here in Washington, D.C., for as long
as technicians work on aircraft. El JG/August 1993
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Changing the rules
By Bill O'Brien
A
common hangar lunchroom cliche states: "The
FAA is run by a group of hard-headed, myopic
bureaucrats. Once they make up their minds
about mabing a rule or setting policy, nothing short of
divine intervention is going to stop them. It's useless
to try."
Well, forget cliches. With just a little time spent
studying our rulemaking system, you will find out that if
a regulation is not working for you, you can petition the
FAA to change it, cancel it, exempt you from it or even
ask for a new regulation.
All this personal power is yours just by using another
regulation. FAR Part 11 General Rulemaking Proce
dures, Section 11.25 titled petitions for rule making or
exemptions, is the rule you want to read very carefully.
The rule is not very long or complicated and it will give
you the guidance that you need to request an exemption
from a rule or for rule makmg. First let's look at the
exemption process.
Exemptions
The only reason you want an exemption is to get
relief, either temporary or permanent, from the require
ments spelled out in a rule. Getting an exemption is con-
sidered real rule making, but its applicability is limited
to an individual or an organization. Remember, just b e
cause you ask the FAA politely for an exemption doesn't
always mean you will get it. In an exemption action,
the FAA must always ensure that safety is of primary
concern and analysis of your request focuses on your
justification that safety will not be adversely affected.
For the purpose of discussion let's pretend you are an
active A&P technician with 25 months of recent mainte
nancerelated scar tissue on your hands. You plan on
going overseas to work on U.S.-registered aircraft for a
missionary organization. The missionary organization
needs an IA to sign off the annual inspections on its
aircraft. You meet a l l of the job requirements save one.
You are not an JA.
Even worse, you are 11 months short of satisfying
Part 65.91 (CHI)Inspection Authorization which requires
an individual to be three years certificated as an A&P, in
order to be eligible to take the IA test. Do you roll over
and play dead and miss an opportunity to make a differ-
ence? No! You ask your government for an exemption.
First thing you do is get informed. You must read
FAR 11.25 very carefully, with the understanding that
each word in a rule carries great importance. You find
out that a letter of exemption must be submitted at least
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120 days before the proposed effective date of the exemp
tion (the day you need it), or to better your chances,
send in the request even earlier.
For the maintenance-oriented example we are using,
the exemption letter must be submitted in duplicate to
the Rules Docket (AGGlO), Federal Aviation Administra-
tion, 800 Independence Ave., Washington, D.C. 20581. If
your exemption was related to other rulemaking subject
areas, send it to one of the other FAA offices whose
address is identified in the rule.
The exemption letter
Your letter to the Rules Docket needs to address four
specific areas:
1. The rule from which exemption is sought, and the
nature and extent of the relief sought. In this case
you want to be exempt from FAR 65.91 (c)(l)
Inspection Authorization. And you want relief from
the threeyear ehgibility requirement.
2. Any additional information, points of view or
arguments available to support the action sought.
Using our example, you explain that the missionary
organization wants to keep its aircraft U.S. register-
ed. As an L4 you can ensure that annuals, major
repairs and major alterations are completed in
accordance with the FAR. Safety will be maintained
at a remote location, and without an IA, within a
year, all the missionary aircraft will be operating
illegally.
3. Next, mention all the reasons why the granting of the
request will be in the public's interest; that's how it
will benefit the public as a whole. In our example
exemption, you can mention the aircraft maintained
by you will bring in medical supplies, school books,
farm equipment, etc. Sell them on the fact that each
flight would bring in good will for America.
4. You must show why the exemption would not
adversely affect safety or show that, even with the
exemption, the level of safety will be equal to that
now provided by the existing rule. You can make the
FAA staff specialist feel warm and fuzzy by showing,
by your background, training and experience, that
you meet or exceed the performance requirements for
Ms. You can also supply letters of recommendation
from IA or FAA inspectors attesting to the fact that
you are competent and capable of performing the
duties of an IA.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine W3
FAA Feedback
Please be aware that if you don't request a waiver
from notice and comment, a summary of your petition
will be published in the Federal Register. The public is
normally allowed 20 days for comment on your petition.
To avoid a 2May delay on your petition decision, you
may request a waiver from publication, but be sure to
include good cause in your petition. Good cause could be
one of the reasons described in FAR 11.27 (jX3), for
example: why the action should not be delayed, or it was
identical to exemptions previously granted. However,
you're not limited to those reasons identified in the rule.
Although not required, send your request for exemption
by certified mail, signature requested, and include your
telephone number. Then you'll be sure that the FAA did
indeed get the exemption request. And if a question or
two arises, an FAA staff specialist can call you and get
some immediate answers.
In our IA scenario, after your exemption has been
recorded and docketed, your petition for exemption will
be forwarded to the Office of Rule Making (ARM).
ARM ensures that your request complies with FAR
11.25, processing and tracking of your request and is
assigned to the Office of Primary Interest.
The Office of Primary Interest is the office that's
responsible for writing that rule in the first place. For
FAR 65.91 that office is the Aircraft Maintenance
Division. Your petition will be reviewed by a division
staff specialist who's also an A&P.
The specialist coordinates with other FAA offices, if
necessary, and develops a document that either approves
or disapproves your exemption.
In our example, the FAA granted the petition of
exemption. However, the A&P still has to take the IA
test. Why? Because just paragraph (CHI)of FAR 65.91
was exempted. The requirement in paragraph (cX5) to
take the written test was not.
But does the system work?
In 1992 a little over 300 petitions for exemptions
were processed by the Office of Rule Making. Of that
amount, almost 200 were granted: the balance were
petitions either withdrawn or denied.
With the odds of getting a petition granted running
better than six chances in 10-it's worth trying.
Petition for rule making
Like the exemption process I explained earlier, your
quest for rule making starts in FAR 11.25. The process
in the initial stages is similar to the procedures for an
exemption. If your petition is not for airports, or an
airworthiness directive or medical related, it goes to the
Rules Docket and should address the following areas:
1. The text or substance of the rule change you propose.
2. Any information, view or arguments to support the
requested rule change.
aa4 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
3. The reasons why the rule change is in the public
interest, that's how it would benefit the public as
a whole.
4. A summary, suitable for publication in the Federal
Register, which includes a brief description of the
rule change and the pertinent reasons for instituting
rulemaking procedures.
For example, if you're petitioning for a new rule deal-
ing with Inspection Authorizations, you make sure that
your petition satisfies at least the four abovementioned
requirements. Then, send your petition for rule making
and a duplicate to the Rules Docket if it concerns main-
tenance rule making.
When your petition arrives at the FAA, the Rules
Docket, the office that records it, assigns a docket num-
ber and forwards your request to ARM. If you've com-
plied with all of the requirements of FAR, Section 11.25,
you'll receive an acknowledgment letter, and a summary
of your request will be published in the Federal Register.
The public is afforded at least 60 days to comment on
your petition unless the FAA shows good cause for
imposing a different time period. ARM will notify you
by letter of the Federal Register publication date.
You will be notified of the status of your request
every 120 days from the date the FAA published the
summary in the Federal Register until the FAA issues
a Notice of Proposed Rule Making (NPRM) on your
petition or denies the petition. You'll receive final word
on your petition by receiving a letter with the NPRM
enclosed-which either means you got your foot in the
rulemaking door, or you'll get a rejection letter.
Let's go with the idea that your petition for rule mak-
ing has merit, and the Office of Primary Interest decides
to initiate rule making. What happens next? First your
petition gets elevated to the Regulatory Review Board.
This board meets every six months and consists of repre
sentatives from offices with rulemaking responsibilities
as well as upper-level management.
This is the forum used to 1. review current regula-
tory projects and establish priorities based on available
resources, 2. resolve problems in the scheduling of
ongoing projects or in the substance of the changes
being considered, and 3. approves or disapproves new
regulatory projects. Item three is where your petition
must run the gauntlet with other petitions for space in
the rulemaking process. Right now there's a backlog
of petitions for rule making -145 to be exact. But if
the Regulatory Review Board agrees to accept your
proposal, smile, because now you have both feet in the
rulemaking door.
Your petition now has a team of experts assigned to
develop your NPRM. The team consists of a leader, who
usually is the original project manager, an economic
specialist, an attorney, a transportation regulations
analysis and other technical experts as needed. Once
the rulemaking document is developed, it's placed into
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formal coordination. It will be coordinated within the
rulemaking project team and upper-level management
before it's forwarded by the FAA Administrator to the
Office of the Secretary, Department of Transportation.
If everyone signs off on the document, your NPRM
becomes a rule. What I just described in a paragraph
takes approximately three years to complete.
Response to NPRMs
Another littleknown way to affect changes in rule
making involves the Notice of Proposed Rulemaking
(NPRM) process.
The FAA requests comments from the public when it
publishes an NPRM in the Federal Register.AU written
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comments are evaluated and seriously considered when
the final rule document is developed.
Certain r u l e m w efforts require holding public
meetings to gather information from the public on that
particular issue prior to publishing the NPRM. Oral
presentations are encouraged and welcomed at these
meetings, and your input is considered when the FAA
develops the NPRM. You should never miss an opportu-
nity to stand up in one of these public meetings and tell
the FAA how the cow eats the cabbage.
You, the lone professional, the technician on the
hangar floor, have the power to challenge the system.
You can participate in the rulemaking process. You can
make a difference. EQl May/June 1993
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 205
FAA Feedback

Questions for a bureaucrat

B y Bill O'Brien

L ast year I traveled around the country giving 56 Q. Whatistheprimaryaircraftruleandhowdoesit

FAA maintenance presentations on regulations affect ~ c i a n a ?
and policy. At each of these presentations, I gave The primary aircraft category is for new and used
all the technicians and repainnen present, a golden personal use aircraft that weigh less than 2,700 pounds,
opportunity to g d l an FAA Washington bureaucrat. have four seats or less, with an unpressurized cabin and
What follows are common questions asked at these a stall speed of 61 knots or less.
presentations and my answers. It's hoped that this new category will stimulate new
designs and manufacturing of new aircraft and reduce
Q. Why can't I use a field approval as approved the cost of maintenance by allowing the owner to per-
data for a similar indabtion on a like make and model form additional preventive items on the aircraft.
ainxaft, euch as for a camera mount instahtion on For new aircraft, the manufacturer can submit his
a helicopter? own airworthiness design standards instead of using
First let me explain that there are three kinds of FAA FAR 23. For older general aviation aircraft the transfer
field approvals: from standard category to primary category is accom-
1. Approval of repair or alteration data only. plished by the Supplemental Type Certificate (STC).
Primary category became effective on Dec. 31, 1992.
2. Approval based on inspection testing or If a primary category aircraft comes into your shop,
demonstration. handle it the same as if it was standard category. It still
3. Approval based on an alteration on multiple, like needs an annual inspection (ref FAR 91.409 (a)) one
make and model aircraft by the original modifier. calendar year from the time it was put in primary
category. If the aircraft is used for flight training (it's
For field approvals that "approve the data only,"
allowed), it still must receive a 10Ghour inspection in
check block 3 on a FAA Form 337. The statement the
accordance with FAR 91.409 (b).
FAA Airworthiness Inspector signs approves the data
During the inspection I would recommend double
only for the aircraft identified at the top of the Form
checking the owner's preventive maintenance records
337 for one time and one time only.
to see if it was maintained properly as per FAR 43.13
The same goes for the second kind of field approval.
performance rules.
This type is issued after it's proven that a major repair
Next, check and see if the operator was authorized to
or major alteration is airworthy after an inspection, tesb
perform the logged maintenance work by examining both
ing or demonstration. Check block 3 again. The FAA
Appendix A of Part 43 (preventive maintenance) and any
inspector's signature is for the major repair or major
additional preventive maintenance functions permitted
alteration for the aircraft identified at the top of the
under the primary category STC. A new advisory circu-
Form 337 only!
lar on primary aircraft with more maintenance informa-
In both situations the approved data/inspection/
tion will be out soon.
demonstration/repair granted in the original field
approval(s) always reverts back to being "acceptable
data." This is because the data called out in block 8 is
Q. Will I be in compliance with FAA regdatione if I
for a onetime approval only.
follow the manufacturer's current manual and irrspection
Now for the third kind of approval. If you're not the
guide for impedions?
For most aircraft you will be in compliance. The one
original modifier (the person who was granted the field
exception is if the aircraft has had an STC (applied for
approval for duplication on like aircraft), then the
after Jan. 28, 1981) performed on it. FAR 21.50 requires
original field approval again reverts back to "acceptable
that a manual for continuing airworthiness be supplied
data only."
along with the STC installation instructions. It also
You must apply for a field approval for the specific
requires that the STC holder update that manual
aircraft you are working on, even if the installation is
as needed.
only on the aircraft temporarily. (In the case of the cam-
era mount installation, it may only be for an afternoon.)
However, you are allowed to reference the original
"approved" multiple field approval Form 337 in block 8
as "acceptable data" that you want the FAA inspector
to approve.

206 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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So first, check out the STC to see if FAR 21.50
applies. If it does, check if the manual is kept with the
aircraft paperwork. Then, contact the STC holder or
the FAA and see if there are any changes and finally,
incorporate the STC maintenance instructions into the
manufacturer's inspection program.
Q. I keep hearing the terms "approveda and "accept
9
able data What's the difference?
Approved data is used only for major repairs and
major alterations (ref: Far 65.95, 121.379, 135.437 and
145.51). Approved data can be type design drawings,
Airworthiness Directives, Designated Engineering Repre
sentative data, Supplemental Type Certificate informa-
tion, parts manufacturer approval drawings, Designated
Alteration Station data, appliance manufacturer's data or
any other data that is stamped "FAA Approved." Accepb
able data is used for everything else (Ref: FAR 43.13).
Acceptable data can be manufacturer's service manuals
and bulletins, Advisory Circular 43.13-lA, 2A and Part
121 and Part 135 maintenance manuals. A list of accept-
able and approved data can be found in Advisory Circu-
lar (AC) 65.19 Inspection Authorization Study Guide.
Q. I h o w that a Form 337 mud be aent to the FAA
in 48 hours. If I have several major repaire or alteratione
to do on an aimraft ehould I wait until they are all done
before I s e n d k i n , or ehouldI sendthem in aeI
finish them?
Appendix B of Part 43 (3) says that you send a copy
to the FAA when you approve the major repair or major
alteration for return to service. The 48 hours starts
when you sign and date the approval for return to
service at the bottom of the Form 337. If you do not
sign the Form 337 even if the work has been performed,
then technically you did not approve the major repair or
major alteration for return to service.
However, if you wait until the last minute to take
care of all the paperwork, then you run the risk of
having the FAA district office reject and return one or
more of the Form 337s to you. This will usually happen
a week after the customer takes the aircraft.
If one or more of your Form 337s has been rejected,
you'll have two major problems on your hands: First,
your customer is now flying around in an "unairworthy"
aircraft. Second, you signed the aircraft off as airworthy
in the maintenance records when it technically is not.
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Q. What's all the ruckua I hear about ^penowtag
rule?" What are they used for?
First there's no such thing as a yellow tag rule. What
I think many people are referring to is a maintenance
release that's called out in Appendix B of Part 43.
The maintenance release is used by FAA Part 145
repair stations to record major repairs only! The
maintenance release takes the place of a Form 337 and
contains two parts:
Part 1: A signed, dated copy of the work order identi-
fying the product worked on, description of the work per-
formed and the approved data used to perform the work.
Part 2: An "approval for return to service" statement
similar to the one called out in Appendix B of Part 43
(4) with the date, name, address, certificate number of
the repair station and signed by a representative of the
repair station.
If you have a logbook with a lot of yellow tags for
major repairs, you only have half of the required paper-
work. With a yellow tag you have the approval for return
to service, but you don't have a description of the work
performed, as on a work order. A oneword description,
such as "rebuilt," "overhauled or "repaired," written on
the yellow tag doesn't constitute a description of the
work performed and does not take the place of the work
order. Nor, does a yellow tag list the approved data used
to perform the work.
I would try to get a copy of the work order from the
repair station as soon as possible. But keep in mind that
Part 145 repair stations are only required to keep
records for two years.
Q. Can't I use AC 43.181~4and 2A for approved data
for major repaire and major aheratiom?
Yes and no. Your statement is 50 percent correct.
Yes, you are allowed to use AC 43.13-1A for approved
data for repairs only if: the data found within the AC
is appropriate to the product being repaired, applicable
to the repair and not contrary to the manufacturer's
instructions.
If you find that all three conditions are met, then you
do not have to get a field approval. This authority to use
acceptable data in AC 43.13-lA as approved data is found
on the first page of change 3 to the AC.
Here's a bureaucratic heads up-not a l l the data in
AC 43.13-lA can be approved by you. Some repairs, like
engine mounts, axle assemblies and others cannot be
repaired a t all, or may require FAA approval.
AC 43.13-2A is not permitted to be used for approved
data for alterations. You must get all AC 43.13-2A accepb
able data field approved by the FAA. March/April1993
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 207
F A Feedback
Ferry permits
By Bill 0'Brien
M
any technicians at fixed base operations or
repair stations regard ferry permits with a
lovehate relationship. They love the idea of
'legally" pawning off the hangar queen to another fixed
base operator so it can eat up the competition's valuable
hangar space, but they hate the hassle of dealing with
the FAA Fhght Standards District Office (FSDO) to
process the ferry permit paperwork.
To be perfectly honest, the average FAA airworthi-
ness inspector, while not exhibiting any visible emotional
repugnance toward the actual issuing of ferry permits,
isn't exactly wildeyed about signing hisher name
to one.
How would you like to bet your career and your
reputation by signing your name to a ferry permit?
Especially if the ferry permit is for an airplane that in
the last four months has only soiled the hangar floor
with oil and hydraulic fluid droppings and answers with
a "woof," when you call out "Here Spot!"
The legal terminology for a ferry permit is called a
special flight permit. The local FSDO may issue one for
an aircraft that may not currently meet all the applicable
airworthiness requirements but is capable of safe flight.
Reading that last statement may give you the impres-
sion that the local FSDO can alter the definition of air-
worthy as found on the standard airworthiness certifi-
cate. In a way, the FSDO does just that, legally, by
replacing the aircraft's standard airworthiness ceMicate
with a "special" airworthiness certificate that provides
the aircraft with an equivalent level of safety.
Special airworthiness certificates
Under FAR 21, Subpart H, the FAA can issue a
special airworthiness certificate for restricted, limited,
provisional, experimental, primary category aircraft and
special flight permits. Aircraft that are issued special
airworthiness ceMicates don't have all the operating
privileges of aircraft with standard airworthiness
certificates.
The reason is that any aircraft granted a special
airworthiness cefiicate is also issued specific operating
limitations. These operating limitations can severely
restrict all or some of the aircraft's range, payload,
performance and operating environment to ensure safety
of flight. These FAA restrictions are what provide the
aircraft with an "equivalent level of safety" as an air-
craft with a standard airworthiness cefiicate for the
ferry flight.
208 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Special flight permits
The legal basis for issuing special flight permits is
Federal Aviation Regulation (FAR) Section 21.197. S p e
cial fhght permits are issued for the following reasons:
1. To fly an aircraft to another base of operations for
maintenance or storage.
2. Delivering or exporting the aircraft.
3. Production flight testing.
4. Evacuate an aircraft from the path of impending
danger such as fire, flood or hurricane.
5. Conducting customer demonstration flights in new
production aircraft that have satisfactudy completed
production flight tests.
6. Flights conducted in excess of the aircraft's maxi-
mum certificated takeoff weight for flight beyond the
normal range, such as over water or over land areas
where adequate landing facilities or appropriate fuel
is not available. Added weight may be in the form of
fuel, fuel tanks and navigational equipment.
To reduce the paperwork hassle for air carriers and
the FAA, FAR 21.197 can grant operators of 121, 127
and 135 aircraft that operate under a continuous airwor-
thiness maintenance program, a special flight permit
with a continuing authorization.
This is in reality an "open" special flight permit that
allows the air carrier, without asking the FAA for a new
special flight permit each time, to move aircraft that
may not meet applicable airworthiness requirements.
The aircraft must be ferried under conditions and limita-
tions set forth in the ceMicate holder's operations
specifications.
The ferry permit paperwork drill
Let's look at a typical need for a special flight permit.
An aircraft owner comes to you and says his aircraft is
out of annual and an airworthiness directive is due.
While you're working up a price quote for the annual
and AD compliance, he's using your phone to get price
quotes from other maintenance shops. He finds another
shop w i h g to do the work for a song, but it's located at
another airport 50+ miles away. You tell him he needs a
special flight permit to ferry the aircraft to the other
airport because the aircraft no longer meets the FAR.
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He says, "Get me one." Before applying at the local
FSDO for a special airworthiness ceriScate for the
purpose of a special flight permit, you should take care
of a few items first:
Inform the owner that while there is no cost for the
FAA special airworthiness ceflicate, special flight
permit, there will be a cost for your inspection,
records search and sign off. Give him a price quote
for services in writing. Also tell him that unless there
is a special circumstance, issuing a ferry permit takes
an average of five to 10 working days.
Inspect the aircraft records. Make sure there are no
open ADS that ban further flight before the AD has
been complied with.
Make sure that the aircraft is properly registered. If
it's not properly registered, even the FAA administra-
tor cannot issue an airworthiness certificate.
Call the local FAA airworthiness inspector, explain
the problem, and ask what kind of inspection would
be required.
Either you or the FAA inspector can fill out FAA
Form 8130-6application for airworthiness certificate.
Check block B requesting a special airworthiness
certificate, and the appropriate blocks relating to
special flight permits. On the reverse side you must
fill out Section VII special permit purposes. However,
you alone will have the privilege to sign block F
certification.
You better read that certification on the back of FAA
Form 8130-6 very carefully because your signature, not
the FAA inspector, certifies that the aircraft has been
inspected and is airworthy for the flight described!
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Why? In this case the
FAA has no airworthiness
standards to make an
airworthiness judgment.
Just by asking the FAA
r for a special flight permit you al-
the aircraft is airworthy for the intended flight. But
remember, with your signature you'll not only get the
special flight permit but the responsibility for the
aircraft's airworthiness is automatically transferred
The inspector now has two duties. First, the inspector
must determine what inspections and tests will be
required to ensure a safe flight. These inspections
must be signed off by a technician, in the aircraft's
maintenance records prior to the ferry fhght. Second,
the inspector must set the operating limitations for
the flight.
Some of the operating limitations an FAA inspector
must consider are:
Manufacturer's, technical or Airworthiness Directive
data the aircraft must meet for the flight.
Necessary operational equipment required for safe
flight.
Special crew or pilot qualifications.
Aircraft weight and center of gravity limitations.
Fuel and fuel distribution limits.
Flight envelope restrictions.
Limits on flight equipment to be used such as
autopilots, avionics, landing gear, etc.
Meteorological conditions to avoid.
Airspeed and route of flight restrictions.
Notification and communications procedures with
both the departure airport tower and the arrival
airport tower to inform them that they are working
a nonstandard aircraft.
Keep in mind that you must receive any other foreign
country's permission to overfly their country on a
ferry flight. This is because you are operating in their
airspace, and the aircraft doesn't comply with the
International Airworthiness Standards of Annex 8 to the
convention on International Civil Aviation. There's no
way you could plead ignorance to this major requirement
because it's clearly spelled out on the back of the special
airworthiness certificate.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine P09
FAA Feedback
What are you issued?
You'll receive a pink special airworthiness certXcate
and operating limitations. In addition, both documents
have an expiration date. It would be a good idea to get
the widest time window possible in order to avoid
making a second application for another special flght
permit because of inspection delays or the weather did
not cooperate. Finally, before flight, the inspections must
be signed off, a l l operating limitations must be satisfied,
2lO The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
and the special airworthiness ceMicate must be placed
in the aircraft.
Although not required, give the FAA a call when the
aircraft completes the ferry flight. Every FAA inspector
that I know would sure appreciate a phone call from you,
giving the word that "Spot" made it to his new home
without dirtying up the countryside.
JanuagdFebruasy 1993
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The bottom line
Logbook entries
By Bill O'Brien
ou fixed the problem, the airplane is ready for
the trip. You sit down at your desk and open the
logbooks. As you organize the paperwork, the
same thought goes through your mind every time you do
this chore. "Am I signing my life away? If something
goes wrong, am I going to get in trouble with the feds?
What exactly am I responsible for when I sign a mainte
nance record or logbook?"
To ease your fears let's take a look at requirements
for general aviation maintenance and inspection record
entries and the responsibility you take on when you put
your signature on the bottom line.
What kind of record entries can
technicians make?
All ceMicated and authorized maintenance person-
nel can make just two kinds of record entries: one
for maintenance performed and one for inspections
completed.
Required maintenance record information
The rule that covers maintenance sign-offs for
aircraft operated under Part 91 is FAR 43.9. This
important rule sets the requirements for the recording
of maintenance, preventive maintenance, rebuilding and
alterations. It states that on the completion of the work,
you must make out a maintenance record that has at
least the following information:
1. A description of, or reference to, acceptable data used
to perform the work.
2. The date you finished the work.
3. Name of the person who performed the work, if other
than the person who approved the work for return
to service.
4. Name, ceHicate number, kind of certificate and
signature of the person approving the work for
return to service.
Even if a ceMicated person doesn't actually write
in the aircraft's log that the component worked on is
*approved for return to service," FAR 43.9 (4) says when
the maintenance entry is signed, that person's signature
constitutes the "approval for return to service."
Notice that the rule doesn't require that "total time"
be included in a maintenance entry like it does for an
inspection entry. So you won't get in trouble if you don't
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include it in your maintenance entry. However, recording
the total time is an excellent way for monitoring mainte
nance trends, and I encourage the practice.
What am I responsible for when I
sign off maintenance?
When you sign your name to the maintenance record
you're telling the world and the FAA two things. First,
the aircraft or component that you performed mainte
nance on is airworthy. Second, by accurately describing
the part or component that you worked on, you set the
limits on the responsibility that you're willing to accept.
For example: When a technician signs off a repair to
a starter generator and its installation on an engine,
he or she is accepting the responsibility for the work
performed. But with the same entry, the technician is
also telling the FAA that they are responsible only for
the airworthiness of the repair and the installation of
that component-nothing more. If the engine or another
engine component fails, the technician would not be
held responsible.
What do you mean by the term airworthy?
Airworthy means that the aircraft or component
thereof meets its type design and is in a condition for
safe operation. This definition is found on a Standard
Airworthiness Certificate and in a law called The Federal
Aviation Act of 1958.
How long am I responsible for maintenance
that l perform?
You are responsible for that maintenance until that
part is again worked on, replaced, damaged in service,
until it has exceeded its life limit or until the next
required inspection during which an airworthiness
determination is made.
How can I avoid a visit from the FAA?
1. Do all work in accordance with FAR 43.13
Performance Rules.
2. Use current acceptable data for all maintenance
except major repairs and major alterations.
3. Use current approved data for all major repairs and
major alterations.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 211
FAA Feedback
nance unless the approved or acceptable data is in front
of you in writing. Never perform maintenance based on
a verbal OK, even if it's from your company's top engi-
neer or factory rep. There are some maintenance organi-
zations where this wink-and-a-handshake way of doing
business has been going on for so long that everyone on
the hangar floor thinks that a verbal OK is a legal proce
dure. In reality, though, it's a violation of FAR 43.13 (a)
Performance Rules.
To illustrate my point, let's explore how performing
maintenance on a verbal OK can potentially affect your
career: During a Gcheck, you find that the right aileron
is delaminating and determine the damage exceeds the
maintenance manual limits. The airplane has to meet a
gate time so your boss makes a quick call and gets a ver-
bal OK to exceed the repair limits from the company's
engineering rep.
The boss then tells you that an OK was given by
engineering to extend the limits and make the repair.
You repair the aileron, sign the logs, and the airplane
makes the gate time. An in-flight aileron separation s u b
sequently causes an uncontrollable roll vector, and the
plane goes down. You know the FAA will pay you a visit.
It's no surprise that you're not kept waiting very long.
The first thing the FAA inspector asks you for is
the data you used to make the repair. With nothing to
show him, I doubt the inspector will be impressed with
your explanation that the data came courtesy of the
AT&T operator?
Bottom line-if you're betting your career on the
hope that the person responsible for the verbal OK will
stand up and take the fall and save you from the wrath
of the federal government, your odds aren't very good.
To avoid this, make sure all maintenance data you
use is in writing. And make sure the data qualifies as
either acceptable or approved.
212 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technolo~yMagazine
aircraft or component I worked on
and doesn't sign the logbook?
This is a sad and recurrent problem I've found in
both general aviation and the air carrier maintenance
community. It's no secret that owners, and "shade tree
mechanics" are forever "fixing" things on aircraft that
you previously worked on, but never a hint of their
sloppy maintenance appears in the logbooks.
Regardless, the FAA, following standard investigative
procedures after an accident or incident, will always
focus on the technician who last signed the logbook.
Unless the technician can prove that someone else
worked on the aircraft after it left his or her care, the
technician with the last entry is held responsible.
I know-the legal practice of delegating blame to the
last guy who signed the maintenance records is biased
and unfair. But until people everywhere are honorable,
the FAA is left without many choices.
What am I responsible for when I
sign off an inspection?
Depending on the type of inspection you perform,
your responsibility for airworthiness can be for indi-
vidual parts, or for the entire aircraft.
For example, when you put your signature to the
following logbook entry: "I cerlxfy that this aircraft was
inspected in accordance with an annual/lO@hour inspec-
tion and determined t o be in an airworthy condition,"
you take responsibility for the airworthiness of the entire
aircraft, engines, propellers and component parts. You
take responsibility for all the Airworthiness Directives
that must be complied with, d repairs and alterations,
both major and minor, that were performed from the
time the aircraft was manufactured, whether the date
was six months ago or 60 years ago.
This responsibility, however, lasts only up to the t h e
the ink on your signature dries. The FAA can't hold you
responsible for the continuing airworthiness of the
aircraft once it leaves your control.
The only way you will be held responsible for the
airworthiness of the aircraft after the inspection, is if
the FAA can prove the aircraft was not airworthy when
you signed off the inspection. For example, you missed
an AD or failed to repair a structural problem.
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Required inspection record information
FAR 43.11 is the rule that sets the requirements for in-
spections performed under Part 91, Part 125 and aircraft
that meet Part 135 Sections 135.411(a)(l) and 135.419.
For aircraft inspected under Part 43, the following items
must be included in all inspections entries:
1. The type of inspection and a brief description of the
extent of the inspection.
Tips on protecting your logbook entries
Until we come up with better ideas, here are three
suggestions that might be helpful in avoiding falling into
the logbook ambush set by individuals of questionable
character.
1. If you have reason to suspect that the part or compo-
nent will be tampered with later, take a photograph
of the installation. A photo is excellent proof that
someone tampered with the component, especially
when it shows the difference between the before and
after routing of fuel or electrical harness.
2. Paint slippage marks on the component's mounting
bolts with enamel nail polish. The hard enamel cracks
easily when disturbed and the bottle even comes with
its own brush. If the slippage marks are cracked or
gone altogether, it will prove that someone else
worked on the component after you.
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2. Date of the inspection.
3. Total time in service.
4. Signature of the person approving or disapproving
the approval for return to service of the aircraft or
component part thereof.
3. Have another pair of eyes look at your work and
initial the work order.
4. Keep duplicate copies of all work orders, receipts for
parts and supplies for at least two years. Please don't
forget to note the markings or photographs you
made in both the aircraft maintenance records and
your own. Remember good record entries can help
you; poor record entries can hurt you.
If you have any ideas on how to prevent honest
technicians from being falsely accused, please call me
at (202) 267-9312 or write me C/O FAA, AFS360, 800
Independence Ave. S.W., Washington, D.C. 20591.
NovembedDecember 1992
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 213
FAA Feedback
FAA Aviation Maintenance
Technician Awards
By Bill O'Brien
S
tarting Od. 1, 1992, the Federal Aviation Adminis-
tration (FAA) will recognize technicians with a
nationwide awards program. The program is titled
Aviation Maintenance Technician Awards. An FAA advi-
sory circular will be available in October and will explain
the program in detail. But here is how it will work.
Overview
The Aviation Technician Awards Program is a twe
part recognition program for both maintenance techni-
cians and their employers. It was developed jointly by
industry and the FAA.
Maintenance technicians will be recognized by the
FAA for achieving hlgher levels of professionalism
through training. Each award is based on the number of
training hours acquired in industry courses, OJT training
they have conducted and collegelevel management
training completed.
Employers will be recognized by the FAA based on
the percentage of their employees who have earned FAA
Aviation Maintenance Technician Awards.
Awards
There are a total of 10 awards. Five awards for
aviation technicians and five awards for employers. Both
sets of awards are divided into phases or groups that
are identified as Bronze, Silver, Gold, Ruby and
Diamond. The Bronze award is the easiest to achieve
and the Diamond award the most difficult. Breaking the
awards into phases will make it easier for the FAA to
manage, and for industry to recognize what level of
training has been earned.
Each eligible technician will be awarded Certificates
of Training and an appropriate award tie tack/lapel pin.
Eligible employers will receive an appropriate Certificate
of Excellence.
A very important feature is included in this program;
it's called flexibility. A technician or the employer isn't
locked into a rigid system where they must pass through
succeedingly difficult award phases to earn the highest
award. Any eligible technician or employer who satisfies
the requirements for the Diamond award within the
upcoming calendar year will be issued that award.
The dated certificates of training are intended for
display in your home or at work. However, once the pin
is received, it should only be worn if you continue to
remain current. Then it should be attached to the award
214 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
certificate. Why? The lapel pin/tie tacks aren't dated,
and it just wouldn't be right to wear an award based on
"current level" of training and professionalism, when you
haven't received additional training.
It should be stressed that you shouldn't quit once you
receive the Diamond award. Wearing a tie tackAape1 pin
that's current for a given year shows the rest of the
industry that you are a professional and you intend to
remain professional.
Calendar year
The awards program "calendar year" will run from
Oct. 1 to Sept. 30 of each year. The reason behind this
unconventional calendar year is because aligning the
awards program with the government's fiscal year makes
the budgeting and management of the awards program
less complicated.
Eligibility
The following aviation technicians are eligible:
Certified airframe or powerplant mechanics
Part 145 certified repair persons
Part 147 aviation maintenance technicians school
instructors
Part 147 school students who maintain an overall "C"
average or better
Uncertified maintenance technicians employed full
time by Part 91, 121, 135 and 145 operators who
actively maintain aircraft or components
Employers who are in the full-time business of
aviation maintenance and have at least five full-time
aviation technicians on the payroll
Already I can hear the complaints from the hangar
lunchroom. Why recognize uncertified people? And why
give awards to employers?
First, it's our hope that by recognizing the efforts
of uncertified technicians and students who obtain
additional training on their own or with their employers'
help, we as an industry will encourage these individuals
to become certified.
Second, by recognizing the technician's employer, we
acknowledge that they've invested time, money and
resources into training, and have suffered the loss of
our productivity while we were in the classroom.
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Applying for an award
Technician
At any time during the calendar year any eligible
individual can apply either in person or by letter at the
local FAA Flight Standards District Office (FSDO) for an
award. Three items are required. First the individual
must show proof that he or she is eligible. Acceptable
proof is:
1. An FAA mechanic or repair person ceflicate
2. Statement from an FAA-approved Part 147 school
certifykg that the student is maintaining at least
a C average
3. Statement from an FAA-approved Part 147 school
certifyhg that the individual is an instructor at
that school
4. Statement from a Part 91, 121, 135 or Part 145
operator cerkfying that the individual is employed
full time, by that operator, maintaining aircraft or
related components
The second required item is a short letter to the FAA
local FSDO describing the award requested. The letter
should state where the training was received, who did
the training, what training was received, how long the
training was (in hours) and the date of the training. It
must be signed and dated.
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The third required item is some form of proof that
the training was received. Xerox copies of the certificates
of training, attendance or graduation are acceptable
as long as they collaborate the information supplied in
the letter.
Employer
At any time during the calendar year an eligible
employer can apply to the local FSDO for an award by
letter. The employer's letter should state the award
requested and include:
1. Employee is working full time on aircraft or
component parts
2. Total number of technicians working full time (at
least five)
3. Xerox copies of employee's FAA Certificates
of Training
Both the technician and employer should allow
at least 30 days for the FAA FSDO to process the
award request.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 215
FAA Feedback
Technician award requirements
Phase1, Bronze:
Four hours of FAA or industry training. (Note: Seminars
of at least one hour can be added together to meet the
four-hour requirement.)
Phase 2, S a m
Attend one FAA or industry maintenance seminar.
Satisfactory completion of eight hours of FAA or
industry training.
Phase 3, &Id:
Attend one FAA or industry maintenance seminar.
Satisfactory completion of a threeday FAA or industry
training.
Employer award requirements
When a certain percentage of the total number of main-
tenance employees in an organization has received any
one of the five FAA aviation technician awards within
the "calendar year," that employer is eligible for one of
the five "Certificates of Excellence."
Certificate of Excellence percentage table:
Phase 1, Brow:
Requires 5 percent of the work force
Phase 2, Sihrer:
Requires 10 percent of the work force
Zl6 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Phase 4, Ruby:
Attend one FAA or industry maintenance seminar.
Satisfactory completion of a fiveday FAA or industry
training, or, teach a threeday (15hour) maintenance
course on aircraft systems.
PhaBe 5, Diamond:
Attend one FAA or industry maintenance seminar.
Satisfadory completion of a fiveday FAA or industry
training, teach a threeday (15hour) maintenance course
on aircraft systems, or satisfactorily complete a college-
level course in either management or technical subjects.
phaee 3, &Id:
Requires 15 percent of the work force
Phase 4, Ruby
Requires 20 percent of the work force
Phase 5, Diamond:
Requires 25 percent of the work force
We regret that we cannot allow you to "grandfather"
training you received prior to Oct. 1, 1992 and use that
training toward an award. The awards program will only
recognize training you received after Oct. 1, 1992.
September/October 1992
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Are you prepared for the FAA?
Here's a system to aid preparation and follow-through
when dealing with FAA inspections
By Bill 0'Brien
E
very year 4,800 plus Part 145 repair stations
are inspected at least once by the local Flight
Standards District Office (FSDO). Some repair
stations are inspected more often by the local FSDO
because of their size, complexity or perhaps a shaky level
of past performance.
I would like now to offer you a system to lower your
anxiety level about FAA inspections. The system is a
self-audit test that should take you a couple hours to
complete. The test is composed of questions that are
similar to the ones asked every day by the FAA inspec-
tors performing repair station inspections worldwide.
Our self-audit is broken down into six areas of
concern: the management team, ceflicate and ratings,
your inspection manual, personnel, record keeping and
your facility.
By the way, if you want this self-audit to work, you
have to treat it like the real thing.
FAA repair station-self-audit
Questions For Your Management Team:
1. Who has overall responsibility for the repair station?
2. Does that person know his or her duties and
responsibilities?
3. Is that person qualified? Can you prove it?
4. Does that person know he or she is qualified?
Was anything signed accepting that responsibility?
5. Can that person tell me how the repair station
inspection system is run?
Of the first five questions, No. 5 is the most impor-
tant. If the manager can't describe the repair station
inspection system, or worse yet, the system described
is different than what the manual calls out, then I have
some serious doubts to the accuracy of the answers to
questions No. 1 through No. 4. This is not a suspicious
beginning.
Questions on your certificate and ratings:
1. What ratings do you have? Are you doing work other
than what you are rated for?
2. Where are your FAA repair station ceMicate and
operation specifications documentation displayed?
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3. Do you still have all the equipment that you had
when you were ceMied? Is it serviceable?
4. Who is responsible for work that's subcontracted out?
Are subcontractors identified? Where? Are they
repair stations?
It's a mistake to think that a Part 145 certificate
hanging in the lobby with a list of ratings is for display
purposes only. It also lisb the repair station's privileges
and limitations. The certificate is very similar to the
certificate that an A&P holds.
To abuse the ratings and sign off more than what the
repair station was inspected and certified for is a breach
of contract between the repair station and FAA. It would
be the same as an A&P signing off an annual inspection.
The federal government doesn't take a warm and fuzzy
attitude toward either kind of performance from the
folks they certify.
Questions about your inspection
procedures manual:
1. Who has copies of the inspection procedures manual?
2. Is it accessible to inspection and maintenance
personnel?
3. Who is responsible for revisions to the manual?
How is this accomplished?
4. Are the latest revisions inserted in all the manuals,
including the ones sent to the FAA?
5. Does the inspection procedures manual accurately
reflect how the repair station operates? This includes
referencing the latest specifications or procedures
presently being used on the floor.
Correct answers to these five questions are vital
because the inspection procedures manual is your repair
station's bible. It's your show-and-tell book that's
supposed to describe who you are, what you do and
how you do it. It should be written in such a way that
anyone, after reading the manual, should have a clear
understanding of how you operate.
If you can't answer the five inspection procedures
manual questions with a high degree of confidence,
doubts are raised. At this point I'd have to question you
on how you're complying with FAA regulations when
you have no controls or safeguards built into your orga-
nization to ensure safety.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 217
FAA Feedback
To be honest, I would subjectively appraise your
repair station as one that's less than professionally run
because I've found that your daily operational inspection
and repair procedures are being done off-the-cuff.
Personnel questions
1. How many repair station personnel do you have?
Do you have a list of who they are and what
they can do?
2. Do you have enough people for the amount of
work performed?
3. Are they trained both initially and on a recurrent
basis?
4. How do you record the land and amount of employee
training? Please show me a sample of an employee
training record.
5. (Picking an employee at random) How does the repair
station inspection system work?
6. How many FAA certified personnel do you have?
Who is authorized to sign off work?
Do you have sifl~cantly less employees now than
when you were certified and do you still perform the
same amount of work? If so, why? Are your remaining
employees burdened with many job functions to make up
for missing personnel? To find the answers I would first
check your overtime records. Has there been a constant,
long-term requirement to pay overtime? If so, then this
is a good indication that you don't have enough people to
do the work.
Next, I would look at your warranty or rework
records and if your rework is above 5 percent, it's a
good indicator that your people are improperly trained,
fatigued or both. These two causes are perhaps the
main reasons why you have a large percentage of work
to do over.
Question No. 5 is the same question I asked manage
ment earlier. If I receive the wrong answer or just a
shrug from the employee on the floor, this would really
start alarm bells ringing. If the person doing the work
on the floor has no idea what and how the system is
supposed to work, who does?
Questions about your record keeping
1. Are the records used on the floor the same as those
in the inspection procedures manual?
2. May I see a record of maintenance that you
performed two years ago?
3. Please show me a copy of your maintenance release
for a major repair or major alteration.
218 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
4. Who is approved to sign the maintenance release:
Where is that information found?
5. How is acceptable data and approved data identified
on your maintenance records?
6. Is "total time" reflected on all inspection records?
(ref. 43.11)
7. How are Part 121 and Part 135 maintenance records
processed? Where are these procedures found? How
are required inspection items handled?
8. How are maintenance records for work performed
by subcontractors handled? Where are these prom
dures found?
9. How are malfunction and defect reports submitted?
Shoddy record keeping is the "silent scream" that will
alert me to major organizational problems within your
repair station. It tells me that there's little or no cornmu-
nication between your quality control, maintenance
department and parts department.
No communication means no coordination between
departments. This forewarns me that no focal point for
record responsibility exists in your organization, which
in turn is one of the major causes for incomplete, or
poor record keeping.
Questions about your facility
1. Is your current facility identified in your manual'!
2. Is all your required equipment serviceable?
3. Is there proper lighting and heat in the shop area?
4. Are the maintenance library, AD and Service
Bulletins eurrent?
5. Who is responsible for keeping the library current?
6. Are your subcontractor's libraries current? Can
you prove it?
7. Are all tools and special equipment properly
calibrated?
8. What procedures are used in the event that a
calibrated tool is abused?
9. If so, where can I find this information?
10. Who is responsible for the facility condition?
11. Is the facility large enough to do the work
performed?
12. Are conflicting work functions (i.e., painting,
buildup) segregated?
13. How are lifelimited parts handled?
14. How do you separate serviceable from unserviceable
components?
15. Who is responsible for ensuring that all consumable
(gaskets, seals, hoses, et..) have not past the cure or
drop dead date?
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 FAA Feedback

Your facility is your home away from home. If it's
dirty, cramped and more like a dungeon than a place to
work, my first impression is that the work performed
there will be less than satisfactory, and safety is
compromised.
If you really spent some time with this self-audit, the
FAA shouldn't appear so frightening to you. For you've
audited the repair station yourself. You know what needs
to be fixed and what can be left alone.
The self-audit test should be done once a week by all
department heads. This self-audit should be improved
upon and personalized by adding specific areas of
concern relative to your own repair station until it
becomes part of your repair station management culture.
July/August 1992

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 219

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FAA Feedback
Human lives
A good reason for improved communication
By Bill O'Brien
ommunication is an issue that's fast becoming a
C sigruficant safety problem. Communication, that
is, between you the mechanic and the Federal
Aviation Administration. In a time of aging aircraft
problems, corrosion and bogus parts, the safety-related
problem of communication can be simply stated: If we
don't talk, people die.
There are two reasons of equal importance for the
current state of poor communications. The first reason,
is your fault. Many technicians, young and old, believe
in a pre1940 aviation mind-set that assumes there's a
super bureaucrat in FAA headquarters that's somehow
wired to the pulse of U.S. aviation.
A problem that results from this misconception is
that technicians often find problems with aircraft that
they consider so apparent that they reason, someone,
somewhere, somehow surely told the feds. So why bother
to tell the FAA something that they already know and
look absurd in the process?
The second reason for poor communication is the
FAA's fault. Many technicians remember the zero toler-
ance enforcement campaigns the FAA ran in the late
'80s. We found a lot of safety-related problems as a
result of this campaign, but, in solving those problems
we took the shorbterm punitive approach.
For that approach, the administration paid a dear
price because it cost us the trust of the people we
work for.
Admiral Busey, our former FAA Administrator,
turned our company mind-set around in March '90 with
a more measured, pro-industry approach to enforcement.
However, bad memories of those '80s years run deep,
and even today, good people are still afraid to talk to us.
Because of these two reasons, we in D.C. get few
letters on safety matters and even fewer calls from the
people we work for.
What's needed? A simple piece of paper, a phone call,
a fax, a heads up, an eyeball-twyebd talk when you see
something wrong, no matter how small. Talk to us. Good
communications will give us the most precious of all
commodities-time. Time, so we won't have to overreact.
Time to save lives.
220 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
How to communicate
Malfunction and Defects Reports FAA Form 80104 or
"M&Dn and its close relative, Service Difficulties Reports
(nicknamed SDR) that are used by the air carriers have
been used to iden* problems since airplanes switched
from skids to wheels.
Air carriers and repair stations are required by the
rules to send in M&D/SDRs to the FAA when they find
a problem. Air carriers are pretty good at sending in
reports. However, priority and attention that repair
stations give to the M&D/SDR program leave much to
be desired. In 1991 the FAA received just over 5,000
safety reports from repair stations. We have just over
5,000 repair stations. That's an average of one M&D/
SDR per repair station. Compliance with the rule only-
no real interest in safety is indicated here.
Technicians and IAs are not required to send in
M&Ds, so the majority don't. In a way, I don't blame
them. You fill out an M&D/SDR form and send it in,
and for a l l intents and purposes it disappears down a
bureaucratic black hole where it's never seen or heard
from again.
Tn reality all the M&D/SDRs go to the AVN-140
branch in Oklahoma City. The six inspectors there
screen each report. The ones that are definite safety
problems involving such things as in-flight structural
problems or engine failures, get taken care of right away.
Then, all the M&D/SDRs are entered by make, model
and ATA codes into a computer the size of a small
hangar. This information then becomes a safety data
base for use by both FAA engineering and the local FAA
airworthiness safety inspector. Both can query the
computer to see if there is any sifllcant failure trends
developing on specific aircraft or components. It's the
FAA's crystal ball.
The good thing about this program is that it pro-
duces most of the ADS issued and ultimately saves lives
and property. The bad news is you, the author, never
know that your particular report saved a life or two.
OK, you sent in your M&D/SDR, but you really .
believe that the safety problem you found deserves a
little more attention both from the FAA and industry.
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Here's what to do. Send in a copy of your M&D/SDR,
supporting documentation, drawings and even p h o b
graphs to Aviation Standards National Field Office,
AVN-140, P.O. 25082, Oklahoma City, OK 73125, atkn-
tion Mr. Jim McLean.
He's the man who puts out AC 43-16 Aviation Alerts
every month. Because of the limited amount of space in
the Alerts, McLean reserves the right to publish M&D/
SDRs that have the greatest impact on safety in the
field. If your report is published in the Alerts you can
be assured that your "heads up" will reach 35,000 IAs,
repair stations and air carriers worldwide.
You're still not satisfied? You really believe that this
safety issue is real important and it needs a faster
response time. The answer is the FAA Safety Recommen-
dation for Accident Prevention.
Here's how it works. Contact the nearest FAA airwor-
thiness safety inspector and tell him or her you want to
submit a Safety Recommendation in accordance with
FAA Order 8020.11A, Appendix 3. Then give the inspec-
tor all the information you have on the problem.
The inspector can still reserve the right to issue the
safety recommendation, but, once the inspector writes
up the report and sends it through channels, no one in
the FAA chain-of-command can stop it, alter it or delay
it. The receiving office is under the gun to come up with
an appropriate response.
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FAA Feedback
What do you do when you find a safety problem of
biblical proportions and lives or safety are at risk? Call
the FAA hot line! The toll free number is (800) 255-1111.
It's open 24 hours a day and is the closest thing to a
direct line to the FAA Administrator.
But before you call Joe Stevens or one of the other
three folks that man the hot line, get your act together.
Be sure you can answer the old newspaper reporter's
questions of Who? What? When? Where? Why? and
How? Your identity will be protected from disclosure
under the provisions of the Freedom of Information Act.
Depending on the nature of your call the hot line
folks either assign an FAA office to solve the problem or
take immediate action. Things happen very quickly when
you call the safety hot line. I coined the term B.W.S.
(Bureaucratic Warp Speed) when I watched a particular
office go to work after it received a hot line call.
But be warned! Don't use the hot line as your own
aviation Dear Abby. Selfish or egotistical motives will
clog and kill an effective safety communication system.
Be professional! Use the hot line only when there's a
serious, lifethreatening need or a violation of the FAR;
otherwise, don't mess with it. May/June 1992
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 22l
FAA Feedback
By Bill O'Brien
T he month of March is IA renewal time! During
the first part of this twepart renewal ritual,
13,000 FAA airframe and powerplant (A&P) tech-
nicians who hold an IA dutifully fiLl out an FAA 861(11
form, usually at the last minute, and send it in to one of
the 90 local FAA district offices for processing before the
31st of the month.
The 8610-1 form must show the FAA that the A&P
meets at least one of the following minimum IA renewal
requirements: One annual inspection or two completed
Form 3375s for each 90 days they held the IA; show
proof that he or she performed or supervised and
approved at least one progressive inspection; attend
and successfully complete an eighthour refresher course
acceptable to the FAA; or pass an oral test given by an
FAA inspector.
In my 27 years in aviation maintenance I have never
heard of any IA stouthearted or desperate enough to
take advantage of that last renewal option.
I A meetings
The second part of the renewal ritual is the IA meet-
ing. There are usually three kinds of IA meetings with
each one a reflection of the local FAA office priority
toward maintenance.
Informal Meeting: IA might meet an FAA inspector
at the local office or the inspector might visit the IA at
his place of business. Usually a small discussion on the
virtues of good maintenance takes place; then the IA's
card is signed off for another year, and a handshake
seals the transaction. The net result is both the IA and
the FAA inspector are left with 10 minutes of warm and
fuzzy feelings and then it's back to business as usual.
Required Pain and Suffering (RPS) Meeting: The
RPS meeting usually takes the form of a threehour local
district office gathering held in an inconvenient place at
an inconvenient time.
A major player in the RPS meeting is a brand new
FAA airworthiness inspector who, as part of the rights
of passage to be a journeyman inspector, must memorize
the two-hour government sermon for ZAs (DATED 1973)
covering semiexciting subjects such as correctly filling
out FAA Form 337 and logbooks.
In addition the new inspector must, on his own, come
up with a 10-minute speech extolling the virtues of send-
ing in M&D reports.
The remaining time left is spent standing in line to
get the IA card signed and listening to your stomach
attempting to digest the dayald stale doughnut and
acid-based cup of coffee you had at the break.
222 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
IA Maintenance Seminar Meeting: This is a true
maintenance training extravaganza sponsored by the
FAA in partnership with industry.
The meetings are designed to be large enough to
accommodate A&Ps, repairmen, Part 147 A&P schools,
students, and instructors. The average meeting size is
about 250 persons.
Guest speakers, industry and FAA representatives,
using slides and videotapes, inform the audience of the
latest Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) rule changes,
maintenance techniques, new equipment and products,
and discuss what's happening with the industry
nationwide.
These meetings usually last eight hours or more so
the technician can, with one meeting, renew his or her
IA and meet the requirements of FAR 65.93 (aX4), which
requires a minimum of eight hours of instruction within
the precedmg 12 months.
FAA offices that hold these IA maintenance serni-
nars, like the kind held in Reno, NV; Lafayette, LA; and
Teterboro, NJ, truly put enormous time, money and
resources into ensuring that the time an IA must spend
away from his job is time well-spent.
The pay back for the IA who attends such a meeting
is that the technician is better informed and thereby
better able to compete in a tough industry. The pay back
for the FAA office is fewer maintenancerelated accidents
and better communication with the industry.
With the industry aware of the success of the IA
maintenance seminars one wonders why any IA would
be satisfied with a warm and fuzzy renewal or remain
willing enough to endure another RPS. Clearly, the IA
maintenance seminar meeting has the most to offer.
By writing to your local FAA district office you may be
able to convince the district manager to organize such
a seminar. Change is possible if enough of you want it
to happen.
Some tips for becoming an I A
Practice your craft! Fill out imaginary logbooks and
Form 337s. As an IA you will be signing off annuals and
progressive inspections, looking up Airworthiness Direc-
tives, filling out Form 337s and making up weight and
balance repork. You are not only preparing for a tough
FAA exam you are preparing for a career.
You should know what acceptable and approved data
is, what field approvals are, the difference between major
and minor, maintenance record-keeping requirements
and the duties and responsibilities of an IA by heart.
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 Work with your local FAA airworthiness inspector.
Stop in and talk over the test and ask for suggestions
and advice on preparing for it, Short of giving the test
away, I have never known of an FAA inspector to refuse
this kind of a request for help. Also give the inspector
enough notice to schedule the test on the date when you
want to take it.
Oh yes, beware of IA courses that offer "the quick
and easy way" to becoming an IA.These courses teach
you only the test not the profession. No one can make
IA defined
There are really three definitions of an IA-and all three
are as different as thev are true.
The regulatory ansker is: An IA is an individual who
meets the requirements of FAR Sections 65.91 through
65.95. Translation: An individual who has been an A&P
for at least three years and active for at least two of
those years.
He or she must have a base of operations along with
the necessary equipment facilities and inspection data
available to perform the inspections. Oh yes, the A&P
must pass a killer of an FAA test that can last as long
as six hours.
The industry answer is: An IA is the aviation equiva-
lent of an 800pound gorilla. No single individual in our
maintenance profession exercises more power, more
authority and has more responsibility under the FAR
than an IA.
A few examples of an IA power are:
1. An IA can ground an aircraft after an inspection by
simply giving an owner/operator a piece of paper
saying the aircraft is unairworthy and providing him
with a list of airworthiness discrepancies.
2. A 23-yemld brand new IA can tell a 63-yearald
technician with 45 years of sheet metal experience to
redo a major repair or alteration if it doesn't meet
the IA's satisfaction.
3. A single IA can approve for return to service more
makes and models of aircraft than the average Part
145 Repair Station can.
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you a "real" IA in three days, or even a week, without
months of preparation on your part.
Quite frankly, nothing in aviation is as sad or danger-
ous as a brand new IA trying to make an airworthiness
decision based only on what he or she learned during a
weekend course. If you fail the IA test, and almost half
the A&Ps miss the first time, go stand in a comer and
allow yourself 30 seconds of self-pity. Then promise your-
self that in the next 90 days before you are allowed to
take the test again you'll be even better prepared.
4. An IA can approve for return to service aircraft
or components on which major repairs or major
alterations have been accomplished.
The individual LA'S answer: An IA is a technician
with both a strong sense of purpose toward safety
and blessed with a better than average amount of self-
confidence in his or her ability to do the job.
IAs are ambitious in a positive way because they took
the long hard road to earn the IA. They are for the most
part average technicians with above average persistence.
They simply wanted to be the best in their profession.
IAs are teachers because they guide and instruct
technicians on the correct way to do their job.
IAs are arbitrators and referees on the hangar floor
who settle airworthiness disputes between technicians,
owners and even management.
An IA is a worldclass worrier. Most A&Ps don't see
the concern for safety on the IA's face because the IA
has learned to hide it well. But the result of each airwor-
thiness decision etches another worry line around the
eyes or cuts deeper into the furrow on the brow.
An IA is a loner, for the responsibility for those
decisions rests on his or her shoulders alone. For no
committee, no adviser, nobody else will sign the logbooks
but the IA.
An LA is an aviation maintenance professional!
EQl March/Aprill992
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 223
FAA Feedback
So you say you want a field approval?
By Bill O'Brien
etting an FAA field approval is a lot like getting
"G an elephant pregnant. 1. It's harder work than
anyone would imagine, 2. It's accomplished by a
lot of screaming and yelling, 3. Both parties are not sure
of what the other is doing, and 4. It takes 19 months
before you see any results."
What is a field approval?
A field approval is the granting, by an FAA airworthi-
ness inspector, of FAA "approval" for a major repair
or major alteration. The approval is given only after
conducting a physical inspection and/or after review-
ing data.
There are three different kinds of field approvals for
which the local FAA inspector can sign off:
Examination of data only: This is the most common
form of field approval. The mechanic or repairman
submits "acceptable" data to the local FAA office for
approval. The "approved data" can be used to perform
a major repair or major alteration.
Once the data has been approved under this proce
dure it can be used only for that one aircraft (described
in Block 1 of FAA Form 337).
However, if you want to do the exact same repair or
alteration to another like make or model aircraft, you
can use the original Form 337 as the basis for obtaining
a new field approval for the second aircraft.
Physical inspection, demonstration or testing of the
repair or alteration: This is rarely done except in cases
where technicians find unapproved engine or compo-
nents installed on aircraft, which apparently have been
installed for some time. Since the aircraft has flown
successfully for many hours, an FAA inspector can, if
satisfied with the installation, approve the installation.
He does so by signing a new Form 337.
Examination of data only for duplication on identical
make and model aircraft by the original m o a e r : This is
a procedure that saves the maintenance technician and
the FAA a lot of time. For example, one technician wanta
to install duplicate avionics packages on as many Cessna
501s as possible; or maybe he wants to install duplicate
installations of tundra tires on Beech 18s.
The technician can submit the data to be approved
along with a request that the data approval be extended
to other identical aircraft. The FAA inspector, if satis-
fied, signs Block 3 that grants duplication of the data
from the original Form 337.
When the technician finishes a duplicate alteration
on other aircraft, he sends the FAA a regular FAA Form
224 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
337 properly filled out listing the "approved data" on the
back and making reference to the field approval. To
avoid problems, attach a duplicate copy of the original
Field Approval Form 337.
What a field approval is not
A field approval is not a regulation; it's a policy.
Because it is a procedure and not a rule, a mechanic
is not automatically entitled to a field approval-even if
he submita a "perfect" FAA Form 337 to the FAA.
Why? Because the authority to grant a field approval
and the great burden of responsibility that goes with
signing Block 3 of the Form 337 has been delegated only
to the local FAA district office airworthiness inspector.
The responsibility for data approval is so monurnen-
tal that no one, not even the FAA administrator, may
force the inspector to approve a major alteration or
major repair against his or her better judgment.
Since it's the inspector who makes the final decision
and is held accountable by the FAA for that decision,
most inspectors are overly cautious when it comes to
signing off a field approval.
Why do you need a field approval?
Four regulations, FAR 65.95, FAR 121.378, FAR
135.437 and FAR 145.51 all require "approvedn data for
major repairs and major alterations.
Approved data can be type certificates data sheets
(TCDS), Airworthiness Directives (AD), Designated
Engineering Representative (DER) data, Designated
Alteration Station (DAS) data, FAA-approved data, FAA-
Approved Manufacturer's Data Supplemental Type
CeMicates (STC) and appliance manufacturers manuals.
If you can't find approved data of this type, your
only chance for getting data approved is to apply to the
FAA for an STC, or to ask a local FAA inspector for a
field approval.
What can't be approved?
Some repairs and alterations are so complex they're
actually design changes and require an STC. The follow-
ing alterations are examples of alterations that can't be
field approved:
Installations that increase gross weight and/or
changes in center of gravity range.
Any installation that affects structural integrity,
flight or ground handling.
Changes in movable control surfaces or travel.
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Helpful hints for field approvals
First do not cut metal, splice wire or install equip
ment until you receive the approval. The only thing
worse than not getting a field approval is telling your
customer the fancy equipment you installed in his
aircraft has to be removed.
Determine if the repair or alteration is major as
defined by FAR 1. If it's major, go to the next step.
Don't set unreasonable goals. Allow a reasonable
time, at least 30 days for the field approval.
Research all sources for "approved data" to make the
repair or alteration. If you find approved data in the
type ceMicate under optional equipment or under
notes, sign off the repair or alteration in the logbook.
No Form 337 is required because the repair or alteration
has already been approved under the type design and is
considered minor. For all other approved data, a Form
337 is required. If there's no approved data, go to the
next step.
Call or visit the FAA inspector and describe your
repair or alteration. Find out what kind of data the
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FAA Feedback
inspector wants to see; then assemble it in a reasonable
and understandable format. The data must be current,
accurate and must support as well as describe the alter-
ation or repair. Data can be in the form of drawings,
sketches or photographs. References to AC 43.13-IA and
2A, manufacturer's maintenance manuals, kits, bulletins
and service letters may be helpful.
A cover letter for the Form 337 describing in detail
how you're going to accomplish the repair or alteration
is also helpful. Vague or useless technical references are
unprofessional and should be avoided because it destroys
your credibility.
With your research done send the FAA inspector
duplicate copies of the Form 337 along with the data
you want approved.
If you did your homework carefully and followed
these helpful hints, you'll have a 75 percent chance of
getting your repair or alteration approved on the first
attempt. If you don't, find out what's wrong and try
again. Wl Janua~/February1992
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 225
FAA Feedback
Freddyysback!
The unapproved pads nightmare
By Bill O'Brien
ttention aircraft technicians, parts room manag-
ers, pilots and operators -Freddy the junkman
is back with a vengeance! You remember him;
he's the fellow who brought you questionable reliability,
reduced safety, premature parts failure, accidents and
angry customers by selling you "unapproved parts
(junk) at bargain basement prices.
Unfortunately, there are now too many Freddys. He
has many names, comes from many countries and uses
many disguises. On any given day he might visit you in
your hangar or repair station representing himself as a
salesman from a "new" parts distributor.
Other days he sends you an ad about a "going out of
business" sale or "surplus parts bonanza." Sometimes,
Freddy takes the form of your best friend or a trusted
parts salesman who has "such a deal" for you.
While there are many Freddys with many faces, they
usually have only two operating pitches or cons to peddle
their iunk. The first con is the one used bv "the ama-
teur." The amateur Freddy doesn't want a long-term
relationship, he just wants to sell you junk parts quickly.
He usually shows up unannounced with a truck full
of aviation parts. Then he pulls you over into a corner
and tells you a believable lie to set you up for the con.
The lie goes something like, "My brother-in-law was a
parts distributor in the Midwest and now he's ill, can't
keep up the business, and he needs the money for treat
ments, etc., etc., and I'm helping him out by selling off
his inventory."
Most of amateur Freddy's parts are look-alike relative-
ly low-cost items or factory seconds or parts crudely
made to look like new. To avoid a close ins~ectionof his
junk parts and blind you to the truth, amateur Freddy
will dangle a part price tag in front of your eyes that
is 20 to 30 percent below what you normally get the
part for. If you bite now, he stands to make an enor-
mous profit.
However, if you happen to notice there's no PMA or
TSO markings on the parts or the serial numbers look
suspicious, he'll squirm and lie some more.
When you question him further and he feels you're
not buying his "lie," he'll modify the con and confess
that the paperwork is lost or stolen. If you take the parts
immediately, however, he'll drop the price to 60 percent
or more below wholesale.
Many cannot resist a promise of a 60 percent profit.
So Freddy makes another sale and drives off with your
money and your integrity in his pocket.
226 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
The second technique involves the technically sophis-
ticated con worked by a Freddy who might be a parts
salesman for a respectable parts distributor house or
a person who works in the parts room of the repair
station or FBO across the field. Sophisticated Freddy
might also be a large parts company that's now in the
business of selling junk parts.
Since sophisticated Freddy works in high dollar
items, he always works with a partner I call "machine
shop Freddy." There are several kinds of machine shop
Freddys. One type works all day making aviation parts
for a legitimate aviation company. At night you'd find
him working in his garage machine shop duplicating the
manufacturer's part right down to the inspection stamp,
paperwork and box the part comes in.
Other machine shop Freddys work full time making
junk parts look new again by welding improper repairs
on turbine blades or cleaning up parts that have been
scrapped because they've reached time or cycle limits.
Machine shop Freddy then sells his "part" to sophisti-
cated Freddy who, as a representative for an established
respectable business, sells his "unapproved parts" along
with FAA approved parts.
Since sophisticated Freddy wants a long-term
relationship with you, he'll offer you, one of his best
customers, a 10 to 30 percent discount on a certain
"line" of parts.
This kind of Freddy is perhaps the worst kind of
aviation thief because we aviation maintenance person-
nel are unaware that we're paying for an "unapproved
part." Sophisticated Freddy not only steals our money
but he steals our trust in the system of aviation stan-
dards, and by doing so puts not only our customers lives
at great risk but also our jobs.
Why should you try to stop Freddy?
The most important reason is aviation safety. Bad
parts put lives at risk. Freddy's parts don't meet an
approved standard such as a type design, Parts Manufac-
turer Approval, Technical Standard Order, or carry a
valid maintenance release. These parts are a complete
unknown, and any unknown in aviation is unacceptable.
The second reason is that over a relatively short
period of time, the price of aviation parts across the
board will rise! Why? The answer lies in the parts
manufacturer's ability to deal with competitors who can
underprice them 60 percent or more. Freddy's discount
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junk parts cut deeply into the profit margin of legitimate
manufacturers. So to stay in business they have to raise
prices to pay for the overhead.
How do w e stop Freddy?
Like the drug trafficker, the Freddy who sells unap
proved parts needs you for a customer. Without a
demand side for unapproved aviation parts, the supply
side will dry up. We can stop Freddy by killing him
economically.
Challenge
You, the technician on the hangar floor hold the
ultimate responsibility of determining whether or not
the part you are about to put on the aircraft is "FAA
Approved." If you get a part that is not in a box, the
paperwork is "lost" or there is no OEM part/serial
number, or a TSO or PMA number, challenge the
part's source.
It doesn't seem fair saddling the technician with the
additional responsibility of being a junk part detective,
but you are the last one who inspecta the part, installs
the part and approves the aircraft or product for return
to service. If not the technician, who else can the FAA
hold responsible to determine if a part is approved or
unapproved? Freddy?
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Report
The FAA cannot solve this problem alone. You, in
industry, have to get the word to us in government who
can then move against Freddy in the courts.
In August, the folks in FAA Aircraft Manufacturing
Division, AIR-200 issued an Advisory Circular (AC) 21-29
Reporting Suspected Unapproved Parts. This AC gives
you instructions on how to report suspected unapproved
parts by using FAA Form 812@11.The form should be
completed and forwarded immediately to:
Federal Aviation Administration
System Surveillance and Analysis Division
Air-300
P.O.Box 17030
Washington, D.C. 20041
You can pick up the AC at any Flight Standards
District Office. If you hate f i g out forms, you can still
call the FAA Safety Hotline number (800) 255-1111, and
give us the suspected unapproved parts information.
Either way, do it now! Don't let Freddy become your
worst nightmare. a November/December 1991
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 227
FAA Feedback
The yellow tag
By Bill O'Brien
A
question often asked as I travel around the
country giving safety seminars is: Does a yellow
tag satisfy the requirements of a maintenance
release?
You must first understand that there's no legal defini-
tion of a yellow tag.Regardless of the fact that there
are logbooks out there that are full of them, the term
"yellow tag" isn't mentioned anywhere in FAR Part 43.
Yellow tags were first used by the Army Air Corps
back in the early days of World War 11. No reason was
given why the color yellow was picked to indicate a
serviceable component. Most of us would have picked
the color green for serviceable and yellow for repairable
not the other way around.
I suspect, based on my own military experience,
that the decision to use yellow for serviceable parts was
probably made by an Army supply clerk who ordered a
million yellow tags by mistake and had to find a use for
them or be shipped to a combat area.
Regardless, after the war, the airlines stayed with the
military tradition of using yellow tags as a serviceable
item. Following their lead, the rest of general aviation
bought in and yellow tags became part of aviation termi-
nology and culture.
So what's the problem with using a yellow tag as a
maintenance release?
The yellow tag only satisfies half of the requirements
for a maintenance release under Part 43, Appendix B,
and many repair stations are sending only this document
along with a repaired component. On one side of the
tag, they identify the part and use single words like
"repaired" or "overhauled" that are oneword descriptions
of all the work accomplished. On the other side of the
tag, they put the maintenance release statement. The
work order with all its important information isn't sent,
and the technician is left holding the bag because he has
no idea of what's happened to the component.
The yellow tag doesn't tell you what approved data
was used, what Airworthiness Directives (AD) were done,
what standards were net, what parts were replaced, what
service bulletins or letters were complied with, or what
total time was on the propeller or engine. The only thing
a yellow tag tells you is that you've got a great big hole
in your record keeping.
The "yellow tag-onlyn repair stations defend their
position by hiding behind the maintenance release state
ment that says "all pertinent details are on m e at the
repair station under a work order number
That's great, but if the repair station goes out of busi-
ness, the records may no longer be available. And even if
228 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
they're still in business, a repair station is only required
to keep their records for a period of two years! Some
repair stations "lose" their records after two years to
avoid liability issues.
Here are a few things that you should keep in mind
regarding maintenance releases:
A maintenance release is a document that only a
certified Part 145 repair station can use in lieu of
FAA Form 337.
A maintenance release is used to identify only
major repairs to an aviation component&). They are
not to be used to identify minor repairs, or minor or
major alterations.
A maintenance release is a twepart document.
The first part is the work order. It must be signed,
dated, have a description of the work performed (e.g.,
service bulletins, ADS, repairs accomplished, etc.)
and the approved data used for the major repair.
The second part is called the maintenance release
statement. It must be signed by an authorized
representative of the repair station.
The maintenance release must have the following
information:
- Identification of the airframe, engine, propeller or
appliance worked on.
- If an aircraft, it must include: the registration
number, make, model, serial number and the area
repaired must be listed.
- If an airframe, engine, propeller or appliance, it
must include: the manufacturer's name. name of
the part, model and serial numbers if any must
be listed.
- The following or similarly worded statement must
be included: "The aircraft, airframe, aircraft engine,
propeller or alliance identXed above was repaired
and inspected in accordance with the current Regu-
lations of the Federal Aviation Administration and
is approved for return to service. Pertinent details
of the repair are on file at this repair station under
Order No. Date Signed
(authorized representative for the
repair station). Repair station address and certifi-
cate number
The maintenance release statement and required
information don't have to be on a yellow tag. They
can be stamped or printed on the repair station
work order.
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Here are a few suggestions for dealing with repair
stations that don't provide a thorough maintenance
release:
Make sure the repair station has all the information
it needs. When you send in a component for repair/
overhaul on your work order request, give the repair
station all the required information on the part such
as make model, serial number, total time/cycles,
history, etc.
Formally request a maintenance release as
required by FAR Part 43, Appendix B. State very
clearly on your work request, "No complete
maintenance release- no payment."
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When you want an engine or propeller overhauled,
tell the repair station that you want its maintenance
release to show the total time since new and total
time since overhaul.
If the repair station won't comply with the above, ask
for a FAA Form 337 for the major repair instead.
If you have continuing problems trying to get both
parts of the maintenance release or the Form 337
from the repair station, noti@ the Flight Standards
District Office in charge of that repair station to
assist you.
If you still have problems-look elsewhere. Loss of a
customer base will bring the repair station around to the
correct way of doing business. M September/October 1991
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 229
FAA Feedback
The most important rule
By Bill O'Brien
try giving FAA maintenance safety seminars on
Since last year I'veIt been
the regulations. traveling around
was surprising to find the
that coun-
I percent right.
learn more about regulations from the questions techni-
cians ask me than the knowledge they gain from me.
At a recent seminar, a student asked, "Since you are
with the FAA, out of all the rules we went over today,
what do you think is the most important rule?"
I wish that I'd kept count of the number of people
who have asked that question. So many, in fact, that I
had a conditioned reflex reply: "They all are."
That answer may have satisfied the student, but for
some reason it didn't satisfy me anymore. On the plane
ride home I wondered: Is there a "golden rule" for avia-
tion technicians? One rule that explains all the rest?
Suddenly it came to me - The most important rule is
Federal Aviation Regulation 43.12, which covers falsifica-
tion or alteration of maintenance entries. This is one
rule which, if broken often enough, could cause the
complete failure of the aviation maintenance industry.
Rules such as FAR 43.13, Performance rules; FAR
91.409, Inspections; or FAR 39, Airworthiness Directives,
are heavy-duty maintenance safety rules but don't com-
pare to 43.12 on a scale of importance.
Why? Because this entire aviation maintenance
industry is built on our own personal honor and trust.
This characteristic of personal integrity and professional-
ism forms the very core of the aviation maintenance
profession.
We depend on the single idea that each of the
100,000-plus men and women who maintain and inspect
aircraft will do it to the highest industry and personal
standards.
Think about this. When you make a maintenance
entry, and you must each time you exercise the privi-
leges of your certificate, you sign your name and certifi-
cate number. By these actions, you not only satisfy an
FAR, you give the rest of us in this industry your word
230 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
of honor. You certify that your work has been done
right. Not 50 percent right, not 90 percent right, but 100
In return, if this was a perfect world, when you read
some other technician's entry, his word of honor, his
written statement should be accepted with a high level of
respect. Sadly, this is not a perfect world, so you don't
accept every entry at face value.
You have learned, or will learn, that there are those
among us who deliberately falsify records. The important
word here to focus on is "deliberately." That's why FAR
43.12 was written. It tells that any perversion of this
mutual trust among technicians, any selling of one's
honor that would compromise our record system will
not be tolerated by the U.S. government.
Why does the government consider the maintaining
of maintenance records integrity so important? 'Records
ensure safety. Industry and government recognize that
even a total of 5 percent maintenance records falsifica-
tion in all of the 210,000 aircraft in the fleet would cause
the system to collapse.
Who would trust a record system that was only 95
percent accurate? Who among us would trust an aircraft
that was only 95 percent inspected, only 95 percent
maintained? What passengers would buy a ticket or
pilots fly if they could only be assured of a 95 percent
chance of getting to their destination in one piece?
Those who falsify records know it's wrong. They try
to rationalize their actions to soften the guilt. They claim
they do it for good reasons like meeting a gate time
or to keep their job. Or they make promises to them-
selves to fix it later when they have the parts available,
etc., etc., etc.
There is NO EXCUSE that justifies the falsification
of aircraft records. Record falsification is a lie! And
every lie is like a cancer that eats away at our honor as
technicians and at the trust the rest of the industry has
in our profession. m July/August 1991
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FAR compliance
Questions & Answers
By Bill O'Brien
T he following are my answers to three questions
submitted by Aircraft Technician magazine on
behalf of individual technicians. In each case, the
fax was "sanitized" so I never knew who or where the
original letters came from. If any of the individuals
involved have further questions on these subjects, please
call me at (202) 366-6382.
Quedion: Piper PA3lT Cheyenne Manufacturer's
Inspection program recommends that you use hour
increments only to measure the intervals between
inspections. This is quite different from the hours and
calendar time inspection requirements for a like model
Beech aircraft. Is it possible for a PA31T Cheyenne
that's operated less than 50 hours a year to go two years
before an inspection is performed?
Anewer: Yes, it is possible to go almost two years
between inspections. I too am a little uneasy about an
inspection program without some calendar requirement
to protect against long time intervals between inspec-
tions. It's been my experience that an aircraft that sits
for months at a time in the comer of a hangar is usually
in worse shape for the experience than an aircraft that's
flown every day. However, in defense of the rule, the
owner/operator stiU has the responsibility under
FAR 91.403 to maintain that aircraft in an airworthy
condition.
Question: What kind of inspection is required for
singleengine turbinepowered aircraft operated under
Part 91?
Anewer Singleengine turbine aircraft must be
inspected in accordance with FAR 91.409 inspections.
This means that a single-engine turbinepowered aircraft
must have either an annual or a progressive inspection
performed every 12 calendar months. If the aircraft is
used for flight training or for hire, a 100-hour inspection
must have been completed within the preceding 100
hours. All inspections must be consistent with the
manufacturer's recommendations and signed off in the
maintenance record in accordance with FAR 43.11.
Under the new rule change in Part 91.409 (c) (4),
owners and operators of single or multiengine turbine
helicopters-in lieu of annual, progressive or 100-hour
inspections-now have the option to have their inspec-
tions performed in accordance with FAR 91.409(e).
Under this rule change they can have their choice of
four other additional inspection programs.
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Question: A gentleman wrote in and wanted the
procedures to get a 1931 Nicholas Beazley aircraft
certificated in normal category. There was an additional
problem. Instead of the original 8@hpGenet Mark II
radial engine, he wanted to use a Lambert 9@hp
radial engine.
Anewer I never heard of a Nicholas Beazley aircraft
before, but I found it right in volume six "Aircraft
Listing," of the type certificate data/specifications. Since
the Genet radial was the only engine approved for this
model aircraft, there are only two options to get the
aircraft flying again.
The first is to get a supplemental type ceMicate
(STC). In order to get the aircraft approved in "normal"
category with this engine installation, this is the only
option. Since this kind of engine swap is so rare, I
recommend you contact the FAA Engine and Propeller
Directorate, Aircraft CeMication Service, 12 New
England Executive Park, Burlington, MA 01803.
But first give Mr. Mark Fulmer, the manager of ANE
140, engine certification office a call at (617) 273-7080
and give him additional details on the engine change.
Also ask him about the procedures for a onetime STC
for the engine installation. A onetime STC takes less
time to approve than a formal STC.
Once the STC is issued and you comply with its
requirement. ask the local Flight Standards District
Office (FSDO) to issue you a standard airworthiness
ceMicate for normal category operation. However,
acquiring even a onetime STC w i l l take time and
yes... money.
The second option is to get the aircraft certified in
experimentaVexhibition category. This can be accom-
plished by your local FSDO office. An airworthiness
inspector, with a minimum amount of fuss and paper-
work, will issue you an experimental exhibition category
special airworthiness certificate that will get you flying
almost immediately. The downside of this procedure is
that your aircraft is placed under more strict operating
requirements than normal category operations. E5l
May/June 1991
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 231
FAA Feedback
Approved data
By Bill O'Brien
A
Texas centered on work he was performing: an
recent conversation
alteration withwhich
to an engine a technician/IA in a
involved using
supplemental type certificate (STC).
Several of his questions focused around how the STC
should be recorded on Form 337. Is the STC "approved"
data, he asked, or is it "acceptable" data? And if it's
"acceptable" data, how should he get the local Flight
Standards District Office (FSDO) to "field approve" it?
Two minutes into our conversation I realized that he
wasn't quite sure of the basic definition of the terms we
were discussing. "He was not alone," I told him.
Where does it say I have to use data?
In the bowels of Part 43 sits a pretty important
rule that says we have to use "data." It's FAR 43.13(a)
Performance Rules (general) which says:
"Each person performing maintenance, alteration or
preventive maintenance on an aircraft, aircraft engine,
propeller or appliance SHALL use the methods, tech-
niques and practices prescribed in the CURRENT
manufacturer's maintenance manual or Instructions for
Continued Airworthiness prepared by its manufacturer
or other methods, techniques and practices ACCEPT-
ABLE to the Administrator (FAA)."
This is also the same rule the FAA uses to discourage
technicians and repairmen from using unsafe methods to
maintain aircraft.
Acceptable data
Acceptable data is found in aircraft maintenance
documents such as manufacturers' maintenance manu-
als, service bulletins and letters, Advisory Circular
43.13-1A and 2A, and FAR Part 121 and Part 135 air
carrier maintenance manuals.
If you read FAR 43.13(a) again, carefully, you see
that the rule allows you to use acceptable data for all
maintenance, alterations or preventive maintenance on
the entire aircraft.
However, the FAR 43.13 rule, doesn't say that you
can use acceptable data for major repairs and major
alterations. You need approved data to handle that!
232 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Approved data
Approved data is data that the FAA has approved and
is usually identified as such. Approved data includes:
type certificate data and specification sheets, supplemen-
tal type certificates (STC), Airworthiness Directives
(AD), Manufacturer's FAA approved data under a DOA,
FAA designated engineering representative (DER) data,
FAA designated alteration station (DAS) data and appli-
ance manufacturers' manuals, even though they don't
have "FAA Approved Data" stamped on them.
I suspect the last item, appliance manufacturers'
manuals, is considered approved data because the task
of approving countless appliance manuals is near to
impossible.
Approved data is required according to the follow-
ing regulations when making a major repair or major
alteration: FAR 65.95(a)(1) Inspection authorization,
privileges and limitations; FAR 121.379(b) Authority to
perform and approve maintenance, preventive mainte-
nance and alterations; FAR 135.437(b) Authority to
perform and approve maintenance, preventive mainte-
nance and alteration; and FAR 145.51(d)(3) Privileges
of the certificate.
To summarize, you use acceptable data for all mainte-
nance except major repairs or major alterations. You
must use approved data for all major repairs and major
alterations.
Solving the problem
With the data definitions out of the way, let's go back
to the IA and the questions he raised. The alteration
he was performing happened to be a full flow oil filter
installation on a Continental engine. The oil filter instal-
lation met the definition of a major alteration as defined
in FAR 1.
As a major alteration, it required approved data.
Since the kit he was installing contained all the STC
paperwork and installation instructions, he already had
the approved data. This made his life a little easier
because he did not need an FAA field approval. All he
had to do was fill out Form 337, describe the work
performed, and the approved data used (STC). Finally,
he must give the owner the Form 337 and send a copy
to the local FAA office inside of 48 hours.
~ March/April 1991
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One service bulletin too soon
By Bill O'Brien
M
y latest communications with Aircraft Techni-
cian magazine concerned a mechanic/IA who
had a problem with an owner of a PA-18 Piper
Super Cub over an Airworthiness Directive (AD). The
AD in question was AD 77-03-08 which dealt with Piper
PA-18 and PA-25 wing lift struts corrosion inspection.
The AD references Piper Services Bulletin (SB) 528
as the approved method of compliance. The AD also
requires recurrent inspections to be accomplished every
five years. The IA pointed out to the owner that Piper
voided SB 528 on October 10, 1989 and superseded it
with SB 910A. The latest Piper Service Bulletin is a lot
tougher and limits the recurrent corrosion treatment
and inspection time to every 12 months. The IA wanted
to perform the AD with the new service bulletin, but the
owner balked because of the additional expense and went
to the FAA. The local inspector told the IA to comply
with the AD as written. The law had spoken and the IA
had to eat the time he spent working on the airplane.
Naturally) this did not sit well with the IA. He wan&
ed to know who was right, and which service bulletin
to use.
In this case, the FAA inspector was right. You can
use only the service bulletin referenced in the AD (SB
528 in this instance). Yes, I saw the hghlighted box at
the top of the service bulletin in which the statement:
"Piper considers compliance mandatory." I also noted
the statement that the technical contents of this service
bulletin have been approved by the FAA.
To further clarzfy the decision of the inspector,
consider this: A manufacturer's service bulletin cannot
change a regulation. Every FAA AD is a regulation
issued under FAR Part 39 So every AD has the force
and authority of law. That's why FAA Airworthiness
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Inspectors get so upset when you miss an AD. In very
real terms you broke the law. And most likely, missing
the AD endangered the safety of the aircraft.
A couple of other points that should be made con-
cerning this subjed:
You can expect a new AD on Piper lift struts on or
before April 1991. The new AD will affect all makes
and models of Piper high wing aircraft.
If you want to use the new service bulletin, you have
another option. The owner could ask the FAA to use
SB 910A instead of SB 528 as an alternate means of
AD compliance. If the FAA contact is not mentioned
in the AD (as is the case with AD 77-03-08) give the
local office a call and ask for help.
The waiting period for the new AD is due to the
Administrative Procedures Act. The act requires
public comment for any regulation that has an impact
on the aviation industry. The total cost (impact) to
the affected fleet of 20,000 airplanes will come
to $20,000,000+.
A new AD is required instead of revising the old one
because it has been determined that all makes and
models of Piper high wing aircraft are affected by
this corrosion problem, not just PA-18 and PA-25
models. Furthermore, the new AD is a direct result
of two fatal accidents.
As mentioned earlier, the IA was legally wrong. He
must perform the AD as it is written or get an alternate
means of compliance approved if he wants to use the
new service bulletin. His concern for safety, however,
cannot be criticized. k5l Januarymebruary 1991
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 233
FAA Feedback
Annual sign-off
By Bill O'Brien
D
id you ever ask this question or want to? Hey,
Mr. FAA inspector, which "logbook" do you sign
off for an annual inspection? Do you put annual
inspection "approval for return to servicen sign-offs in
each of the airframe, engine or propeller "logbooks" or
do you just put it in one?
This question is often followed by: If I put annual
sign-off in just one "logbook will I get in trouble? And
in which "logbook" should I put the entry in?
To answer these questions let's first look at the rules
covering annual inspections: Federal Aviation Regulation
(FAR) 91.409 Inspections (old FAR 91.169) says: "No
person may operate an aircraft unless within the preced-
ing 12 calendar months it has had an annual inspection
in accordance with Part 43 of this chapter and has been
approved for return to service by a person authorized by
Part 43.7 of this chapter."
The key term here is the word "aircraft." "FAR Part
1 Defiitions" defines an aircraft "as a device that is
used or intended to be used for flight in the air."
An "aircraft," a type certificated aircraft, must be
equipped with all pertinent appliances and componenta
including the engine and propeller to accomplish flight.
An "aircraft" according to the regs is the sum total of
its parts.
So what are the FARs actually saying? The FARs say
an annual inspection is a complete inspection of all the
aircraft's individual parts, the airframe, the engine(s),
the propeller(s) and everything else listed on the
aircraft's type certificated data/specification sheet and
equipment list. The annual inspection must also be
completed within the preceding 12 calendar months,
and accomplished in accordance with Part 43.
234 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
So since you are performing a single inspection
covering the entire aircraft, you are required to make
only a single entry.
OK, your next question is: So what "logbook" do you
put the single annual inspection "approval for return to
service" entry in? FAR 43.11 says you make the entry in
the maintenance record of the aircraft.
I can almost hear you say "Maintenance Record!"
Where did that come from? Whatever happened to the
aircraft's 'logbook?"
First allow me to explain that there are technically
no such things as 'logbooks." In FAR Part 43 there are
no references to the term maintenance "logbooks," just
maintenance "records." The term "logbooksn is a throw-
back to old nautical terms that found their way into our
industry's working vocabulary.
So to answer your question, record the annual
inspection sign-off in accordance with FAR 43.11 in the
airframe maintenance record (logbook).
Why the airframe maintenance record? Of the three
maintenance records the airframe (logbook) is the most
permanent. Engine and propeller records (logbooks) are
retired when these items are replaced. But a properly
maintained airframe maintenance record (logbook) will
show the entire history of the aircraft, from the issue
date of the aircraft's first airworthiness cemicate to the
last maintenance or inspection performed.
AU FAA Flight Standards District Offices were noti-
fied this June of this new policy by FAA Action Notice
8300.81 issued by the hardworking folks in the Aircraft
Maintenance Division, General Aviation and Commercial
branch. This action notice supersedes any previous FAA
policy on annual inspection sign-off.
&Ul November/December 1990
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Wooden spars and data plates
T
he weather was hot and humid in Washmgton,
D.C. I just took a break from my paperwork, put
my feet up on the desk, and started to nurse a
bad cup of coffee when the fax machine "beeped."
The incoming fax, from Aircraft Technician,dealt
with the difficulty that one technician was having trying
to get blueprints and specifications from the FAA and
industry to build replacement wood wing spars for
Aeronca aircraft models 7 and 11 (A, B and C).
My first step toward solving the problem was to con-
tact some FAA ceflication folks here in Washington
and in the Great Lakes field office. They coded the f a d
that the FAA would not release technical information
they had on file if the manufacturer was still in business.
The next step involved calling Jerry Mehlhaff,
president of American Champion Aircraft (P.O. Box 37,
32032 Washington Ave., Rochester, WI 53167, Tel.
(414) 534-6315), whose company purchased the rights
to manufacture the Citabrias and Decathlon aircraft.
He informed me that his company does not make any
replacement wood spars for the older Aeronca aircraft.
However, he was pleased to report that his company is
in the final stages of getting FAA approval for "all
metal" replacement wings for Champion models built
after 1962.
Mehlhaff also explained that, for liability reasons, the
spar blueprints or specifications for older models could
not be sold. He did, however, know that a company
called Safe Air Repair Inc. (3325 Bridge Ave., Albert
Lea, MN 56007, Tel. (507) 373-5408), that could deliver
an FAA/PMA-approved spar for those particular makes
and models.
John Roscoe, president of Safe Air Repair, says that
his company can deliver spars for Aeronca models 7 and
11 (A, B and C) and for models 7 and 8 Citabrias and
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Decathlons that match the manufacturer's specifications.
Its spars, says Roscoe, are complete with attach fittings,
drilled holes, and are ready for installation.
He also said that selling the spar specifications to
individuals would increase the company's liability-so
they would not release the specifications.
The bottom line: You can't buy approved data to build
up Aeronca or later Champion wood spars. But you can
still buy FAA/PMA replacement spars for those older
makes and models.
Another fax, received from Aircraft Technician
magazine, dealt with a complaint that a technician had
dealing with missing or unreadable data plates. He wrote
that, during an annual inspection, if you find a missing
or unreadable engine data plate, the aircraft is consid-
ered unairworthy until the replacement data plate is
installed. He was correct (Ref. FAR 45.11).
Both major reciprocating engine manufacturers
have similar instructions on how to get replacement
data plates. Continental Service Bulletin M87-18 and
Lycoming Service Instruction No. 1304F are the sources
for this information.
You must send the manufacturer a letter (Continental
wants the letter notarized) requesting a replacement
data plate, the old data plate, if available, a $15.00 fee
and a letter of authorization from the FAA. At this time,
there are no other options.
The bad news, according to the technician who wrote
the letter, is the process takes about a month and a half
before you receive a new data plate.
A word of advice: When you find a missing or bad
data plate, contact the local FAA airworthiness inspector
and ask him to expedite your data plate request with the
manufacturer. Maybe he can save you a couple of weeks
downtime. El September/October 1990
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 235
FAA Feedback
Wedged between a rock
and a hard place
I
t was a quiet Monday in Washington, D.C., until I
received a fax from Aircraft Technician magazine
( A n .The fax was the first in a trial program in
which technicians can voice complaints through AT,
to the FAA, on any subject without giving their name
or address.
This particular fax came from a repair station vice
president. He said that his company had identified two
problems with Piper Service Bulletin No. 932. The
service bulletin deals with the installation of fuel tank
wedges to keep water from collecting in the tanks on
several models of Piper PA 23 aircraft.
The repair station, which is rated to work on fuel
tanks, claims that the first problem is that the kit is
very difficult to install. Both he and another FBO tried
to install the kit without success.
The second problem dealt with the design of the
wedges. He claims the 9Megree corners on the wedges
did not let them conform to the shape of the fuel cell
which had more rounded contours.
His complaint focused in on the following issues: He
was concerned that when this kit becomes an airworthi-
ness directive (AD), the high cost of both purchasing
this kit and the installation cost would pose an undue
burden on many owners. He also wanted the FAA to
look into the Service Bulletin to see if it is airworthy
and to check for alternative methods for solving the
water problem.
I checked with the FAA Atlanta Certii'kation engi-
neer who deals with Piper, and he explained that the
service bulletin had already been put into an AD format
and had been issued as a Notice of Proposed Rulemak-
ing (NPRM). He said that it was published in the
Federal Register as an NPRM on June 4, 1990.
236 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
There is very little that can be done by FAA person-
nel once the NPRM is published. When it is published,
the FAA literally stops work until all public comment is
received. At this point, if changes are going to be made,
it's up to the public to initiate the change. If little or
no comment is received on the NPRM, the rule will
probably be made into an AD, as written.
I called the repair station vice president and told him
that I had some good news and some bad news. The
good news was that he could comment in writing on the
proposed AD, state his objections, defend his reasons,
and offer any alternative means of eliminating water
from the tanks.
He was also told that the engineer in charge of this
AD was required by law to study each comment and
develop an answer to each objection to the proposed
rule. No comment on a proposed regulation can be
ignored by the FAA.
The bad news was that any comments must be sent
in triplicate to the FAA Docket in Kansas City, MO,
before July 24, 1990. The gentleman from the repair
station said he felt strongly enough that he would indeed
comment on this issue in writing.
Credit is certainly due to this gentleman for standmg
by his convictions. Many people in our industry just
stand off to the side and don't actively participate in the
maintenancerelated rulemaking process. This gives s u b
stance to the old Washington proverb: "Bad regulations
are written by good people who don't get involved."
If more technicians voiced their opinions in writing
on the rules that govern our industry, we would see
substantial improvement to our maintenance regulations.
65!i July/August 1990
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 Reclp & lbrbine Technology

Preface .........................................................................................................................................................
vii
Recip Technology
Magneto maintenance ...................................................................................................................................... 3
Engine lubrication basics ................................................................................................................................ 8
Ring leakage vs. oil color ......................................................................................................................... 10
Guidelines for removing cylinders ................................................................................................................. I1
Harsh environment props ............................................................................................................................. 13
Cooking lessons for Continental fuel injection systems ................................................................................. 16
The troubleshooting process ........................................................................................................................... 19
Cold weather operations ................................................................................................................................. 24
Misconceptions about aircraft engine clearance in cold engines ............................................................25
The question of FAA approval .............................................................................................................. 26
Engine overhaul options .................................................................................................................................27
The evolution of cylinder repair .............................................................................................................. 28
The 50Chour Slick magneto inspection ........................................................................................................ 30
The engine doctors ........................................................................................................................................
34
Having turbocharger problems? ..................................................................................................................... 37
Continental fuel injection basics .................................................................................................................... 42
B&S offers fundamental tips for troubleshooting and maintahmg TCM fuel injection systems ............45
Prop strikes ...................................................................................................................................................
46
Weighing the options for cylinder break-in .................................................................................................... 48
Auto fuel .......................................................................................................................................................
51
Canadian club reports improved performance with auto gas ..................................................................53
RSA fuel injection ..........................................................................................................................................
54
Radial engines still popular in firefighting and cargo operations .................................................................. 57
Oil starvation ................................................................................................................................................
60
Inspect cylinders thoroughly before installing ................................................................................................ 62
Effect of auto fuel is being evaluated ...................................................................................................... 64
Dowty Rotol 333 teardown and assembly tips ............................................................................................. 65
The prop killer ................................................................................................................................................
67
Compression testing .......................................................................................................................................
69
Help wanted ...................................................................................................................................................
72
The scientific approach ................................................................................................................................. 75
Propeller governor basics ............................................................................................................................... 78
Carburetor maintenance tips ....................................................................................................................... 82
Hard knocks for camshafts .......................................................................................................................... 86
Hydraulic lifters .................................................................................. .................................................
89
Top end detective ...................................................................................................................................... 92

Con tinued

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Recip & 7brbine Technologlr

Recip Technology contin ued

The geared engine ..........................................................................................................................................
95
The art of troubleshooting the fuel system .............................................................................................. 97
Get the lead out ............................................................................................................................................
100
Operating suggestions that eliminate lead buildup ................................................................................ 102
Removal and installation tips from Champion ...................................................................................... 103
Crankcase welding .........................................................................................................................................
104
Tracking turbo squawks ............................................................................................................................... 107
Installing a turbocharger? ...................................................................................................................... 108
Reciprocating engine troubleshooting .......................................................................................................... 110
m e four most troublesome problems ...................................................................................................111
Stacking the odds against you ..................................................................................................................... 113
Make the pilot aware o f abuse ...............................................................................................................114
Overhaul options for your cylinders .......................................................................................................... 115
Headaches! .........................................................................................................................................117
From the field .................................................................................................................................... 117
Spectrometric oil analysis............................................................................................................................ 118
Tips for selecting a lab .......................................................................................................................... 120
Phillips 66 suggests the following dos and don% when sta&ng an oil analysis program .................... 121

Turbine Technology
APS 2000 auxiliary power unit ....................................................................................................................125
PT6T twin-pac gearbox overhauls ................................................................................................................127
Anti-friction bearings overhaul visual inspection standard for heat discoloration ................................. 130
Gearbox lubrication -a tricIry subject ....................................................................................................131
' f i e evolution of vibration monitoring ......................................................................................................... 132
Don't knock it .........................................................................................................................................
134
TFE731 engine control systems troubleshooting .......................................................................................... 135
Thrust reverser maintenance ....................................................................................................................... 138
Lycoming LTlOl engine maintenance ..........................................................................................................141
GE CF700 hot section inspection tips .......................................................................................................... 144
Trend monitoring to enhance engine maintenance programs ..................................................................... 147
Northwest Airlines draws on vast experience to improve JT8D maintenance ........................................ 151
Fundamentals of vibration analysis ............................................................................................................. 154
Vibration analysis in practice .................................... ............................................................................ 157
Getting 100 percent out of a PWlOO hot section inspection .......................... . . .....................................158
Rigging the Allison 25GB17 ......................................................................................................................... 162
ALF 502 major periodic inspection .............................................................................................................. 167
GTCP 36150 hot section inspection ............................................................................................................ 170
Dealing with fan damage .............................................................................................................................. 173
Hot section inspection tips for the Sundstrand T62T-40C Series APU ........................................................177
Compressor washing .................................................................................................................................... 181
Hot section inspection tips for the General Electric CJ610 ......................................................................... 183
Helpful rigging tips for the FT6 .................... . . ..................................................................................... 186

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Garrett TFE731 Major Periodic Inspection (MPI) ..................................................................................... 189
LTS 101 low power troubleshooting .............................................................................................................193
Jet lube ..........................................................................................................................................................
196
AUison 250 C20/C20B ..................................................................................................................................199
Inspecting turbine ignition leads ........................... . ..................................................................................202
TPE331 gearbox inspection .......................................................................................................................... 204
Too hot to handle ..........................................................................................................................................
208
JTl5D hot section inspections .................................................................................................................... 210
TFE731 engine control systems .......................................................................................................... 214
Fuel nozzle maintenance ........................................................................................................................ 218
Allison 250 compressor maintenance ...........................................................................................................221
Rotor blade inspection guidelines ..........................................................................................................224
Protecting today's turbine hot section ..........................................................................................................225
Gentlemen-Start your engines ...................................................................................................................227
Rigging your TPE331 .................................................................................................................................229
How well do you h o w your WE331 engine? .................................................................................. 231
P'E hot sections for the '90s ......................................................................................................................232
Through the eyes of the borescope ..............................................................................................................235
Video technology offersadvantages .......................................................................................................237
Turbine ignition fault isolation .....................................................................................................................238
A few simple igniter inspection tips .....................................................................................................240
Automated trend monitoring ..................................................................................................................... 241
Who's who in automated trend monitoring ...........................................................................................243

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Reclp & hrbine li?chnolo#y

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Reclp & brblne Technology

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine: A special thanks to all contributing columnists:
Recip T e c h n o l o ~ Technology
~ e
by Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Recip Technology
(ISSN 10723146)
John Boyce
Harry Fenton
Kathy Man; Publisher
Greg Napert, Editor
Gary Greenwood
Michael Lambrecht
Fred Mackerodt
O 1996 A i r c r d Maintenance TechnoJogy Magazine, Johnson Greg Napert
Hill Press Inc., a subsidiary of PTN Publishing Company; Art Pierce
Stanley S. Sills, chairman and CEO; Richard A. Reiff, John Schwaner
president and COO. Mark Spickard
The material presented in Aircraft Maintenance Technol-
ogy is intended to complement technical information that is
Rudy Swider
currently available from supplier and regulatory sources such
as aircraft manufacturers and the Federal Aviation Adminis TurbineTechnology
tration. Every effort is made to ensure that the information William L. Austin
provided is accurate. However, if information presented by Joseph A. Bergner
AircraR Maintenance Technology is in conflict with supplier Gary Byard
and regulatory sources, the latter shall take precedence. Jim Fenton
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
Mervyn Floyd
electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or Jimmy Gates
any information etorage or retrieval system, without written Glenn Hunt
permission from the publisher. Ted Long
Dick Mace
Michael Most
Published 1996 by Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. Greg Napert
Printed in Canada
George Nixon
Cecil Orozco
99 98 97 96 Marty Park
Gerry Riffle
Mike Salisbury
Clay Sevier
ASA-BAMl'-P R.J. Shope
ISBN 1-56027-2694
Jim Taylor
Edward G . Tripp
Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. (ASA)
7005 132nd Place SE
Newcastle, WA 980593153

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 Reclp 1) 7hrbIne Technology

Technical reading material is, by its very nature, "dry." No laughs or chuckles can be heard as a technician
reads through the typical A&P training manual, nor can you find the average technician sitting down on the
weekend entertaining himself with a good A&P regulations book.
When we started publishing Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine in 1989, we wanted to provide
a technical training curriculum that technicians could use to advance themselves in their profession; yet, we
realized that if it were to work, we would have to provide material that was not only technically accurate
and relevant to the profession, but fun to read. We feel that we've accomplished this over the years, as
our subscribers relate stories of adually reading the material during their leisure hours-and learning
something from it.
The f a d that the magazine is required reading material in many A&P schools and that the FAA and
Transport Canada have approved the material for recurrency training purposes is testament to the fact that
the material is also technical ly relevant.
After being hounded repeatedly for permission to reprint articles and to provide back issues to
individuals, and after realizing that much of the material in the magazine was actually timeless, we finally
decided to make the material available in book format.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine series represents the best articles published
during the years 1989 through 1995. It is divided into a threevolume set, which includes the Recip &
Turbine Technology Series, Airframe & Accessory Technology Series, and Professional & Legal Series. The
articles appear only in the order they appeared in AMT Magazine, not according to subject matter. So read
each volume from back to front, front to back, or select only the subject matter you are interested in.
But most importantly, find a nice quite place, and sit back and enjoy.

Happy reading!
Greg Napert
Editor, AMT Magazine

/'he Best of Aircrafi Maintenance Technology Magazine vii

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Magneto maintenance
Clarifying concepts and addressing common questions
By Greg Napert
A lthough magnetos have been around for as long
as the aircraft, there are still many questions
concerning their mission and maintenance.
For starters, it's important to treat the magneto as
a critical component that requires preventive mainte-
nance and scheduled inspections for maximum engine
performance.
The magneto is a mass of rotating gears, clicking
points, and energized electrical components and as such,
it requires preventive maintenance like any other part of
the aircraft.
Need for preventive maintenance
Tim Davis, service engineer for Teledyne Continental
Motors' TCM Ignition Systems in Atlanta, GA, says,
"The most common mistake made in the field is not
doing overhaule and inspections frequently enough.
"Over the years, I've seen some instances where it
appeared the magnetos were treated as just an acces-
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sory. They're an essential part of the engine. Engine per-
formance depends on magneto performance.
"That's why it's important to overhaul the magnetos
when performing an engine overhaul," he says.
"TCM recommends overhauling the magneto with the
engine or at a four-year interval, whichever comes first.
Preventive maintenance for magnetos needs to be
viewed in the same light as oil and filter changes and
other similar preventive maintenance measures.
"Because of neglect of magnetos, we've seen some
service bulletins come out that really shouldn't have.
"For example, MSB644 on coils and magneta is a
result of allowing the magneto to go unchecked for
extended periods of time," Davis explains.
"This bulletin really began over 20 years ago with a
different bulletin that was issued which required the in-
spection at overhaul with specific limits as to how many
hundred hours that actually meant. Well, 20 years came
and went and a lot of folks hadn't done the bulletin.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Reclp Technology
They reasoned the bulletin didn't apply to them because
they hadn't had many hours on the magneto, even if
years had gone by. In fact, it did apply to them."
"Shower of sparks" vs. impulse couplings
Davis says there is often discussion in the field over
the effectiveness of the shower-of-sparks as compared to
the impulse couphg.
First of all, "the starting vibrator (shower-of-sparks)
and impulse couplings are two different items that do
the same job. The idea is to produce a hot enough spark
to ignite the fuel mixture as the engine/magneto system
is turning at too low a rate of speed during starting.
"The starting vibrator," he says, "produces several
sparks per ignition event by buzzing at about 500 cycles
per second. Battery power is required initially to run the
shower-of-sparks ignition system.
"Impulse couplings, on the other hand, produce one
spark per event. They increase the intensity of the spark
at starting by holdmg the magnet shaft of the magneto
stiU until the engine reaches about top center. At this
point, flyweights are released and the couphgs spring
accelerates the magnet to produce a hot and late spark
for ignition. The impulse coupling is more popular in
terms of what youll find on hghter aircraft such as the
Cessna 150 and Cherokee 140. For larger twins and
other aircraft, you'll often find the shower-of-sparks
system.
"It really all depends on the mission of the aircraft,"
explains Davis.
"Many operators find the shower-of-sparks magneto
system provides excellent mission reliability. Although
the shower-sparks system draws current from the b a t
tery during start, it only requires two to three amps.
This is comparable to the current draw of starter relays
and master switch relays. A battery which can turn the
starter motor will have no problems with the shower-of-
sparks demand.
"Despite the differences, many aircraft manufacturers
have type certificates which allow for interchangeability
between the shower-of-sparks and the impulse coupling
so the owner can change systems easily if he/she
wishes."
Cam follower meltdown - setting the
record straight
Davis says, "There have been a couple of reported
incidents recently related to cam followers that have
been found melted down.
"Sometimes, the cause of the meltdown is being mis-
dugnosed, and the problem is being allowed to continue.
"What you have in the magneto is a set of points
opening and closing very fast. If the capacitor is not d e
ing its job in one way or another, arcing occurs between
the points. Eventually, if it gets bad enough, the points
4 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
r\Secondary
Coils are built to last. Notice in this cutaway how much
larger the primary windings are as compared to the
secondary.
heat up, which in turn heats up the spring, and then
melts the nylon cam follower," he says.
"This condition is usually associated with the dual
magneto. On dual magnetos, capacitors are installed in
the harness cover and they are really part of the mag-
neto. What happens in the field is sometlung goes wrong
in the capacitor circuit and the technician replaces the
magneto, but keeps the same cover on with the same
capacitor. The problem still exists and the capacitor
melts another set of followers."
Davis explains that TCM has produced a service bul-
letin to try to solve this problem. SB651 describes the
need to replace capacitors when you install a new mag-
neto and also offers tips on troubleshooting capacitor
related problems.
"The capacitor ground circuit should not be over-
looked. You can have a perfectly good capacitor and
have a bad capacitor ground return circuit and it will
give you exactly the same symptom as a bad capacitor,"
says Davis.
"In the course of writing this bulletin (SB651), I
spoke with several technicians who had experienced
problems. In one case, the inside and outside of the har-
ness cover had been painted. Locktitemhad been used
where the screws attached the cover to the magneto.
And both the harness cover and magneto housing m a t
ing surfaces had been painted. The result was the capaci-
tors were completely insulated from the magneto. Al-
though the intent was to do a good job preventing corro-
sion, in reality, the capacitor was disabled.
"In another example, a technician and I were trouble
shooting his rough running engine problem. Soon
enough, we found one of the capacitors was loose in the
cover. The capacitor must be secure in the cover for
grounding and optimum magneto performance.
"These capacitors do double duty. They are noise
fiters, and they are arc suppressors," Davis says.
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 Recip Technology

Commonly asked service questions

Davis says, as service engineer for TCM, there are
several questions which he gets asked most frequently.
The questions are as follows:

What's the difference between P/N 10-3493504 and

-5? (Two magnetos used on a majority of Continental
applications such as Continental 470, 520, and 550
Class engines).
They appear at first glance to be identical. And they
are - except they have water drains positioned on oppo-
site sides of each unit. The -4 drain is positioned for the
left location, and the -5 for the right. If you put two -4s
on the same engine, you'll have one water drain sticking
down and the other sticking up, and water very rarely
flows up!
New, shorter cover requires a change to the capacitor bracket
With the new snap-ring style coupling, do you still so that capacitors are not interchangeable between long and
have to do the AD inspection? short covers.
The answer is YES.
The new couplings have a snap ring that holds the tributor block. The larger magneto has more air in it,
flyweights instead of a rivet. We also made a number of more space between the high tension points and ground
other improvements. We redesigned the shape of the fly- and the high tension points and each other. As a result
weight, and the axle that it spins on. It's been an im- there's less opportunity for things like arcing because the
provement overall; however, the AD still applies. distances are greater.
Another word about impulse couplings. When they're The 1200 Series is already approved as an inter-
removed, it's very common that people get the flyweight changeable magneto for many Continental engines in-
caught behind the woodruff key. And they have a puller cluding the 470, 520, and 550 engines. Smaller installa-
on and they'll pull and pull until something gives. And tions may not allow for use of the 1200 Series magneto
they'll break the flyweight or the retaining part, whether because of a lack of space.
it be the rivet or a snap ring, and it's completely unnec- The 1200 Series is commonly used on racing aircraft.
essary. Once the unit comes a little bit loose, you take Switching over on some engines that don't have a pre-
the puller off, turn the magneto upside down and shake approved type certificate may be just a matter of using a
it and the coupling falls off. Simple as that. You just 337 form (field approval).
need to pop it off its tapered shaft.

Is there a pressurization kit available to pressurize

my magneto?
The short answer is no. If you want to pressurize
your magnetos or want high altitude performance, the
only really good way to do it is take it to a shop that is
capable of converting the magnetos to pressurized
magnetos.
When we talk about pressurized magnetos, it's inde-
pendent from the cabin pressurized system. It's a
method of introducing pressurized air into the magneto.
Air is a good insulator. It's cheap, readily able. Most
times what they do is tap upper deck pressure from the
• engine turbo charging system.
The conversion is a little more involved than what
most folks just want to do out in the field. So I can offer
these two possible solutions: Either trade them in for
• pressurized magnetos, or if it's an option, upgrade to
1200 Series magnetos. If high altitude performance is
what you're looking for, the 1200 Series was developed
as a high altitude magneto to replace the old low tension
magnetos. The 1200 Series magnetos have a larger dis-
I
How can check the voltage output of the vibrator on
my shower-of-sparks system?
The vibrator is a series unit, so when you unplug it
and you put a voltmeter on the output, you won't get
anything. It has to have a path to ground. It's in series
with the ignition switch; it's in series with the magneto.
The way to check it is with an ammeter on the out-
put. Put an ammeter in series with it. If the ammeter
reads within a quarter amp of the right value, which is
printed on the unit (example Amps DC 2.0), you're get-
ting the right output.
Where can I £md the proper maintenance intervals for
my magneto? •
Maintenance intervals are defined in Service Bulletin
643. These include: timing checks and visual inspections
at 100-hour, annual, and progressive maintenance inter-
vals, impulse coupling inspections, 500-hour cleaning in-
spections, and overhaul with the engine or at the expira-
tion of four years.

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Recip Technology
When we say overhaul, what are we really taking
about: teardown, inspection, and reassembly. The compo-
nents you replace 100 percent at overhaul, such parts as:
breaker points, which are both lubricated and subject to
corrosion, bearings, which are lubricated and subject to
corrosion, thread locking components and the impulse
coupling spring and that's pretty much it. Overhaul is
an excellent time to ensure complete bulletin compli-
ance also.
Why do I have to replace my coil and rotating
magneta per AD 94-0143 WSB644)?
If you read the service bulletin MSB644, it says that
if your magnetos are within a specific serial number
range, then you've got to inspect them. If during the in-
spection you find obsolete rotors or obsolete coils, then
you need to replace them. MSB644 only requires an in-
spection and you only need to replace these components
if necessary.
Just for historical information, the rotating magnets
in question went out of production in 1957. The coils
that are in question went out of production in 1968.
How do I check zqy coil if I suspect it is bad?
There are three ways to check coils:
First and foremost is to use an ohmmeter. If you
have a bad coil, your ohmmeter will show the coil is
open. If you have resistance within published service lim-
its, you still have to determine if the coil is good.
The other way is to run the magneto on a test stand.
If you're getting a nice blue spark on the spark rack, it
should be OK.
If your coil is giving you marginal performance one
way or another, often it's hot starting problems. You no-
tice if you try to start the engine when it's hot and you
can't, it may be a sign the coil is deteriorating. And this
New impulse couplings have snap rings fiackground)
instead o f conventional rivets (foreground).
6 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
usually gets progressively worse. That's how you might
be able to distinguish it from a fuel problem.
Third is to observe the magneto output on an oscillo-
scope and test force voltage output.
The real test is checking to make sure the magneto
works on the engine.
Modern coils are built well and are very dependable.
How do I check the capacitor?
As for capacitors, resistance should be checked from
one terminal to the other. There must be continuity be-
tween the two terminals. The housing is ground so there
should not be continuity between the terminal and the
housing. One terminal goes to the ignition switch and
the other goes to the breakers.
So if you have continuity between either terminal and
the body of the capacitor, you know the capacitor is
shorted.
You also have to check for integrity of the insulation.
To do this you'll need a tester capable of applying 400
volts DC. And finally, you need to check the capacitance
in microfarads.
Keep in mind typical signs pointing to a bad or dis-
connected capacitor are arcing of the points and possibly
cam follower melting down.
If the capacitor is shorted, the magneto will not
operate.
If capacitor operation is intermittent, you can expect
a rough running engine when that magneto is selected.
Do I need a copy of the work order for a rebuilt
magneto for my records?
We occasionally have technicians requesting a copy of
the work order for rebuilding a magneto. What's impor-
tant to know is a rebuilt magneto from TCM (and we're
the only ones who can rebuild) is not an overhauled mag-
neto. A work order won't tell you anything because we
totally break down, disassemble, and rebuild every mag-
neto core that comes in.
At best, the only thing a work order can do is to list
for you which parts are potentially reclaimed parts. Any
of the parts installed may be new, but it's not docu-
mented because the new and salvaged parts for a rebuilt
unit are used interchangeably.
However, work order for an overhauled magneto is
different. Someone who performs an overhaul in the
field must document each step of the process and must
have a record of the overhaul.
When you purchase a rebuilt unit from a TCM dis-
tributor, you get a zero-timed unit with a fresh serial
number.
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 Recip Technology

m e r e can I get manuale? This leads us to believe tools designed to hold the
The answer is to call Teledyne Continental Motors gear in place are being used in the field, contrary to
at (334) 4383411 ext. 392 and ask for technical all of our literature - and these tools are damaging
publications. the gears.
We state in our literature to not use any magneto
What causee the nylon timing gear teeth to become gear holding tools. They're not necessary.
damaged? November/December 1995
We occasionally get reports of nylon timing gears
shearing teeth. All recent reports we've investigated
have had broken teeth near the timing mark or opposite
the timing mark where the gear is engaged with the
pinion gear.

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Reclp Technology
Engine lubrication basics
Slip into a more comfortable level of understanding
about engine lubrication
I
n searchmg to answer some commonly asked ques-
tions and review lubrication basics, AMT magazine
went to a variety of sources to gain a basic under-
standing of lubrication.
All of these sources agree that oil does more than
provide a means to reduce friction in the engine.
Beyond lubrication, oil provides cooling, seals the pis-
ton rings to cylinder walls and cushions parts against
shock. Oil also proteds the engine from rust and corro-
sion, and keeps the engine clean and free from sludge,
contaminates that result from the combustion process,
dirt, varnish, and other contaminates.
Because oil performs all of these functions, and the
engine clearly does not run without it, it is considered,
indeed, to be the lifeblood of the engine.
Following are some commonly asked questions that,
with answers provided by Phillips 66, will give a good
basic understanding of some of the intricacies of engine
oil and can help to prepare you for customers who may
want answers to these basic questions:
What an, the Werences between automotive
and aviation anginerr, and how do they oil
formulatiom?
Major structural and operating differences between
automobile and aircraft engines require different oil
characteristics. For example, automobile engine blocks
are made of steel; aviation engines are composed of
lightweight alloys.
Auto engines are watercooled; aviation engines are
aircooled. Auto engines run at varying rpm; aircraft en-
gines run at constant rpm. Autos undergo stopand-go
operation; aircraft do not.
Aviation oils contain fewer additives, and they differ
from automotive oil additives. Detergents and anti-wear
additives used in automotive oils are prohibited in avia-
tion oils because of concerns that they leave deposits
that might lead to preignition and detonation.
Also, viscosities for auto and aviation oils are quite
different. Because of wider operating temperatures and
larger internal machine clearances, aircraft engines r e
quire much heavier oils than autos-SAE 50 instead of
30, for example.
8 The Best of Aircrafi Maintenance Technology Magazine
How does a multigrade aviation oil work, compared
m'tb a s i n g l e e oil?
Multigrade oils flow and lubricate over much broader
operating parameters (i.e., temperatures). Multigrades
provide better flow characteristics at low (starbup) tem-
peratures and offer potentidy better film strength at
high (operating) temperatures. Singlegrade oils cannot
provide the quick-flow characteristics which aviation
engines need at starbup.
The "critical ingredients" in multigrade oils are vis-
cosity modifiers. They flow as freely as a 2Gweight oil,
yet protect as well or better than a 50-weight oil at oper-
ating temperatures. Viscosity modifiers control the oil's
normal thinning rate as it gets hotter.
Do any aviation oil^ contain detergente?
We are not aware of any currently approved aviation
oil that contains detergent additives.
Ashless dispersants (ADS) are not the same as deter-
gents. While detergents will clean previously formed d e
posits from an engine's interior surface-similar to dish
soap cleaning grease from a plate-ashless dispersant
additives simply hold contaminants suspended until the
oil is drained, but they do not remove solidified sludges
already deposited in the engine.
For example, if the operator runs an aircraft engine
for 500 hours on non-AD oil, then switches to an oil with
AD, the new AD oil will not clean up 500 hours worth of
inengine deposits. It will, however, suspend contarni-
nants which haven't yet solidified, so it will seem to dis-
color faster than non-AD oil. That simply illustrates that
the oil is doing its job, and it should not cause concern.
AD oils will not move large quantities of sludges to
clog oil screens or oil journals, as some operators fear.
Are all aviation oil^ compatible?
Yes, by mil spec requirements. Aviation oils are
tightly monitored, and the additive chemistry in different
oils is very similar. If you need to add oil, but can't find
your brand, you can add a different brand of aviation oil
without fear. Adding a quart of some other brand is pref-
erable to operating a quart low.
Can I m'tch oil bran& without cawing a problem?
Because the composition of aviation oils are strin-
gently regulated, there are no elements in any approved
aviation oil that are harmful to your aircraft engine.
Consequently, there is no problem switching brands.
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 Can I switch to a multigrade from a singlegrade
mineral oil?
Yes, especially if you want improved lubrication and
engine performance.
Why should I use a multigrade oil? I live in a warm
&ate ye~ll~round.
Early multigrade oil marketing focused on its cold-
temperature advantages, prompting some pilots to think
multigrade is advantageous only in cold climates. How-
ever, multigrade oils actually provide heavier film
strength than singlegrade oils at higher temperatures,
thus better protecting aircraft engines should they
overheat.
How o h n should I change my oil?
As a rule of thumb, you should change your oil every
25 operating hours if your engine does not have an oil
filter. An oil filter on your aircraft engine can double the
oilchange interval to 50 operating hours, or every four
months, whichever comes first.
You really can't change oil too often, as long as you
follow engine and oil manufacturers' guidelines. In fad,
regularly changing oil is one of the best thmgs you can
do for aircraft engine maintenance.
JYI switch from singlwade to multigrade, what oper
ating Merences w i l l I experience?
There are many advantages to switchmg to a multi-
grade AD oil. For example, the engine will be easier to
start . Oil pressure will stabilize faster because lubrica-
tion is quicker. Engine warm-up is faster because the oil
has a better volumetric flow circulating through the en-
gine. Operating temperatures will be more consistent,
and oil consumption may be lowered because multigrade
oils provide a better cylinder ring seal.
Are there advantages to using supplemental oil
additives?
"Off the shelf" additives became popular in the late
1950s and early 1960s. At that time, oil companies began
using chemical additives in automotive oils. People b e
lieved they could buy chemical additives separately and
further improve performance.
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Except in rare instances, engine manufacturers do
not recommend using supplemental additive chemistries.
Changing oil regularly is much more beneficial. Little if
any benefit is to be expected from addition of these ma-
terials to an approved oil.
Will a multigrade oil cause valm'cking?
No. Valvesticking problems are caused by fuel deposit
build-up, combined with specific design and installation
or operating conditions. Since oil is not the root cause of
valvesticking, multigrade oils have no more effect than
single grades.
Do I need to pmheat if I use multigrade oil?
Aircraft engines should always be preheated in tem-
peratures below 20°F,regardless of the type of oil used.
Preheating is important not necessarily to improve oil
flow. The metals of an aviation engine experience tre
mendous expansion/contraction pressures. Preheating
engine metals minimizes the "shock" of building a fire
inside a t low temperatures.
Start-up contributes about 80 percent of the normal
wear on the life of an engine. Using a multigrade oil and
preheating can ~ ~ c a n treduce
l y that wear.
Will multigrade oils work in antique planes?
Older engines have the same basic oil needs as newer
ones. The benefits they receive from advanced oil formu-
lations are also very similar.
How does analyaie work?
For an aviation engine, oil analysis is a long-term p r e
ventive maintenance tool. It can be part of an ongoing
program, but must be conducted regularly to establish
trends of operation.
An operator can determine patterns on how the en-
gine is performing. Oil analysis looks at wear metals,
viscosity integrity, fuel dilution, and air intake system
leaks, among other thmgs. It builds a history of the
engine's performance so that if there are any potential,
detectable problems, they can be addressed and cor-
rected before becoming a crisis.
Oil analysis is a more scientific way of getting the
best performance out of your oil, and the best protection
for your engine.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 9
Recip Technology
Ring leakage vs. oil color
A simple check of the color of the engine oil is the most
reliable method for detecting the early symptoms of poor
compression attributable to ring leakage. Blow-by of com-
bustion gas past the piston ring belt causes the oil to
turn black, raises oil temperature, and, if sufficiently
great, blows oil out the engine breather. Each time you
check the level of the engine oil, look at the oil color.
You should develop an idea of what the normal color of
engine oil should be.
As long as the oil color remains gray or dark gray,
you do not have blow-by past the ring belt, regardless of
the readings of a compression test. Oil should turn some
what dark; if it doesn't, it's not keeping the engine clean.
Oil should keep the carbon and sludge deposits in sus-
pension so they drain out with the oil change.
If your engine oil turns black (coal black), combustion
gas is going past the ring belt and into the crankcase. In
the early stages, you can still have good compression
readings and still have blow-by. Oil color analysis
amounts to a sensitive test for blow-by past the ring belt
each time you check the oil level.
Other conditions which can turn the oil black are oil
oxidation and poor quality fuels. Mineral oils used for
engine "break-in" oxidize at lower temperatures than ad-
ditive oils. This is especially true if the engine uses pis-
ton oil squirts or is turbocharged. Poor quality auto fuel
sometimes forms soot; the blow-by portion of this soot
contaminates the oil and turns it black within a short
period. The soot exiting with the exhaust leaves a black
smudge on the exhaust stack.
Two other cross-checks you can use to verify com-
pression loss past the rings are high oil temperature and
oil loss out the breather.
Hot combustion gases blowing past the rings and into
the crankcase will elevate the oil temperature. These
gases vent via the engine breather and carry some oil
with it. This oil ends up on the lower engine cowling.
Besides sealing against gas and oil, piston rings also
transfer heat from the piston to the cylinder barrel.
Blow-by past the ring belt raises the temperature of the
piston. The piston, which has a large heat receiving sur-
10 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
face called the piston dome, transfers heat to the cylin-
der wall through the piston rings. Cooling fins on the
cylinder barrel transfers heat to the atmosphere. Com-
bustion gases blowing past the piston compression rings
prevent the rings front transferring piston heat to the
cylinder wall. As piston temperatures increase, the oil on
the piston and in the ring grooves thickens as the more
volatile components of the oil vaporize. At approximately
450°F, the oil begins runaway oxidation and turns to car-
bon. The oxidized oil in the ring grooves causes the
rings to stick.
Ring breakage occurs when the compression rings
stick and are prevented from going back into the ring
groove and subjected to side loading on the cylinder
wall. If the compression rings stick in the ring groove in
the compressed state, massive blow-by of combustion
gases occurs. This pressurizes the crankcase, causing
oil to blow out the engine breather. Oxidized oil on the
cylinder wall clogs the oil control ring expander and
prevents oil from draining from the cylinder wall
through the oil control ring and into the crankcase. Oil
consumption will then rise dramatically.
After cylinder repair, the cylinder rings must be
"seated for proper oil control. If you have excessive oil
consumption, you might be told this is normal and that
the rings "haven't seated." This may or may not be the
case. Even though the rings have not seated, you should
not have blow-by past the ring belt. If your oil is black
and you have oil blowing out the engine breather, it's not
because the rings have not seated. The rings should hold
compression right from the start. Blow-by of combustion
gas is never "self-correcting" and only gets worse. Have
the offending cylinders and rings repaired or replaced.
September/October 1995
The preceding information is taken from the Sky Ranch
Engineering Manual, Second Edition by John Schwaner.
For a copy of the publication, write to Sacramento Sky
Ranch Inc., 6622 Freeport Blvd., Sacramento, CA 95822,
or call (916) 421-7672.
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By J o h n Schwaner
lthough manufacturer's guidelines are pretty
clear cut for determining whether a cylinder is
airworthy, pressures from the aircraft o h e r , as
well as other factors encountered in the real world, can
often cloud the decision of whether or not to pull cylin-
ders. This article is intended to offer some suggestions
and advice for supporting your decision to remove
cylinders.
Think safety + airworthy
When you make a recommendation to pull a cylinder,
such recommendation should have film foundation in
airworthiness and safety. Be able to explain how your
recommendation is based on airworthiness, how your
recommendation enhances safety, and in the long run,
reduces expense to the aircraft owner.
No one likes spending money repairing cylinders. You
have a selling job to do to convince the customer that
your recommendation makes sense. With this foundation
you will not be tempted to change your opinion because
of "badgering" by unqualified owners/operators.
Sometimes sensitivity to the customer doesn't work,
and you have to get into his face with hard reality.
Compression alone is not the only criterion for r e
moving a cylinder. Other conditions that may warrant
removaVreplacement of the cylinder are as follows:
Exhaust port leakage
Exhaust leakage causes erosion of the aluminum ex-
haust port. Further attempts to seal the eroded port are
futile and eventually the port will have to be milled
down, or in extreme cases welded back up and then
milled.
If enough gas leakage occurs and impinges on the
spark plug, the plug could get hot enough to cause
engine preignition. Preignition causes holes in pistons,
cylinder heads, a p e d intake valves, and detonation.
Nothing empties a pilot's wallet faster than preignition.
Oil consumption too high
Oil present in the combustion chamber mixes with
the fuel and lowers the fuel's octane. Excessive oil dilu-
tion can lower the fuel's octane rating below the engine's
octane requirements. Chevron fuel contamination in
California illustrates how some engines can be damaged
by small amounts of oil in the fuel while other engines
using the same fuel were undamaged.
Since high compression engines require higher octane
fuel, the higher the engine's compression ratio the less
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oil consumption should be allowed. If you have a 10:l
compression Lycoming, you don't want to burn as much
oil as a low compression engine. One reason not to add
Marvel Mystery oil to the fuel in high compression en-
gines is the reduction in fuel octane caused by the mys-
tery oil.
Maximum oil consumption depends upon the ability
of the combustion chamber to scavenge oil residual.
Some engines, U e the Continental 10-550, are much
more efficient at preventing a buildup of carbon in the
combustion chamber than other engines, such as the
Lycoming (1235. Generally engines with hemispherical
combustion chambers (anglehead cylinders) tolerate
more oil in the combustion chamber before spark plug
or valve fouling occurs. Anglehead cylinders are those
that use two rocker arm shafts. All Continental 520
engines and 0-470 K and higher are anglehead.
Lycoming 360 and 540 engines can be either anglehead
or parallel head.
Oil consumption rates should never be so high that
the aircraft is in danger of running out of oil before it
runs out of fuel.
Most engine manufacturers state the maximum allow-
able oil consumption. For example, from the Lycoming
I0320D operator's manual, maximum oil consumption at
65 percent power is 35 quarts per hour. The maximum
oil consumption rate depends upon your engine's design
and the power settings at which the aircraft owner flies.
Ring leakage
Blow-by is the passage of hot combustion gas past the
piston ring belt and into the crankcase. The problem is
usually found during a "compressionn test. It is usually
described as a compression loss past the rings. Blow-by
is the symptom produced when you have a worn cylinder
barrel, worn piston rings, worn piston ring lands, or
poor ring to barrel seating.
These things are hard to correct without removing
the cylinder and doing some repair work. Sometimes
people have tried a different oil, or a different oil viscos-
ity with some temporary success. Always a motivating
factor in f i g a problem is knowing what might happen
if it is not fixed. Exhaust gases at the EGT probe run
about 1,40O0F.Inside the cylinder, combustion gases
runs closer to 4,000°F. The top of the piston is a large
heat absorption surface that would quickly melt if it
couldn't conduct heat to the cylinder. The piston's heat
conduction path is primarily to the piston rings and
there to the cylinder barrel, cylinder barrel fins, and into
the atmosphere. The heat path requires a good contact
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
surface between the rings and cylinder wall. A good con-
tact surface also makes a good sealing surface where
combustion gases can't leak. Blow-by past the rings
means they aren't making good contact and can't con-
duct heat out of the piston.
Consequently, the piston gets hot; engine oil in the
piston ring grooves oxidizes, thickens, and turns to
carbon. This sticks the
rings in the piston
grooves. Sometimes it's
the oil control ring that
sticks. When this h a p
pens, oil gets past the oil
control ring and floods
the combustion chamber.
Sometimes it's the
I compression rings that
This Con tinen tal exhaust stick, causing them to
valve exhibits hoop stress
cracks as a result of a break. The broken ring
leaking exhaust valve. then ruins the cylinder by
gouging a trough in the
barrel. When you see a broken compression ring, it usu-
ally failed because of its working environment rather
than because of a problem with the ring itself.
Some have reported success in freeing up a stuck
ring by pouring solvents into the cylinder, letting them
soak into the ring grooves and then pouring the solvent
back out. Keep in mind though, the problem that caused
the thing to stick is still there.
Leaking exhaust valve
The face of an exhaust valve is a ring. Exhaust gas
leakage past the valve face heats one spot on the ring,
expanding it into an oval shape. This uneven ring expan-
sion creates hoop stress. After a few cycles of uneven
expansion and contraction, stress cracks form at the outr
side edge of the face. These cracks progress inward to
ward the center of the valve. When the cracks progress
about 1/4 of an inch, they turn 90 degrees and grow
around the valve face. When two cracks come together, a
12 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
piece of exhaust valve breaks off, the engine loses power,
and the piece of broken valve damages the cylinder and
piston. During engine idle valve overlap causes enough
backflow out the intake valve for the pieces of broken
valve to go up the intake and to other cylinders, damag-
ing them in turn.
A leaking exhaust valve sometimes causes the valve
to stick. Exhaust gas leaving the cylinder flows past the
valve face c a u s i . h e a t loa& to the valve. ~ o soft the
heat the valve absorbs conducts to the valve seat and
from there to the cylinder and into the atmosphere. A
leaking valve reduces the amount of heat conducted to
the seat causing the valve to overheat. The hot valve
causes oil to carburize and form carbon deposits on the
valve stem, that stick the valve in the guide.
If the valve sticks closed, combustion gas never leaves
the cylinder and compresses during the next compres-
sion stroke. The pressure against the intake valve is so
high that it cannot open. Either the push rod bends or
the rocker arm support breaks.
If the valve sticks open, the push rod is no longer
held in the hydraulic lifter's socket when the camshaft
lobe rotates. If it does not find its way back in during
the next revolution of the camshaft, the push rod dam-
ages the crankcase by jamming against it.
If the valve is sticky, the hlgh forces required to open
the valve usually damages the camshaft lobe and the en-
gine loses power.
One final point-always look at cylinder removal as
an opportunity to inspect other parts of the engine as
well. Since you have the cylinders off, it's a good time to
look closely at the camshaft and lifters and any other
part of the engine you have access to. And make these
inspections before you make any repairs to the cylinders.
If the engine is in need of overhaul, the customer may
want to purchase a remanufactured or overhauled
engine. In that case, you'll waste both time and money
repairing the cylinders on h i s h e r worn-out engine!
Jzdy/August 1995
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Harsh environment props
An Alaskan propeller shop deals with what the environment
serves up
By Greg Napert
A
laska's untouched environment offers many
challenges, not the least of which is getting
around. There aren't many roads built in the
state as many areas are remote tracks of unspoiled
wilderness. It's no wonder then that the chosen mode of
transportation for many is the airplane.
Float planes, ski planes, and bush planes loaded down
with supplies pose a unique challenge to the mechanical
systems of aircraft operated in Alaska-and especially to
propellers-which must endure water, rocks, snow, and
yes, even trees, to pull these pilots out or sometimes
precarious situations.
Jerry Allsup, owner and manager of Dominion Pro-
peller Service in Anchorage, one of the largest propeller
shops in the state, has the opportunity to see daily what
propellers are exposed to in this environment, and says
that generally, exposure to the Alaskan environment ac-
celerates the deterioration of the propeller. He says, "It's
not uncommon for prop blades to last only one overhaul
or two runs, especially for operators who operate out of
gravel strips. They end up filing it every day, and at that
rate, the props don't last very long."
Environmental challenges
According to Allsup, "You can usually tell who the
pilot of the aircraft is and how he or she flies the air-
plane when you see the propeller. You can tell whether
that person is the owner of the aircraft or a hired pilot.
"The owner will care for the propeller by keeping it
lubricated and coat it with a lubricant before and after
each flight. Flying techniques will be along the lines of
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presening the airplane and propeller, instead of just
gunning the aircraft and flying despite the cost on the
equipment.
"There's a company up here, for instance that flies
Grumman Goose aircraft off of the ocean. These aircraft
regularly encounter 5-foot swells while trying to take off.
Well, you can imagine they hit a lot of water, which r e
ally tears up the prop. It's common for them to tear up
a set of prop blades completely in 1,000 hours. Compare
this with blades that don't operate on the water which
commonly last through two overhauls or 6,000 hours."
Snow doesn't present as much of a problem, he ex-
plains, but it is also a hazard. It is mostly a problem b e
cause of what it covers, such as rocks or stumps. He
says Dominion occasionally receives a prop that has en-
countered a snowbank or drift and is bent forward. The
blades can often be straightened back out as long as the
impact damage is at a minimum.
By the same token, he explains, operation of an air-
craft out of dirt strips takes its toll as well. Stones, dirt,
mud and gravel that are thrown up by the tundra tires
of the aircraft take its toll on the propeller.
Pitch changes - a common practice
AUsup explains, "Many folks want the pitch of their
propeller changed for increased performance or greater
grab. They usually want more takeoff and climb perfor-
mance. It's a game of how quickly you can get off the
ground. If we can get off the ground another 20 feet
sooner, we can land on a smaller strip and in and out of
more places.
"Depending on the manufacturer," he says, "it typi-
cally doesn't want you to change the pitch more than 4
inches either way. There is no limit to the number of
times that you can change it, but practically speaking,
the more you do it the harder it gets because the metal
becomes work hardened.
"Theoretically, if it's been set properly before, all we
need to do is twist the propeller from one station and
the rest of the stations will fall into place. But again,
practically speaking, that usually doesn't happen. We
usually need to do some 'tweaking' at various stations to
get it right. It's not uncommon for us to shorten propel-
lers to reduce pitch even further. Some propellers can be
shortened if there is damage at the tip without substan-
tially affecting performance. Borer propellers, for in-
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 13
Recip Technology
stance, start at 82 inches, and they can be cut to as
short as 78 inches and still be called a performance
propeller.
"The general rule is for every inch of diameter reduc-
tion, you need to increase the pitch by 1 inch to main-
tain the same rpm of the engine."
Better to file than not
"Filing out in the field is hard for me to criticize,"
Allsup continues. "A lot of it could be done better, but at
least they're filing to take the nicks out. It's the lack of
filing that can be a problem. You don't want to leave
nicks in the blades. They're stress risers and can lead to
the blade cracking off. It doesn't happen often that the
blade cracks, but when it does happen, it can be cata-
strophic.
"Most technicians need to pay more attention to fil-
ing all blades evenly and putting a better airfoil on the
blades. The manufacturers have limits on how big a nick
you can rework, and that's exceeded regularly simply
because they don't know how to measure it. There are
much deeper nicks reworked than are allowed, but again,
it's much better to rework it than to fly it with that
nick in it.
"Remember this is a harsh environment. When
you're flying in the bush and you encounter some sort of
prop strike, and you're a hundred miles from nowhere,
you're going to take many more chances than if you have
a maintenance facilitv across the field. You'll tend to file
out any nick, no matter how large, and address the prob
lem further when you get back. It's being legal vs, being
stranded. It's amazing what a prop will take. I've seen
blades with both tips bent over, experienced pilots have
run it up and if it's still pulling and there are no serious
vibrations, they'll fly it out of the bush and back to a
maintenance facility to have it repaired. It amazes me
what they'll bring in that they've flown out. And I always
quiz them just to see what the limits of the propeller ac-
tually are."
AUsup further explains that with Anchorage's proxirn-
ity to the ocean and saltwater, they see a great deal
more of corrosion on hubs and propellers. "Even if you
have the hubs cadmium plated, within as little as five
years, you'll still get pitting severe enough to have to
replace parts, especially around saltwater. Most of
the problems we see is with the aluminum anodized
hubs, however.
"There are some products on the market I'd hlghly
recommend that you spray on the propeller to protect it.
Products such as LPS or ACF-50 or other lubricants
would help protect aircraft that are sitting in corrosion
environments," he says.
14 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
In the shop
"Much of our effort when we receive a propeller in
the shop is in performing an incoming inspection. The
extent of the damage will determine if we're simply g e
ing to do a repair, of if we need to completely overhaul
the prop. If it's a fixed pitch, and the face of the propel-
ler is damaged, we'll recondition the propeller. A recondi-
tion 'zero times' the fixed pitch propeller. It's the same
as an overhaul."
AUsup says, "A fixed pitch overhaul typically requires
you remove a certain amount of aluminum off of the
propeller despite the damage even if it's perfectly clean
with no damage. There's stress that's induced into the
propeller over time, and the manufacturer wants you to
remove this. The stress results in, if you can imagine,
surface fractures in the metal. And even if you can't see
them, they're microscopic. The typical specifications for
metal removal is around 0.006 (six-thousandths) of an
inch. But besides that, you want to take off all of the
oxidized, corroded, or damaged metal.
"We also find ourselves straightening propellers and
adjusting the pitch on them at each overhaul. It's prob
ably more rare we don't have to make some adjustment
to the pitch andlor track. They tend to get somewhat
work-stressed from the constant taking off and pulling
on the aircraft. The blade tips typically bend forward a
bit. But I think a lot of the problem is with ground han-
dling people grabbing the prop and pulling the aircraft
with it. This also leads to many vibration problems that
operators have."
Measurements should be taken at each station both
before and after filing a propeller to ensure you're not
beyond lim'ts.
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Filing beyond limits
Msup explains that when flling propellers in the
field, "you've got to be aware of the minimum chord
widths of the propeller. If you're filing out nicks and
dents, it's wise to figure the chord stations along the
blade and bring along a set of calipers to measure each
station as you're f i g . Remember, however, that blade
stations are measured from the center line of the hub
and not from the flange of the propeller. It's sometimes
difficult to determine the center line.
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"What I recommend you do is go to a prop shop and
ask them to give you a distance to measure from the
flange of the propeller for one of the stations. You can
use that as a reference mark for the rest of the stations
and be somewhat accurate when you're taking measure
ments. As a technician who's responsible for your work,
you want to know if a prop is within limits at each sta-
tion. Otherwise, you potentially could be returning an
illegal repair to service," he says. El May/June 1995
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology ~Wagazine 15
Recip Technology

>ooking lessons for Continental fuel

njection systems
By Greg Napert

E
very year, hundreds of Continental fuel injection
systems are overhauled. The units are either over-
hauled independent of the engines, or they are
overhauled in concert with a scheduled engine overhaul.
Unfortunately, many technicians that receive these
fuel injection systems back from overhaul are under the
impression that the fuel injection systems require no
further adjustment, and that all you have to do is hang
the engine/fuel injection system and send the owner on
their way.
Not so, according to John Jackson, CEO of Pacific
Continental Engines Inc., an FAA repair station in Van
Nuys, CA.
Adjustments performed in the test cell or on test
benches are only preliminary adjustments that are r e
quired for initial starting and run-up, he explains. "We
often use different accessories, such as test ~ropellers,
induction, and exhaust systems than those &xiyused The proper fuel nozzle part number must be used in
on the aircraft. So final adjustments are almost always conjunction with the appropriate flow divider to ensure
required after installation of the engine/fuel injection proper fuel flow adjustments.
system on the aircraft."
says that I can lean 18 gallons per hour,' so they dial
First most important ingredient: back to 18 gallons an hour on that gauge. If the gauge
an independent, calibrated gauge is inaccurate, it may really be at 16 gallonshour or 20
"A common mistake that technicians make when they gallons an hour. This can often lead to problems with
actually start to adjust/fine tune the fuel injection is that top end or early repairs, so hopefully, they're looking at
they use the fuel flow gauge inside the cockpit, which in the EGT gauge if they have one," he says.
most aircraft, are far from accurate," explains Jackson.
"Most cockpit gauges are really pressure gauges cali- Next add one measure of M89-10
brated for fuel flow. They sense metered fuel pressure A very important service bulletin available from
and not actual flow. Continental that many technicians in the field don't even
"These cockpit gauges, I've found, are often off up to know exists is M89-10. The bulletin covers adjustment
a couple of gallons per hour. Given that 1 gallon is equal procedures for the fuel injection systems, and it's pretty
to 6 pounds, that means that you can be off as much as straightforward.
12 pounds per hour or more, which can be completely "It's amazing to me how many technicians work on
out of the specified range for top end fuel flow. these things and don't even know about Service Bulletin
"So it's important to use a separate, calibrated gauge M89-10, which I consider essential to properly adjust
that you tee into the system. This not only ensures that these fuel systems.
you're using the correct pressures for adjustment, but it "The bulletin's important because the aircraft
also allows you to verify the cockpit gauge. A standard manufacturer's maintenance manuals usually have very
thing that we recommend to customers at overhaul is to minimal information on enginerelated maintenance,"
calibrate the tach, fuel flow gauge, and manifold pres- says Jackson.
sure gauge. Those three gauges are critical, because if "Technicians that do adjust them without the benefit
you overboost, over-rpm, or don't have an accurate fuel of the bulletins tend to keep bumping up the pressure
flow reading, you can burn the engine up or ruin it. until the fuel flow is at red line, and if that gauge is off,
"Another reason to have the cockpit gauge calibrated they could be running too lean or too rich. Having the
at regular intervals is that most pilots get in the plane correct fuel flow at takeoff power is critical because at
and look at the fuel flow gauge and say, 'OK, the book takeoff power the engine is producing maximum heat,

16 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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wear, friction, and in the course of a couple hundred
hours, they'll burn up the whole top end."
He explains that M8910 is written specifically for
Continental engines and gives the entire adjustment pro-
cedure for all models with the exception of the 10550.
The I0550 requires special adjustments due to its auto-
matic altitude compensating.
Essentially, M8910 covers all fuel-injected and turbo-
charged engines. Listed in it for all engine models is the
rpm that you actually must do the adjustments at, fuel
pump pressures (unmetered pressure), and nozzle pres-
sures (metered pressure).
"The M89-10 instructions are quite straightforward,"
says Jackson. "To summarize - with the engine and fuel
injection system properly installed, get the engine to
where it runs at 600 rpm and set the low end (unme
tered) pressure. This adjustment is on the rear of the
pump above the diaphragm assembly. Alter that, set the
idle rpm to 600 again using the idle adjustment screw;
then set your idle mixture to where you get 25 to 50
rpm rise when you p d the mixture control to idle cutr
off. I like to bring the engine up to 1,000 rpm and pull
the mixture and look for a 50 to 100 rpm rise; the rise is
much easier to read at 1,000 rpm.
"Next, do a full power run-up and set the high end
pump pressure to where the service bulletin recommends
for that engine. That high end pump pressure should
correlate to the red line on the fuel flow gauge in the
cockpit. That's basically the setup."
Jackson comments, "There are some variations on
this procedure, like for the TSIO-360 engine. The 360
has a manual wastegate that you have to adjust also.
Turbocharged engines can be more involved because
you've got boost pressure settings and manifold pressure
settings that have to be set before you go and adjust the
top end fuel pressure."
Stir in the fuel limiter
Jackson says that some models of the turbocharged
engines, such as those used on Cessna 421s and 4148,
and some 340s, have a fuel regulator/limiter in line to
limit the amount of top end fuel flow. To adjust the en-
gine properly, you need to remove the limiter from the
line, make the initial setting, and then install it back in
the line and adjust it. It's the last item that you adjust.
"Despite the simplicity of adjusting it, it's amazing
how many we find incorrectly adjusted. To properly set
the limiter, Continental wants you to adjust the takeoff
pressure, with the limiter removed, 5 percent richer than
the specified limit at the top end. Then, reinstall the
limiter and adjust the pressure setting down 5 percent.
Making the adjustment in this order guarantees that the
limiter is set correctly and that it's working. This trims
the fuel flow for takeoff, and allows a higher fuel flow
available in the midrange for leaning and operation.
"If the limiter is set too high, or if it's not working at
all, it's still possible to adjust the engine so it runs fine.
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is-
" %
Idle mixture control nut should be moved in small
increments to achieve proper adjustment. Large
adjustments will result in confusion.
But if you have a runaway fuel pump, or an overboost
situation, the regulator would not be effective. Many tech-
nicians, by ignoring the proper way to make the adjust
ment, never know that the limiter is set too high or that
it isn't working. Interestingly, many of the limiters that
we see have never been set up properly since day one."
Whip the fuel nozzles
Jackson says that another trouble area with Conti-
nental fuel injection system is the fuel nozzles.
He explains that Continental uses all different types
of nozzles for each model engine, as opposed to Lycom-
ing, which produces two fuel nozzle types that are used
across most of its engines. Within each engine group,
there are various nozzles that can be used. This is very
important because the nozzles are chosen based on the
output of the manifold valve.
"If you get the wrong nozzles for the corresponding
manifold valve, it can create problems. In most cases it's
not that severe a problem. On a single engine aircraft,
for instance, the result of selecting the incorrect
nozzle(s) may be that the engine fuel flows won't match
specifications in the P.O.H.
"The major problem comes in, however, when you
have a twinengine aircraft. If you have the wrong
nozzles on one engine, and the correct nozzles on the
other engine, your incruise fuel flow settings won't
match from one engine to the other."
He explains that you need to pay close attention to
the nozzle/manifold combinations. The nozzles are
classed for their flow and are marked with a dash num-
ber on them, The manifold valves are also classed with a
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 17
Recip Technology
'minus" (-) or "plus" (+) flow. The reason they manufac-
ture the fuel nozzles differently is because when they
manufacture the fuel divider manifold, there may be as
much as 1- to 1-1A-gallonvariance in flow between the
two and the nozzles compensate for that fad. They in
essence make the final adjustment with the fuel nozzle.
Service Bulletin M85-19 is a fuel injection application
guide that specifies the engine model, fuel injection as-
sembly part number, fuel pump assembly, etc. and can
give you a selection of one or more nozzles that can be
used on a specific engine. The correct nozzle to use is
related to which manifold valve is installed on the en-
gine. This is referenced in the footnotes of the service
bulletin-so pay attention to the footnotes.
"Remember that even an aircraft that uses the same
model engines on it may use different nozzles on each
engine. Just because you have two identical engine mod-
els doesn't mean that the same manifold valves are used
from engine to engine," says Jackson.
"We've seen many cases where during an annual in-
spection, a technician will pull nozzles to clean them,
and they mix them all up so you end up with a mix off
all sorts of nozzles in one engine, or they swap nozzles.
It's a really common mistake to make, because with the
exception of the part number, they look identical."
Add troubleshooting to taste
Jackson says that the best troubleshooting procedure
is to simply run through Service Bulletin M89-10 and
perform the adjustments. Then you can figure out where
the problems are based on what needs adjusting.
"Incorrect fuel injedion adjustment procedures are
really apparent on twinengine aircraft, where you see
it with split in throttles, engine controls, instruments,
everything.
"Keeping these things in mind, it's surprising how if
you follow the proper adjustment procedures, there is
very little, if any, split in instruments or controls on a
twinengine aircraft.
Be careful to loosen the jamnut on the high fuel pressure
adjustment because the fine threads can easily be stripped.
18 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
"The weakest point in the Continental fuel injection
system is typically the pump, which is located on the
accessory case. That's the item that we replace most
frequently."
He says probably the most common questions cus-
tomers ask him are in the following categories: engines
which are not getting proper takeoff fuel flow at the top
end, engines that are having a fuel pressure problem (en-
gine running lean), engines that are just not able to get
the right fuel flows (gauge inside cockpit is reading low),
or engines that go lean at cruise when they're already at
or near peak EGT.
"My first recommendation before doing anything is
get a gauge teed in and check your settings. Probably the
second most common problem is a blocked fuel injection
nozzle, rough running engine. Then it relates to a prob
lem with fuel flow. Either fuel flow goes way over red
line at takeoff power, or it doesn't reach red line or
they get an erratic fuel flow and the gauge will bounce,"
he says.
Serve well done
Jackson recommends the following maintenance prac-
tices be adhered to keep problems with fuel injection sys-
tems to a minimum:
Fuel injection nozzles should be cleaned at least at
every annual or every 100 hours.
On the fuel pumps that have the aneroid valves, it's
very common for a technician to ruin the threads on
the high end adjustment screw. They need to make
sure to loosen the jamnut first and be very gentle on
it. "I've had some factory warranties come in where
the nut is stripped. The fine threads are a big prob
lem," he says.
For adjusting idle mixture control nut on 470 and 520
Series model engines-clockwise is richer and coun-
terclockwise is leaner. Progress in onefourth turn
increments and not too much over that. If you're r e
ally lean, you might have an induction leak. Or if you
start screwing the nut in and you go in with large
adjustments, you can end up going in the opposite
direction and be too rich. And many technicians get
confused, lost in whether they're too lean or too rich.
So you should make small adjustments on it, and
that way you can creep up on what you're trying to
creep up on. This procedure is more difficult on 360
Series engines.
When an aftermarket intercooler is installed on the
engine, the limits specified in S A M8910 may or
may not be applicable. Always remember to contact
the STC holder or reference the installation instruc-
tions for the proper fuel flow settings. This is critical,
as the average life of the top end on an intercooled
engine with incorrect fuel flow settings can be in the
300- to 500hour range.
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The troubleshooting process
Don't fool yourself or your customer - there are no simple answers
By John Schwaner
ne of the largest problems that technicians have
0
to deal with is frustrated customers. Quite f r e
quently, a customer will go to 20 different people
and get 20 different answers for the same symptoms.
What the customer doesn't realize, is that there are
many different answers or problems for any one
symptom.
Technicians that give quick, simple answers actually
often only contribute to the level of frustration because
when the one proposed solution is tried, it doesn't
work, and the customer thinks you don't know what
you're doing.
Or the technician may try to cure the problem and
ends up with many more hours of labor and a much
higher repair bill for the customer than they first led the
customer to believe.
The smartest answer anyone can give to someone
seeking advice is that you don't know what the trouble
is, but you will troubleshoot the problem and find out.
After knowing definitively what the problem is, you can
then inform the customer of the trouble and give them
some idea of the associated repair costs and downtime.
You've got to explain to your customer that there are
many possible explanations for any one thing that goes
wrong. And as a professional technician, you've got to go
through a thorough troubleshooting process to determine
what the problem is.
The end result is a better working relationship with
the customer and ultimately more respect.
As proof positive that there is almost always more
than one cause for a specific symptom, I'd like to offer
an example of the top five troubleshooting problems
found in recip engine maintenance. These top four prob
lems are based on an informal survey of several top tech-
nicians and are given to help demonstrate that there is
often more than one solution to a problem.
-
Problem #l Hard starting. Difficult starting.
Won%start. Slow starter.
Slow 1-speed.
If the engine has a tendency to start when you let go
of the starter switch or if the engine starts better with a
low battery, then the engine is firing too early in the
stroke.
Magnetos are timed to the engine so as to provide
the spark at 20 to 25 degrees before top dead center of
piston compression stroke. This timing is designed to
provide engine efficiency at normal operating speeds.
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Since starting occurs at very low engine turning
speeds, magneto timing must occur closer to top dead
center to push the piston down. There are two methods
of adjusting timing: retard breaker magneto with vibra-
tor ("shower of sparks") or impulse coupled magneto.
The objective of the impulse coupling is to delay magneto
firing from 20 degrees before TDC until about 5 degrees
before TDC by building in a 15degree lag angle into the
impulse couphg. This happens only in theory.
The actual or dynamic impulse coupling lag angle
varies with cranking speed of the engine. An example
of this is the Lycoming 0235-L2C engine. The original
starter cranked the engine too fast. Lycoming Service
Instruction 1362 changed the lag angle of the impulse
coupling from 15 to 5 degrees. (With the Megree lag
angle the engine may have a tendency to kick back
during hand propping. Don't hand prop!)
A later starter (Prestolite MMU-4001R) was specifi-
cally designed to turn the engine slower. With the MMU-
4001R starter the impulse coupling lag angle should r e
main at 15 degrees. When replacing Slick magnetos on
this engine, you can use a 5- or 15degree lag angle mag-
neto. The one you choose depends upon the starter.
Impulse coupling not engaging
Snap impulse coupling. To check the timing of the
impulse coupling bump propeller to see where the im-
pulse snaps and field check impulse couphng, remove
magneto with impulse coupling (usually left magneto)
from engine. Turn magneto in proper diredion by hand
and observe that flyweights in impulse coupling contact
stop pins. If they don't, then flyweight axles are exces-
sively worn and impulse coupling must be replaced. If
flyweights are in good condition, rotate magneto several
times to snap impulse and determine that impulse
spring is not broken. Impulse couplings used on Bendix
magnetos are of two types: older-style riveted impulse
couplings and newer snapring impulse couplings. Snap
ring-type impulse couplings should have full engagement
at 125 rpm minimum @6LN-3000, D6LN-2031 at 75
rpm). Full disengagement is 450 rpm maximum.
A. Inspect for worn pawls and stop pin.
B. If impulse coupling fails to return to unwound
position, inspect impulse coupling nut for torque.
C. Check to see if impulse coupling is magnetized.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 19
Recip Technology

Flooded or overprimed. Magneto improper& timed to engine. Advance

Crank engine with throttle full open and mixture in breaker out of adjustment.
idle cutoff. Magneto internal timing not adjusted proper& or
Throttle valve open too far. "EDgap drifting because of point or follower wear.
Set for approximately 800 rpm. An exception to this This is a common problem with magnetos that have
rule is carburetors without accelerator pumps such as not had routine maintenance. Especially on Slick magne
the Bendix Stromberg. Start with the throttle closed. tos, check for cam wear.
Opening the throttle reduces fuel flow and increases air- (Shower of sparks) Retard pointe opening too late.
flow to the engine creating a lean start mixture. The
closed throttle allows the idle discharge tubes to flow Low voltage to starter causing dow tutnhg starter,
fuel and limits the air. This enriches the mixture which Faulty ignition switch causing inte-ttent
is easier for the ignition system to ignite. With a warm grounding.
engine you may wish to open the throttle slightly to Magneto distributor electrode finger loose or
allow a little less fuel and a little more air to enter
burned.
the engine.
Magneto distributor block electrode burned.
bufficient prime.
May be accompanied by backfire. Make sure printer Spark plugs fouled.
is not leaking. Primer nozzles may be clogged. These Spark plugs ice bridged.
nozzles are so close to the intake valve that they carbon
up. Not all the nozzles carbon up equally so one cylinder
gets all the prime. When was the last time you had your Hard start occurs after a balked start in
nozzles cleaned? Take them out once a year and clean hezing weather.
them. Lycoming engines.
Defective spark plugs or ignition wire. Noisy start, failure to engage or sluggish start can be
caused by a dirty Bendix drive. The Bendix drive on the
(Shower of sparks) Low voltage at vibrator input. starter is what engages the starter ring gear. It must be
Measure voltage between vibrator terminal marked able to slide on the starter shaft to engage. Oils should
"in" and ground terminal while operating starter. never be used on the Bendix drive or shaft because
Must be at least 8 volts on 12-volt system, or 13 volts they collect dirt and become gummy causing the Bendix
on 24-volt system. drive to stick. Lubricate the shaft and drive with a
(Shower of sparks) Defective vibrator. silicone lubricant.
(Shower of sparks) Retard contact arrsemb& in
Gasket separat-
magneto not operating.
If retard breaker points don't open - you'll get no
spark at all and no start. If the retard breaker points outletsideof
don't close, you'll be cranking with a fully advanced the oil cooler
boosted spark and may get a kickback. This would occur isn't broken.
if the wire to the retard breaker is broken, or it had a
poor connection at the magneto. Retard points may not
be closing due to improper adjustment or may not
have a good electrical connection in the circuit. Check
for good contact of switch and retard leads at magneto
and vibrator.
(Shower of sparks) Vibrator and magneto not
puffing out.
Starter switch wired backwards.
Starting on right magneto instead of left. The left
magneto is usually the impulse magneto. The starter
switch must be wired in such a way that the magneto
without an impulse coupling is grounded during start.
Engine will kick backward due to the early firing of the
nonimpulse magneto. On a Lycoming engine this some
times breaks the starter housing.

Remove the vernatherm and inspect the seating surface on

the valve.

20 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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 Hl0360-FlAD engine.
Comply with Lycoming Service Instruction 1419 that
allows using a harness that fires all the top plugs on the
left magneto. Engines that fire all the bottom plugs on
the left magneto can be hard to start especially in cold
weather due to the possibility of plug fouling.
Engine not getting fuel.
Fuel-iqjeded engines.
Fuel manifold valve (spider valve) stuck open.
Check to make sure you are getting fuel to the
nozzles. Then check to make sure fuel is going to the
manifold valve. Fuel manifold valve incorporates a dia-
phragm and valve assembly, 20-micron fiter and spring.
If the valve assembly sticks, open fuel is not allowed to
flow to the nozzles. If manifold valve vents back to the
fuel tank, make sure vent system is not clogged. A
clogged vapor return line may prevent proper action of
the diaphragm and prevent the engine from starting.
fiel vaporization.
After an engine is shut down, the temperature of its
various components begins to stabilize; the hotter p a r t .
such as cylinders and oil cool, while other parts heat up
due to the lack of airflow, heat conduction, and heat ra-
diation from those parts of the engine which are cooling.
This heat soaking is worse from 30 minutes to one hour
following shutdown. During this time, the fuel system
will heat up causing fuel in the pump and lines to boil or
vaporize. During subsequent starting attempts, the fuel
pump will initially be pumping some combination of fuel
and fuel vapor. Until the entire fuel system becomes
filled with liquid fuel, difficult starting and unstable en-
gine operation will be experienced.
Lycoming 0320 H Series engines.
Hard starting or failure to develop normal static rpm
during hot weather can be brought about by an accumu-
lative buildup of dimensional tolerances that transfers
pressure from the magneto drive gear to the impulse cou-
pling. This causes the magneto to operate in the retarded
position. Should this situation develop, it can be con-
firmed by first making sure the ignition switch is in the
"off" position. Then pull the propeller through by hand
several revolutions and listen for the audible click of the
magneto impulse. If the audible click is not present, r e
move the magneto and replace the magneto drive gear
with a new drive gear PIN LW-15659. When hand prop
ping, stand clear of the propeller. Always assume the en-
gine may inadvertently start. Refer to Lycoming Service
Instruction 1360 for additional details.
Continental 10470 46-degree lag a&e on impulse
coupling.
Conversion to 3Megree lag angle per Bendix Service
Bulletin 514 or Continental Service Bulletin M63-7 dated
April 11, 1963.
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Defective magneto coil.
A short in secondary coil windings will lower voltage
output of coil thereby increasing coming-in speed of
magneto.
Weak magneto system.
Not all magnetos and harnesses are created equal.
For high compression engine, fuel-injected engines oper-
ated in hot climates, the magneto, harness, and spark
plugs used on the engine should be selected for maxi-
mum energy delivered to the spark plug. Contact Sky
Ranch for specific recommendations.
Worn oil deflector on Ben& S20/200 Series
magneto.
If deflector is loose, it can walk up magneto shaft
and interfere with impulse coupling flyweight.
hcorrect magneto on engine cawing incorrect
impulse coupling lag angle.
hcorrect distributor cam on Ben& magneto rotor.
Verify correct by checking "E"gap timing.
Problem #2 - Oil out engine breather
(Blow-by)
Crankcase pressurization.
Check engine compression. If oil color is black and oil
temperatures are high, then combustion gases are going
into the crankcase. To check for excessive crankcase
pressure, install an oil cap modified with an airspeed
indicator and run the engine through its normal range
on the ground. Continental engines through TSIO-360
should read no hlgher than 45 mph. Continental engines
from 0-470 through GTSIO-520 should read no higher
than 95 mph. Lycoming engines should read 45 to 55
mph with a maximum of 100 mph.
Loose seal on oil filter.
Check gasket.
Engine breather exposed to low pressure.
Ensure the location of the engine breather is in the
precise position as specified by the airframe manufac-
turer. If the end of the hose is exposed to airflow in an
area of low pressure, it sucks a mist of oil from the
crankcase.
Nose seal loose.
Blow air into the engine breather and listen for air
leakage up at the propeller spinner. If air is coming out
the engine from around the crankshaft behind the spin-
ner, then replace the seal with a new one. A leaking nose
seal allows ram air pressure to pressurize the crankcase
thereby increasing airflow out the engine breather. This
increased airflow carries oil with it.
On Continental 10-360and TSI0-360engines check
to see if breather modification as outlined in
Service Bulletin M80-18 has been complied with.
Defective wet vacuum pump (Garwin or Pesco).
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 21
Recip Technology
Continental I0360 and !MI0360 engines built
prior to 1978, modify breather per Continental
Service Bulletin M80-18.
E g h oil pressure combined with low oil viscosity
causing excessive spill-off oil from bearings.
-
Problem #3 Rough engine. Misfire. Engine
has vibration.
Pay particular attention to determine if it is engine
roughness or vibration, particularly when there are no
engine instruments indicating trouble. Roughness comes
and goes whereas vibration is steady but may change or
go away at a different rpm setting. In some cases, rough-
ness will smooth out at a lower altitude, which tends to
indicate an ignition leak, usually in the harness or mag-
neto distributor cap. A loose fit between the pancake
grommet of the harness and the distributor block tower
allows magneto to flash to ground between the tower
and grommet. This would be more prevalent at altitude.
Spark plug misfire.
Spark plug electrodes should not be worn beyond 50
percent of original thickness.
Lean misfire caused by inszdficient park plug gap.
Fouled spark plug.
May be caused by bad ignition coil.
Magneto misfire.
Inspect magneto distributor block and cover plate
for signs of carbon tracking or arc-over to surrounding
magneto structure.
&&ion lead misfire.
Check ignition leads with a high tension lead tester.
Faulty magneto coil.
When magneto coils go bad, they usually break down
when hot. The engine runs smoothly until a half hour
into flight before it gets rough. The next day, when the
coil has cooled down, the engine operates fine. The mag-
neto will test fine on a test bench. If you suspect this
problem, heat the magneto in an oven to 140°F for an
hour and then run magneto. The coil checks good with a
coil tester when cold but break downs if you heat it up.
Carburetor ice.
Propeller out of track or unbalanced.
Outof-balance -~ r o- ~ e l l eor
r s harmonic e n- ~ n vibra-
e Blocked or punctured AMC air blast tubes (PS
tions often result in cracks in spinners and engine
baffling.
Broken valve spring.
Broken valve springs cause rough engine problems
more when the oil is cold (first takeoff of the day) than
when the oil is warm. It takes more spring pressure to
counteract a lifter filled with cold viscous oil than a
lifter filled with warm oil. Always replace the hydraulic
unit on the valve with the broken spring. A broken valve
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
spring may not be visible. Use a blunt instrument
and move the valve spring. If it is broken, the coils
will separate.
!hbocharged engine and accompanied by poor
cutoff.
Air-bleed hole($ clogged.
Pressurized Baron.
Cabin vibration increases as wing loading increases.
Full fuel in the tip noticeably increases vibration levels.
Stuck valve.
Shorted magneto coil.
P . ventun' in carburetor loose.
Distributor finger in Slick magneto loose.
At first the magneto will run rough at altitude. Later,
as the finger loosens even further, the engine will always
run rough.
F-33 Bonanza with SlY! threebladed propeller.
Sonic vibration can be felt in the rudder peddles.
Lycoming 0-296. Excessive combustion chamber
deposits.
Refer to Lycoming Service Instruction 1418.
Beech Model 76 Dutchess. Overrich at off-idle.
Install new carburetor idle tube per Lycoming Service
Instruction 1390.
Lycoming fuel-injected engines. Rough idle reg+
ing excessive leaning to obtain smooth operation.
Check for fuel stains in intake tubes. If you find fuel
stains, it could be coming from a seal leak in the Bendix
fuel servo or from a leak in the expansion tube located
inside the plenum.
Water ingestion into Ben& 81200 Series magne
toe on Continental 470 and 620 Series engines.
See Bendix Service Bulletin 611 for addition of
moisture drains.
Ben& 51200 Series magnetos with older green
distributor blocks. Loose OiLite bushing causing
distributor gear to become mistimed.
Refer to Bendix Service Bulletin 613.
Damaged or missing air inlet straightening gngnds
(H-36 Bonanza).
carburetors).
hduction system leaks.
Leaking primer solenoids.
Water in carburetor air section CpSD6C).
hproper "EDgap magneto setting.
Common problem. As the magneto cam wears, it
causes engine timing to drift. The technician then
"bumps" the magneto to reestablish proper engine tim-
ing. Each time the magneto is "bumped" the magneto's
distributor finger is moved farther from the optimum
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position. Eventually the finger is positioned between elec-
trodes so that at altitude the spark jumps from the dis-
tributor finger to either one of two electrodes and causes
the magneto to fire the incorrect spark plug. Remove the
magneto and check for proper "En gap timing.
Defective coil condenser or bad condenser ground.
Inte-ttent short to magneto "P"lead.
This turns on and off one magneto causing slight
power changes but not as severe as a misfire in a cylin-
der. Disconnect the "P" lead from the magneto and with
the ignition switch in the "ON" position for that mag-
neto, check for continuity between the "P" lead conduc-
tor and ground. There shouldn't be any. Have someone
jiggle the "P" lead as the short is most likely intermib
tent at a chafe point. On the Bendix S20/S200 Series
magneto the portion of the "P" lead wire going to the
capacitor inside the magneto cover can be chafed. This
occurs when the wire isn't routed properly. Remove the
magneto cover and check the wire going to the capacitor
for chafing.
Problem 14 - High oil consumption
If exceeding maximum oil consumption limit, don't
fly the airplane. Why? Oil in the combustion chamber
may lower the fuel octane enough to create detonation.
Maximum oil consumption limits are in the engine
manufacturer's operating manual.
Improper grade of oil.
Failure of new rings to seat proper&.
Failed or failing bearings.
Worn piston riqp and cylinder barrels.
Worn valve guides.
Excessive oil leaks.
A small oil leak looks like a great deal of oil.
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Recip Technology
Oil siphoning from engine in @t.
Ensure that oil fdter cap is on tight and the oil ac-
cess door closes properly. Be sure the breather hose is
cut properly and located so there's no chance of siphon-
ing oil from the engine. Continental 10-360 and TSIO
360 engines built prior to 1978, install modified breather
per Continental Service Bulletin M80-18 or latest edition.
Expander in oil control ring plugged.
Plugged injector n o d e .
The lack of fuel and combustion pressure allows the
oil to bypass the piston rings, thereby giving a false im-
pression of ring problems.
Excessive oil out engine breather.
This can be caused by blow-by of combustion gas past
the ring belt. The increased airflow through the crank
case carries more oil out the breather. Continental 0-360
and TSI0-360 engines built prior to 1978; see Continen-
tal Service Bulletin M80-18 for breather modification.
January/Febmary 1995
Sacramento Sky Ranch Inc. offers a troubleshoot
program that covers d problems related to reciprocating
engines. The program is available on computer disk for
$19.95 plus shippinghandling/tax. For a copy of the
program, m-teto:
Sacramento Slry Ranch Inc.
6622 Freeport Blvd.
Sacramento, CA 95822
Or C d :
(916) 421-7672
Fax (916) 4215719
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 23
Reclp Technology

Cold weather operations

Why engine preheat is a must

By Michael Lambrecht

W
ith winter just around the corner both the
weekend pilot and corporate aircraft owner
will be looking for the edge over the elements.
For excellent reasons engine pro heaters have become a
must in a large part of the country. Preheaters consider-
ably reduce engine wear during initial start-up which is
the most critical time of operation from a lubrication
standpoint.
Continental Aircraft engine operator's manual states
that when an engine has been cold soaked at tempera-
tures of 25°F and below in excess of two hours, a p r e
heat is recommended. It also has a warning statement:
Superficial application of preheat to a cold soaked engine
can cause damage to the engine. A minimum preheat,
such as portable units found at most FBOs, may warm
enough to permit starting but will not decongeal oil in
the sump, lines, cooler, fdter, etc. normally thermostatically controlled and thermally pro-
Engine heaters also provide easier starting and r e tected in the event of an overheat condition.
duce delayed flights and costly line preheats. The aver- The man-hours for installation also varies depending
age cost for an external preheat in the Midwest is a p upon the equipment and type of unit being installed.
proximately $25, provided the location where you may be One company, for instance, advertises that a technician
stranded even provides this service. can install its system in under one hour. But depending
The ideal preheater is a permanently mounted instal- on the complexity of the system, it could take up to four
lation that gently heats the entire engine through convec- times this for a quality job.
tion and keeps the aircraft warm for hours prior to start- Before installing the heater, provide a good layout on
ing.There are several of these types of engine preheat - and choose a convenient location for the elec-
the engine
ers available at a wide range of prices. There are also trical plug. Nose cowl openings and oil filler doors are
different component options to choose from such as excellent locations, as are cowl flaps, but make sure it
cylinder head probes, oil screen probes, and case and does not obstruct moving components. When installing
sump pads. These heaters generally draw around 300 thermal pads, it is important to clean the surface wit<
watts of power and are very economical to run.They are MEK or butyrate thinner.

Tanis offers a complete system that warms the oil sump, oil E-Zheat offers heating pads to fit many different engine
intake, cylinder heats, and more-depending on the aircraft models. Shapes of the pads differ to conform to the shape
and engine type. o f the oil sump.

24 The Best of Aircra'aft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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Secure the pad utilizing the sealant provided by the
manufacturer or RTV. It is always less timeconsuming
and neater if only a thin layer of sealant is used. Follow
the manufacturer's installations carefully, particularly
regarding setup temperatures, cure times, and cleaning.
Special attention should be given to the removal of
air beneath the pad and to seal the edges tightly, includ-
ing about 1 inch of wiring leading to the element. Fuel
oil or moisture beneath the pad will cause poor heating
qualities, and separation will be inevitable. A block can
be fabricated of wood, plastic, or Styrofoam to fit the
Misconceptions about aircraft engine clearance
in cold engines
There are many misconceptions among people regarding
starting aircraft engines in cold weather, says Peter
Tanis, of Tanis Aircraft Services in Glenwood, MN.
One of those misconceptions is that aircraft engines
are like automobile engines - as long as you can get
them started in cold weather, everything will be fine.
But automobile engines are different than aircraft
engines in that the block, as well as the pistons and the
crankshaft, are made of materials which have similar
coefficients of expansion.
Aircraft engines, however, are manufactured with alu-
minum crankcases which provide bearing surfaces for
steel crankshafts. The coefficient of thermal expansion
of aluminum is approximately twice that of steel or cast
iron, says Tanis. This is where the problem comes in
with aircraft engines. The steel or cast components are
supported in an aluminum crankcase which "shrinks"
at low temperatures and "expands" at operating
temperatures.
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Recip Technology
contour of the case or sump to provide uniform pressure
while securing. Do not remove until adhesion is complete
as per your application. The wiring harness can be in-
stalled as stated in AC. 43.13-1A. If there is an unused
lead, it is recommended it be filled with sealant and se
cured out of the way.
Without a doubt, the most troublesome problem with
the heaters would be the electrical leads and connectors
to the cylinder head and oil screen probes. The wires
and plastic plugs tend to turn brittle under extreme heat
and become difficult, and at times impossible to separate
without some damage during maintenance. The only
remedy would be to avoid exhaust areas as much as pos-
sible, and the application of a nonconductive lubricant
can sometimes help. The use of any kind of electrical
heat shrink on these units is not recommended. If at all
possible, disassemble the electrical plug to the system
and fill with silicone to provide a weather-tight seal
where applicable. Each heater should be checked with an
ohmmeter for continuity between the engine and both
power leads - none should exist. After all sealant has
cured, an operational test can be performed.
The life and reliability of preheaters can easily extend
to engine TBO providing good installation and mainte
nance practices are followed.
Michael Lambrecht is an A&P technician employed with
Magnus Aviation in Sheboygan, W.
Tanis says that his company has taken measurements
of critical clearances with components cold-soaked at s u b
zero temperatures and has shown that clearances are
reduced to dangerous levels at these temperatures.
He warns that "brand-new engines, assembled as
tightly as permitted, would suffer the most from the ef-
fects of extreme cold, as compared to an engine nearing
TBO. And an overhauled engine assembled with a wider
bearing clearance would possibly shrink to less than
the 'minimum' clearances by being exposed to subzero
temperatures."
Another problem with the engine at these tempera-
tures, says Tanis, is with scuffing of the piston skirt and
top ring land against the cylinder walls because there
actually is an interference fit between the piston rod
and the piston pin which can prevent the rotation of the
piston on the pin.
He says that the only way to avoid damaging an en-
gine in these cold temperatures is to thoroughly preheat
the engine prior to starting.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 25
Reclp Technology
Tanis also raises a number of other questions that he
thinks people should ponder upon starting aircraft en-
gines in cold weather, which include:
Is congealed oil under piston rings holdlng the ring
out of the groove when the piston is at the bottom of
the stroke?
What is the amount of oil pressure necessary to force
congealed oil through the passages of the crankshaft at
low temperatures?
The question of FAA approval
A word of caution is in order for technicians installing
"FAA-approved" heaters.
There are many preheater installations on the mar-
ketplace that are being sold with literature that says it's
installation is "FAA-approved."
The Small Airplane Directorate, Wichita Aircraft Cer-
tification Office of the FAA has issued warning letters to
several manufadurers on the marketplace not to use the
words "FAA-approved" in any of their advertising.
The FAA suggests that these manufacturers use the
words "FAA-accepted" instead.
Several manufacturers are circulating letters from the
FAA along with their products that give permission to
install heaters with no more than a logbook entry. That
indeed may be all that is needed, but a lot of it depends
on the complexity of the installation, and the method by
which it is mounted.
In an ideal world, everyone should know how to
handle these, but the reality is that different FAA offices
throughout the country will no doubt interpret the regu-
lations differently.
Peter Tanis of Tanis Aircraft Service agrees that
"the FAA has not been consistent" (with regard to what's
required).
Tanis says that it has obtained FAA-PMA approval on
its units. "To our knowledge there is no other FAA-PMA-
approved heater. There are some out there who say they
are, and what they're referring to is a letter they have
26 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
What is the fit of lifter bodies in the crankcase and
what are the resulting forces on the camshaft?
What is the fit of the camshaft in the crankcase bear-
ings a t low temperature?
What are the internal conditions of bearing fit and
lubrication of accessories, such as propeller governors?
What is the proper temperature of oil in the sump to
allow flow through the suction screen to the pump?
from the FAA that says they have no objection to its in-
stallation. If you read the regulations, Part 21.303 says
you've got to have FAA approval for the installation of
any aircraft part.
"We get ebbility through the PMA and our eligibil-
ity list engines and airframes that our installations are
allowed on. Some of them we have dual approval for the
engine and the airframe, and some of them we just have
the engine."
Tanis says that "technically anything made for instal-
lation of aircraft that's for sale has to be made under
a PMA."
Dave McFarlane from SaftHeet Division of
McFarland Aviation Inc. disagrees; he says that "installa-
tion of its preheater is like painting the engine. All
you've got to do is put a logbook entry in the aircraft.
The heating pad is only a couple of ounces," he says, "so
it really doesn't affect weight and balance."
He continues, "The heater is not considered an air-
craft part. It's not used at all in flight, so the only thing
you have to be concerned with is that it is secure and
that it doesn't interfere with the operation of the
aircraft."
Either way, prior to purchasing components or begin-
ning the job, check with your local FAA office to see how
they interpret the regulations related to the installation
that you're thinking about. November/December 1994
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Engine overhaul options
Helping your customer make the best choice
By John Boyce
T
he message is clear and simple for technicians
looking for engine overhauls for their customers:
Buyer beware.
As anybody in the overhaul segment of the aviation
industry will tell you, there are good, reputable overhaul
shops out there. There are also bad overhaul shops out
there. And there are all the shops in between. You can
get the precision in-house machining that some shops
provide, all the way to the shop that simply replaces only
the parts necessary to make the engine serviceable.
There are many facilities, good and bad, that limit
options on overhauls; they have a standardized way of
doing it, and you either agree to its method or you go
elsewhere. But you can also find shops, good and bad,
which will overhaul to your specific instructions.
Larry Conway, general manager of Penn Yan Aero
Service in Penn Yan, NY, strikes a warning cord when
he says, "If the engine is put into service and it goes to
TI30 and doesn't have any problems, it had a good over-
haul." The unfortunate fact is that getting an overhauled
engine to TBO is the only absolutely certain way of d e
termining a quality overhaul.
Generally speaking, price is not a reliable indicator of
quality. You don't necessarily get what you pay for in
engine overhauls. "Just because you pay a higher price
doesn't mean you re getting the best," says Mary
Matthews, sales manager at T.W. Smith Engine Co. in
Cincinnati, OH.
"On the other hand, the shop that comes at you with
a low bid bears careful examination. You're not going to
get something for nothing," says Bert Brundage, mainte
nance director at Capital Aero in Austin, TX. "There's
no such thing as a $3,000 overhaul. It just can't be done.
They might bring it back to serviceable limits, but by the
time it runs 100 hours, it might be out of limits. The
FAR says you bring it back to serviceable limits, but a
part could be nearly worn out and still fall within the
service tolerances. Some of those $3,000 guys don't even
replace the parts that the FAA says have to be replaced.
That's illegal. You have to be careful."
Of course, if your customer only flies 20 hours a
year, he or she might only want an overhaul with service
able limits on components. The busy flier, on the other,
hand might insist on an overhaul to factory-new limits.
You can get any kind of overhaul you want; the key is
getting quality work, which basically means maintaining
the integrity of the geometry of the engine.
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Eliminating guesswork
Then there's the consideration of budget. Not every-
body has deep pockets. The customer has to understand
that he or she will have to pay for quality, but cost can
be controlled.
"You can get fine overhauls without going to national
names (overhaulers)," says Allen Weiss, ownerlmanager
of Miami, Florida's Certified Engines Unlimited, which
overhauls only to factory-new limits. "If he has a limited
budget he should search for somebody who will use
reground lifters; and will reuse intake valves; will work
with accessories to maneuver the pricing; will use over-
size cylinders; will use PMA parts. We won't do those
things but those shops are available."
You can remove much of the guesswork from finding
a trusted overhaul shop that will not only give a good
overhaul but will also fill any special needs you might
have. It will take some homework, but it will be time
well spent; you will have peace of mind and a satisfied
customer.
The first thing most knowledgeable people in the in-
dustry suggest technicians check when investigating
an overhaul facility is references, a list of satisfied
customers.
"If it were me," says Matthews at T.W. Smith, "I
would look at the longevity of the shop and its refer-
ences. Then I'd check with the FAA in the shop's district
to see if they've had any complaints or violations."
References and longevity are important because they
establish credibility and indicate whether or not the shop
is going to be around to back up its warranty.
Knowing what you're getting
Anybody contemplating using an overhaul facility
should get and study a copy of that facility's warranty.
Brundage at Capital Aero has a simple formula for exam-
ining warranties. "In actual practice," he says, "if they
don't give you a warranty similar to a factory warranty,
I'd be suspicious."
Conway at Penn Yan Aero says warranties can be
written in such a way as to confuse the unsuspecting
person. "The shorter the warranty the better," he says.
"They may only warranty some things to TBO and not
others. Some have a disclaimer which says that in the
event of a problem, you have to show that it was a faulty
part or defective workmanship. How do you know that?
You can't prove that.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 27
Recip Technology
"You should look at what they don't cover in the war-
ranty; maybe those are the things they expect to break."
It is also important to know exactly what you are getr
ting in your overhaul. You want to know what parts are
being used and where they are coming from, and you
also want to know which elements of the overhaul are
vended out and to whom. Conway suggests technicians
"pick an overhauler that does as much of the work in-
house as possible and make sure that when things are
vended out they are vended out to well-known, respected
sources."
Conway also suggests finding out exactly what
charges there might be over and above the list price for
the overhaul, the charge backs.
Turnaround time is always a major question with cus-
tomers. Most shops will give a turnaround time on an
overhaul, but if something unforeseen arises with any of
the parts, that time could be lengthened.
"It might take less than two weeks (for an overhaul),"
Conway says, '%ut if I find the crankcase needs to be
reconditioned, that alone might take five weeks. If a per-
son is interested in speed, he has to give up some of the
parts to his engine (and accept replacement parts)."
The evolution of cylinder repair
By Gary Greenwood
Originally the extent of cylinder head and barrel repairs
was limited to stop drilling cracks and honing bores to
oversize. In fact, the recommended Curtis-Wright
method was simply to buy new.
But soon the flying public became disappointed with
these methods, as they
offered few options for
extending the life of ex-
pensive components.
Eventually, through the
efforts of Pratt &
Whitney, Kelly Air Force
Base, Pennington Channel
Chrome, and other
forward thinking folks,
rebarreling, chrome
plating of the barrels, and
weldmg of the cylinder
head became acceptable
methods for extending
I insist on using new at all costs. In fad, with the popular-
the usefulness of these components.
28 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Factory overhauling and remanufacturing
Textron Lycoming offers a factory overhaul. It also
offers a remanufactured engine. The major difference
between the two is that Lycoming, with the
remanufactured engine, is authorized to provide a zero-
time logbook.
"The remanufactured engine is all factory-new toler-
ances and a zeretime logbook," says Paul McBride, the
manager for promotions and trade shows but a former
director of service for the piston product line. "With the
overhaul, even though most of the components meet the
same quality standards, the time must be carried for-
ward. That is an FAR reauirement.
"The subtle differences (between the two) are, on rare
occasion, and I mean rare, we may grind a crankshaft
6/1000 or 10/1000 under and use that with the appropri-
ate oversized bearing in a factory overhaul. We would
never do that in a factory remanufactured engine.
"People prefer to keep the same serial number and
paperwork. We will overhaul your particular engine and
return it to you. On the remanufactured engines, we
only do it on an exchange basis." The one exception to
the remanufactured engine policy, McBride said further,
is that all engines returned because of "the Chevron con-
taminated fuel situation" will be remanufactured.
This marketplace saw relatively little change until the
'70s when Chrome Plate Inc. really moved into high gear
with exchange cylinders and longer warranties. With the
consolidation of Chrome Plate, Airmotive Engineering,
and Engine Components (Engine Components Inc. being
the surviving corporation) came more changes to the
industry.
ECI then introduced CERMICROME@,CERMI-
STEEL@, heat treating, and most recently, the
CERMJNIL@process.
Not to be left behind in this market of customer
preferences, ECI's plating competitors (Harrison Engine
Service, Cylinders of America, and Aero Chrome)
introduced the "mechanically induced porosity" process
NUCHROME@.
There are wide and varied opinions in the market-
place over which type of repair process is best, and some
ity for Cermicrome came a competitive reaction of more
reasonable prices from both Lycoming and Continental.
And new cylinder availability has been further aug-
mented recently by Superior Air Parts' introduction of
new replacement cylinders to the market.
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 Although I can't offer you any definitive answers on Repaired-
the best repair option, here are a few pointers: Aero Chrome, Harrison
Channel Chrome is a tried and true salvage process Channel chrome
whose only limitations are sensitive break-in and er- NU CHROME
Welding
ratic oil consumption during the late part of the
Head parts installed
TBO. The problems in producing channel chrome are
Cylinders of America
centered around final inspection of the product. This
can only be done subjectively by a technician. So only
Channel chrome
experience can tell you which company to use.
NU CHROME
Engine Components
If you are going to get your cylinders reworked, it is Chanuel chrome
better to have it all done in one place, or you are CERMICROME
likely to spend a good part of your time trying to get CERMTSTEEL
your warranty claims settled. CERMINIL
There are plenty of other folks listed in publications Q3 welding
that offer repaired cylinders. But keep in mind that if LFR heat treating
the cylinder requires plating (or rebarrelling), these Southwest International
companies have to come to one of the repair stations Channel Chrome
mentioned below, so it may be faster and less expen- SilKrome
sive to go directly to the source. MR2 Molecular Fusion welding
Here's a review of the companies that provide cylin- Gruy Greenwood is president of Sovereign Resources in
ders and what they offer: San AntomRIo,TX.
New cyhdera
Teledyne Continental Motors
Textron Lycoming
Superior Air Parts

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 29

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The 500-hour Slick magneto
inspection
By Harry Fenton
agnetos have been the primary ignition system
on aircraft engines since the dawn of powered
flight, used primarily due to their indepen-
dence from the aircraft electrical system and their over-
all reliability. Yet, despite the magneto's inherent reliabil-
ity, virtually every maintenance technician has had to
repair a magneto.
Because the magneto is a mechanical device, it will
operate for a considerable length of time in a defective
condition with no obvious signs of trouble. Eventually
the magneto will give warning signs like hard starting
or rough running, but even these indications are often
overlooked.
Despite these warning signs, however, preventive
maintenance is tough for maintenance technicians to sell
to the customer. For some reason, the customer attaches
more value for money spent for a maintenance
technician's time repairing a broken part than time
spent on preventive maintenance.
The basic requirements for the recommended inspec-
tions for Slick magnetos are detailed in Slick Service
Bulletin SB280C. The details in summary are:
For 400/4100 Series
A. Inspect magneto to engine timing every 200 hours.
B. No internal inspections, nonrepairable.
C. Replace magnetos at 800 hours TITS.
For 600, 4200/6200, 4300/6300 Series
A. Inspect engine to magneto timing every 100 hours.
B. Inspect internally every 500 hours, repair as
required.
C. Overhaul or replace at engine TBO.
Before performing any maintenance on Slick magne
tos, be sure to have the Slick F-1100 Master Service
Manual on hand. The F-1100 is only available on a s u b
scription basis directly from Slick, and contains all of
the most current service information and service b d e
tins covering all series of Slick magnetos and ignition
harnesses.
The following procedures are for a 50@-hourinspec-
tion on a typical impulse coupled 4300 Series magneto:
Be aware that special-purpose magnetos, such as
pressurized, tachometer drive, or retard breaker magne
toe, have very specific inspection procedures in addition
30 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
to the basic inspection. Prior to beginning any inspection
familiarize yourself with the documents appropriate to
the magneto to be inspected. In the case of the subject
magneto for this article, the latest revision of the L1363
4300/6300 Maintenance Overhaul Manual was used.
Tool requirements for performing the 50@-hourin-
spection, or any maintenance on Slick impulse coupled
magnetos, are very basic. The Slick T-100 tool contains
the necessary tooling to disassemble, time, and reas-
semble all Slick magnetos. If a T-100 is not available,
common shop tools can be substituted (although the
T-100 is mandatory for timing Slick retard beaker
magnetos).
A commonly available volt/ohm meter can be used to
check electrical items. VOMs are available with capaci-
tance checking ability and are priced under $100.
Finally, if the official T-150 Gap gauge is unavailable,
simply use a .062 drill rod or feeler gauge.
To begin the SO@-hourinspection, remove the magne
tos to be inspected from the engine. Most magnetos
have a drive gear or drive lug attached that must be
removed to access the impulse coupling or rotor shaft.
Grasp the shell of the impulse coupling and gently
pull it free from the impulse pawl assembly. It is a good
idea to protect your hand with a glove or rag as the shell
is spring-loaded and when released could cause injury.
Engage the T-106 impulse coupling puller into the
grooves of the impulse hub assembly and tighten the
puller bolt. DO NOT use any other type of puller as it
is a certainty that the impulse pawl plate will be bent
and damaged.
Sometimes when the coupling releases, the woodruff
key shifts causing the coupling to bind slightly when b e
ing removed. If this happens, rock the coupling back and
forth while it is loose on the shaft to align the woodruff
key; it should pull free by hand.
Before inspecting the coupling, clean it thoroughly.
Inspect the latching ends of the pawls for wear, deformi-
ties, or cracks. The pawl retaining rivets should not be
loose or show indications of movement. Measure the
clearance between the boss and the underside of each
impulse pawl and pawl plate using a .I50 feeler gauge
for leftihand rotation magnetos and a .I40 gauge for
righthand rotation magnetos.
Inspect the stop pin in the frame for looseness,
cracks, flat spots or corrosion. Worn pins cannot be
removed; the entire frame must be replaced.
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 Check the rotor shaft for damage, worn threads, and
keyway cracks. Inspect the cotter pin hole for cracks. If
an incorrect impulse coupling puller is used, the hole
sometimes deforms or collapses.
Look for excessive wear in the area where the im-
pulse coupling pawls contact the rotor shaft. Wear in
excess of .006 inches per side is unacceptable.
Inspect the ball bearing assembly by rotating the ro-
tor shaft. If the rotor shaft binds, sticks, or feels loose in
the bearing cup, replace the ball bearing assembly.
Insert the T-118 timing pin into the hole in the dis-
tributor block that corresponds to magneto rotation, and
lock the distributor gear in place. Remember, the dis-
tributor gear is locked when the shoulder of the pin
seats against the distributor block. Place the pinned
magneto into the T-100 holding fixture.
Feeler gauge inserted into proper position under pawl.
Loosen and remove the housing screws and lift the
housing from the main frame. The capacitor lead will be
connected to the points, so remove the lead carefully.
Don't use the housing to tug the wire off because the
connection between the lead and capacitor can be
broken.
With the timing pin inserted and the housing r e
moved, the small rotor gear index mark (appropriate to
the magneto rotation) should align with the groove in
the distributor block. If the marks do not align, then
at some point previously the gears were misassembled
and might be the cause for possible damage within
the magneto.
Remove the screws securing the block and gear
assembly to the frame, and lift the assembly from the
magneto. Be careful to keep track of the little spacers
that support the block assembly.
Your f i s t indications of possible trouble should be
visible at this point. If there is engine oil within the mag-
neto, then very likely there is an oil seal leak. If the oil
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seal has leaked, it must be replaced along with the
bearings due to possible dilution or contamination of
the grease.
Problem No. 2 would be a fine gray or black powder
visible within the magneto. This indicates a bearing has
failed and is spinning within the magneto frame, produc-
ing the black aluminum dust. Once again, the solution is
bearing, and possibly frame, replacement.
Normally, when the magneto is opened there will only
be a light accumulation of grease and dust. Clean all of
the contamination thoroughly from the parts using a
shop towel and compressed air. Avoid solvents since
these materiah will cause the lubricants and nylon parts
to deteriorate.
Inspect the distributor block and gear for damage.
During normal operation, the end of the distributor fin-
ger and the faces of the distributor post will experience
some metal-to-metal transfer. Arcing and some discolora-
tion is normal and not generally cause for rejection, but
burning or physical melting of the components is unac-
ce~table.Also. if there is an indication that the distribu-
tor finger is striking the towers, or brass dust is visible,
the block assembly should be replaced.
The oilite bushinas should be free of contamination
and the distributor gear should turn in the distributor
block w i t h no appreciable drag. If the bushing is
gummed, clean the bushing and relubricate with one
drop of oilite bushing oil or a very light sewing machine
oil. DO NOT use motor oil, WD-40, or silicon fluids-
these lubricants will accelerate wear of the bushings.
Inspect the tower wells of the distributor block for
corrosion or burning. Typically, white deposits of ozone
byproducts will be found and should be cleaned out. A
good contact surface here will reduce the workload on
the electrical circuit and preserve magneto life.
Check the distributor gear teeth for wear and general
integrity. The distributor finger should be held securely
to the shaft when tested with light finger pressure. The
carbon brush diameter must be uniform, and the loading
spring should work freely.
Look for carbon tracking or burning in the area
where the brush extends through the bearing bar. Com-
pletely clean the carbon out of the brush well, and, if
necessary, relubricate the oilite bushing.
Inspect the small rotor gear for looseness on the rcl.
tor shaft. If there is no friction holding the gear on, or if
the gear has axial play, then the gear must be replaced.
Check the end of the rotor for fretting or cracks
in the cam slot area. Damage requires rotor shaft
replacement.
Moving on to the cam and point set, look for excee
sive cam wear. If a step greater than 1/32 inch is worn
into the face of the cam lobe, then this part should
be replaced.
Points that have a frosty white or gray appearance,
with no excessive surface pitting, can be reused.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 31

Six-inch adjustable wrench provides better leverage for
removing coil from the magneto frame.
Remove the coil from the frame using the Slick T-122
wedge extractor or a standard &inch adjustable wrench.
The adjustable wrench provides better results due to its
wider foot print and better leverage.
Once the coil is removed, look for radial cracks or
splits in the coil near the laminations. Small cracks near
the lamination edges are not unusual, but burning or
arcing visible within the cracks is unacceptable.
Measure the resistance and continuity within the coil
using a standard volVohm meter. Measure the primary
circuit between the ground lead and the lead that con-
neds to the points; .5 to 1.2 ohms is normal. Measure
the secondary circuit between the metal tab in the cen-
ter of the coil and the ground lead; 13,000 to 20,500
ohms is normal. Any sign of discontinuity or high resis-
tance is reason to reject the coil. When discarding a coil,
cut the wire leads off because this absolutely ensures the
coil won't be fi4hed out of the garbage and reused.
While the coil is out, inspect the interior of the mag-
neto for general condition, and clean as necessary.
Finally, inspect the capacitor. Using a magnifying
lens, examine the glass bead end seals of the capacitor
for breakage or separation from the retaining rings.
If you have a capacitance meter (or your VOM
can measure capacitance), the capacitor will measure
.35MFD + 10 percent. Don't bother using a volt/ohmme
ter to test the capacitor for continuity as it will provide
useless information.
If the wire lead is a soldered-type connection, check
for breakage or frayed wires. If the connection is broken,
scrap the capacitor. Resoldering the wire on the capaci-
tor places a heat stress on the part and it will induce a
failure. Later-style capacitors feature a swivel connection.
No corrosion at the connection is acceptable, and the
wire must be fastened securely.
32 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Put the coil back into the frame and tap the securing
wedges back into place using a small hammer and flab
ended punch. Don't get overly aggressive with your
pounding as the wedge heads may snap off.
Using a straight edge, confirm that the metal-high
tension tab is flush with the peg surface of the magneto.
Too much tension causes excessive carbon brush wear,
and too little tension causes excessive arcing.
Slide the rotor cam into the slot in the end of the
rotor shaft. Place the points on the bearing cap and
secure them lightly prior to setting the E-Gap of the
magneto.
Cast into the rotor shaft of the 4300/6300 Series
magnetos are slots marked " R and "Ln where the T-150
Gap gauge is inserted to time the magneto.
Position the magneto so that the coil is in the 12
o'clock position as you look into the magneto. Locate the
slot appropriate to the magneto's rotation and insert the
T-150 into the slot. Turn the rotor and position the tool
against the left side of the frame for lefbhand rotation
magnetos and against the right side of the frame for
righbhand rotation magnetos.
With the T-150 positioned, bump the points to where
they just open and tighten them down. After the Egap is
set, rotate the rotor to position the cam to the point of
highest lift and measure the point gap opening-it
should be between .008 to .012 inch. If the gap falls out-
side of this range, then the point and cam combination
is unserviceable. Never set the t h i n g of the magneto
using point gap as the only reference. Magneto Gap, and
subsequently the power generated by the magneto, is
determined by a physical position of the rotor. Setting
the points without reference to rotor position may result
in weak output or delayed spark delivery. Set the M a p
first using the T-150 tool, and then measure the point
gap to determine the "genego" condition of the point/
cam combination.
After the E-Gap is set, position the small rotor gear
on the rotor shaft. Once again, based upon magneto r e
tation, align the appropriate "L," or "R" mark with the
metal tab on the coil.
Position the distributor block support spacers on the
frame. Insert the T-118 timing pin into the appropriate
"Ln or "R" hole, install the distributor block assembly
onto the frame, and secure with screws.
The rotor shaft and distributor block are correctly
meshed when the T-118 pin is inserted in the appropri-
ate hole and the corresponding mark on the small rotor
gear aligns with the groove on the distributor block. If
the distributor finger is not positioned correctly, the die
charge spark will arc across the nylon gear, causing a
severe carbon tracking situation.
Conned the capacitor lead to the contact points and
screw down the housing on the main frame.
To install the impulse coupling on the magneto, place
the woodruff key in the rotor shaft keyway. Slide the im-
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 pulse pawl assembly over the key. Take care not to dis-
lodge the key as the coupling may not seat properly.
Assemble the inner eye of the impulse spring into the
groove in the impulse hub.
A soldered connection. This one is marginal due to
corrosion and stress. Look for broken wires and corrosion
and resolder.
P d the shell back far enough to clear the pawl plate,
but not so far as to dislodge the eyelet of the spring, and
rotate the shell approximately 1/4 turn. When the ears
on the shell clear the ears on the pawl plate, push the
shell down on the pawl assembly.
Position the magneto drive gear on the coupling and
tighten the nut to 120 to 320 inch-pounds. It is normal
to have .010 to .030 inch end play between the magneto
gear and impulse couphg after the nut is torqued down.
Secure the nut with the appropriate cotter pin.
With that, your magneto is inspected and ready to
return to service!
Installation is simple. Set up the engine to the ad-
vance firing position on cylinder No. 1, pin the magneto
for proper rotation, clamp down lightly, remove the pin,
bump the magneto to where the points just open, tighten
the magneto clamps, and complete the harness and P-
lead connections.
One final hint: Paint a reference line between the
magneto and the engine case. This is useful for later ex-
ternal inspections between the 50@-hour intervals. When
the magneto timing is checked during a lO@houror an-
nual inspection, the magneto should not exceed more
' than 3/16 inch of movement from its original installed
position. If it is moved more than 3/16 inch, this indi-
cates wear internally, and the magneto should be in-
spected regardless of hours in service.
This article provides a good guide, but always consult
the Master Service Manual for specific procedures when
performing a 500hour inspection.
To obtain an F-1100 Master Service Manual or techni-
cal information on Slick Aircraft Products, contact 0i.w
Customer Service Department, Slick Aircraft Products, a
division of Unison Industries, 530 Blackhawk Park Ave.,
Rockford, IL; (815) 965-4700. July/August 1994

Harry Fenton is manager of customer services and a

technical representative for Slick Aircraft Products,
a division of Unison Industries in RocMbrd, IL. He
has been employed by Slick for over nine years. With
over 18 years of experience in the industry, he is a
cert;ificated A&P/IA technician and pilot with over
2,000 hours.
A good mechanical connection.

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Recip Technology
The engine doctors
This father and son team share a wealth of knowledge
on top-end overhauls
By Greg Napert
n seeking out information for a topend overhaul
story for this issue, Aircraft Maintenance Technol-
ogy magazine had the pleasure of meeting two indi-
vidu.als, Ed Rachanski Sr. and Ed Rachanski Jr. They are
the principals of a wellestablished engine overhaul facil-
ity, Blueprint Engines Inc., located in Chicago Ridge, IL.
Between them, their experience overhauling engines
and providing technical expertise to the industry spans
well over 60 years. What follows is the sharing of a
wealth of knowledge, related to top-end overhauls and
inspections that these two individuals have gained in the
engine overhaul business throughout the years.
Ed Rachanski Sr.
The book work comes first
I find that good technicians are often poor admini4
trators-not all of them, but many are. They don't like
book work or record keeping. They really enjoy working
with their hands, but when it comes to using a pen, they
don't care for it. I've seen where this is really coming
back and biting them.
So take the case of a customer that comes in and
says, "my Arrow, it's a little sluggish. I've lost 5 or 6
miles per hour. It sounds OK but over the last few
months it seems like it's loosing a little power." What
should the technician do initially with this complaint?
What technicians should do, before they even put
their hands on the engine is get the engine logbook, and
sit down and study it-just like a doctor does when you
go for a physical and they ask you questions about your
medical and family history. So in order to do proper
maintenance on an engine, we've got to ask questions.
When was it last overhauled? How many hours are
on the engine? Are fresh, remanufactured, new cylinders
installed on the engine? Who worked on it last? What
kind of quality can you expect from the last place that
worked on the engine? Was it a factory remanufacture?
Is it a brand new engine? How old was the last rebuild?
Was it last year, five years ago, 10 years ago, 20 years
ago (rusty cylinders)? And how many hours are on the
engine total? Where has the engine been flown and in
what kind of environment was it flown? When were the
magnetos last rebuilt, andlor when were they taken off?
Eight years ago? Six years ago? Just because the engine
only has a couple hundred hours on it and the last
annual was done recently doesn't mean that it's OK.
34 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
There are many clues in the logbook that can
enlighten you about problems. For instance: "No. 4 cylin-
der was removed six months ago", "No. 4 cylinder was
removed two years ago." "No. 4 cylinder was removed
five years ago." You should ask yourself at this point,
"Why are we losing the No. 4 cylinder?"
Take notes while you're going through the logbook,
and when you have a general idea of the condition and
where this engine came from, you can then roll your
toolbox up to the aircraft and start going through your
checklist procedures.
Most technicians don't do this. Instead, the first
thing that they do is roll the toolbox out to the aircraft.
The only exception to this rule is if you have been
taking care of the airplane for the last five years, and
you know that no one else has touched the aircraft since
its last visit. But, you should still check the logbook to be
sure that no one else has performed maintenance that
you're not aware of.
The 43.13(a) credo
If there should be a credo hanging on everyone's
walls, it's about a 60-word paragraph in the FARs-43.13
(a). It basically says that you have to use all of the meth-
ods, practices, and techniques prescribed in the current
manufacturer's maintenance manual or that the adminis-
trator makes available to us. This means following the
manufacturer's instructions. And that includes current
overhaul manuals, current repair manuals, current ser-
vice bulletins, service instructions, service letters,
and ADS.
If you follow FAR 43.13, your chances of staying out
of trouble and properly correcting problems and properly
maintaining aircraft are very good.
Time to take a look
So you've checked the logbooks. Next, you want to
open up the cowlings and take a good look at the engine
for clues of what's wrong. Take a r e d y good look at it,
especially where you can't see-where the baffling is.
Use a very good light and look for two things: fuel stains
and oil leaks-these are clues.
Let's say that in this case the engine is losing speed.
We find that the magnetos are OK, wires are OK, and
the fuel system is OK, and all the accessories are OK. At
the last annual, two freshly rebuilt mags were installed.
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At this point, you should check the spark plugs. You
have no idea how many planes are crashing because of
combustion failure due to worn, eroded spark plugs. This
can be eliminated through the use of a simple erosion
gauge that is provided by the spark plug manufacturers.
There's somethmg wrong with the way some techni-
cians today view spark plugs. If you're a really good A&P
and a good maintenance technician, and you care about
the safety of your customers, come 250 to 300 hours,
throw the plugs away-just get rid of them. Plugs should
really be viewed as a consumable; they're inexpensive
enough that it just doesn't make sense to try to squeeze
hours out of them. It's just not worth the safety risk. AU
you need to do is have one misfire, or malfunction, and
you have a failed cylinder.
If you're in a four-cylinder airplane, and you need 200
hp, and you lose one cylinder, and you have four big
people on the plane with 50 pounds of fish, and you're
trying to get up over the tree line in northern Wiscon-
sin, the cost of a spark plug seems minuscule. You've got
to put it all into perspective.
The compression check
Too many people are failing to run up the engines
prior to a compression check (ref. Lycoming service
instruction 1191 on doing a compression check). A com-
pression check is an art form. Not everyone does them
the same.
Especially in colder climates, when they pull the air-
craft in the hangar and it sat overnight, and there's 3
feet of snow outside. Many people will go ahead and
perform a cold compression check-and that's a big
mistake. If you do a cold compression check and some
thing happens after you sign off the engine, you've got
potential problems from a legal standpoint.
You'd best follow the engine manufacturer's service
instructions to the letter. Do it the right way. Move the
airplane out, run it up, and get it good and hot. Push it
back in the hangar and then do the check. You have to
expand the piston rings and pistons; you have to get the
cylinder barrel hot to simulate operating conditions. This
is necessary to correctly check for leakage past the pis-
ton rings, the piston, and valves. Also, the oil is thinner
with the engine at operating temperature. Cold, thick oil
will always give you a faulty compression reading.
In my opinion, I feel that the most accurate method
for checking compression is to perform an automotive
style compression check where you screw a gauge in the
spark plug boss; turn the engine over and take the read-
ing. The rings are moving, the valves are moving, and
you're not staking the valves and cheating to move it
into position or spraying a little oil in the cylinder.
Aircraft Technical Books
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What's acceptable compression?
Lycoming says 75/80 is satisfactory. AC6512A, how-
ever, says that 60/80 is acceptable. Let me tell you,
though, that the AC65-12A 80/60 statement won't hold
water for two seconds in any court of law.
AC65-12A is out the door in such an instance. FAR
43.13 says to follow manufacturer's maintenance manual
instructions, which in this case says that 75/80 is satis-
factory. They go further into it and say that with any-
thing under 70/80, further investigation is warranted.
Remember that the regulations take precedence over
advisory circulars and training manuals.
Let's look at what letting an engine go at 60/80
means and why it just isn't acceptable. Take a 200-hp
Cherokee Arrow. Piper manufactures this airframe and
its engineers say that with 200 hp, this aircraft, loaded,
will carry four passengers safely with X amount of fuel
and that you'll need X amount of runway at a specific
density altitude for the aircraft to perform. The key here
is that its performance is based on 200 hp-not 190, or
180, or not 175 hp. Remember that when you let the
compression slip beyond the manufacturer's recommen-
dations, you're allowing the horsepower rating to slip
as well.
So let's go back in the hangar. You've got 60/80 and
some noise blowing out of the exhaust valve. If you've
got 60/80, you probably have 25 or 30 hp out of that
one cylinder-not 50. You may even only have 15 hp
while it's running because the loose exhaust valve is
flopping around in the guide and hitting the seat and
bouncing around.
In my opinion, a 60/80 cylinder should come off
immediately. You shouldn't even go five minutes M h e r
with the job. You should call the owner and tell them
that the cylinder should come off and be rebuilt or
re~aired.
There may occasionally be a rare instance where
there's a piece of carbon holding a valve open and stall-
ing might take care of it. But you should be absolutely
sure of the problem. If you run into one of these in-
stances, you at least need to borescope the cylinder to
see if everything else appears to be OK.
l l y not to let outaide pressures a u e n c e you
So you've got your reading (60/80) and have a lot go-
ing through your mind. What are you going to say t o the
owner? Is the owner telling you that the aircraft is going
to be sold and pressuring you by saying "I'll watch it and
we'll come back in a month? It's all happening real fast
and the owner is trying to control the situation.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 35
 You are now being pulled from your obligation under
FAR 43.13. You are walking into a violation right here.
You've got to understand that you, the A&P technician,
have the authority to declare the aircraft unairworthy.
You simply write in the logbook that "this aircraft is
not airworthy according to a low compression check on
the No. 4 cylinder" and sign your name and give it to
the owner. Then when he goes down in the cornfield,
you're covered. You ultimately can't stop him from flying
his own airplane - but you can discourage him and pro-
tect yourself from legal action.
We're talking about giving your customer the best
possible maintenance available. And resistance to any
pressure that may force you to make unsafe decisions is
all part of this service.
We have made it standard policy in our shop not to
accept anything below 73/80 on a compression check.
We also like to encourage proper leaning procedures. Oil
changes should be done at average times of 30 to 35
hours or every four months.
We also warn our customers to avoid shock cooling,
keeping a little power on the engine while descending. If
we can get the owner t o control all of these things,
they'll increase their chances of making it to TBO.
Common failure6
The most common area of cylinder failure, by far, is
in the exhaust valves. People think that cams are the
biggest problem area, but the biggest problem area by
far is the exhaust valves and guides.
The temperatures in most areas of the engine are
such that, relatively speaking, we just don't see that
many problems elsewhere. You rarely see problems with
the crankshaft bearing areas, and the cylinder wall and
piston areas really give us a small percentage of failures.
The exhaust valve and guide areas, however, typically
run in the 2000°F temperature range and the guides in
the 400°F range. And these temperatures contriiute to
the highest numbers of failures.
This area is also the most difficult area in the engine
to lubricate. Oil oxidizes and cakes up in this area and
prevents lubrication to the guide. So any air leakage at
all past the exhaust valves should be reason to suspect
wear on the valve guides. In fact, Lycoming SB 388B,
which involves placing a dial indicator on the valve stem
to check the guide for wear, should be done as a matter
of procedure whenever any wear whatsoever is suspected.
36 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Ed Rachanski Jr.
We don't believe that an engine needs to be "broken
in" after a top overhaul. If you "break in" an engine, you
are breaking the engine.
Many overhaul shops recommend breaking in cylin-
ders because of the way they hone them.
Standard hones that are used in most shops produce
a surface with microscopic peaks and valleys. The objec-
tive of breaking in these cylinders is to break down tips
of the peaks. This results in metallic particles being dis-
tributed throughout the oil system and excessive wear on
the rings.
We feel that this "break-in" process, that everyone
seems to accept, is really unnecessary and detrimental to
the life of the engine. The honing process that we use
incorporates a silicone flex-hone and eliminates the
"break-in" process by creating plateaus instead of peaks.
It results in a honed surface that essentially simulates a
cylinder that's already broken in.
You still have to run in our cylinders, but this is sim-
ply to remove any of the flashing that's on the rings and
to make sure that everything's operating properly.
With flex honing, we simply recommend that you in-
stall the cylinders and fly the aircraft.
Volumetric matching of cylinder6
Another thing that we do as a matter of practice, and
recommend for all top overhauls is to "CC" the cylinders
and arrange the cylinders according to the volume and
the firing order.
Basically, CC-ing involves measuring the volumes of
the cylinder by pouring liquid into the cylinders to a
mark that is a specific distance from the flange of the
cylinder. We measure the volume of the liquid to deter-
mine the volume of air/fuel intake mixture that the cylin-
der will take in. Based on that we end up with cylinders
of varying volumes that we can strategically place on
the engine.
Our goal is to place the cylinders so that the volumeb
ric differences between the cylinders are kept to a mini-
mum as the firing order progresses. The objective is not,
as some people think, to place exact volume cylinders
opposite each other-but to place them so that the vol-
umes of the cylinders progress and digress smoothly
along with the firing order. This is one of the most
important things that you can do to ensure a smooth-
running engine. May/June 1994
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Having turbocharger problems?

Don't always blame the turbocharger

By Greg Napert

ne of the biggest misconceptions that technicians

0 have about turbochargers that malfunction is

the result of internal failures of the turbo-
charger itself.
Don Winters, senior account manager for
AIliedSignal Automotive, Aircraft Turbocharger Systems,
says that this is just not true. Turbochargers are highly
dependent on the aircraft engine's lubrication system,
and most failures are related to oil contamination and
supply problems associated with the engine. If this is
understood, he explains, the average turbocharger can be
made to operate well beyond the average TBO.
Winters says that misconceptions and troubleshoot
ing problems in the field can be eliminated with a good
basic understanding of the system.
Understanding turbocharger oil leaks
Winters says that understanding the various pres-
sures that exist in the system is the first step to elimi-
nating any confusion about oil leaks. "From my point of
view," he says, "the biggest single area that people
struggle with is the area of oil leaks.
"First," he says, "you need to understand that the
pressures on both the turbine (exhaust) and compressor
(intake air) sides of the turbocharger are relatively high
compared to the pressure in the center housing of the
turbocharger where the lubricating oil is contained."
This is important to understand, he explains, because
it's this relative pressure that keeps oil inside the turbo-
charger and prevents it from leaking. The air pressure
creates a labyrinth-type seal and works in conjunction
with oil slingers and seal rings to keep oil in the turbo-
charger center body housing.
The oil pressure inside the center body is actually
near zero during normal operating conditions. Oil flows
into the turbocharger, makes its way through oil pas-
sages and around bearing areas and is scavenged at a
rate that meets or exceeds the rate at which it enters
the turbocharger. About 3 gallons of oil per minute flow
through the turbocharger for cooling, he says.
With these factors in mind, it's easy to see that there
are a number of areas where things can go wrong and
lead to problems such as leakage related to lubrication.
The fist area where problems can develop, says Win-
ters, is with the scavenge system. If the scavenge pump
fails, becomes ineffective, or scavenge lines become
clogged, oil pressure builds inside the turbocharger.
Proper tooling and accurate torquing are necessary for
assembly o f turbocharger. Incorrect torquing procedure can
bend the shaft and throw it out of balance.
Normally, says Winters, the air pressures from the
turbine and compressor areas keep the oil inside the
center housing. But as scavenge lines become clogged
andlor the scavenge pump fails, oil pressures can build
to the point where they overcome the labyrinth seals
and leak.
Another scenario that can lead to oil leakage, he says,
is if the air pressures that normally keep oil in are di-
minished, or if the pressures actually turn into vacuums.
This can happen as the result of a restriction in the com-
pressor area. Also, a restriction or failure of the turbine
could result in little or no pressure on the turbine side,
which would result in oil leaking into the turbine and
out the exhaust system.
A classical problem is oil leaking during shutdown
and/or during idle where the problem goes away at full
power. This typically happens when there are restrictions
in the center housing that cause a minor pressure build-
up. During idle and shutdown, the air pressures are di-
minished and the labyrinth seals are less effective, so any
internal oil pressure above normal will cause oil to leak.
Oil coking and related problems
Once oil leakage problems begin, they tend to get
worse. Oil that makes its way to the turbine area
surrounds seals and fills passages that are subjected to
extremely high temperatures. This heat has a tendency
to bake oil onto the shafts and seals and the seals
become less effective.

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 37

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Recip Technology

ings in the turbo and re-

DESIGN sult in bearing damage.
TURBOCHARGER CONSISTS OF RADIAL-OUTFLOW TYPE Winters says that a
AIR COMPRESSOR DIRECT-COUPLED TO RADIAL-
INFLOW T W E TURBINE common problem is the
TURBINE AND COMPRESSOR WHEELG, MOUNTED ON use of gasket sealers on
CWMON W A F I ROTATE AT W E SPEED
the intake side. The seal-
WHEEL SHAFT SUPPORTED BY FULL FLOATING
BEARINGS IN CAST IRON CENTER HOUSING ant material can clog
PRESSURIZED LUWICATINQ OIL FROM ENGINE LUBE
passages and damage
SYSTEM. DEUVERED TO SNAFT BEARINQS THROUGH bearings or restrict the
DUiUED PASSAGES IN CENTER HOUSING

W W A T I N G OIL WUECTED IN CENTER HOUSING

flow of lubricant.
DRAINS BY QRAVIN OR IS SCAVOKiED BACK TO THE
W I N E CRAM(C&E.

FLOW OF W S DlRKlFD TO AND FROM WHEELS BY

Dirty oil
SPEClAUY DESIGNED HOUSMGS ATTACHED TO CENTER
M I N G Because the source of
SHAFT BEARING
lubrication for the turbo-
charger is engine oil, f r e
quent oil changes are
critical to assuring longev-
ity of the turbocharger.
Dirty oil will cause worn
MAINTENANCE bearings and eventually
NO SCHEDULED PERIODIC MAINTENANCE OF
overheating and failure.
TURBOCHARGER REQUIRED
"There are just too
- GOOD MAINTENANCE PRACTIC~S MUST BE OESERVED
FORENGINE LUBRICATION AIR INTAKE AND EXHAUST
many people that only
SYSTEMS FOR MAXIMUM T~IRBOCHARQER
PERFORMANCE
LIFE AND focus on failed bearings
rather than focus on what
OPERATION caused the failed bearings
and, as a result, they pro-
TURBINE, DRIVEN BY EXHAUST GAS FROM ENGINE
EXMUST MANIFOLD, DRNES DlFiECTCOUPCED
ceed with inaccurate and
COMPRESSOR nonproductive trouble-
W R E B S O R W U T (COMPhE89ED AIR) IS DEUVERED shooting and corrective
THROUGH DUCTING TO ENGINE INTAKE MANIFOLD
actions. I try to explain to
INCREASED DENSIN OF FUEUAlRMlXNRE IN ENGINE
PEFIMITS I N m w s r n POWER OUTPUT people that the bearings
NRBOCHAAQERSPEED AND &MPeE860R OUTPUT aren't defective but that
ARE CONTROLlED BY USE OF AN ANEROID TYPE CON-
TROLLER AND A WASTEGATE, TO MAINTAIN SUI LEYEL they were damaged from
HORSEPOWER TO HIGH ALTITUDE BLEED AIR 6ROM
'WE COMPRESSOU W ALSO AVAILABCE FOR C&IN something," says Winters.
PRESSURIZATIONOPTIONS
"The bearings in the
center housing are par-
ticularly susceptible to
The piston ring seal groove area is a critical area. damage due to contamination. These bearings are free
The piston ring basically prevents the hot gases from floating bearings that run at close tolerances on a film
entering into the center section. Winters says that "you of oil and spin 30,000 - 50,000 rpm while the shaft is
may find the problem and remove the restriction, and spinning at speeds near 100,000 rpm. So it takes very
then start it back up and you're still getting oil leaking Little contamination to do damage."
from the turbo because of the oil that's trapped behind Winters continues, "Contrary to what people think,
the heat shroud and/or manifold. The oil then heats up however, any contaminants are usually centrifuged to the
and cokes behind the heat shroud which increases heat outside, so that any wear that you see is not going to be
transfer to the center housing. to the bearings themselves or to the turbocharger shaft,
"I usually tell people that if they have a turbocharger but to the center housing bearing bores. At 100,000
where the oil is leaking, to first find out what the prob cycles per minute, it doesn't take long to damage the
lem is, pull the turbocharger and set it on end over- housing and/or the bearings. Technicians also have a
night to get as much oil as possible out of the seals tendency to blame the bearings and call them %ad
and passages," says Winters. bearings,' but in f a d it is usually contamination of the
engine oil and not the bearings or turbocharger that are
Oil supply problems at fault. With a turbocharger, it's more critical than ever
A problem that somewhat opposes oil scavenge prob to maintain regular oil change intervals."
lems is a lack of oil supply. Restrictions in the oil supply
lines can reduce or eliminate the flow of oil to the bear-

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 Recip Technology

Some overhaul considerations

Winters says that an area of concern related to over-
hauling turbochargers is in the area of rework, particu-
larly the turbine wheel shaft. "We have some examples
of wheels that have been reworked in the area of the in-
ertia weld (the piston ring groove area) and have discov-
ered that reworking procedure can result in cracking.
"The problem is that some repair stations are grind-
ing this area and metal is sprayed back on so that it can
be remachined to original dimensions. There are two
problems with doing this," he says. "First, when the area
is reworked, there's really no way of knowing if too
much material is being removed and how close they are
to weakening the original inertia weld. We've found
some where the original weld has been weakened by
around 25 ~ercent.Also we've found cracks in this area
from the process of heating it up while spraying the
metal onto the shaft. "If it's not heated evenly, you'll get
-
cracking. between the weld and the shaft."
Winters says that the company doesn't currently a p
prove of any repairs to this area. If the shaft is within
serviceable limits, it can be reused. But if not, he recom-
mends discarding it and replacing it with new.
"We have made the decision to 100 percent replace l h s gasket wasn't cut correctly and it resulted in oil
all center housings. This is because wear is most likely starvation to the turbocharger.
to be on the center housing, and that oil passages are
difficult, if not impossible, to clean properly," he says. that takes a pounding, they would come up with differ-
"Replacement of this housing is not required per our ent assessments of what actually caused their problem.
overhaul manual, but it's easier, as the manufacturer, to Operation of the aircraft is also critical, he says. "It
simply replace it with new than to bother with cleaning needs to be understood that at idle, or low power, there's
and machining the bearing surfaces." actually very little heat coming out of the exhaust, and
Winters says, "Many people have the misconception so that provides a good opportunity to cool the turbo-
that all they need to do is replace the bearings to restore charger and gives you a good chance to continue to run
the clearances when, in fact, the bearings themselves are oil through the turbocharger while it's cooling. This is
typically not that worn. Instead, it's the center housing very important to avoid coking oil onto the bearing and
itself that's worn. These dimensions need to be mea- sealing surfaces and avoid bearing damage.
sured carefully and oversized bearings may need to be "What you're really looking at doing is to cool down
used. Also, it's important to understand that these bear- the exhaust system, not even so much the turbo, because
ings typically see no load unless there is a vibration once you turn the engine off, all of your plumbing that
problem - they see plenty of speed, but their main job is goes to the turbo is still hot and that energy soaks back
to delicately position both wheels to the contours of the through to the turbo and it will eventually all get to the
housing so that they operate efficiently. same temperature.
"The freefloating bearings are necessary to absorb "In practice, fortunately, the duty cycle of an aircraft
any vibrations and still maintain tight clearances for the is such that there's usually ample time to cool the ex-
turbine and compressor," he says. haust system from the end of the runway to where the
Because of the high operating speeds, he explains, aircraft is parked, but aircraft temps run higher than
balancing and positioning of all components is critical most other applications, so there's more potential for oil
during the overhaul process. With an item that's spin- coking and related problems."
ning near 100,000 rpm, it takes very little to throw it out Winters says that AUiedSignal strongly recommends
of balance. that turbochargers be overhauled at TBO. "As an engine
Winters says that the turbocharger is deceptively approaches TBO,operators typically tend to perform less
simple in its operation, but people end up with problems maintenance on the aircraft and are less diligent with oil
because they don't understand it. As a result they end changes, and also there is more blow-by of exhaust gases
up w i t h a ruined unit that they attribute to having had and contaminates entering the engine due to wear of the
bad bearings, when there's nothing further from the rings. And as the engine starts to go over the hill, it
truth. If they understood that the bearings are r e d y a takes the turbo along with it."
delicate positioning instrument, rather than something

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 39

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Winters says regular inspection intervals are also
very important to assuring the longevity of the turbo-
charger. "On lO@hourinspections," he explains, "there
are inspections such as the journal bearing clearance
area where you place a dial indicator on the shaft center
and determine the clearances. A mistake that's often
made is that readings are taken on one end and techni-
cians don't realize that if they grab both ends and move
one up and the other down, the clearance is doubled and
magnified at both ends.
"In order to take the clearances properly, you need to
move both ends together in the same direction. The best
way to measure bearing clearances is to run the dial in-
dicator up through the drain hole in the bottom of the
turbocharger. Place the indicator against the center of
the shaft, grab both ends, and pull them both up and
down together at the same time. This will give you an
accurate representation of the total clearance on all of
your bearings."
Regardless, he says that "a good rule of thumb is
that if neither the turbine wheel or the compressor
wheel has rubbed on the housing, the bearing clearances
are OK."
Winters further explains that "once you have an oub
of-balance condition and damage the bearings you have
to take a look at how the turbine hub fits the bore of the
center housing really close as is needed for oil retention.
Typically, if you lose control of the rotating group, it's
going to rub the hub and center housing bearing/seal
bore as well. It's kind of like a prop strike: If you have
damage, you've got to take the whole thing apart and
inspect it, because you don't know what damage has ac-
tually happened. You have to pretty much overhaul the
entire thing."
AlliedSignal offers these additional
Turbocharger troubleshooting
troubleshooting and inspections tips:
Turbocharger troubleshooting can be conducted effi-
ciently with a combination of two things: a good under-
standing of the systems and a thorough inspection of
all related systems prior to drawing any conclusions.
Toward this end, AlliedSignal recommends the following
"preinspection troubleshooting" guidelines:
Air induction qatezn
Look for air leaks, loose connections, damage and
deterioration.
Engine air cleaner
Inspect for clogging.
Crankcase breather
Inspect for restrictions.
40 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Ehaurrtmm
Inspect for leaks, especially at exhaust manifold con-
nections to turbocharger and to engine (gasket).
Turbocharger oil
Check for oil leaks, loose connections, bad gaskets,
fittings and check valves.
Bypass valve and controller oil lines, sensing h e e ,
and related brackets
Inspect for leaks and vibrations.
Bgpass valve actuator
Oil leakage due to twisted or damaged piston packing
due to cylinder scoring or dirt.
Controller
Check for oil leakage past seal of internal poppet, air
leaks at any place in signal lines, or oil pressure
variations.
Exterior of brass valve or controller
Look for accumulated debris on cooling fins of pop
pebtype bypass valve, or on linkage of butterfly-type,
or on any external controller linkage.
~ b o ~ r
With engine running, listen for shrill whine above
normal, shut engine down and check turbocharger
bearing clearance.
Compressor wheel or turbine wheel
Look for indication of seal leakage, wheel damage,
rubbing, binding, or dragging. (For any of these d e
feds check turbocharger being clearance and trouble
shoot as applicable. Look for foreign object damage,
and clean and repair air induction system or exhaust
system.)
Inspect the interior of the turbocharger center hous-
ing by removing the oil drain and looking in through
the oil drain opening. When a sludged or coked con-
dition exists, sludge builds up heavily on the shaft
between the bearing journals, on the wall of the hous-
ing from the oil drain opening back to the turbine
end, and on the turbine end piston ring seal.
Detect abnormal wear in the turbocharger shaft
bearings, journals, or bearing bores by performing
the "Bearing Clearance Inspection" of the Overhaul
Manual for Aircraft Systems Turbochargers
(TP20-0128).
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With the air inlet and exhaust outlet ducting sepa-
rated from the turbocharger, look for blade damage
to the compressor wheel or turbine wheel. Examine
the outer blade tip edges for evidence of rubbing on
adjacent housing surfaces and use a light to see the
turbine wheel blade tips from the housing outlet. Re
tate the wheels by hand while pressing the rotating
assembly toward each end, and then sideways. There
should be no binding, rubbing, or other interference
with free rotation.
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Thoroughly clean the air indudion and exhaust sy5
tems following compressor wheel damage by foreign
object impact. Change the air cleaner element so that
any metal pieces embedded in the air cleaner element
are not drawn into the replacement turbocharger.
Whenever oil contamination is indicated or sue
pected, a thorough flushing of the engine oil system
is recommended per the engine manufacturer's main-
tenance manual.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 41
Recip Technology

Continental fuel injection basics

By Greg Napert

I
n maintaining and troubleshooting fuel injection
systems, it's helpful to remember that regardless of
what system is used on aircraft or how complicated
it appears, it only performs two basic functions: meter-
ing and vaporization.
And the Continental continuous flow fuel injection
is no exception. It uses only four basic components to
accomplish these functions: the nozzle, manifold valve,
metering unit or control valve, and the injection pump.
The simplicity of these systems offers advantages
over conventional carburetors. Among these advantages:
fuel distribution is equal at each cylinder, the compo-
nents are not susceptible to icing (this is because of the
fuel being introduced and atomized at the cylinder head),
and the engine runs smoother and produces more horse
power for the same amount of fuel.
Despite the simplicity, however, regular maintenance
of these systems is critical in order to maintain proper
adjustments and to keep components clean.
Maintenance
Venb
According to Teledyne Continental Motors, regular
inspection intervals (100 hours is recommended) should
include a thorough search for any signs of damage and
an inspection for fuel leaks. The company says that a
good indication of leaks will be the presence of green
fuel dye stains. If you suspect a leak, place the mixture
control in idle cutoff and operate the electric fuel pump
on high or full and observe the area under actual fuel
pressure.
Important areas to check are the atmospheric vents
in the injection pump diaphragm chamber and on the
manifold valves. These vents should always be open.
Green stains around these vents are an indication of a
leaking pump diaphragm. Don't use safety wire to check
obstructions. Instead, use a piece of waxed dental floss
or other thread. The thread will enter the vents if open
and not puncture the diaphragm.

CONTINUOUS FLOW FUEL INJECTION

SYSTEM FUEL PUMP
FUEL NOZZLE
(W PER CYLINDER)

ATMOSPHERE VAPOR RETURN

TO FUEL TANK

a INLET AIR (AWENT)

INLET PRESSURE
~ o z n LINE
e PRESSURE
METERED FUEL PRESSURE
MIXTURE RETURN FLOW
PUMP OUTLET PRESSURE
BY-PASS FLOW
VAPOR RETURN

AIR THROlTLE AND

FUEL CONTROL
ASSEMBLY

42 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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Nozzles
The areas around the nozzles on the engine should be
inspected regularly for green fuel dye stains. The pres-
ence of stains indicates that fuel nozzle plugging or r e
strictions is causing a rise in pressure and forcing fuel
out of the atmospheric vents. (This applies only to
nonturbocharged engines, since turbocharged engines
don't have vented nozzles.) However, says Continental,
leaking O-rings on the nozzle shrouds of turbocharged
engines will produce a similar type condition.
The nozzles should be removed and cleaned at least
every 300 hours, or more frequently if environmental
conditions dictate. Particularly, the nozzle air intake
screens should be cleaned properly so that the air is
atomized properly.
Dirty screens will result in the engine pulling exces-
sive fuel from the lines and this action will result in
erratic behavior of the manifold valve. Continental cau-
tions that the shrouds should not be disassembled from
the nozzle as it's difficult, if not impossible, to properly
refit them to the nozzle.
Lubrication
Essential to proper operation and longevity of the
fuel injection system is proper lubrication. The throttle
shaft should be lubricated at least every 100 hours. If so
equipped, any link rod pins should also be lubricated
with a drop of lubricant at each hinge point.
Adjustments
Minor adjustments of the fuel control unit will typi-
cally be necessary throughout the life of the engine. In
particular, the most common adjustments needed are
for idle speed, mixture and injector pump metered and
unmetered pressure.
One thing that should be kept in mind while making
any of these adjustments is that the engine should be
warm, but that you should try to avoid heat soaking. As
the temperature under the cowl increases, the aneroid
valve pump is affected due to expansion of the aneroid
unit. Heatsoaking produces a gradual decay of the per-
formance of the engine and will reduce the metered fuel
pressure. So keep adjustment and checking t,o the short-
est possible time to avoid this.
Idle speed and mixture
The adjustments for idle speed and mixture are quite
simple and straightforward. Primarily, you need to
remember that tightening, or turning in, idle speed
adjustment screws will increase speed. And conversely
loosening, or turning out, idle adjustment screws will
reduce speed.
As well, righthand or clockwise rotation, enrichens
the mixture with the idle mixture adjustment. And left
hand or counterclockwise rotation, leans the mixture.
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Unmetsred and metered fuel pressure
Continental recommends checking the low and high
unmetered fuel pressure and metered fuel pressure every
100 hours. In order to check the unmetered pressures, a
test gauge hookup to the injection pump is necessary.
Follow Continental's directions in its service bulletins
and maintenance manuals and verify that these pres-
sures are correct.
It's imperative that these pressures are correct in or-
der to proceed with any troubleshooting procedures. So
make sure that you're using a calibrated gauge for check-
ing the pressures, and also that the fittings and hoses
used to conned the gauge into the system are the same
inside diameter as the pump outlet fitting; otherwise,
false readings can occur. Also, after each adjustment is
made, run the engine up to clear it out and recheck
pressures.
Troubleshooting
Hard starting
One of the most common problems that operators
have with fuel injection is restarting a hot engine-par-
ticularly on a hot day.
What commonly happens is that the heat from the
engine, upon shutdown, vaporizes the fuel in the lines,
and the injection pump cannot supply fuel in its vapor
state fast enough at engine cranking speed to provide
adequate fuel for starting. The situation typically goes
from one extreme to another and the engine becomes
flooded.
In order to avoid this, it's important to instruct pilots
how to overcome this. The secret is in using the electric
fuel pump to purge the lines and fill them with fuel.
First, place the mixture control in the idle cutoff or
full-lean position. This action prevents any quantity of
fuel from reaching the cylinders and causing all of the
fuel delivered by the electric pump to return back to the
tank by way of the return line system.
Next, place the throttle in the full open position. This
is really only necessary for systems that have a lock on
the throttle which prevents the electric fuel pump from
operating in the high range until the throttle is retarded.
Finally, switch the electric fuel pump to its high posi-
tion, and wait 15 to 20 seconds for the lines to purge.
You now can turn off the fuel pump, retard the throttles
to the normal start position, and advance the mixture
control to the full rich position to start the aircraft.
Another problem related to hard starting is when the
unmetered fuel pressure is below the normal required
minimum. This is particularly true with a warm engine,
because on cold days, the low pressure is compensated
for by priming, and therefore, starts made with the
primer will appear normal.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 43
Roug..e~~/quitting
on r o l l a t
Low unmetered fuel pressure will also cause rough
idling. The natural tendency for correcting this would be
to enrich the idle mixture. However, the mixture would
then be too rich at fast idle during taxiing.
Another difficulty associated with low unmetered fuel
pressure is engine stoppage during roll-out after land-
ing-followed by difficulty in restarting.
With all of these conditions, the solution is to simply
adjust the low m e t e r e d fuel pressure to the correct
limits.
If the low unmetered fuel pressure is too high,
though, the symptoms will be a little different. The en-
gine wiU start fine when it's hot or cold, but it will idle
rough. Also, excessive low unmetered fuel pressure will
cause the engine to quit on roll-out, just as it did when
the low m e t e r e d fuel pressure was too low, only this
time from an overly rich condition.
Although the roughness and quitting on roll-out can
be corrected by leaning the mixtures, there will now be a
spread in the fuel flow appearing on the flow gauge at
idle speeds with twinengine aircraft. Also, a spread in
the mixture settings will also occur when both engines
are set for equal flow.
The only satisfactory solution, says Continental, is
proper adjustment of the low m e t e r e d fuel pressure to
the specified limits, followed by proper adjustment of the
idle mixture.
In-flight roughness can be caused by nozzle plugging.
This condition usually occurs after maintenance on the
fuel injection system or with recently overhauled or r e
built engines. It occurs because dirt was caused to enter
the fuel injection lines or nozzles during maintenance or
overhaul. Continental says that this condition also can
occur intermittently, which may be an indication that the
dirt has passed through the nozzle. But if you find that
you're continuously cleaning the nozzles and the condi-
tion keeps occurring, you'll need to remove all of the fuel
injection components and send them to an overhaul facil-
ity for complete disassembly, inspection and cleaning.
In-flight roughness can also be caused due to installa-
tion of an incorrect class of nozzles. According to Conti-
nental, each production engine is tested to determine
which class nozzle produces the smoothest running
engine at the highest possible power. If a different letter
or number size is installed during the life of the engine,
the engine will run either too lean or rich and this may
result in a rough running engine.
44 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Manifold valves are also calibrated according to flow
and selected for each engine's requirements, a t the fac-
tory. There are three different flow categories of mani-
fold valves, says Continental. Standard valves are
marked only with the part number and opening pres-
sure. It is no longer in production, however. A high flow
manifold valve has the letter "Mn printed on its top. "M"
means minus spring tension, which means that this
valve will flow 1/2 gallon per hour more at a given pump
pressure than its counterpart-the "P" manifold valve-
which stands for plus spring tension. Conversely, the "P"
valve flows 1/2 gallon per hour less than the "M" valve.
Again, if for some reason, the manifold valves are
swapped between engines or the incorrect valves are
installed, the engine with the incorrect valve will most
likely operate rough, or a spread in the mixture control
levers and fuel flow indications will occur.
If any of the manifold or cylinder drains become
plugged or partially obstructed, there is a danger of hy-
drostatic locks. Also, these drains are calibrated air leaks
into the induction system, so any blockage will upset the
mixture balance. This is especially true under idle speed
conditions. If excessively rich mixture problems are r e
ported, says the company, investigate the drains before
you go after fuel pressure and idle mixture.
Larger turbocharged engines may employ twc~way
"sniffle" valves installed by the aircraft manufacturer.
Such valves are designed to close anytime a differential
in Dressure exists between the manifold and ambient air
pressures. It is only open when the engine is at rest or if
the manifold and ambient pressures are equal.
There are typically two of these valves per engine,
and the valve is typically installed between the cylinder
drain system and the overboard tube. If the valves fail to
close properly, mixture problems will occur, especially in
the lower rpm ranges. Excessive lean mixtures at low
engine speeds will result in rough and erratic idle perfor-
mance, says Continental.
Adjusting the idle mixture will appear to correct this
problem, only now the low unmetered fuel pressure will
be upset and this will simply transfer the problem to ex-
cessive rich mixtures on the high end of the engine's
performance. And what's even worse is that the cylin-
ders on the side with the good valve will now develop
fouled spark plugs from the excessive rich mixtures.
An easy way to verify that the valves are causing the
problem is to place your finger over one of the drain
tubes at a time while the engine's at idle. If the idle
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performance improves immediately, or you feel any
suction on your finger, you know the valves are bad.
Now remove one finger at a time to determine which
valve it is or if it's both.
Erratic fuel flow gauge (actually pressure gauges)
behavior is typically due to air trapped in the fuel line
that connects the gauge to the fuel manifold valve or
metering unit. Purging the air from the gauge line will
normally correct this problem. Continental recommends
a pressure pot filled with kerosene to purge the line.
B&S offers fundamental tips for troubleshooting
and maintaining TCM fuel injection systems
Mark Valverde, marketing manager for B&S Aircraft in
Wichita, says that for the most part, the Continental
system is designed to be a simple, affordable, yet d e
pendable fuel system.
However, a good running system requires a diligent
maintenance schedule and attention to details that go
beyond removing and replacing items. He offers the
following advice maintaining these systems:
Intake leaks can be a big problem. Trying to adjust
your fuel control system to "over-ride" lean condi-
tions, will usually not last long.
Some people think that an overhauled system can be
bolted on and they are done. Although the bench and
test settings are close to the actual settings that will
be needed on the engine, there are minor adjust
ments that will need to be made in order to achieve
optimum performance.
One problem from the field is an engine that will not
idle below 1,500 rpm - sometimes described as "it
will only idle when my boost pump is on." Most of
the time, this is caused by contamination inside the
fuel pump, more specifically, contamination under
the relief valve assembly. It can be caused ,by a
shaved piece of rubber from within a newly con-
structed fuel hose, or simply from a fitting installa-
tion that sliced off a trace of rubber from the shroud
grommet. The remedy is to remove the fuel pump
and send it to a q u a l e d repair station to have it
repaired or overhauled.
I all linkages and components." El JanuaryIFebruary 1994
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If the problem persists, check to be sure that air is
not entering the system somewhere between the injec-
tion pump and the supply tanks. For example, fuel
strainers have been known to leak air into the fuel sys-
tem and yet not leak any fuel out. However, this condi-
tion will also result in erratic engine operation as well as
erratic gauge indications.
This information was provided by Teledyne Continental
Motors and is revised information from its Continuous
Flow Fuel Injection System-Fundamentals, Mainte
nance and Troubleshooting Manual.
If your control valve or "brass valve" has fuel stains
on it, especially around the center screw in the name
plate, or at either end, the O-rings are most likely
bad and the unit should be overhauled.
Make it a habit to inspect the air box throttle shaft at
regular intervals. A little end play won't hurt, but if
the bushings are worn, the next thing to go will be
the shaft, and eventually, the air box housing.
Always check all linkages. Link rod ends and levers
seem to go from bad to worse rather quickly once
they get a little loose. Some of the older units have
not been updated yet; they don't have the hardened
link rod ends or the steel bushings in the levers.
These should be installed at overhaul.
Check your manifold valve. If there's evidence of fuel
at the drain hole in the cover cap, the diaphragm
may be ruptured. If it is, it will need to be over-
hauled.
Do not remove nozzle shrouds from the nozzles. If
the shroud is not tight, or can be pulled off the
nozzles with your fingers, the nozzle shroud is either
worn or the shoulder of the nozzle is worn. In either
case, the nozzle will need to be replaced.
If your air box and brass valve need overhaul, it's
likely that the fuel pump, manifold valve and nozzles
also need overhaul. Send them as a set for overhaul.
Valverde says, "About the best advice I could give
anyone maintaining these systems is to do frequent
inspections. Check for wear and smooth operation of
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 45
Recip Technology
Prop strikes
When should you tear down an engine for inspection?
By John Boyce, Contributing Editor
A
lthough some maintenance people have simpli-
fied things for themselves, it appears that there
is no quick reference guide for what to do with
an aircraft that has experienced a propeller strike. Do
you recommend a teardown? Do you run external tests?
Is the prop damage enough to base a teardown decision
on? Should you rely on the accident information given by
the aircraft owner/pilot?
Across the spectrum of the industry from engine
manufacturers, FBOs, overhaul facilities and insurance
companies there is no one standard of action, no speci-
fied set of procedures for the aircraft technician to fol-
low. Many facilities have prop strike policies, but each
incident is still, for the most part, heated in isolation
from all other incidents.
There is universal agreement that a sudden engine
stoppage dictates a teardown, but beyond that mainte
nance professionals say you have to refer to the
manufacturers' service bulletins for guidance on prop
strikes. However, neither Textron Lycoming nor Teledyne
Continental lays down any hard and fast rules. Textron
takes a position and Continental recommends. Both
are clear that the ultimate responsibility for whatever
procedure is used belongs to the operator and the
inspecting agency.
Textron states in its service letter L163C that the
n
"safest procedure for any propeller strike is to remove,
disassemble the engine and inspect the reciprocating and
rotating parts. Continental's SB M8416, on the other
hand, says of prop strikes that if the engine experienced
a sudden stoppage then disassembly and inspection
"would be clearly required," but their necessity is a m a t
ter of interpretation by those persons involved in the
incident. It goes on to say that teardown and inspection
aren't always necessary, but dye penetrant and 10X
ma ed inspection of the crankshaft flange are
recommended.
Judgment and actually looking
Many technicians feel like Charles Reese, the service
operations manager at Ronson Aviation in Trenton, NJ,
who is frustrated that liability considerations don't allow
him to use his many years of experience in making a
judgment on whether or not a teardown is necessary.
"It's a real difficult question to answer with the prod-
uct liability situation," Reese says. "If there has been a
complete stoppage, there's no question in my mind that
...
the engine has to be torn down and inspected (But)
46 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Example of prop strike damage on crankshaft flange. Notice
crack emanating from bolt hole.
you see a prop that's not dinged too bad and you say, 'I
know there's nothing wrong with that engine, but I can't
put my company in a liability situation,' so the only
thing a technician can do to protect himself and his com-
pany is to recommend a teardown. A lot of the time it's
such a waste of money for the customer, but I don't have
much choice. It's frustrating."
For Victor Sloan, president of Victor Aviation Ser-
vices in Palo Alto, CA, deciding the procedure for prop
strikes is not frustrating at all. He doesn't consider any
prop strike as minor. In fad, he recommends, and gladly,
teardowns after all prop strikes.
"The problem with a propeller strike," Sloan says, "is
that the propeller does not have to be damaged much at
all to cause internal damage to the engine. You have a
sudden stoppage or force inertia change on the crank-
shaft, the gear mechanism and the reciprocating valve
train when you have a shock to the rotating mass. When
that happens, for example, on engines that have counter-
weights, a sudden impact of the slightest nature will
shock react the counterweights in the other direction."
This, Sloan continues, creates force inertia internally
that can result in damage to the rotational and recipro-
cating parts of the engine along with structural mass
failures on crankcases and engine mounts. Dial indicator
and dye penetrant tests of the crankshaft only reveal
external problems, not internal. "And you really don't
know that unless you take the engine apart," Sloan says.
Dan Daly, director of maintenance at Santa Barbara
(CA) Aviation, has a straightforward rule for determining
his recommendation. "If I have to pull a propeller for
repair, I recommend tearing the engine down and in-
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specting it. The logic is that if the prop is damaged
enough to repair, this rotating mass has some kind of
stop page, maybe only a millisecond, but that is enough
to put a crack in the crankshaft."
Assessing the liability
Douglas MacKay, vice president and sales manager
for Ram Aircraft Corp. in Waco, TX, fears that techni-
cians who don't recommend a teardown after a prop
strike of any kind are putting themselves and their cue
tomers at risk.
"It's a tough situation," MacKay says. "If you don't
recommend a teardown, you're assuming the responsibil-
ity for what was wrong with the engine before; you're
assuming that liability. There's no way to know how hard
the hit was, so it's best to recommend a teardown. Com-
pared to what can happen to the engine and the aircraft
from a prop strike, the money saved by not tearing down
is false economy. You've got to tear them apart."
The aircraft owner/operator relies heavily on the
technician's judgment as to whether a teardown is neces-
sary, but, of course, the decision ultimately rests with
the owner/operator.
If the operator b a s at a teardown, Daly at Santa
Barbara recommends the technician protect him or her-
self with a good paper trail. "I'll give the customer a
copy of the service bulletin," Daly says, "and I'l put him
in touch with engine overhaulers so that he knows
clearly what to expect, good or bad, and let him make
the decision. If he still wants only a prop repair, I put an
entry in my work order stating what I have told the
owner and have him sign it. The feds have told me that
is enough to protect me."
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Insurance considerations
Insurance considerations play a major role in an
operator's decision to allow teardown and possible repair
after a prop strike. Some insurance companies willingly
pay for teardowns, many are not so willing, according to
Greg Hiser, assistant vice president at Rollins Burdick
Hunter of Kansas Inc., a major aircraft insurance broker
in Wichita, KS.
"It varies from market to market," Hiser says, "and
there are 16 markets that do aircraft worldwide today.
Some have a very good attitude on a prop strike and
want the engine torn down. Others will allow the engine
teardown, but if there is no damage, then you (operator)
are responsible for the expense of the teardown. They
agree to pay for damage; they don't agree to go looking
for damage."
The logic, Hiser explains, is that prop strikes are
numerous, and if insurance companies paid for a tear-
down every time one occurred, the insurance rates would
skyrocket.
"Some consumers," Hiser says, "are going to com-
plain about their rates going way up while some are go-
ing to complain that the company is not going to pay for
a teardown unless damage is found. It's a Catch-22 for
everybody involved. What works for the masses is talung
the strike incidents on a casebycase basis.
"Most insurance companies want to be flexible So
many things could make a difference: How fast was the
engine turning? What was the ground speed of the air-
craft? What did the blade hit? Was it a solid object? You
really have to approach it on a casebycase basis." fDi
November/December1993
/'he Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 47
Recip Technology
Weighing the options for
cylinder break-in
By Greg Napert
T
he subject of engine break-in has always been a
touchy one for many involved in maintenance.
Aircraft owners and maintenance personnel who
are convinced that their way is the only way to break in
an engine will argue up and down about the best way to
prevent the cylinders glazing over. And no matter what
evidence you present to set someone straight, they tell
you that they're doing just the opposite and that it works
iust fine.
It's not so simple these days. Authorities have always
come up with the standard answer of "follow the main*
nance manual," or "whatever the manufacturer of the
engine recommends."
With the availability of cylinder finishes such as
Cermichrome@,however, and the introduction of syn-
thetic oils, and oil companies trying to tell you which oil
to use to break in an engine, it's not all that clear what
works best.
Also, engine manufacturers don't address chrome cyl-
inders in their overhaul manuals. And the issue becomes
even more clouded when you look at what actually goes
on in the field. Engines that are run in after overhaul
are treated one way (most likely they are run in a test
cell), and a cylinder replacement out in the field can
be found flying through the air minutes after being
installed.
Mahlon Russell, shop supervisor for Mattituck Avia-
tion, says that "for all practical purposes, a top ended
overhaul should be treated exactly like a completely over-
hauled engine. When we're talking engine break-in, we're
only talking about breaking in the rings (lapping them)
to the cylinder wall.
"Granted, when we're running in a major overhaul we
have some other concerns about the integrity of the en-
gine, but in reality, if we replace one cylinder, all cylin-
ders or overhaul the engine, we're accomplishing the
same thing.
"The biggest key to breaking in a cylinder and/or cyl-
inders after replacement," says Russell, "is to try to keep
the cylinder as cool as possible with as much pressure
pushing the rings against the cylinder wall as is practi-
cal. The only problem is the more pressure you generate,
the more heat you're going to generate. So they're work-
ing against each other. Everyone seems to try to find a
happy medium, whereby you provide adequate ring pres-
sure to force the ring against the roughed-up cylinder
wall so that it wears and breaks in. but at the same
time, you don't want to generate enough heat to cook
48 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
An example of a break-in shroud that should be used to
properly cool cylinders when being run in on the ground.
Both Continental and Lycoming, however, say that a shroud
is not necessary as long as the cowl and baffling are
installed and the cylinder head temperatures are closely
monitored.
what oil is present for lubrication, and turn it into var-
nish (that's glazing). So you're constantly trying to walk
this tightrope of f i n k out what works best for you.
"That's why so many people have such varied opin-
ions. Because in effect, the end result is the same. And
in reality, as long as no damage is done to the engine,
any way to achieve the end result is fine; whether it's
just throwing the cylinder on and going flying, or run-
ning it at one-minute intervals all day long.
"Some people say that breaking an engine in on a
test stand is far superior, but personally, I feel that if it's
done correctly, your chances of success as far as running
it in on the airplane or on a test stand for the first hour
is equal.
"Both engine manufacturers, Lycoming and Continen-
tal, say that the airframe is suitable for break-in pur-
poses. But certain conditions must be met, such as
proper instrumentation, operating parameters, etc."
Russell says, "The main thing is that you've got to
keep an eye on the cylinder head temperatures and don't
allow the temperatures to go above 350°F on any break-
in run. Typically, if the procedures recommended by the
manufacturer are followed closely, the cylinders won't go
above 350°F."
Jimmy Tubbs, engineer at Engine Components, Inc.,
however, recommends against the idea of break-in on the
aircraft. He says that they see many cases of overheated
cylinder assemblies as a result of customers trying to
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break in cylinders on their aircraft. "We're finding, espe
cially on steel cylinders that aren't chromeplated, the
barrels get rippled, and the only way this can happen is
from shock heating of the piston which can happen if
you lean out too rapidly, or from shock cooling if you
cool down a barrel too fast on a descent or something
without the rings being broken in. What happens is that
you lose side clearance. The piston will either swell up
in the barrel or the barrel will shrink down around
the piston.
"It actually deforms the barrel in between the fins.
When you look at it, you can just see the little rings
around the barrel. We've seen it quite often, and we
didn't know what caused it until we were running a test
and we did a very rapid lean out, and we got a cough
and a spit and a little red flame out the exhaust stack,
and we immediately pulled the cylinders off and that's
what we found. We surmised that when you go from a
very rich mixture to a lean mixture, you generate a con-
siderable amount of heat in a short period of time in the
combustion chamber.
"The barrel is pretty well able to dissipate that b e
cause it has fins, but the piston doesn't have the cooling
capacity. And the piston, in each case that we've seen,
gets really black on the inside. And it seems to be h a p
pening across the board, regardless of the model. The
other thing is that the pistons are not only black on the
underside, but they've got a scuff all away around, not
just on the thrust face (remember a piston is oval by
around .008 to ,010) but these things are scuffed right
under and around the piston pin, so the whole piston
swells up.
"It seems that they are pushing it a little too hard on
the wing. The thing about a test cell is that you can take
your time, and control all of the parameters and guaran-
tee that you're not going to damage anything. The guys
that are very successful are the guys that are using
dynos with forced air cooling, or a cooling shroud in the
test cell. They lean out as they run the engines up, but,
they do everything very slow and deliberate.
"At minimum, I would recommend a cooling shroud
and CHT gauge even if you're only replacing one cylin-
der. If you've got a shroud or something to provide cool-
ing on the ground, it's the best way. Some people are
lucky enough to get away with it, but why take chances?"
Russell explains that some of the theories regarding
running the engine at full throttle for extended periods
is just bad advice. He explains that an engine running at
75 percent power is creating enough pressure, while
keeping the engine cool and, by doing so, you will not
exceed the recommended CHTs.
John Schwaner, president of Sacramento Sky Ranch,
says that he doesn't believe that an engine should be
taken into the air prior to the oil consumption leveling
off. He says that "owners often come to me with high oil
consumption just after an overhaul and I say, 'How come
you've got the engine; why isn't it still at the overhaul
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shop?' If the engine exceeded the maximum oil consump
tion on the test stand, it's not airworthy.
"I get irritated when overhaul shops turn over an en-
gine to a guy that's blowing oil out the breather and
burning 2 quarts an hour and then they tell the owner,
'You've got to seat the rings.' I've had guys tell me that
they've put 25 hours on the engine at full throttle flying
up and down the area just trying to seat the rings, and
the guy's probably spent $500 in fuel.
"The problem with this is that it's impossible to know
if it is a break-in problem or something else. Higher oil
consumption on a new engine doesn't necessarily mean
the rings haven't seated. You can't make the diagnosis
that the rings haven't seated without really l o o k
at it."
Schwaner says that he believes that ring seating is
oftentimes more a function of the rings and the proper
finish on the cylinder rather than engine operation or
type of oil used. He says that he thinks "...that if you
have a poorly chromed, or poorly honed cylinder, you're
going to have problems with ring seating no matter what
you do, and I feel it's safer to discover these problems
before you put someone in the airplane and risk
their lives."
Russell at Mattituck agrees that the quality of the
chrome on both Channelchrome and Cermichrome. and
the proper honing of a steel barrel have a large effect on
the break-in of the cylinder. "If the porosity of the
chrome is too great, you can get the ring seated, but
you'll still bum oil. And if there's not enough porosity,
the rings will wear in and seat and run good for a
while but it will deteriorate quickly. There's not enough
lubrication."
Glazing over
Russell says one of the problems that you run into
when you have a combination of too much heat and
rings that don't seat is glazing. "The oil on the cylinder
wall essentially cooks and changes property, goes to var-
nish, and instead of getting the ring up against the
metal, it's held from the surface of the cylinder with the
layer of varnish and it won't break in.
"With a bad chrome job, you may be able to get the
rings to seat to the wall, but if the porosity is too great,
you bum oil like crazy, and that's why Channelchrome
has got such a bad name. Most of the time the rings
seat, it's just that the porosity is too great. The other
problem with Channelchrome is that you can glaze easily
because of the amount of heat generated and a thick
layer of oil on the surface. Unfortunately, there's no
way that you can measure the porosity of a cylinder in
the field."
He explains that the type of engine also plays a part
in problems related to glazing. "The 0-320 breaks in
easy with Channelchrome," he says. "It's very rare that
you hear anyone complain about Channelchrome on an
0320. The power output is such that the ring loadmg is
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 49
Reclp Technology
nice for break-in and that kind of thing. Whereas you get
into a TIO-540, the ring loadmg is a lot greater, and it
generates more heat, and it glazes easy. Typically, as you
increase the horsepower, the chances of good break-in
decrease," he says.
Oil ideas
Russell says he recommends that people stick to
straight mineral oil at all times during break-in. "I don't
think a synthetic-based oil is going to work at all; it's just
too slippery to break in. An ashless dispersant (AD) oil
can work OK, but the only difference is that it will hold
the contaminates in suspension. That's why they say that
you can break in Cermichrome cylinders on
AD oil.
"I must say my experience has shown, however, that
straight mineral oil with no ashless dispersant package
works best. When they first came out and said to use
AD oil on Cermichrome cylinders, I did, and I had a
couple of engines that didn't break in, right off the
get. Now that may have been a problem with the
50 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Cermichrome, or just a quark, but I switched to straight
mineral oil right away, and haven't had a problem since.
So I would recommend sticking with straight mineral oil
for breaking in all types of cylinders. It works. And as
far as I'm concerned, if you have something that works,
don't change it."
Tubbs says he believes that it doesn't make any dif-
ference whether you use a mineral oil with or without an
AD package in it. "There is nothing in an AD package
that will inhibit break-in," he says. "However, don't use
synthetics. They have a tendency to inhibit break-in and
may glaze over easily.
"Also, be aware that with new oil certifications, there
may be oils which are introduced in the near future that
contain anti-scuff compounds which may inhibit break-in.
And stay away from the STPs and other additives that
may inhibit break-in. At the present, however, all mineral
oih, with or without an AD package, straight or multi-
viscosity, are suitable for break-in," he says.
September/October 1993
Aircraft Technical Books
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Auto fuel
The debate continues over its use in piston aircraft despite STCs
and years of experience
By John Boyce, Contributing Editor
A
large number of aircraft are certified by the FAA
to use auto fuel in aircraft, and people have
been using it for years covering thousands of
flight hours.
So why is there a debate about its use? Is it simply
an intellectual argument? Is it all about money? Is it sim-
ply people in the debate not wanting to give up cher-
ished, long-held ideas? Is it a tempest in a teapot? Is it a
matter of the opponents of its use - primarily engine
manufacturers and fuel producers - taking the conserva-
tive approach to cover themselves against any liability?
Or is there, in fad, a potential problem with using auto
fuel in piston aircraft engines and thus a reason for
concern?
The reason for the debate contains elements of the
answers to all of these questions. Auto gas, of course, is
less expensive than avgas, which makes it attractive in
itself because it makes flying more affordable. However,
the debate swirls around whether or not that cost factor
offsets any potential problems.
The Experimental Aircraft Association, headquar-
tered in Oshkosh, WI, is the leading American propo-
nent of the use of auto gas. Since 1982, the EAA has
obtained Supplemental Type Certificates (STCs) for us-
ing auto gas on scores of engines and airframes.
"In general," says FAA technical director Harry
Zeisloft, "we've demonstrated in the past 10 years that
aircraft engines are not as fragzle as we were led to b e
Lieve in the beginning, and we can faithfully use almost
any gasoline." In fact, EAA members Norman Petersen
and George Rotter for years have been using auto gas
they buy in 5 or &gallon cans at their local gas stations.
Jimmy Tubbs, vice president of engineering at En-
gine Components Inc. (ECI) in San Antonio, TX,cer-
tainly is not a man with an ax to grind nor a position to
defend. Formerly a user of auto gas in his aircraft,
Tubbs says ECI has noticed some disturbing evidence
that there might be a problem with auto gas use.
"In years past," Tubbs says, "I used auto gas in my
low-powered Taylor crafts, Piper Cubs, and things like
that. So I grew up being an advocate of the use of auto
gas. However, in the last year or so we have been notic-
ing a disturbing trend that has us concerned."
Tubbs says that ECI is finding a black deposit caked
near the intake valve seats "and almost always when we
see that condition we find that the exhaust valve seats,
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Recip Technology
the valves and the valve guides are pretty well eaten up.
Sometimes we see valve seats recessed back an eighth of
an inch in 100 hours."
ECI has no direct evidence that this condition is
caused by auto gas, but in checking with the owners of
the affected engines, the company has found that "gener-
ally they say they have been using auto gas. So the two
things seem to go together."
Contaminants and additives
Fuel producers told ECI that different companies put
different additives in the fuel and that could account for
the condition. Also, fuel companies don't exercise quality
control over auto gas once it leaves their hands. Thus,
the product that goes into the aircraft could be much
different than the product that left the refinery or termi-
nal point.
Avgas, says Dennis Boggs, lubricants technical s p e
cialist at Phillips Petroleum, is tested to be on specifica-
tion at every stage along the way to the end user. "Auto
gas, on the other hand," Boggs continues, "might go
through two, or three or four hands without any check
for quality or contamination."
Zeisloft says he has carefully reviewed the FAA SDRs
and fuel-related accident and incident reports over the
years, and "there have been more contamination inci-
dents reported in airplanes using avgas than there are in
aircraft that have STCs (for auto fuel)."
Boggs says further, "Unfortunately, all auto gas for-
mulations are not the same. In fact, all auto gas formula-
tions are not always the same under the same label. So a
source for auto gas may or may not have a consistent
produd like a source for avgas." One batch of auto gas
might be suitable for use in a piston aircraft but another,
even from the same source, might not be.
John Esser, technical manager for Mobil Oil aviation,
which no longer produces avgas and "strenuously r e
sisted" the use of auto gas for aircraft when it did,
agrees that quality control is a problem with auto gas.
However, of more serious concern, in Esser's opinion, is
the potential for vapor lock because of the generally
higher volatility of auto gas than avgas which can elevate
the undercowl temperatures to extremes and encourage
the formation of vapor.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 51
Recip Technology
OEMs see risk
As might be expected aircraft engine manufacturers
are against the use of auto gas in their engines. Early
on, Textron Lycoming didn't approve of auto gas use b e
cause of its compatibility problems with engine and fuel
system materials such as bakelite, cork and rubber. How-
ever, as the FAA STCs were issued to EAA with cautions
on the use of ethanol and methanol in auto gas those
arguments were largely moot.
Rick Moffett, Textron Lycoming's director of engi-
neering, says his company's official position is the same;
it doesn't support it in any way.
"There's just an increased risk of an engine problem,"
Moffett says. "We just have a problem w i t h approving it
(auto gas) in aircraft that really weren't designed for it. I
think one of the biggest concerns we have with it at
present is the f a d that today auto gas is not the auto
gas that was there yesterday, when the STCs were
granted. The auto gas keeps changing.
"It's to the point that the auto gas that is available at
the pump today is a lot different than three years ago,
and the gas in '94 and '95 is going to be markedly differ-
ent than what is available today. The auto gas situation
is going to be terribly dynamic. The STC folks aren't
able to keep up w i t h the changes. I would just say that if
you're going to be using auto gas in '94, '95, '96 you are
going to be your own test pilot. Nobody can tell you
what the impact of mixing two different types of fuels is
going to be or about new additives."
Testing in extremes
Harry Zeisloft at EAA makes it perfectly clear that
the FAA has not given nor intends to give blanket a p
proval for the use of auto fuel in all piston aircraft.
First, its STCs are for engines certified to use 80 octane
avgas; and second, the fuel system must be capable of
handling the highest volatility possible at the highest
likely temperature.
The volatility of auto gas is defined in the United
States in five grades, A to E. These five grades are d e
fined by geographic area and time of the year. In other
words, in Minnesota in the middle of winter the hlghest
volatility fuel (grade E) is available to ease the starting
problem of automobiles.
Zeisloft says the EAA tested its aircraft in Arizona in
part because of concerns about vapor lock. The grade E
gasoline, which is rated at 15 psi rvp (pounds per square
inch reid vapor pressure) and is the most volatile auto
gas, was tested at 100°F ambient temperature.
52 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
"We ran a series of testa similar to what a student
would do," Zeisloft says, "such as touch and goes, and
stopping to get gas. That's really the most critical portion
of flight when you're operating at very high temperatures
with high volatility fuel; you shut down for awhile and
the temperature buildup in the cowl goes to extremes
and you're most vulnerable to vapor lock."
The tests proved successful, both for the EAA and,
independently, the FAA. But a similar test with a special
batch of 16 psi rvp fuel proved unsatisfactory. "We
wanted to see how far we could stretch the envelope.
On a Cherokee P828140 we couldn't get sustained
reliable engine operation under those test conditions,"
Zeisloft says.
Zeisloft and EAA don't deny that vapor lock is pos-
sible with auto gas. However, they contend that vapor
lock can take place with avgas if the conditions are right.
EAA publishes suggested procedures to minimize the
possibility of vapor lock.
Zeisloft says the perceived problem with recessed
valves has been largely overcome with manufacturers'
hardening of valve seats. He also cites FAA tests in Ab
lantic City (NJ) that indicate no problem with valve seat
recession with unleaded gasoline.
The economy of fuel bladders
The fuel cell manufacturers such as Avcells of Dallas
and Fort Deposit, AL, and AemTech Services of Santa
Fe Springs, CA, see a problem with the use of auto gas.
However, if you fly enough, using auto gas with a fuel
bladder might simply be a matter of economics.
"If the fuel storage in an aircraft is either an integral
tank, or wet wing, or a metal tank I have no problem
with auto fuel," says Walter Dodge, vice president and
general manager at Avcells. "But a fuel bladder, as I'm
going to guess 85 percent of the aircraft have, just
doesn't stand up to automotive fuel. It deteriorates the
, bladder and cuts the life at least in half."
In addition to the potential problem of alcohol d e b
1 riorating rubber, Dodge and AereTech owner Henry
Krug both cite the use of gasoline additives such as tolu-
1 ene that act as a solvent on adhesives used in bladder
manufacture and repair.
We've found," Krug says, "that on cells that have
1 been repaired, the additives seem to work on the adhe-
sives that the patches were put on with. The patches
1 come off and could block a fuel line. In addition to that it
, (additive) makes the rubber soft."
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If an aircraft owner flies enough hours in a year, he
can realize enough savings by using auto gas to offset
the replacement cost of a new bladder, Dodge says. "Say
you have a Cessna 206 with bladders. If you're going to
fly 50 hours a year, you're only saving $50 a year with
auto gas. Can you afford to have a fuel cell that is s u p
posed to last 10 years last only four? The answer is un-
doubtedly no. If you're flying 50 hours a month the sav-
ings is considerably more. You have to understand going
in that you're going to have to replace your bladder
sooner than you should but the savings justify that."
Canadian club reports improved performance
with auto gas
The Namao Flying Club of Edmonton, Alberta, Canada,
has been operating its five Cessna 150 aircraft on auto
gasoline since 1985 with little or no problem and im-
proved performance.
"We've been running just under 10,000 hours on m e
tor gas," says Don Gordon, chairman of the club's techni-
cal committee and a veteran of 41 years' flying experi-
ence. "The motor gas is no problem. The engines start
better, run better, get longer TBOs."
Namao has been modifying the engine on the 150
over the years, Gordon says. "We've modified the carbu-
retor away from manufacturer's approval; we've tightr
ened up on the valve guides; the clearance we're running
at is a lot closer; we have disconnected the primers and
our engines are more evenly charged now; we run with
the ADT and the CHT on each cylinder."
Aircraft Technical Books
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Recip Tachnology
As Rick Moffett at Lycoming says, it is difficult to
find consensus on the use of unleaded auto gas in air-
craft; "everybody has his opinion." But basically the en-
gine manufacturers and oil producers are of the mind
that the potential risk of an engine problem, no matter
how small, is unacceptable. The proponents of auto gas
use, through STCs and their practical experience, don't
see the risk. Perhaps the advent of an unleaded fuel d e
signed specifically for aviation will put the debate to rest,
depending on its cost, but in the meantime proponents
and opponents have staked out positions and only dra-
matic evidence either way will change those positions.
Gordon reports that since the club switched to a
valve guide with the right hardness it has cut its burned
and sticking valves up "to about 1,000 percent" and
since 1990, when the final modification was completed
"we haven't had a burned valve or a sticking valve
since."
In further modifying its aircraft for auto gas, Namao
uses only metal components in the fuel system. "We
have no fuel bladders," Gordon says, "it's all metal tanks.
We have no bakelite, no cork, no rubber. Everything is
metal. We can actually run on ethanol."
The financial saving from using auto gas goes beyond
the difference in price of auto gas and avgas, Gordon
says. "Thirty percent of the potential savings is from the
price difference and 70 percent is from reduced (engine)
maintenance costs." July/August 1993
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 53
Recip Technology

RSA fuel injection

Practical problem-solving

By Greg Napert

allow the engine to develop full power. The shop that

W
ICHITA, KS-The fuel injector (or fuel-
injector servo/regulator) is the carburetor-like
device which meters fuel into the induction
system. "There's some confusion over the nomenclature
related to fuel-injection system," says Greg Hoopes,
leadman at B&S Aircraft. "Many people call the nozzle
which sprays fuel into the engine or intake, the injector.
But the nozzles are a part of the injection system and
should be referred to as nozzles."
overhauled the engine had not replaced old valve springs.
And as soon as the springs were changed, the problem
cleared up.
"Similar problems arise with intake leaks," he says.
"Intalie leaks may cause the engine to run lean and
won't allow the engine to develop full power, and
many technicians prematurely condemn the fuel-
injector servo."

Perception I Center body seal problems

"One of the biggest problems we see in this busi-
ness," says Hoopes, "is explaining to customers that
their unit is perfectly fine when they sent it in for what
they perceived was a problem.
"It's easy to assume that if the engine is running
poorly, too rich or too lean, that the fuel-injector unit is
to blame. But the f a d is that there are many other prob
lems that can lead to an engine running improperly,"
he says.
For example, Hoopes explains, B&S had one person
send back an overhauled fuel injector from a freshly
overhauled engine claiming that it wasn't operating prop
erly. "We checked it out and everything tested OK. But
he put it back on the plane, and the engine was doing
the same thing. At about
1,700 rpm, it was running
rough, shaking and gener-
ally not running properly.
"We took the fuel-injec-
tor servo back and r e
A common problem with RSA fuel-injector servos r e
lates to the center body seal. "The new style bellows ten-
ter body seal is probably the best improvement that P r e
cision ever made to the fuel-injection system," says
Hoopes. But the old-style seal is still in use and respon-
sible for causing many problems.
The old-style rubber center body seal incorporates a
fuel diaphragm and stem that slides in the seal.
This rubber seal is prone to leaking and hanging up
on the stem if the sliding action isn't perfect. If the seal
is damaged, you notice it when operating the engine b e
cause it never idles the same twice when you pull the
throttles back. It'll be too rich one time and too lean
1 the next.
MROlTLE LEVER

checked it on the test VENTURl SUCTION

bench and couldn't find
PRESSURE BELOW
anything wrong, so he
tried it again and had the
same problem. After fur-
ther questioning, it was
found that the problem
actually existed before the
overhaul. After checking
with Lycoming and with
Precision. we instructed HW M I r n R E
AL!JUSWNT
him to check the engine
AIR DIAPHRAGM
over closely-valve
springs, valves, etc. FUEL DIAPHRAGM

"It turned out that

the engine had weak valve
springs that wouldn't
Precision Airmotive RSA fuel-injection servo.

54 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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Diaphragm pressures are taken from slots in venturi for
suction pressure, and impact tubes protruding into venturi.
Hoopes says that he feels the sticking, in many cases,
is a result of improper ahgnment of the diaphragms to
the seal, and the normal action of the diaphragm stem
through the seal is hampered by excessive drag.
For a while, repair facilities would simply grease the
stem, but as soon as the grease wore off, it would start
to hang up again.
Precision's new center body seal eliminates the slid-
ing action of the rubber seal against the stem by using
an expanding and contracting bellows. There has also
been an improvement in the material that the diaphragm
stem is made out of so that it now resists bending.
"Precision has made replacement of this seal manda-
tory in all RSA fuel-injection units," he says.
Diaphragm contamination
Moisture and contamination from various sources are
very common reasons for fuel-injector servo malfunction.
Moisture can lead to corrosion of the internal compo-
nents. "On the air side of the diaphragm moisture really
isn't a problem, though. The unit gets warm enough on
an operating engine that the moisture is evaporated,"
says Hoopes.
"On the fuel side, however, moisture is a problem.
Water in the fuel tends to collect in the fuel strainer,
mixture control and fuel diaphragm areas. The water
then leads to corrosion of springs and other components
and results in many of these components needing r e
placement prematurely.
"Another problem is oil from aircraft that use oiled
inlet air filters. If too much oil is used on the filters, the
oil will collect in the venturi area and will be pulled into
the venturi slots and into the air side of the diaphragm.
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Recip Technology
New bellows-style center body seal eliminates rub seen with
old-style stem and seal configuration.
If enough oil is collected, it will adversely affect the
regulator's operation and change its calibration.
"Yet another contaminant, fuel, can also get into the
air side of the diaphragm. Often, after the aircraft shuts
down, residual fuel, or fuel from a flooded start will
flow back into the fuel-injector throat and will run down
into the venturi slots and eventually into the air section,"
he explains.
Too much oil or fuel collected in these air chambers
will require that the unit be disassembled and cleaned.
This typically needs to be performed by an overhaul facil-
ity because all of the test bench adjustments will have to
be performed before the unit is placed back in service.
"Oil can also enter through the impact tubes," says
Hoopes, "and can get to the impact pressure side of
the diaphragm. Accumulated oil in this section can also
affect the operation of the regulator.
"One interesting type of contamination that we see
involves the pressurized Baron. A number of units have
been received that have some type of foreign material
contamination on the pressurized side of the diaphragm.
This foreign substance was causing the diaphragm to
stick to the center body seal and resulted in the engines
only operating in the idle range. The engines would not
accelerate," he says.
"Some operators would let the engine idle until it got
warm, and then the diaphragm would break loose and
run OK-not a good practice.
"Because it has not been possible to locate the source
of this sticky substance, Precision has introduced a solu-
tion to this problem. The company designed a lip onto
the air diaphragm so that the diaphragm contacts a
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 55
much smaller area of the center body seal. This way,
even if the sticky substance is there, there isn't enough
holding power to keep it in place," Hoopes says.
Boost pump problems
Hoopes says that there are operators who start the
engine and run it, and everything seems OK. But then
they turn on the boost pump, and the engine stalls, or
runs really rough. "If you notice that there is a differ-
ence in engine operation with the fuel boost pump on or
off, the fuel-injector servo isn't correctly adjusted, or
there's something wrong with the enginedriven pump."
He says that if the fuel injedor is doing its job, the
pressure from the fuel boost pump shouldn't affect the
operation of the engine.
56 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
"If you turn the boost pump off and the engine wants
to die, it points to the fact that the enginedriven pump
may be taking in air.
"If you turn the boost pump on, and the engine sud-
denly runs better, the enginedriven pump may be taking
in air and causing the system to run too lean. When you
turn on the boost pump, fuel is force fed to the engine
driven pump, so it stops taking in air so the engine runs
more rich," he says.
"A good check for air in the system is to put a clear
plastic line between the fuel-injector outlet and the flow
divider and watch for air bubbles. There shouldn't be any
air visible in the system," says Hoopes.
May/June 1993
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 Recip Technology

Radial engines still popular in

firefighting and cargo operations
Regular maintenance makes them a dependable asset

By Greg Napell

T hi& the days of "round" engines are done and

gone? Think again. The radial engine business is
alive and well. And if you're not convinced of
that it's probably because of how radials are being used
try, he explains, they're used for the combination of high
horsepower and immediate response to power demands
-both very important when flying in and out of hazard-
ous areas quickly.
behind the scenes. Mike Hudon, product support technician for
Most of them are either used by cargo companies and Precision, explains that the radial has been around for a
parked in remote areas of airports or by firefighting long time, and because of this, overhaul techniques and
businesses, or are being
used for agricultural appli-
cations or bush flying in
Canada or Alaska.
Because of this behind-
thescene use, there con-
tinues to be a demand for
overhaul facilities and
maintenance facilities that
provide quality service to
radial engine operators.
An example of one com-
pany that's thriving on
the radial engine overhaul
business today is Preci-
sion Airmotive in Everett,
WA. Precision, a company
that specializes in large,
high-performance radial
engine overhauls, has a
customer base that prima-
rily consists of operators
in the cargo and
firefighting industry.
Chuck Maddox, mar-
keting manager for Preci-
sion, says that the rea-
sons these engines are
still widely used in
firefighting and cargo are
twofold. First of all, these
marvels of engineering
still continue to produce
the least expensive horse
power per pound that's
available. The second rea-
son has to do with their

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 57

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preventive maintenance have been changed to enhance
the performance and longevity of these engines. Because
of this, average TBOs today can be as high as 2,500
hours compared to the original 1,200hour TBOs.
New oils affect maintenance
One area that has impacted radial maintenance prac-
tices is the development of ashless dispersant oils. Ash-
less dispersant oils allow the engine to run cleaner by
suspending particles in the oil instead of allowing sludge
to build inside the engine. Because these carbon par-
ticles and acids now remain suspended, they become
more and more concentrated with time, and the only
way to ensure adequate lubrication is to adhere to Pratt
& Whitney's recommended oil change intervals.
The result of using ashless dispersants and adhering
to a schedule of oil changes is a cleaner running engine
and extended TBOs, explains Hudon.
Keeping after the valves
According to Hudon, one of the most critical items to
maintain on the engine is proper valve clearances. "We
know for a f a d that if you don't adjust your valves prop
erly, you'll have excess cylinder failures, and consequen-
tial cam failures somewhere down the line," he says.
Pratt manuals say that valves should be adjusted at
the half-life of the TBO. But when this recommendation
was made, explains Hudon, TBOs were much lower.
Some R2800 customers today have TBOs as high as
2,500 hours. So these customers misinterpret Pratt's rec-
ommendation and think they don't need to adjust the
valves until 1,250 hours.
"We've found that the valves need to be adjusted af-
ter the first 100 hours of operation and every 500 to 600
hours thereafter. If you allow the valve clearances to b e
come too great, the lifters won't completely ride on the
cam and will pound against the cam causing damage to
the lobe and result in subsequent cam failure.
"The problem with adjusting valves is it's a dirty job,"
he says. "You have to take off all the valve covers around
the engine, and you've got to go underneath the engine
as it's dripping oil all over you, and you've got to adjust
and readjust and go through every valve. If you've got
the procedure down, it doesn't take that long, but if you
don't do it that often, it may take a while. People tend to
avoid it because of this. But it's a very worthwhile proce
dure that can mean the difference between an engine
making it to TBO or not."
In addition to adjusting valves at regular intervals,
Fred Wilcutt, general manager for Precision, says that
it's also important to check all the valve clearances when
you change a cylinder that's been changed. If you don't,
you'll end up replacing that cylinder again.
Wilcutt says that the procedure used to set the valves
is critical as well. In the R-2800 maintenance manual,
for example, Pratt & Whitney says that there are two
58 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
methods you can use to set clearances: The indirect
method, which centers the cam by depressing the valve
springs opposite the cylinder you're setting, and the
direct method, which places the cam against its bearing
opposite the valve you're setting, by depressing the push-
rod on the same cylinder you're working on. Both meth-
ods require different tooling that's particular to the en-
gine model. However, the direct method is the preferred
method, says Wilcutt, because it's much more accurate.
"The large cam used on these radials has got a lot of
movement, and if it's not positioned properly when
you're adjusting the valves, you'll never get it right. The
cam floats up to 15 to 18 thousandths of an inch, so
it's important to get the same clearance on each valve,"
he says.
Hudon says that "a number of cylinder failures in a
short period of time should alert you that there may be
problems (excessive wear) of the cam. Many people don't
recognize this, and so they just continue to change the
cylinders. And even the sharp technicians who do realize
that there is a problem with the cam assume that the
cam was defective. What they should realize is that
improper adjustment of the valve is what causes the cam
to fail."
"I don't know what kind of a problem it is today,"
says Wilcutt, "but people were using a timing disc that
mounts on the dome of the prop as directed by a peri-
odic inspection section out of Pratt's maintenance
manual to adjust the valves. The timing disc is strictly a
troubleshooting tool and shouldn't be used to adjust
valves. It checks the valves by looking at the compres-
sion of the cylinders. But that's the problem; it just
checks the valves, and it really doesn't set them. I'd like
to see the procedure taken out of the manual but I don't
think it'll ever happen."
Tighten the exhaust
Hudon says that another area to keep an eye on is
the exhaust system. The exhaust on these large radials is
very heavy, he explains, and it's important to check the
mounting bolts on the exhaust flanges. "The bolts tend
to loosen from vibration, and if the flange is loose, it will
pound against the cylinder or pull one of the mounting
studs and eventually ruin the cylinder.
"We recommend taking a look at them and tighten-
ing the mounting brackets and the cylinder attach points
every 50 hours. On a radial, it's difficult to fix these cyl-
inders on the engine, so if there is damage, you'll need
to pull a jug to fix it," he says.
"If you do have to pull a jug for any reason, it's not
complicated, but you should keep in mind that pulling a
jug on a master cylinder (where the master rod is lo-
cated) has to be accomplished carefully. Moving the rod
a substantial amount from side to side can result in dis-
lodging the rings from one of the other cylinders. B e
cause the master rod is not captured along its natural
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arc," says Hudon, "you can pop the bottom ring and it
can land on one of pistons in another cylinder out of the
barrel. If you don't notice that you've done this, and the
rod is forced back into position, or the engine is hand
propped, you'll break the rings off and not realize it."
If you pull the jug on a master cylinder, he explains,
use some method of securing the connecting rod so it
stays in place. The best way that we've seen is to install
an old piston and jug temporarily while the good jug is
being repaired.
Prevent hydraulic lock
"Engines that are not cooled properly before they're
shut down or engines that have excessive we= will typi-
cally allow oil to drain down into the bottom cylinders. It
used to be a procedure to hand prop the engine to feel
for liquid lock, but now, there are breaks' built into the
starter," says Hudon.
These 'beaks' are like a clutch. If there's any resis-
tance, the starter shaft will disengage. You'll see the
prop bouncing back and forth at this point.
The most insidious type of liquid lock is when oil b e
comes pooled in the intake pipes. If this happens a large
puddle of oil in the intake can be forced into the cylinder
after it has started firing and may result in engine dam-
age. To avoid this, you must drain oil from the bottom
cylinders and from intake pipes. The bottom cylinder on
an R2800 has a tube connecting the cylinder to the in-
take so that oil can be drained from the intake. But adja-
cent cylinders have no provisions for protecting the cylin-
der. So if you notice oil in the adjacent cylinders, drain
the intakes as well as the cylinder.
Impeller can be easily damaged by dropping safety wire or
other objects into the intake.
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Watch that blower
Hudon cautions that many technicians don't realize
how easy it is to damage the blower on the engine.
"Even the smallest piece of safety wire dropped into the
blower," he says, "can easily take it out."
With the impeller spinning at 22,000 rpm, he ex-
plains, it doesn't take long before the blower is history. A
replacement blower sells for approximately $5,000.
Don%use oil dilution
A procedure that was quite common in the past in
colder climates was the practice of diluting the oil with
fuel for easy start-up. Today oil dilution isn't recom-
mended, and it's not necessary.
Wilcutt says, "Oil dilution was a system that the mili-
tary came up with when they had plenty of engines and
weren't particularly concerned about how often they
changed them. The oil was initially diluted with fuel to
start the engine, and as the engine would heat up, the
fuel would burn off.
"The problem is that the oil was thinned too much in
some cases. and there was no wav to control the consis-
tency of the oil throughout the engine. The result was
that bearings were not properly lubricated until the fuel
burned off.
"There are now multiviscosity oils and engine p r e
heating methods that are much safer to use and are
easier on the engine. Oil dilution is hard on the engine.
Many of our customers have removed their oil dilution
systems."
Parts are abundant
Many people think that because radial engine technol-
ogy is so old, that replacement and repair parts are hard
to come by. Not so, says Wilcutt. "There are tremendous
amounts of materials that continue to be dumped onto
the market by the military," he says. "There are still
plenty of surplus power cases, nose cases and other ma-
jor components that were manufactured and never used.
We also manufacture, under PMA, many of the high-
wear and normal replacement parts that are needed
at overhaul.
"The f a d that there are so many parts available from
military surplus also holds costs down. The price of
parts, in many cases, is not much more than 10 or 15
years ago.
"Keeping a radial engine running properly really
takes a team effort," says Wilcutt. "The overhaul shop,
the pilot and the technician, each individually have the
ability to affect the performance and longevity of the en-
gine. And getting the most out of the engine takes good
communication between all three of these groups." Ba
March/April1993
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 59
Recip Technology
Oil starvation
How to inspect an engine that's operated without oil pressure
By John Schwaner
T
he pilot tells you the oil pressure gauge dropped
into the red. He immediately cut power and made
a precautionary landing. Only 2 quarts of oil are
in the sump, and the engine requires at least 3. Is the
engine damaged? What inspections should you perform?
Another example: The technician leaves the propeller
governor oil line "B"nut loose on a Lycoming engine.
On takeoff. the owner notices oil running across the en-
gine cowling. He turns back to the airport and lands.
Total flight time is less than four minutes. There's still
sufficient oil in the sump.
Believe it or not
In both cases, the technician inspecting the engines
in question found that there was no metal contamination
in the oil filter, nor in the propeller governor screen.
Cylinder compression was normal, and both pilots said
the oil and cylinder head temperatures were normal. No
one suspected that there was any damage, yet, further
inspection, in each case, by a cautious technician showed
that the No. 4 connecting rod bearing had failed on
both engines.
In the event of oil pressure loss or loss of oil, the rod
bearings are usually the first to oil starve. An oil film
supports the connecting rod from the impact of combus-
tion and inertia forces, and a constant supply of oil r e
plenishes the oil squeezed out from the bearing clear-
ance. Without an oil film, the friction between the rod
journal and the bearing creates enough heat to melt the
bearing babbitt, leaving just the bearing shell. Without
the bearing babbitt, the rod pounds against the crank-
shaft journal until the rod bolts break.
No way t o tell
The engine won't appear damaged if the pilot shuts it
down after the rod bearing melts, and before the rod
bolts break. Also, metal bearing particles won't get to
the screen or filter if the pump isn't pumping oil. Spec-
trometric oil analysis won't detect bearing material ei-
ther, since the bearing pieces haven't had a chance to
diffuse through the oil as micron-size particles. The cylin-
der compression test will also check good since the cylin-
der wall requires only oil splashed off the crankshaft.
Oil temperatures will also read normal. The oil tem-
perature gauge measures the temperature of the fluid
that exits at the probe. If the pump isn't circulating oil,
then the oil (or air) temperature at the probe or in the
sump doesn't increase.
60 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Additionally, oil starvation shouldn't increase cylinder
head temperatures. Most of the heat generated by the
cylinder exits the exhaust or is dissipated by the cooling
fins. And even in cases where the rings start seizing on
the cylinder wall, the cylinder head temperature is slow
to react.
When to suspect damage
What it all boils down to, is when the engine is oper-
ated below the minimum allowable oil pressure or oil
level, damage is possible and the connecting rod bear-
ings should be inspected.
Within this standard, there are exceptions. Obviously,
on engine start, particularly in cold weather, there's a
period in which no oil pressure exists. Also, some en-
gines, such as the Continental 10520, can operate inter-
mittently as low as 5 psi (10 is minimum) without appar-
ent damage.
What to expect
Lycoming four-cylinder engines which experience oil
pressure loss typically first experience damage to the No.
4 rod bearing. On Continental six-cylinder engines, dam-
age usually occurs on the No. 1 or No. 2 rod bearings.
On turbocharged engines, you should also suspect
damage to the turbocharger bearings, for they may have
run dry. The handshake test of the turbo shaft, in which
you grab the end and shake it, may not be conclusive.
Check the scavenge pump for metal.
Once you're in there
Most aircraft repair shops don't remove connecting
rods from engines during the normal course of business.
So there are several details that you need to pay atten-
tion to if you remove them for inspection.
Early style Lycoming engines used various safety
mechanisms for the rod nuts, all of which are obsolete.
These included cotter keys, roll pins and crimp nuts. If
you've got one of these, you'll need to research
Lycormng's bulletins on updating the rods.
All current Lycoming rods are either torqued to 40
foobpounds or tightened to a stretch length. Stretch-style
bolts are P/N 75061 and LW-12596. Torque bolts are P/
N 75061 and LW-12595. Stretch bolts are ground to an
exact length; therefore, the ends have a ground f i s h .
Torque bolts don't have a ground finish. If the Lycoming
engine you're working on has stretch-style bolts, you'll
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 Recip Technology

need a special micrometer

to measure bolt stretch.
See Lycoming Service
Instruction 1307B for
details.
Oil pressure loss can
be caused by a cracked
crankshaft, spun main
bearing or a cracked
crankcase. It does occa-
sionally happen, however,
that a shop will forget to Connecting rod exhibiting
bearing damage due to oil
put oil back into the en- starvation.
gine. Make it a shop
Broken crankshaft. Oil starvation due to crack in the policy to check the dip
crankshaft journal. stick before starting the engine or returning the aircraft
to the customer.
If you've got a Continental "A" Series engine, the lack
of any oil pressure may be due to the pump losing its
prime. You may want to try lifting the tail of the aircraft
as high as possible for several minutes, and oil will run
from the screen cavity to the top of the oil pump to
prime it. If this doesn't work, try a squirt of oil into the
oil screen area. EJ Januaflebruary 1993

John Schwaner is president of Sacramento Sky Ranch

Inc. He is the author of the Sky Ranch Engineering
Manual.

Damaged connecting rod bearings as a result of oil

starvation.

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 61

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Inspect cylinders thoroughly
before installing
All may not be in order
By Greg Naperi
S
AN ANTONIO-In today's environment of remove
and replace, it's quite common for technicians to
install complete cylinder assemblies that have been
preassembled by an outside service, while taking the one
that they remove and sending it out for repair. There are
advantages to this system, but the technician must keep
in mind that they're ultimately responsible for the
proper assembly of the cylinder, to include the proper fit
and seal of the valves, proper alignment of rocker arms
and grinding of valves and seats.
Jimmy Tubbs, vice president of engineering at En-
gine Components Inc., a cylinder overhaul facility in San
Antonio, TX,says "that according to Federal Aviation
Regulations, the technician, or repair station, takes over
the responsibility for the operation, finish and proper
assembly of the cylinder when he installs it. He takes
over the responsibility from us, not only to v e d y and
check what we've done, but for the entire operation."
Proper valve seating
Most cylinder overhaul shops use precision grinding
equipment to assure proper valve faceto-seat sealing,
and perform bluing checks to assure proper fits. "EC
also performs pressure checks of cylinders after seat
grinding. However, we aren't offended if a technician
wants to recheck the valves for fit or hand lap them.
These are timehonored traditions that, when properly
accomplished, can provide that last bit of certainty.
However, there are also many good shops that use the
assembled cylinders as received, believing that the intre
duction of grinding compound in the cylinder creates
other problems," says Tubbs.
Tubbs explains that one of the checks that may be
done upon the receipt of a cylinder is to invert the cylin-
der and fill it with solvent to verlfy that the valves are
properly lapped. Many technicians like to perform this
check without springs on the valves. If there's any leak-
age, you should consider removing the valves, inspecting
them for proper finish, and lapping the valves onto
the seats.
In addition to assuring a good seal, lapping the
valves, as a matter of habit, will give you the opportunity
to closely examine the valves and seats. "We have found
that we achieve optimum sealing and cooling when the
valves are ground about a half-degree greater than the
seat so that the outer edge of the head of the valve con-
62 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
tacts the seat," Tubbs says. This is important, he says,
because the outer edge is where the most heat concen-
trates, and where you want the heat to transfer off of
the valve to keep it cooler.
"If the outside of the valve isn't in contact with the
seat," Tubbs says, "the valve will start heating up and
erosion can progress quite rapidly. The exhaust gases
can be as high as 1,600°F,and you need to protect that
valve by letting it transfer as much of the heat from the
valve as quickly as possible.
"You want the lapping to result in a contact area that
resembles a narrow, fixed width, band. The narrower the
band (approximately .05 to .065 inch), the more efficient
the seal. This is contradidory to many people's thinking,
but with a narrow band, more force is exerted on a
smaller area. This is more efficient in terms of sealing '
the gases that result from combustion," he explains.
Also, variations in the width of the band indicate con-
centricity between the seat and guide, or a cocked seat.
Another extremely important task is to thoroughly r e
move all valve grinding compound after lapping the
valves to the seats. Even very small amounts of com-
pound can result in scored cylinder walls and scuffed
pistons.
Tubbs explains that it's also very critical that the
valve, valve seat and valve guide are perfectly concentric.
The reason is because the valve is constantly rotating,
and numerous stresses are placed on the valve if it
doesn't seat properly. If the valve seats unevenly, fairly
high bending loads are applied.
The best way for an individual technician, without the
benefits of bluing and pressure test equipment, to assure
that the valve will be perfectly centered over the seat is
through the process of lapping.
Correct ringlbarrel combination
With today's options regarding overhaul of cylinders,
it can be confusing trying to determine which types of
rings to use on which types of cylinders. Tubbs says
that this confusion actually accounts for a good deal of
the problems that they see related to premature wear
and/or failure.
He explains that the most important thing to remem-
ber is that chrome rings don't work with chrome cylin-
Q
ders; that includes both Channelchromium and
CermicromeB.
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Installing chrome rings in chrome cylinders will gen-
erally result in almost immediate engine problems. Most
will fail within a few hours, but some have operated to
as much as 400 hours (although poorly). Tubbs says that
"channel-type chrome cylinders used with chrome rings
will fall almost immediately."
The best ring to use with chrome, says Tubbs, is the
gray staticcast-iron ring. Tubbs says that spuncast iron
rings are on the market but are not nearly as good as
the staticcast.
"Unfortunately, it's fairly difficult to tell the differ-
ence between the two. The spuncast ring seems to have
smaller graphite particles and graphite flakes in the cast
iron. Gray staticcastiron rings have fairly large flakes.
It's hard to tell this with the naked eye, though. The best
way to be sure is to know your suppliers and be sure
that they're supplying you with staticcast rings."
Both chrome and iron rings can be used with barrels
without a chromium coating.
Chipped or flaking chrome
Ollie Daw, engineering projects manager for ECI,
says, "Take a look at the barrel and make sure that
there's no evidence of chrome flaking off. Oftentimes,
someone will set down the cylinder on the floor and chip
the bottom edge. This may not be a problem, as long as
the damage is outside the travel of the rings. You'll need
to go in and blend the damage, though, because you
don't want any rough edges sticking up. If it's within
ring travel area, you need to reject the barrel," says Daw.
Rocker arm positioning
Another area to inspect is the rocker arm to valve
stem contact. Daw says that it's important to take a
feeler gauge and check each side where the arm makes
contact with the valve stem to make sure that it's paral-
lel to the valve tip and not side loaded.
Valve springs
If new valve springs were installed, you should check
to make sure that the springs are seated properly in
their respective recessed areas.
It's common, says Daw, to get new springs or retain-
ers that are slightly larger than the recess they fit into.
If they aren't seated properly, they will not bottom out
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and won't allow the valve to function properly. That'll
put a big load on the camshaft and end up wearing the
cam out fairly rapidly.
Exhaust flange mounting studs
Tubbs says that many of the used heads that ECI
sees have had exhaust or intake studs removed and r e
placed at one time or another. Occasionally the person
that replaced the stud filled the hole with lubricant b e
fore tightening it down into the head.
What they didn't realize, was that as the stud was
being installed, hydraulic lock was created. The resulting
pressure then produced cracks opposite the stud in the
intake or exhaust port. These cracks, he says, normally
aren't found until the cylinder is overhauled.
Resurfaced exhaust or intake manifold
mounting flanges
If the cylinder you're installing has had the exhaust
or intake mounting flange resurfaced, it may create a
problem while installing it on the aircraft. The reason,
explains Tubbs, is that it may be difficult to mount the
manifold onto the aircraft because the flange won't be in
alignment with the others.
Also, he says, the same applies when using a grinder
to resurface flanges while the cylinder's on the aircraft.
Resurfacing the flange is a good idea because it's impor-
tant to have a good seal, but just be sure that you're not
removing too much material and putting stress on the
exhaust or intake manifold.
Shipping damage
Finally, Daw says that regardless of how good and
reliable a supplier is, once the cylinder assembly leaves
its hands, anything can happen. Dropped boxes can re-
sult in bent fins, out of round barrels and misaligned
rocker arms.
Check the shipping container carefully for any signs
of mishandling and inspect every part with the assurnp
tion that it's been dropped.
Daw says that it's a good idea to check the inside di-
mension at the bottom flange of the cylinder for round-
ness. Sometimes setting the cylinder down incorrectly
can result in a bent skirt, or possibly other damage.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Recip rechnology
Effect of auto fuel is being evaluated
Jimmy Tubbs says that the folks at his company are s e e
ing an unusually high number of cylinders coming into
the overhaul facility that have failed prematurely as a
result of using auto fuel in the engines.
"We still need to do more studies to verlfy our find-
ings, but we've recently discovered about four or five in-
stances of premature failure that all look the same.
"We're seeing a funny caking up on the inside of the
intake ports, and it just builds up heavy deposits of car-
bon, probably by cooking the oil that it's bringing
through the intake guide. And it seems to be breaking
off and working its way to the exhaust valve. It then gets
under the exhaust valve face and results in the valve not
seating evenly, which causes the valve to work its way
into the seat.
64 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
"From the evidence we've seen, we're convinced that
using the wrong auto fuel in aircraft engines can result
in the engine running for as little as a couple of hours
then causing serious problems. We're certainly seeing
more evidence than I would have anticipated with auto
fuel. I think it's unfortunate that we're seeing this
because I'd always been an advocate of using auto fuels,
and I used to run it in my old aircraft years ago.
"I'd like to find out if there are any additives that are
being used that we aren't aware of. But that's the prob
lem with auto fuel - you just don't know what you're
putting in the engine because there's nothing in place to
assure that the fuel, or its additives, are compatible with
aircraft engines," he says. E!!November/December 1992
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assembly tips
By Greg Napert

M
any of the larger propellers used on commuter
airliners must be torn down for shipment to
the overhaul facility, and reassembled for in-
stallation of the aircraft when the overhauled propeller is
received back. The reason for the teardown is primarily
that the cost of shipping is si&~cantly reduced, because
the bulk of the item is reduced.
One such propeller that this applies to is the Dowty
Rot01 R333 propeller used on the Jetstream 31.
Bill Montgomery, production manager a t Pacific Pro-
peller Inc., Kent, WA, says that this particular prop is
often shipped back and forth between its facility and
commuters. And many hours are spent training and
updating its customers on assembly and disassembly of
the prop.
One of the common mistakes that's made while as-
sembling the propeller, he says, is to not properly lubri-
cate the O-ring seal on the piston assembly. "You have to
be careful putting it on because if it's not properly lubri-
cated, it can roll.
"Usually if that happens, it'll show up between
100 and 200 hours of operation. At this point, the oil
will begin to leak past the seal and out of the latches,"
he says.
"We've seen some of the seals tear in half and then
there'll be a sudden oil loss with quite a stream of oil
coming out." I"'
s.2
Grease plays a very important role with the Dowtys.
"One of the problems that we see is that the bearings
aren't properly lubricated by the technician before as-
sembling them.
"We add the required amount of grease here at the
overhaul facility when we send it out, but it should be
checked again during assembly and before installation. Be sure that the hub is properly sealed and the bearing races
are properly positioned before assembling the propeller.
Even though we put enough grease on the bearings, the
customer who assembles it will end up wiping much of it
off during the assembly process. Inadequate grease will rub against the side of the piston and make grooves. The
cause the prop to not transition smoothly, and you'll result is that these grooves wear against the seal and oil
notice it because of erratic operation and blade fludua- begins to leak out of the pitch locks.
tions," says Montgomery. If the piston is damaged within specific limits, you're
One area that you've got to keep an eye on is any allowed to rotate it into another position a limited num-
grooves in the piston that have been made as a result ber of times. "We usually check the piston for any sharp
of the reverse pitch locks being released prematurely. edges and deburr them to within the specified limits of
This propeller is notorious for having this problem, the manufacturer so that the cylinder won't become
he explains. scored in another area," he says.
What happens is when the pilot shuts down the air- Jesse Lee, technician at PPI, says that during assem-
craft at the improper rpm, the pitch locks don't have bly, "keep in mind that counterweights are each a little
enough centrifugal force to hold them out, and so they

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 65

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Recip Teclnology
bit different weight, so make sure you install them in
the position they're marked for or it'll affect the
propeller's balance."
Lee recommends using a fixture that will properly
hold the prop in place while working on it. "A bucket,
that's commonly used out in the field, really isn't suit-
able-it's too unstable."
Splitting of the propeller hub can be easily accom-
plished, once the bolts are removed from the hub, by r e
tating one of the blades, explains Lee. Make sure that
the blades are individually supported. It's always a good
idea to have more than one person performing this task.
Lee says to hang on to all of the hardware that you
remove while disassembling the hub; some of it is quite
expensive and can be reused. One example, he says, is
the nuts that secure the hub halves. These are silver-
plated locknuts that cost $60 each, he says.
When you're installing the bearings in the hub, he
says, you've got to make sure that a l l of the bearing
races are aligned according to the instructions in the
overhaul manual. Typically, the races used on the hub
are splittype races, and the splits in the races shouldn't
align with the split in the hub.
66 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
It's quite tricky to install them correctly because
when you rotate the blade into position, it moves the
bearings slightly. You have to compensate for this by
positioning the races so that they end up in the correct
position after the blade is installed. This takes some
practice.
The edges of the barrel halves, where the O-rings seat
around the prop hubs, tend to get real sharp and can cut
the O-ring. Additionally, the edges of the hub where the
surface of the PTFE Teflon rings ride are sharp, and if
there's a ridge on the edge, it will shave and chip away
at the ring. You should look these edges over carefully
and dress them if necessary.
Be careful not to chip the coating off of the bearing
races when you're rotating the blade into position. The
coating affects the fit of the blade in the sockets.
When you receive the prop from the overhaul facility,
it's a good idea to look it over and count the ball bear-
ings to make sure that all are in place.
"We also recommend that the prop be looked over for
shipping damage that everything rotates freely, and that
all components have been installed and assembled cor-
redly prior to installation of the aircraft," says Lee. m
September/October 1992
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The prop killer
Corrosion strikes again
By Greg Napert
I
f you peruse the shelf upon shelf of scrapped-out
propeller parts at the Whirlwind Aircraft Propeller
Company in Lyons, WI, you've got to wonder if
current propeller inspection requirements are adequate.
A group of propeller hubs sits there severely pitted,
a few blades over in the corner have been rejected for
being below limits dimensionally) and a variety of other
parts sits on the shelves all red tagged.
Even more troubling is the fact that all of these parts
have been rejected within the last eight weeks. "I keep
them moving off of my shelf and into the trash bin,"
Leonard Ciskowski, Whirlwind's chief inspector exclaims,
"and there's no slowdown in sight."
The problem-"practically every part on these shelves
has been rejected because it's been over five years since
they were last inspected."
Ciskowski moves to grab a random selection of r e
jected parts and assembles a McCauley propeller, obvi-
ously to prove a point. "Look at it," he says, "and tell me
what's wrong with it."
Nothing appears to be wrong from the outside-in
fact, it appears worthy of passing an annual. But as he
pulls the blade shank out of the hub, the point is well-
taken. Severe pitting is evident on the blade hub that
should have resulted in blade failure long before this
propeller was taken out of service.
Ciskowski explains that propellers are overbuilt, so
most of the corrosion and damage to these propellers
hasn't resulted in any catastrophic failures, but if the
owners only had taken them apart for occasional preven-
tive maintenance, they wouldn't be buying new props.
"It's as simple as that," he says.
Over 80 percent of the parts that are scrapped out
and sitting on Whirlwind's shelves are scrapped out b e
cause of corrosion, and similarly) over 80 percent of the
parts are from McCauley propellers. Why McCauley you
may ask?
Ciskowski says that it's not because they're built any
worse than Hartzell propellers; it's just that Hartzell has
had an AD, 77-12-06, on its propellers that's required
owners to inspect them every five years. Subsequently,
Hartzell propellers have been repaired and the props r e
sealed regularly, thus not allowing corrosion to progress
to the point where parts are scrapped out so frequently.
McCauley has no such AD, and as a result, the aver-
age propeller goes anywhere from eight to 12 years, d e
pending on usage, before an inspection is made. The r e
sult is many parts are taken out of service prematurely.
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This hub and blade have been removed from service as a
result of severe pitting.
However, that's not the fault of McCauley. The company
does recommend regular fiveyear inspections, but opera-
tors typically choose not to do them because the outward
appearance is fine.
Ciskowski says that every constanbspeed propeller
experiences internal corrosion whether its sealed or not.
Condensation forms inside of the piston assembly and
sits there, eating away at the hub, in the form of water.
And it doesn't take much corrosion to scrap out a
hub. He pulls out a threaded series McCauley twebladed
hub and points to corrosion that's barely distinguishable.
"See the pit marks at the base of the threads of the
hub," he says, as he passes along the 10-power magnify-
ing glass. "McCauley doesn't allow any corrosion in this
critical area."
He explains that he's had to scrap out many of this
style hub due to corrosion below the pitch line (at the
base of the threads), and suspects that it's because the
hubs aren't being inspected and cleaned regularly.
"It seems a shame," says Ciskowski, "but this $2,000
plus part has to be scrapped due to minor pitting. And it
could have been prevented if it had been inspected every
five years."
Unfortunately, the expense associated with purchas-
ing new parts is often passed on to unsuspecting buyers,
he says. Some owners know they'll be selling the aircraft
and so put off maintenance relating to the propeller. The
new owner then decides to have the prop inspected, and
receives an unwelcomed call from the prop shop.
Another benefit of doing regular maintenance and
inspections on the propeller is the ability to comply with
service bulletins. He points to a McCauley threaded p r e
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 67
Recip Technology
peller that had a requirement to replace a stud on the
prop flange mounting area. "If the customer had come
in within a certain amount of time after the bulletin was
issued, the company would have replaced the stud for
nothing. Instead, the customer was unaware, and ran
beyond the time dowed. He ended up buying a new
propeller.
"Since the rescinding of the Hartzell AD 77-12-06
(which recently extended the inspection interval on Hart
zell Y-shank propellers from five years to 12,000 hours),
I haven't seen many Hartzell props come in here. That
leads me to believe that everyone's going to let the props
run to the new 12,000-hour limit. At the point that these
Y-shank propellers reach the upper limits, I suspect that
68 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
we'll be scrapping out a lot of parts," he says. "The ones
that refuse to bring the prop in to have anything done,
in five to seven years from now, I'll be selling them blade
bearings, hubs, cylinders... just like I do now with the
McCauleys.
"Now again, just because it's been five years, it
doesn't mean that you've got to overhaul the propeller. I
recommend it, but most props only require an inspection
and a reseal. We disassemble it, look for any possible
signs of things going wrong, replace the seals, check the
angles, balance it d up, and put a new paint job on the
blades, and run it for another five years.
"Blades and hubs should easily last 15 to 20 years, if
properly maintained," he says. September/October 1992
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 Recip Technology

By Greg Napert

ompression testing is one of the most economical

C means of monitoring engine condition. The proce

dure is simple to perform and can identify wear
and internal damage in early stages, thereby avoiding
catastrophic failure.
Despite this, the procedure is often criticized by
those who don't understand it and who feel that it's
used by "shady" technicians to perform unnecessary
maintenance.
Indeed, mistakes are sometimes made during inter-
pretation, and erroneous readings can result in pulling a
healthy cylinder. But these "errors" are inherent in the
test, and are worth the price; better to be overly cautious
than miss an accident waiting to happen.

The test
Compression testing, simply stated, is a test to deter-
mine the amount of leakage past the piston rings and
valves. Two methods are available: the direct compres
sion test and the differential compression test.
The direct compression test, used most commonly in
the automotive industry, requires placing a pressure
gauge into a spark plug boss, turning the engine over
with the starter and reading the peak pressure buildup
in the cylinder.
Though there is some merit in the test, it yields rela-
tively sporadic results and is dependent on too many
variables to be reliable. Its only practical applications in
aviation are when there's no source of compressed air
available, and on some models of recip helicopter en-
gines, since the rotor isn't coupled to the engine.
A more popular and reliable method of compression
testing for aircraft engines is differential compression
testing.
This method is accomplished by applying a source of
air to individual cylinders and measuring the differential
air pressure across a restrictor installed in the compres-
sion tester.
"The tester is a critical element in attaining consis-
tent and reliable readings," says Mahlon Russell, produc-
tion manager and 19year veteran at Mattituck Aviation
Corporation in New York. He explains that there are a
few things you should verify on your tester before
taking readings.
First, be sure to verify the operation of the tester by
"deadending" the unit. Before making any connections to
the aircraft, cap off the end of the hose that attaches to
the cylinder. Then adjust the incoming air pressure regu-
lator to 80 psi. Because the output hose is capped, and
1 om nempe (7eft)and Sam Bail (right) perform a
compression test on a Beech Baron at Mattituck Aviation
Corporation in New York.
there's no leakage through the tester, the pressure regu-
lator gauge should read identical to the cylinder pressure
gauge. If it doesn't, the gauges are bad or your test unit
is leaking.
Make sure that the orifice in the tester is the recom-
mended size, and that it remains clean. AC 43.13-1A
states that engines up to 1,000-cubic-inch displacement
should have a .040 orifice diameter, .250 inch long
with a 60-degree approach angle. Engines in excess of
1,000cubic-inchdisplacement, it says, should have a
.060 orifice diameter, ,250 inch long with a Godegree
approach angle.
Remember that restrictions such as dirt and oil, or
orifices that are reamed too large, can adversely affect
the readings. "Many testers are abused and neglected.
This is a hard-knocks tool. Technicians don't realize that
without verlfylng and calibrating the tester you may be
starting with bad readings, which can lead to bad inter-
pretations during a compression test," says Russell.
The procedure, described in detail in a number of
places including AC 43.13-1A Page 273), the Lycoming
Flyer Key Reprints, Lycoming Service Instruction No.

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Reclp Technology
1191 and Teledyne Continental Aircraft Service Bulletin
M8415, is quite simple and straightforward.
To begin, a small amount of pressure (20 psi) is
applied and the propeller rotated to find TDC (top dead
center). Once a t TDC, the pressure regulator is then
adjusted to supply 80 psi to the tester (80 psi is the
Dressure that has been determined to be sufficient to
produce accurate readings, yet not too excessive as to
allow someone to control the propeller). The extent of
leakage can then be determined by reading the pressure
gauge on the output side of the tester. A word of cau-
tion: Use extreme care while pressure is applied to the
cylinder. The forces on the piston may cause the prop to
rotate forcefully.
Some key points about the test are as follows:
Always test the engine while it's hot (at normal oper-
ating temperature). This assures that engine clear-
ances are proper and that the cylinder and all compo-
nents are properly lubricated.
Be sure that the rings are properly seated and the
engine is at TDC before taking a final reading. Rotat
ing the engine so that the piston is before TDC and
then moving it toward TDC may require several tries
before the rings seat.
A loss in excess of 25 percent of the 80 pounds, or a
reading of 60/80 is the recommended maximum al-
lowable loss.
To assure consistency in readings, Continental sug-
gests building a master orifice tool to calibrate
against your compression tester. The tool can be built
by referring to instructions in Continental Service
Bulletin M8415.
Combustion chambers with five piston rings tend to
seal better than those with three or four rings. The
result, says Lycoming, is that the differential doesn't
consistently show excessive wear or breakage where
five piston rings are involved.
If erratic readings are
observed on the equip
ment on a regular
basis, check the supply
of compressed air for
contamination of
water or dirt.
Never pull a cylinder
as a result of one test.
If low readings result,
recheck after running
up the engine at least
three minutes.
Q p i c a l differential
pressure compression
tester schematic.
70 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
If valves show continual leakage after recheck, r e
move the rocker box cover and place a fiber drift on
the rocker arm immediately over the valve stem and
tap the drift several times with a 1- or 2-pound ham-
mer. When tapping valves, make sure that the engine
is rotated so that the piston is not on TDC. This is
necessary in some engines, says Lycoming, to prevent
the valve from striking the head of the piston. Then
recheck compression. This procedure may successfully
dislodge carbon deposits from the valve face.
Beware of a cylinder that reads a perfect 80/80.
There's more oil getting past the rings than needed,
and this could promote carbon buildup on the rings
of the piston, which could eventually cause the rings
to bind and break, says Russell.
Leakage - finding the culprit
Continental categorizes the sealing portion of the
cylinder two ways: the area that makes up the static seal
and that which makes up the dynamic seal.
The static seal consists of the seal provided by the
exhaust and intake valves; no leakage is allowed in the
static seal, says Continental. Positive identification of
leakage from the static seal is possible by listening for
the sound of hissing air leaking from the exhaust, or
intake, system.
The other type of seal is referred to as the dynamic
seal. This is the seal between the piston rings and the
cylinder wall; it is the most variable component in the
compression test.
Leakage past the rings can vary based on many fac-
tors, including: cylinder choke, number of rings, piston
design, ring gap alignment and more. Dynamic seal or
piston ring leakage can typically be heard from the oil
filter or breather tube.
Although the concept of listening for leaks appears to
be quite simple and straightforward, some engines
present challenges. Russell says that it can be difficult to
hear leakage from the exhaust system on some engines
equipped with turbochargers, for instance, because the
turbocharger muffles the sound.
Additionally, it's not always clear where the leakage is
occurring. There's always some leakage from around the
rings, he explains. It takes experience to determine what
sound is normal for each type of engine. For instance, if
you're not familiar with the sounds, you can mistakenly
deduce that there's a problem with the rings, when in
fact the rings are normal.
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 Reclp Technology

Rings with end gaps

in alignment may also
cause an intermittent
compression problem.
This can usually be solved
by running the engine for
awhile and retesting.
However, explains Russell,
the rings will occasionally
start to wear a little
notch in the cylinder
which will hold the rings
in position. If this h a p
pens, you have no choice
but to pull the jug and
rotate the rings.
One area that isn't
addressed enough, says
Russell, is erratic read-
ings. If there's excessive
play in the valve guide,
the valve may seat cor-
rectlv one time and not
Causes and concerns
another. If you're having
problems with erratic readings, you should suspect worn
Russell says that most damage to an engine occurs at guides. It's simple enough to take off the rocker cover
the exhaust valve as a result of overheating. This is most and make sure that you don't see a lot of discoloration
often caused, he says, by running too lean a mixture. on the valve stem, spring, top of guide or heavy
"It's highly unusual that valves fail on their own because carbon buildup.
of a defect or because of the way that they're designed. You can try getting a feel for wear by wiggling the
Almost all of the time it's because of excessive heat. valve stem. "Even with the spring installed, you can nor-
"What happens is that because of overtemperature, mally feel excessive wear," he says. "You have to develop
the exhaust valve softens. Then the valve warps or the a feel for this because there normally is some move
seat is disturbed. Air is then allowed to leak past the ment, even with a new valve and guide." Lycoming actu-
sealing surface where it superheats the valve stem and ally has a Service Bulletin (388A) for checking the wear
guide causing distortion, accelerated wear and harnmer- in the valve guide area. It involves pushing the stem in
ing of the valve face. During this process," he says, "the both directions and measuring the play.
face of the valve becomes more and more burnt and the Russell feels that compression testing is really not
leakage is accelerated. This continues until something applied as frequently as it should be.
gives, or is caught by a low compression reading." "We like to perform compression testing every time
A fairly common cause for problems is the piston we change the oil... if you're only relying on one com-
rings. Rings will start to cause compression problems pression test a year, you're nuts," says Russell. "The
if the ring bands begin to wear, or if carbon buildup time period from the beginning of a burnt valve to a
binds a ring in the groove and doesn't allow the ring failure could be as little as 500 hours. So if someone's
to move and seat. If a ring is bound up in one area, it only getting a compression test every 500 hours, they're
will often break.
asking for trouble." July/August 1992
Carbon buildup in the ring area is caused by the heat
of combustion passing by the rings and cooking the oil.
It can either be caused by ring wear, improper alignment
or unloading of the rings by pulling the throttle back too
quickly (low manifold pressure descent).

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Recip Technology

Help wanted
Magnetos probably won't make it to TBO without you

By Greg Napert

A
magneto's function is to provide spark for com-
bustion in the reciprocating engine. Although
the magneto concept was developed right along
with the first recip engine and is considered to be old
technology, today's magnetos still serve dutifully and p r e
vide the aviation engine with a constant and reliable
source of spark for ignition.
Many people question the appropriateness of magne
tos in today's engines. After all, it's been some time
since they were used in the automotive industry and
have been pretty much phased out by electronic ignitions
on most non-aviation recip applications. Regardless, the
magneto still offers many advantages over the electronic
ignition system.
Consider these facts: The magneto offers redundancy
because of the use of two magnetos per engine. The mag-
neto operates independently from the aircraft's electrical
system and will continue to operate in the event of an
aircraft electrical failure. The magneto offers resilience
in that it most likely will not be affected by electrical
storms or outside electrical interference such as static.
The electronics involved in electronic ignition is more
susceptible to outside interference and depends on the
operation of the aircraft's electrical system.
There are admittedly some disadvantages, though,
with using magnetos vs. electronic ignition. The primary
disadvantage is that the magneto contains moving parts,
and these moving parts, particularly points, cams and
bearings, wear over time.
But these disadvantages can be overcome, and mag-
netos can easily make it to TBO by performing routine
magneto maintenance.
Making it to TBO
"You've got two theories of maintenance for mags,"
says Harry Fenton, manager of customer support for
Slick Aircraft Products, Unison Industries, of Rockford,
IL. "One is you do preventive maintenance where you
inspect the magneto on a regular basis and assure that
you don't run it to the point where it fails. And the
other is if it ain't broke, don't fix it and wait till some
thmg fails. The latter is simply irresponsible."
Regular inspections of magnetos are critical for two
reasons, explains Fenton. First, wear and tear of the
cam that operates the points can result in point gaps
becoming smaller and smaller as time progresses. You
get narrowing dimensions, and this means that the
points remain closed for extended periods of time.
Be sure that timing pin is inserted in correct hole (left
or right) depending on if the engine is right- or
left-hand rotation.
Fenton says that when you've got maximum satura-
tion of the electrical field, and your points haven't
opened yet, the electrons have a tendency to look for
places to go. They start looking for holes in the coil and
the insulation and can jump across windings. Eventually,
the coil ends up with several shorts in the windings
and quits.
What's needed is to go and set the points every 500
hours and make sure the timing is set correctly so that
you aren't stressing the electrical components.
Equally important, says Fenton, is to set the gaps on
the spark plugs periodically. It's more likely that electric-
ity will choose other paths that offer less resistance
when it's got excessive gaps to jump.
Another problem, says Fenton, is the buildup of dust,
oil, moisture, grease or dirt on the inside surfaces of the
mag. Any buildup can give electrical energy a path to
ground and result in carbon tracking. Carbon tracking
results when electricity finds a path to ground and
burns a pathway into the material that it travels across.
Once this path is burned, a track of carbon is present
that allows electricity to flow to ground, resulting in an
ineffective or inoperable mag. Carbon tracking can often
be removed by simply cleaning the part if it's just
burned into the buildup of dirt and oil. If it's actually
burned a path into the base material, however, the com-
ponent must be replaced.

72 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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Corrosion can be another culprit. Depending on the
conditions that the aircraft's stored and the hours flown
on the aircraft, rust can certainly take a toll on the
mags. Tim Davis, service engineer for Teledyne Conti-
nental Motors-Aircraft Products/Ignition Systems
(owner of Bendix magneto line since 1986), says a factor
that can greatly accelerate corrosion is improper venting
due to clogged vent holes or incorrectly installed plugs
and plumbing.
"Magnetos require venting," Davis explains. "They
must have fresh air inside them. If you seal up a mag
completely so that it doesn't vent, the mag will destroy
itself. The high voltage breaks down the air molecules
and breaks down moisture and recombines them. The
resultant material is nitric acid. It's clear, odorless and
about the consistency of water.
"Technicians think that there's water in the mag, and
it's actually acid. It'll eat away electrical components.
Make sure the vented plugs are kept clear. Some techs
replace the vented plug with a solid plug and that's
a mistake."
Application confusion
Some of the most often asked questions regarding
magnetos, says Fenton, relate to application problems.
There's often confusion regarding which magnetos are
approved for which engines, or questions regarding the
legality of specific installations, he says.
There are two very important Lycoming service in-
structions which help determine application of most
Slick mags for Lycoming engines, he says. One is Lycom-
ing SD 1374B, which gives the direct line lineage-mag-
netos that have evolved into different model numbers
but essentially operate similar to the original. The other
is Lycoming SD 1443A, which lists which magnetos are
approved for specific engine models.
It's important to understand the differences between
the two bulletins, he says. What's considered approval
data for the installation of a mag by one field inspector
may not be considered sufficient data by another.
For FAA approval, the OEMs type ceflicate data
sheet is usually the "most correct" source of data. When
replacing a mag, don't assume the unit that's .installed
on the engine is the model that's currently approved.
The engine manufacturer may have made a change to
the recommended mag sometime during the life of
the engine.
Application data for magnetos can also be obtained
from the magneto manufacturers. Slick's application in-
formation, says Fenton, can be used as approved data
where appropriate. This data may be necessary if you
wish to install a mag that hasn't yet been listed on the
type certificate data sheet by the engine manufacturer,
for instance.
One situation to watch out for, says Fenton, is when
an engine manufacturer says that "magnetos must be
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Recip Technology
installed in like sets. In this case, you may not be able to
upgrade one of the mags without upgradmg the other."
Installing a magneto is actually quite simple, but the
problem is that it's a procedure that's just not done very
frequently and it's one that needs practicing.
For instance, Fenton says that he often receives calls
from technicians who are having problems timing the
mags to the engine, and they insist that instructions are
being followed to the letter-only to find out later that
something was being done incorrectly.
The No. 1 problem with timing the new line of Slick
mags to an engine, says Fenton, involves using the tim-
ing pin that goes into the back of the mag. There are
two holes into which the pin can be inserted; one pin's
marked left and the other right. "That refers to the rota-
tion of the magneto not the placement on the mag on
the engine. Many technicians mistake these markings to
mean that the pin should be inserted for timing into the
left hole if you're working on the left mag. That's not the
case. The timing pin should be in the left hole if it's a
left turning mag and vise versa," he says.
On Lycoming engines, most mags turn lefbhand rota-
tion. On Continental, it's kind of split, half turn right
and half turn left (dependmg on which model you're
dealing with).
If you're having problems with a rough running en-
gine after installing a new mag, and most of the com-
mon induction, carburetor or valve problems have been
eliminated, there may be a problem with the cam lobes
on the magneto that open and close the breaker points.
The nylon cam on the Slick mags may occasionally
have uneven lobes with one lobe being higher than the
other. This will result in a slight variance in timing. "We
call this timing drift," he says. "When we set these mags
up, we minimize the timing drift on the cam. When you
put in new points, make sure that you measure point
gap opening on one lobe of the cam, then rotate it 180
degrees and measure it on the other side to check if the
gaps are equal. If they're unequal, Slick allows you to
sand the cams or scrape them with an Exacto-knife a
little so that you can even up the point gap on both sides
of the cam."
Another common problem, Fenton explains is
overtorquing the P-lead nut. Overtorquing can damage
the glass insulation in the condenser and cause it to
ground out.
Condensers may crack and you won't know it. The
magneto will run for awhile, then quit. A cracked coil on
any magneto may create an intermittent problem and
cause the engine to run rough or go dead. Follow the
torquing instructions and avoid unapproved locking d e
vices such as nuts with nylon inserts that'll require more
torque to install.
"Some people will call and say that they have a coil
that's working, yet when the resistance is measured, it
shows that it's open. You can't use that coil," he ex-
plains. "In this case, you've caught a coil in the begin-
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 73
Reclp Technology
ning stages of breaking down. Eventually what'll happen
is that the electrical gap will open and the coil will just
stop working."
David Harshbarger, technician at Aircraft Systems,
an accessory overhaul shop in Rockford, IL, says that the
worst mistake that a technician can make when install-
ing TCM/Bendix magnetos is to use a magneto lock. The
lock is commonly used to lock the mag in the No. 1 fir-
ing position during its installation on the engine. It's
installed in place of the timing plug and meshes with the
timing gear. If during installation the mag is rotated and
any undue force is placed onto the magneto, the teeth on
the timing gear stand a good chance of being damaged.
Also, if the lock is tightened too much it may leave an
impression on the nylon gear.
It doesn't take much to break these teeth, explains
Harshbarger, because of the high gear ratios. "We get
mags in frequently where the teeth are broken off in the
spot where the mag lock was installed or 180 degrees
opposite where the other gear meshes with it. Don't use
the mag lock, it doesn't pay-take it and throw it away,"
he says. "It's one of those things that happen and you
74 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
don't know about it until it's too late. Also, if damage
does occur, the mag may not be the only thing that gets
damaged. If the timing slips, detonation may occur and
damage the engine as well."
Up-to-date literature for mags
All TCM (Bendix) overhaul, parts and applications
charts have been updated since 1989. There are still
many old manuals sitting on the shelves, and there are
people still selling old manuals, says Tim Davis, service
engineer for TCM Aircraft Products. To order a current
set of manuals for ignition systems call (205) 4383411,
Ext. 298 or Ext. 132. When you buy a complete set, you
also get a oneyear update subscription as part of the
deal, he says.
Slick also has a master service manual available for
its magnetos. Its F-1100 Master Service Manual, says
Harry Fenton, manager of customer support for Slick
Aircraft Products, is available on a subscription basis.
To order, call customer service at (815) 965-4700. 65B
May/June 1992
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 Rmip Technoiogy

The scientific approach

Custom engine overhaul

By Greg Napert

everal engine overhaul shops in the country have

S developed a unique approach to engine overhaul.

These shops that offer what are known as custom
overhauls, or blueprinted engines, take extra steps to
assure that the theoretical operating principles and
design specifications are adhered to during the over-
haul process.
The main idea behind these overhauls is to not leave
anything up to chance, or for that matter, the parts s u p
pliers and/or engine manufacturers.
Victor Aviation, in Palo Alto, CA, is one of these com-
panies. Other operations such as RAM Aircraft Corpora-
tion and Mattituck Aviation, to name a few, also imple
ment some or most aspects of the blueprinting process
into their overhauls.
Victor Sloan, owner and founder of Victor Aviation,
says that many of the effects of what they do to their
overhauls aren't immediately noticeable to the technician
or operator. "Many of these procedures show up in
the longevity and overall performance in the engine,"
he says.

Fits and clearances

Sloan explains that he's reduced many of the toler-
ances that exist in OEM-supplied overhaul manuals so
that his technicians are working to and maintaining
tighter tolerances. "Many of my technicians don't even
know that they're doing anything special," says Sloan. "I
iust hand them our modified manual and tell them to
work to our specifications for fits and clearances; and for
most of them it's no problem. They don't even know
what the original OEM fits and clearances are."
New parts, whether fadory original or FAA PMA-
approved parts, are thoroughly inspected. This inspection
includes a dimensional check and weighing.
Parts that don't meet the shop's strict tolerances are
reworked or replaced. For instance, camshafts are
reground and checked for displacement, velocity, accel-
eration and taper, rocker arms are machined, and cylin-
ders are honed to produce the desired choke patterns.
Balancing
Even though most overhaulers and the factory don't
require or recommend additional balancing of internal
components, Sloan emphasizes the balancing process and
disputes those who don't. "Small imbalances can make a
big difference. If you have a counterweight that's 15
grams out of balance," he says, "that translates to about
102 footipounds of force out of balance at 2,700 rpm."
These vibrations, he explains, can lead to worn bear-
ings, cracks in the crankcase and fretting of case halves.
He also says that items mounted on the outer extremi-
ties of the engine experience heavier wear and reduced
life. As you move away from the center of the engine,
these forces are exaggerated. For example, turbocharg-
ers, propellers and other engine accessories experience
much shorter life as the result of a minor imbalance in
the engine, he says.
"We take many of the problems that exist with these
extremities as signs that there are internal problems or
mass imbalance inside of the engine." He explains that
when his technicians find elongated turbocharger mounb
ing bolt holes or cracked propeller spinners, they take it
as a warning that there are problems that need to be
addressed or possible harmonic problems that are being
induced as a result of imbalance.
"If you find that you're overhauling your propeller
every 500 to 600 hours for blade looseness and wear, it's
probably because vibrations are being transmitted to the
propeller and reducing the operating life," he says.

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Recip Technology
Sloan starts his overhauls by matching weights of
opposing reciprocating components, then dynamically
balancing rotating masses.
The reciprocating masses are the components that
move in and out of the cylinder assemblies. Pistons, pis-
ton pins, rings and connecting rods are weighed indepen-
dently, and then again a s a set.
Lou Pierard, machine shop foreman for Victor Avia-
tion, says that opposing piston weights can be matched a
couple of ways. "For pistons that are relatively close in
weight, we simply swap piston pins of different weight so
that the combination of piston pin and piston results in
an acceptable overall weight. Pistons that are further out
of tolerance must have material machined from the in-
side dimension of the piston skirt, or are exchanged with
others of equal weight," he says.
"We typically try to avoid altering or machining com-
ponents. Instead, we try to have enough parts in stock
to swap back and forth, and in that way we can accom-
plish most of our weight matching and balancing." O p
posing connecting rods, says Pierard, also have to be
weight matched. But because half of the rod is recipro-
cating, and the other half is rotating, proper weighing
requires weight measurements on each end. "The factory
typically provides you with a matched set of connecting
rods where the overall weights of the rods are the same.
What they fail to take into account is the fact that the
weight, in most cases, is unevenly distributed from one
end to the other due to inconsistencies in the casting,"
he says. To properly weigh the rods, they need to be s u p
ported on one end while the other end is placed on a
scale. Weights at each end of the rod should be recorded
and matched with rods of similar weight.
Sloan says that typical overhauls don't always include
crankshaft balancing, which he says should be done dy-
namically with all of the counterweights and gears a t
tached. Also, the dynamic balancing equipment used for
this procedure should have the capability of balancing
the crankshaft assembly at two points simultaneously
(front and back), says Sloan, with the counterweights
and gears installed.
Sloan says that many shops that balance don't use
the proper equipment. Theoretically, he says, it's possible
to balance one point on shaft, and still have the other
points way out of balance. That's why the proper equip
ment is critical.
He states further that "some of the propeller balanc-
ing procedures used on the market only balance at one
point, and this can be dangerous. You may think that
everything's fine because the front end of the crankshaft
has no vibration at all, but adding weights to the prop
spinner or other areas, may induce vibrations into
the back end of the crankshaft that you may not be
aware of."
76 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Pierard says that crankshaft balancing is another
area where component swapping is preferred to material
removal or addition to achieve balance. "There are a
number of tricks that can be used, like rotating the
gears or swapping counterweights to balance the crank-
shaft," he says.
Combustion
Sloan says that "in order to assure balanced combus-
tion forces from one cylinder to another and to ensure
efficient combustion of the fuel-air mixture, air intake
volume and velocity should be matched; and adherence
to original design specifications relative to intake port
size and shape should be more closely adhered to."
Sounds like a mouthful, but essentially it means that
each cylinder should have the same intake openings to
allow an equivalent amount of air to enter each cylinder.
Sloan stresses that this doesn't mean that they grind the
intake ports beyond design specifications. In fact, he
doesn't even like referring to what they do as porting.
"Often cylinders only need to be sorted and matched,
and only minor surface imperfections are corrected that
to the untrained eye might not be visible.
"Porting implies removing material to increase the
size of the opening beyond the design specifications. All
we do is remove material that's protruding into the air-
flow path that otherwise causes restrictions in airflow
and differences in airflow from one cylinder to another.
We prefer to call it airflow matching."
The company doesn't polish ports either. Sloan says
that polishing the ports causes fuel splashback and the
engine to backfire and run rough. "The walls of the
ports should be smooth but must still have a gritty con-
sistency to maintain wall adhesion. Wall adhesion in-
duces swirl, which is critical for proper air entry into
the cylinder."
In order to further assure that the openings are con-
sistent, technicians check each cylinder port volume by
pouring fluid into each cylinder's intake port (called CC-
ing). The fluid volume is then measured, and if the vol-
umes don't match, further material is removed or heads
are matched by swapping cylinders.
Sloan says that they &o check the volume of the cyl-
inder barrel in this manner and can then determine
small differences in compression ratios due to varying
head profiles. This information allows the technician to
strategically place cylinders in either the front or back of
the engine. Higher compression cylinders, he says, are
placed in the hotter areas, and lower compression cylin-
ders are placed in cooler areas. This procedure, which
Sloan refers to as "thermal positioning," affects effective
compression ratios due to varying changes in tempera-
ture from cylinder to cylinder.
One other area that's given a great deal of attention,
says Sloan, is the valve train geometry.
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Holding tight tolerances in the valve train is highly
essential, explains Sloan. Variances in fits and clearances
in this area can result in differences in valve timing.
"Valve timing is critical to combustion because the
amount of air charge that comes into the cylinder is d e
termined by the length of time that the valve remains
open. As the air charge changes, the power output
changes for that cylinder. Also, the volume of the air en-
try changes based on cam profiles and valve train toler-
ances. By grinding the cam lobes so each lobe on the
cam is exactly the same, and by holding the dimension
of each component in the valve train consistent, we can
help assure that equivalent cylinders give the same
horsepower output," says Sloan.
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He explains that cam profiles are checked on each
cam that's used in an engine and, if necessary, the cam
is reprofiled to original specifications. Sloan says that
they oftentimes have to reprofile new camshafts direct
from the factory.
There are many other parts to the overall formula
that Sloan includes in his formula for improving safety
and efficiency. Among them: Custom honing, threestep
valve seat grinding and Parker Lubrizing (a method for
etching lubricants into the surface of metal) to name a
few. Each of these processes doesn't alter the engine but
collectively improves performance and reliability.
MarcWApril 1992
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 77
Recip Technology

By Mark Spickard

T
oday, propeller governors and propeller control
systems have become commonplace in aircraft
ranging from small single reciprocating engine
aircraft to large multi-engine turboprops. These systems
can be as simple as a single acting governor and a coun-
terweighted propeller or as complex as a high-pressure
dual-acting propeller system. They become more complex
as features are added such as propeller feathering, un-
feathering and synchronizing.

General
A propeller control system is a dynamic system that
controls the engine rpm by varying the pitch of the pro-
peller and thereby the load on the propeller. The propel-
ler governor fits into this system by sensing the engine
rpm and providing the required output to the propeller
which keeps the propeller "on-speed."
Engine oil pressure is boosted upon entering the gov-
ernor by an internal pump and is regulated by a relief
valve. In turn, the pilot valve regulates this pressurized
oil to control the pressure in the propeller servo. If the because of the size and weights that would be required
rpm that the governor is set to, and the rpm of the pro- of these components. On these aircraft a more compli-
cated system is used consisting of a pressure to decrease
peller correspond - the governor is said to be on-speed.
If the propeller speed is higher, an overspeed condition pitch governor, a propeller control unit (PCU), a high-
exists; a lower propeller speed produces an underspeed pressure pump, an overspeed governor and a dual-acting
condition. propeller.
In these systems, the governor feeds oil pressure to a
The corresponding flyweight and plunger positions
control piston in the PCU.The piston, in turn, controls
for overspeed, underspeed and on-speed conditions are
the flow of high-pressure oil from the pump to the servo
shown in the figure.
piston in the propeller. This is done through a transfer
If the propeller used decreases pitch with increasing
pressure, the governor must be designed to increase its tube that moves with the control piston and can feed
oil to either side of the servo piston to decrease or in-
output pressure in an underspeed condition. This type of
governor is known as a "pressure to decrease governor." crease pitch.
The reverse must be true for a "pressure to increase" The PCU also contains a beta valve which is used in
pitch propeller. A pressure to increase pitch propeller is reverse or "beta" mode. This valve overrides the govern-
commonly used in many singleengine aircraft so that if ing function and works directly as an on-off valve. It ac-
oil pressure to the propeller is lost, the propeller loading complishes this by cutting off or returning the flow of
spring will automatically push the propeller to its low- high pressure oil to the control piston. Basically, the
valve has the effect of a low-pitch stop. It is, however,
pitch stop. This allows for maximum power from the en-
mechanically controlled by both the transfer tube and
gine and also allows for windmill restarts.
the fuel control position.
In a twin, a pressure to decrease pitch system is
used. Here, if pressure is lost, the feathering spring and The fuel control, when rotated into the beta range,
counterweights will feather the prop to decrease drag so will rotate a cam which reseta the low-pitch stop position
flight can continue on the remaining engine. of the beta valve so for larger power inputs, the blade
The propellers used on large horsepower engines, s p e is allowed to go to larger reverse angles. In this mode,
cifically turboprops, have quite large aerodynamic twist the system is not governed. Instead, the propeller b e
ing moments that drive the propeller to low pitch. This comes fixed pitch with the pitch changing for different
power inputs.
makes the use of a springcounterweight system practical

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out. This happens because

the ports on the pilot
valve plunger are open
just far enough to main-
tain the required pressure
at the propeller.
An "overspeed" condi-
tion will rotate the fly-
weights, pull the plunger
up and compress the
speeder spring. This will
allow servo oil to drain
and will result in an in-
creased blade angle and
increased load. The end
result will be a reduction
in rprn which will return
the system to an on-speed
condition.
If an "underspeed"
condition exists then, the
flyweights will rotate to
lower the plunger and d e
crease the compression of
the speeder spring. This
allows hlgh-pressure oil to
be ported to the servo
which decreases the blade
angle, decreases the load
and increases the rpm,
returning it to an on-
speed condition.
For the governor to be
useful it must be able to
hold any desired rpm. To
change the desired on-
speed rpm, the speed ad-
justing lever is rotated
from a control lever in
the cockpit. This moves
the upp& speeder spring
Description oi operation seat and changes the amount of force (rprn) required for
the flyweights to compress the spring.
In a pressure to decrease pitch propeller control sys-
The governor shown (left) has been designed with a
tem, pressurized oil and the aerodynamic twisting mo-
feather feature that is used during inflight shutdowas.
ment on the blades work to decrease the propeller blade
angle while the feathering springs and counterweights
This feature prevents wing and reduces drag. To
feather the propeller, the speed adjusting lever is rotated
work to increase the blade angle.
to the minimum rprn position. This lifts the speed ad-
In a constant rprn condition these forces all cancel
justing shaft and the lift rod and mechanically lifts the
out. Since flight conditions vary, these forces must also
plunger. This allows the servo oil to drain and feathers
vary to maintain constant rpm. The governor provides
the propeller.
this varying force by controlling the oil pressure accord-
In the event that a feathered engine would need to be
ing to the engine rpm.
restarted, it's desirable to unfeather the propeller first. If
The governor is basically an automatically controlled
the restart is attempted with a feathered propeller it
valve that will always try to maintain an on%peedcondi-
may be unsuccessful or may result in a rough start with
tion. As shown in the f i e , in an 'on-speed" condition,
a very high BMEP.The unfeathering mechanism works
the flyweight and speeder spring force cancel each other
in conjunction w i t h an unfeathering accumulator. The

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Reclp Technology
accumulator is an air-charged cylinder that stores oil at
governor relief valve pressure. This pressure is used to
unfeather the propeller during static conditions.
To unfeather the propeller, the speed-adjusting shaft
must simply be rotated to the cruise rpm position. This
moves the upper speeder spring seat down, forces the
push rod down and opens the check valve. The stored
high pressure oil then flows through the governor to the
propeller servo and unfeathers the propeller.
The points where the feather and unfeather functions
occur vary for each airplane, engine and propeller combi-
nation but are always set to occur at specified on-speed
rpms. The feather function can be controlled if necessary
adjusting the lift rod. The unfeather is adjusted by
changing the push rod length. These two functions have
to be coordinated so that a condition doesn't exist where
the unfeather and feather points overlap. If this would
happen, the stored high-pressure oil in the accumulator
could be routed to drain instead of going to the servo
piston.
A common function found in twin engine aircraft
governors is synchronizing and synchrophasing. In a
synchronizing system the speeds of both engines are
made to match each other. In a synchrophasing system
both the speeds and the phase of the propellers are
controlled. A synchrophaser not only eliminates cycling
noise levels but can also be finetuned to find the lowest
noise and or vibration levels.
Typically, a magnetic pickup is used to sense the
speed of the governor. In these systems, an electronic
control box receives inputs from the governors and
sends a signal to an actuator. This adjusts the control
lever position of the slave engine to match the speed of
the master engine.
Newer synchronizing systems don't utilize the master
engine concept. With these, both engines have magnetic
pickups and electromagnetic speed-adjusting coils a t
tached to the governor cover. These fit around the
speeder spring and between the flyweights. When cur-
80 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
rent flows through the coil, a magnetic field is produced
that pulls on the flyweights to adjust the rpm. With
these systems, the rprn of both engines can be adjusted
up and down to match each other.
Since the flyweights are the components being pulled
on by the coil, the spacing between the coil and the
flyweights is critical. This spacing is adjusted to obtain
a specified rprn increase over the voltage range applied
to the coil.
The spacing is adjusted by changing the angle of the
flyweights while in an on-speed condition. This is done
by using variable thickness races for the bearing between
the flyweights and the plunger.
It should be stressed that the high rprn stop screw
adjustment is the only one that should be made in the
field. This adjustment is allowed because of the f a d that
different engine and propeller systems have different
internal leakages.
Maintenance and troubleshooting
Removing and installing a governor is quite straight
forward and adequate instructions are usually provided
by the manufacturer.
Some things to keep in mind are to always use a new
gasket and make sure the mounting surfaces are clean.
The highest oil pressures in the entire aircraft are more
than likely to be found in the governor and a poor seal
will quickly produce leaks. Also make sure the correct
mounting bolt torque is used since the seal between the
governor base and body is metal to metal. The trapezoi-
dal-shaped ring is used only to route leakage back to
drain, not to seal the unit. When bolting the governor
down, make sure that the mounting studs are the correct
length. If an adapter plate is used, be sure that it's posi-
tioned correctly.
When removing a governor, don't forget to discharge
the accumulator before you disconnect it. There's a lot of
oil in the accumulator, and it will exit very quickly if it's
not taken care of beforehand. To do this simply rotate
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the governor to the max rpm position before starting
disassembly. If the propeller unfeathers, then there was
stored oil inside.
It's also a good idea to discharge the air in the accu-
mulator before it's disconnected. The charge will have to
be restored, but it must be checked periodically anyway.
All too often, the governor is the first piece of equip
ment that is removed from service when there are signs
of rpm fluctuation. It must be remembered that the gov-
ernor doesn't control the power output of the engine.
Instead, it controls the load on the engine. Numerous
problems could appear in any number of the engine's
systems that would produce an unsteady power output.
The governor will continuously try to match this output
with a load by varying the blade angle.
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Remember, most problems found in a governor are
the result of complete part failure or incorrect settings-
both of which are very obvious. Before removing the
governor for repair make a thorough check of the other
engine systems and components. Even though a gover-
nor has no deficiencies, sending it in for repair requires
recalibration. This can become expensive. kEl
JanuazyLFebruary 1992
Mark Spickard i s a propeller control systems engineer at
Woodward Governor Company, Small Aircraft Controls in
Rockford, E.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 81
Recip Technology

Carburetor maintenance tips

By Greg Napert

T
he carburetor is a fairly simple device. Its job: to
provide a proper fueVair mixture to the engine
and a means by which to control the volume of
that mixture, thereby controlling the speed of the engine.
Over the years the carburetor's function has basically
remained the same, but some improvements have been
made to refine its operation, and features have been
added as it has been adapted to larger and more effi-
cient engines.
For all practical purposes, there has only been one
manufacturer of carburetors for light general aviation
aircraft with ownership changing hands over the years.
The original name of the product has changed from
Tillitson to Borg-Warner to MarvelSchrebler to Facet
and finally to Precision Airmotive, located in Everett, WA.
The high rate of usage of these carburetors and the
excess supply of core bodies have created the opportu-
nity for new business in carburetor overhaul and PMA
(parts manufacturer approval) replacement parts. Among
those that overhaul carburetors and supply parts are
B&S Aircraft, Consolidated Fuel Systems and the origi-
nal manufacturer itself, Precision Airmotive.
Model designation numbers originally referred to the
mounting flange of the carburetor, but as the carbure
tors were developed the model numbers were changed to
reflect alterations (see model number designation chart).
It's important to note, however, that for every model Carburetor must be checked to ensure that mixture control
number, there may be various part numbers and that i s operational.
not all MA-3 carburetors are interchangeable. The MA-3
may have different fuel nozzles, for instance, for differ-
performed. The manual, says Grover, calls for a series of
ent installations.
tests prior to releasing the carburetor back into service.
Ron Grover, director of quality assurance for Consoli-
One of them involves placing a sight tube in the bowl
dated Fuel Systems has been overhauling carburetors for
drain plug boss and positioning the tube vertically next
over 15 years. It's become a more common practice, he
to the bowl. 0.4 psi of fuel pressure is then applied to
says, for technicians to use an exchange unit off the
the inlet fitting. The fuel pressure is maintained for a
shelf instead of taking the time to repair it themselves.
period of 15 minutes after which time the pressure is
Part of the reason is that exchange carburetors have
raised to 6.0 psi for another five minutes. A slight rise
never been so readily available as they are today; also,
in the fuel level is typical when the pressure is increased.
the exchange unit allows the technician to reduce liabil-
If the level of the fuel rises above the parting surface
ity exposure. Additionally, using an exchange unit saves
of the castings or runs out of the nozzle, says Grover,
the time involved in tearing into the carburetor. But
there are still a good number of technicians who con- the bowl and throttle body must be separated and the
problem fixed.
tinue to make repairs to the carburetors, he says. "We
sell nearly as many exchange units as we do individual Next, the accelerator pump must be operated with
the fuel pressure connected. Make sure that it's spraying
parts to support them," says Grover.
a nice even jet of fuel (3 to 4 feet) into the air and that
For those who choose to make their own repairs,
the pump isn't binding. If there is a problem, it could
Grover doesn't discourage them. "Just make sure you
result from a damaged leather packing, or possibly one
know what you're doing," he says.
of the check valves in the pump is not working properly.
Grover explains that there are many technicians who
An indication of a single sticking check valve, he says,
aren't properly testing the carburetors after repairs are
would cause binding in one direction and not the other.

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Another problem that Grover has seen, related to the
check valves, is that one of the springs in the valve may
break. This normally results in a rich mixture. This will
also show up as a stain on the side of the carburetor
where excessive fuel has been dripping from the accel-
erator pump nozzle and washing against the side of the
carburetor.
Check alignment o f float using a float gauge. Make sure
that there is sufficient space between the float and the
walls o f the gauge.
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result in fuel continuing
to run into the engine and not stopping even after the
lever is moved to idle cutoff.
Float and needle valve replacement
Many repairs involve replacing the float and needle
valve assembly. It's important to know the effect that the
float can have on the carburetor. Correct installation and
adjustment is critical to proper operation.
The level of the float, for instance, can cause the fuel
mixture to be either too lean or too rich, says Grover.
The float basically positions the level of the fuel in the
nozzle for introduction into the carburetor throat. If the
fuel level in the bowl is too high, the fuel is positioned
too high in the fuel nozzle and fuel is pulled too easily
from the nozzle. The result is a rich mixture. Conversely,
if the float level is too low, the fuel will be sitting too low
in the fuel nozzle, and it will be difficult for the suction
in the venturi to pull the fuel from the nozzle-resulting
in a lean mixture. Although the carburetor is capable of
compensating somewhat for the effect of the float, its
range is limited.
In order for the carburetor to work correctly through-
out its entire range, the float must be set to the correct
level. This is accomplished by tipping the carburetor u p
side down so that the needle is seated and the float is
resting on the needle. A measurement (specified in the
maintenance manual) is then taken from the top of
the float to the face of the casting. Be sure to take this
measurement with the bowl gasket in place on the
casting. Failure to do so can result in as much as a
l/l&inch error.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 83
-- -
Recip Technology
If adjustment of the float is necessary, it can be
made by bending the float lever adjustment tab slightly.
Precision's maintenance manual recommends that a
small screwdriver bent 30 degrees approximately
1/4inch from its tip is a useful tool for setting the float.
Assure also that both pontoons are at the same height
above the gasket.
It's also important, says Grover, when you're replac-
ing a float, to make sure that it fits and aligns in the
bowl properly. In order to do this, you need to use a
gauge (essentially a bowl with the bottom cut off) to
make sure you have correct ahgnment. If the float's not
properly aligned, he says, it will rub against the sides of
the bowl and cause the carburetor to run erratically.
A binding float, says Grover, may only show up in
flight as the aircraft banks, but you may be able to tell
that it's binding by tipping it back and forth and listen-
ing closely. You should hear the float moving but
shouldn't hear it rubbing on the sides of the bowl.
To align it properly, loosen the screws on the hinge,
move the hinge slightly, and then retorque the screws to
10 inch-pounds. DON'T bend the float arms, says Grover.
One problem that's seen occasionally, he says, is a
bent hinge. People will lay the carburetors on a bench on
top of the hinge and bend the arms of the hinge out
ward. Or the hinge holes will be worn out and allow too
much slope. The hinge should be replaced if there are
any signs of distortion or wear.
Also, says Grover, when replacing the needleand-seat
assembly, be sure the clip that aligns the needle is prop
erly positioned. If the needle doesn't align properly with
the seat, it has a tendency to hang up and not work. To
ensure that the clip is bent correctly, follow the instruc-
tions to inspect the clip as called for in Precision's main-
tenance manual. Remember also that the needle and
seat must always be replaced as a set. Replacing one
and not the other can result in a leaking needleand-seat
assembly.
Mandatory service bulletins
Grover says that the two mandatory service bulletins
MSA-1 and MSA-2 are not taken seriously enough by
technicians in the field. Both of these, he says, should be
accomplished immediately on all carburetors affected.
MSA-1, dated Oct. 15, 1990, requires removing all
compositetype floats and replacing them with metal
floats. MSA-2, dated Od. 15, 1990, requires replacing
two-piece venturis with a onepiece venturi on the
smaller carburetors.
Grover says that he has seen many of the composite
floats deteriorate and absorb fuel. This results in an
overly rich carburetor and eventually floods the engine.
Carburetors that have this service bulletin incorporated
into them should be stamped with "MF" (metal float).
He warns, however, that they've found carbs stamped
with the MF that still have composite floats. Don't
84 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
assume the SB has been done unless there is sufficient
documentation to prove it.
Grover says that he is seeing increased incidences of
the main venturi separating from the primary venturi on
carburetors using a two-piece venturi. He says that the
failure is mostly related to vibrational problems. The fix,
according to MSA-2, is to install a onepiece venturi. This
should be designated by stamping a "V on the lower por-
tion of the data plate. Keep in mind that you've got to
use the correct tooling to press the new onepiece ven-
turi into place. The legs on the venturi are relatively thin
and can be easily cracked.
Good things gone wrong
Grover says that much of the damage done to carbu-
retors is a result of not using common sense. For in-
stance, applying pressurized shop air into the fuel inlet
with the carburetor assembled can force the needle out
onto the bowl bracket and damage the float. Also, there
may be enough air pressure to crush the float if you
blow air down into the inlet fitting.
Other problems are related to using the wrong tools.
Occasionally, he says, technicians use too large a screw-
driver to install the idle tube, and the screwdriver
scrapes aluminum from the sides of the bore. The alumi-
num then plugs the hole and restricts fuel flowing to the
idle mixture area. If this is discovered, it can be cleaned
by removing the idle tube and blowing pressurized shop
air through the passages.
Grover also cautions not to use any unapproved or
notcalled-for materials during the repair process. He
occasionally finds Teflon tape used on the fittings. The
Teflon can break off inside the fitting and restrict the
fuel-inlet screen.
Torquing procedures should be carefully adhered to
as well, says Grover. Cracks typically result from people
overtorquing the plugs that are used to block unused
holes. Even something as simple as using the correct
bolts to secure the airbox to the aircraft can result in
damage to the carburetor. With the Model MA-4-5 carbu-
retors, particularly, if too long a bolt is used to secure
the air box intake covers, it will push through the bowl
and crack it.
Even changing a worn-out or illegible data plate can
result in a damaged carburetor, he says. Technicians who
attempt to drill out the rivets to change the data plate
have a tendency to drill right through the side of the
carburetor. The rivets are quite hard and require a car-
bide bit to drill them. Using a regular bit requires too
much force and results in the bit sliding off of the rivet
and into the casting. Preferably, says Grover, rivets
should not be drilled at all. The proper way to remove
them is by prying the rivet up slightly with a small
screwdriver then sliding a pair of wire cutters under the
head to finish prying them the rest of the way out. He
says that these rivets usually p d out of the casting
quite easily.
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Wear and tear
There are different problems with the different mod-
els of carbs, says Grover. For instance, with the MA4-5,
there are O-rings in the throttle shaft. If the O-rings are
worn or deteriorated, the shaft will begin leaking air into
the mixture and cause it to run lean. The stainless
shafts are really not a problem, but the brass shafts on
the MA-3s and 3SPAs wear quite substantially. The
MA-4-5s with stainless shafts use an oilite bushing that
wears with time and should be dimensionally inspected
at each overhaul.
WIU bwu-pact. vancurl v cup^ anuuld be removed and replaced
with new one-piece venturi (bottom) per Mandatory Service
Bulletin MSA-2.
Keep in mind, though, says Grover, that it's nothing
for carburetors to be in the field for 10 to 15 years b e
fore they need some type of repair. It takes a consider-
able amount of time and use to wear components in the
carburetor.
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Cracks are typically not a major problem, but Grover
says to inspect the castings for any evidence of staining
-especially in the area of bolt holes. Also, the newest
style HA-6 horizontal carburetor should be inspected
carefully in the vicinity of the accelerator pump. He says
that these castings are relatively porous compared to
older models and that it is not unusual to see fuel leak-
ing through the inner wall of the carburetor as pressure
is exerted within the accelerator pump.
Composite float (left) must be replaced with a new brass
float (right) per Mandatory Service Bulletin MSA-I.
Finally, he says, the idle mixture seat often develops
a wear step as a result of tightening the idle m i x t u r e
screw too much. If this is the case, you'll have a difficult
time adjusting the idle mixture. There will be no fine
tuning of the needle-as you turn it in, it contacts the
wear seat and will close immediately. Then, as soon as
you back it off of the wear seat slightly it opens all
the way.
river emphasizes that knowing all the peculiar-
ities among all of the carburetors cannot be learned
overnight.
Knowing all of the peculiarities also can be helpful
when troubleshooting problems with a carburetor.
There is a multitude of reasons, for instance, that
can contribute to a rich mixture, and the problem may
not even be in the carburetor. So it helps to have some
experience with them.
In order to avoid making unnecessary repairs or
chasing after a problem, the strongest recommendation
Grover can make is to take a systematic approach to
troubleshooting problems and to look at the carburetor
as part of the entire fuel system.
November/Decem ber 1991
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Recip Technology
Hard knocks for camshafts
Are camshaft failures going to continue to haunt the industry?
By John Boyce
here are as many reasons for camshaft failures as
there are flavors at any self-respecting ice cream
shop. Intelligent people who give the subject
considerable thought can't arrive at a consensus for
why there appears to be an increase in camshaft failures.
Indeed, they can't agree that there appears to be an
increase.
Analyzing the pattern
A1 Beech, director for service at Teledyne Continen-
tal, says he hasn't seen a significant increase in cam-
shaft failure over the past 10 or 20 years.
"Taking a blanket look at all camshafts, I'd have to
say, yes, what we're seeing is normal," Beech says.
"There are times when you see a little blip or maybe a
higher rate through the years. I know in the early '80s,
when things started slowing down, when all the OEMs
started cutting back, there were a lot of airplanes on the
market, a lot of inactive aircraft; then you could see a
higher rate of lifter and cam spalling due to rust. That
seems to be the biggest problem today, anyway. The
worst thing you can do to an engine is just have it sit
there."
Corrosion of camshafts and subsequent failure due to
flying infrequently is a reason that everybody in the field
points to as a possible source of problems with cam-
shafts.
"There's no question," says Jimmy Tubbs, vice presi-
dent for engineering at ECI in San Antonio, TX, "that
whenever the airplane sits around, there's certainly
moisture (in the engine). As this moisture sits, it'll form
a little scale - and the camshaft is a real good place for
that to happen. The nitrided or carburized surface is still
susceptible to slight corrosion. So when you tune the
engine up, it eats that off a little bit and if it's pit cor-
roded, then you have the start of a failure. It could be
microscopic, but it's still there."
But beyond that the array of possibilities is virtually
endless. He says that most current aircraft engines can
easily go 3,000 hours safely without experiencing prob-
lems. But if corrosion or any other type of problem sets
in early, it's not going to last for long. "Once pitting
starts," says Tubbs, "it's going to propagate and cause
a problem."
86 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Multiple causes
Joe Sullivan, president of Air Support International
in Marshfield, OH, which manufactures camshafts exclu-
sively, summarizes the feeling of most people in the in-
dustry when he says, "There's no single culprit out
there; there are a bunch of them."
Incorrect lubrication or use of multiviscosity oil, im-
proper grinding, incorrect engine break-in, bad piston
rings, bad fitting valve springs, sticking valves, use of
lOOLL on engines that were designed for 80 octane,
pieces of foreign matter in the valve train, careless main-
tenance, faults in the manufacturing of the cams or a
combination of any of these can have a profound influ-
ence on the longevity of the camshaft.
He also says that problems with any components in
the valve train can influence its demise. Rusting cam-
shafts don't necessarily have to be the problem: if the
tappets rust, or if the valves stick due to an engine sib
ting for long periods of time, these situations might r e
sult in improper or excessive valve train backlash. The
result can be components poundmg against each other
instead of riding smoothly on each other, and this can
contribute to camshaft failure.
John Schwaner, president of Sky Ranch in Sacra-
mento, CA, believes that incidents of camshaft failure
have increased, but he doesn't point to any one reason
as the primary cause. He uses Textron Lycoming, which,
he says, has experienced increased cam failure in its
0320-Hengine, to make his point.
"People say Lycoming is having a lot of trouble with
cams," Schwaner says, "but I don't really see it. I just
look at all the environmental things that are going
on (inadequate lubrication, infrequent flying, sticking
valves, etc.). I don't think there have been any changes
in the cams."
Lycoming has run extensive tests on its camshafts as
a check that it's doing everything as it did before the
failures began to appear.
"We've gone back and looked at this in the last year,"
says Rick Moffett, manager of engineering at Textron
Lycoming. "We've rechecked cam profiles and everything
to make sure we haven't altered something that maybe
we weren't aware of."
"We have audited our process. People have told us
that our cams aren't as hard as they were and that's not
true. We've cut them and looked at the case depth and
we can't see a change in our cams. So then we have to
take a look and see what's contributing to this."
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The regrind
Moffett speculates that regrindmg of cams could lead
to camshaft failure if not done properly. He's quick to
point out, however, that many people have good experi-
ence with regrinding.
"A reground cam isn't going to have the life that a
new one has because you've essentially taken off some of
the carburized surface," Moffett says. "A lot of these
people that regrind cams have no way of going back to
the original cam profile so not only is the cam not as
hard to begin with, but the valve gear characteristics and
the load can vary from almost new to something that's
horrendous. So by their nature, they will not last."
Greg Merrell, president of Aircraft Specialties Service
in Tulsa, OK, which has reconditioned in excess of
70,000 camshafts, disagrees.
"The regrind process is essentially identical to the
manufacturing process," he says. "(We use) the same
type of machine-they're not quite as automated but
they do the regrind exactly the same way as the f i s h
grind (at the factory) is done-and using the same
known depth of carburizing, the minimum base circle, as
a stopping place, we are emulating the manufacturing
process. If it's done properly, if people have the proper
set of specifications, they know the depth of carburizing,
they have the right equipment, they have the right tech-
nique, then a reconditioned cam is every bit as good as a
new one, and in some instances, better."
Schwaner, whose company uses reground cams,
thinks that regrinding can be a problem if the right
shop isn't selected. He tends to agree that regrinding
can be a problem, particularly with the growth in the
number of regrind shops that have opened in the last
10 or so years.
"I don't want to say that all regrinds are bad," says
Schwaner. "We've used reground cams for years, but
there are an awful lot of people that started doing this
work that didn't have any track record, especially with
cam followers. Followers are a lot more tricky to grind
than a cam."
One of the problems that can arise from someone
inexperienced in regrinding cams, says Tubbs at ECI, is
unseen burns on the camshaft. "If the camshaft is not
ground with the proper grinding wheels," Tubbs says,
"you can get a burn and you'll never see it because the
camshaft looks beautiful. But you can have a burn which
is actually melted and rehardened metal on the surface
of the cam."
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Break-in blues
Tubbs and Sullivan at Air Support are also convinced
that improper break-in of the engine can affect the cam's
longevity.
"The most critical part of a camshaft's life," Sullivan
says, "is the first five seconds. You've got parts that
don't match perfectly."
Tubbs elaborates. "For years, what we may have beell
doing is starting up an engine and idling it too low dur-
ing the time frame before the cylinders are broken in.
We've about decided that one of the things that would
help is to fire the engine up and stay about 1,800 rpm
as soon as the engine will accept it. Don't idle the
engine below 1,800 rpm until break-in has pretty well
taken place.
"Its not just a matter of lubrication. No matter how
much lubrication you're getting, you've got a blow torch
blowing on that camshaft due to combustion gases
bypassing the rings that aren't seated yet. You've got
combustion temperatures that are way up there, and
those gases are blowing down the sides of the pistons
and impinging on the camshaft area.
"Then, if you're running at low speeds, the loads on
the tips of the cam lobes are higher and you've got a
short, small radius which wiU not support a wedge of
oil for hydrodynamic lubrication. The best you can hope
for is boundary-type lubrication and that's not too good
when you may have temperatures in the 40@ to 50@
degree range."
Adding fuel to the fire
John Lauer at Superior Air Parts in Dallas who cited
sticking valves and the use of lOOLL gas for engines
that were designed for 80 or 87 octane, advises that care
ful maintenance procedures help in guarding against
cam failure.
"When you put a cam and a lifter together," Lauer
says, "they should stay together for life. If one is r e
placed, the other should be reworked or replaced because
they take a set to one another. That's why it's important
when you disassemble an engine that you make sure if
you take it out of the No. 1 intake-it goes back in the
No. 1 intake, and the same camshaft goes back in. All
these thmgs play into the situation."
Superior had a problem with failure of its line of
FAA PMA'd (Parts Manufacturers Approval) Lycorning
camshafts and had to recall them.
"We had some problems with the original cam, hav-
ing to do with the teeth," Lauer says. "We had a test
engine that was not successful. (They went out on the
market) but we recalled them all.
"We're reintroducing a different cam. It's hardened
in a different way. It's not induction hardened, it's
carburized."
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 87
Recip Technology
No one answer
Camshaft failure is puzzling to many people because
there doesn't seem to be one answer. Perhaps the
tests they have run at ECI are strong evidence that
the failures are complex and don't lend themselves to
easy solutions.
88 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
"We have tests set up where we run cams in the lab*
ratory a t varying loads," says Tubbs,"and it's kind of
surprising. We are able to heat the oil and vary the con-
ditions and even cut off the oil flow to see what it takes
to cause cam failure. We have had some failures, but
quite often, we have to take them apart and wipe the oil
off to make them fail. So it's not as easy as it looks."
September/October 1991
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 Recip Technology

Hydraulic lifters
Precision from the word go

By Greg Napert

T
ucked away in the depths of the recip engine, the
hydraulic lifter assembly performs a seemingly
menial task. But the task of eliminating valve lash PUSH-ROD
and pumping precious lubrication to the rocker - SOCKJET

assemblies is no small one. For this it takes a precision

instrument capable of performing without fall.
So precise is the construction of this assembly, that I
SOCKET
interchanging what seem to be like assemblies can result
in failure of the lifter and rapid deterioration of engine
performance. In fact, the tappet and lifter assemblies are
the most precisely manufactured parts of the engine.
Each assembly is matched and tested and cannot be
separated during its life.

Cam follower
The lifter assembly basically consists of two parts:
the tappet, or cam follower, and the plunger assembly.
The cam follower is the portion of the assembly that
rides on the camshaft. Its face is actually slightly
rounded - not flat. This corresponds with the angle to
which the camshaft is ground, and assures that the fol- PUJNQEH SPRING
lower turns and wears evenly during engine operation.
Also, the face of each cam follower is Rockwell hardness
tested which leaves one or more tiny dimples on the
surface. Don't mistake these for damage or spalling.
Textron Lycorning's overhaul manuals explain that
Rockwell marks appear round, while spall marks have
an irregular pattern.
There are two basic lifter designs, with the shape of
the cam follower being the primary difference. Depend-
ing on which type of engine you're using, the follower
will either be barrel-shaped (also referred to as automo-
tive style) or mushroom-shaped. The operating principles
of the two styles are the same, but there are distinct ad-
vantages and disadvantages to both designs. For in- MUSHROOM-SHAPED BARREL-SHAPED
stance, an advantage of the barrel-shaped follower is its LJITER LIFTER
ability to be removed from the engine without having to (TYPICAL LYCOMING (TYPICAL CONTLVENTAL
STYLE) STYLE)
split the crankcase. This allows inspection of the cam
follower face and camshaft lobes without disassembly of
the engine. Although the mushroom-shaped follower
can't be removed without disassembly of the engine, Regrinding cam follower faces is a controversial s u b
it can be inspected by removal of the cylinder and ject but is an FAA-approved option for those that are
piston assembly. damaged. Many engine overhaul shops, to include at
The mushroom-shaped follower incorporates a least one engine manufacturer, do not recommend
plunger assembly that can be replaced in the event that regrinding. In Textron Lycoming's Service letter No.
it collapses. The plunger in the barrel-shaped lifter is L206A, for instance, it's recommended that, "Anytime
non-replaceable. These units must be replaced as com- that a camshaft and/or tappets are replaced, only new
plete sets in the event that one part fails. Textron Lycorning tappets be installed." Continental will

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 89

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Reclp Technology
not comment on the issue and wouldn't even acknowl-
edge that grinding is done on a routine basis in some
overhaul shops.
By contrast, though, those that do use reground cam
followers say that they're just as reliable as using new
ones. Mattituck Aviation's Jay P. Wickham, in New York,
says that it uses both new and reground tappets in its
engines and suggests that their performance is similar.
"We maintain very strict guidelines and allow no more
than five-thousandths to be mound off the cam andlor
tappet body. As long as the &ding doesn't remove the
hardened face of these components, there's no problem
using them."
The barrel-type follower, in addition to riding the con-
tour of the camshaft and rotating, serves as the cylinder
into which the plunger assembly fits. Because of the
close tolerances and custom fit, it's imperative that these
assemblies be kept absolutely clean during removal and
inspection. Even the smallest particle of dirt can cause
the mating surfaces to spall and gouge and result in
rapid deterioration of performance.
Plunger
The plunger a d s as a piston assembly. Its job is to
support the push-rod while automatically compensating
for changes in the valve train so that there is no lash
between the rocker arm and the push-rod or valve stem.
This is accomplished by hydraulic action as the plunger
rides on oil in the body of the assembly. A check valve
allows the plunger to expand, but resists compression of
the assembly. This dampening action is critical to assur-
ing the long life of the valve train. Excessive play in
the valve train would result in components slamming
together out of sequence resulting in rough engine opera-
tion and reduced life.
In barrel-type lifter assemblies, the plunger simply
consists of a single machined piston that slides into the
body of the lifter. In the mushroom-style lifters, the
plunger is a twepiece assembly consisting of a cylinder
and a plunger. Both use a spring to assist returning the
plunger to the extended position.
Another essential function of the hydraulic lifter as-
sembly is to act as a pump for lubrication to the rocker
assemblies. As the plunger compresses during each reve
lution of the engine, oil is pumped up through the center
of the push-rods to the rocker assemblies. Here, the oil
provides critical lubrication between the rocker arms and
rocker shafts, ends of the push rods and valve stems.
Removal
Removal of the lifters may be necessary if it's found
through troubleshooting that they're the cause of engine
roughness. To gain access to the lifters, it's first neces-
sary to remove the rocker covers and then the push-rod
shroud tubes.
M The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Lycoming suggests a couple of different methods for
removing the lifters from their bosses. Don't use a mag-
net, however. It's possible to magnetize the assembly.
This will hold the check valve in the open position and
result in a collapsed lifter. Instead, place heavy grease
on the end of a push-rod and push it firmly against the
socket in the lifter. As the rod is withdrawn, the lifter
will pull out with it. An alternative is to bend the end of
a piece of safety wire and insert it into the space b e
tween the plunger and lifter body. Simply turn the wire
to grab the plunger assembly and remove.
It's a good idea to immediately place the assemblies
in marked trays as they're removed so that there's no
confusion as to which parts belong with which. With
mushroom-style lifters, the concern is not to swap any
parts of the plunger assemblies with each other. It's not
critical to see that each plunger returns to the follower
from which it came, but, because mating surfaces tend
to develop similar wear patterns, it's a good maintenance
practice anyway. The same holds true for barrel-style
plungers - keep plunger and body units together as
matched sets and return them to the same bosses from
which they were removed.
To separate the plunger from the cylinder on barrel-
style lifter assemblies (check this when Wickham sends
samples), remove the snapring holding the push-rod
socked in place, remove the socket and slide the plunger
from the cylinder. Again-be sure not to interchange
components with other assemblies.
Cleaning the components is a simple matter of using
a petroleum solvent to wash any contaminates and oil
from them. Lycoming suggests holding down the check
valve using a light copper wire, or similar material, to
allow contamination to wash from around the check
valve seat and ball. Now, they're ready for inspection.
Inspection
Inspection consists of basically four steps: Identifica-
tion, magnetization check, damage assessment and bleed
rate check.
It's important, says Lycoming, to properly identlfy
components by part number andlor identification mark-
ing that exists on the bodies and plunger assemblies.
After you're satisfied that the correct components are
installed in the engine, check that they haven't been p r e
viously magnetized by using a small steel wire or holding
a compass near the assemblies. In the event that an
assembly is found magnetized, Lycoming recommends
replacement.
Visually inspect all components for nicks, pitting,
scoring and cracks. Also, inspect the interior edge of the
cam follower where the cylinder sits. Chipping or feather-
ing of this edge and the corresponding surface on the
cylinder is cause for rejection of the entire lifter unit.
Don't be alarmed by circular discoloration of the cam
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follower faces. This is due to the rotation of the followers
during operation; however, a wavy appearance of this
surface is cause for rejection.
A comparison should be made of the plunger assem-
blies to check for weak springs and a resulting collapsed
lifter. Place plunger units sideby-side on a flat surface
while laying a strcught edge across the shoulder sur-
face (insert figure). Shoulders that fall more than 1/32
inch below the straight edge are collapsed and are to
be rejected.
Simply passing this test, though, is not positive assur-
ance that the lifter wiU not collapse. Lifters can collapse
from a number of factors including excessive varnish
buildup, magnetization and too high a bleed rate from
excessive wear.
To assure that the bleed rate is within limits, a
simple test can be performed. With the plunger assem-
bly dry, hold it between the thumb and middle finger in
a vertical position with one hand - the plunger fully ex-
tended. Depress the plunger quickly. Failure of the
plunger to immediately bounce back indicates that there
is either too much wear or that the check valve isn't seal-
ing. In either case, the lifter should be replaced. Also,
keep in mind that Lycoming says, "When a plunger as-
sembly proves defective, the related intake or exhaust
valve must also be replaced."
At overhaul, it's a good idea to try to match the bleed
rates (rate at which they leak) of the lifters so that
they're all the same. John Schwaner, owner of Sacra-
mento Sky Ranch Inc., says it's possible to achieve
smoother idling, better throttle response and use a
leaner idle mixture to prevent spark plug fouling by as-
suring that bleed rates are kept as close as possible
among all of the lifters in the engine. He recommends
accomplishing this by using a precision bleeddown
tester. "A bleeddown tester simulates engine operation
by rotating the hydraulic plunger in the tappet exactly as
would be occurring during engine operation," he says.
Schwaner also explains that bleeddown rates affect
valve timing. "Fast bleed lifters reduce valve overlap;
slow bleed lifters increase valve overlap. At low rpm a
fast bleed lifter allows the intake valve to close early,
thus reducing backflow into the induction port. This will
reduce engine lopping and smooth out idle. It will also
increase manifold suction and will result in smoother
throttle response," he says.
Installation
When it's time to reassemble the engine and install
the lifter assemblies, there are a few things to keep
in mind.
At overhaul, if a new camshaft is being used in the
engine, a new set of lifters should also be installed. Also,
if a new set of lifters is installed, a new cam should be
installed. This will improve the chances that the engine
makes it to the next overhaul. Wickham says that this is
only during overhaul, though. "It doesn't make sense," he
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says, "to tear the engine
apart to replace the cam-
shaft during an inspection
if it's determined that you
can significantly extend
the life of the engine by
simply replacing the
lifters."
When installing lifters
back into the engine, it's
a good time to check the
dry tappet clearance. To
do this, select a cylinder This tappet face shows
to be checked then rotate severe signs of spaIIing and
the engine until the pis- should not be used again.
ton is on TDC (top dead Inspect the camshaft lobe
that this tappet body is
center). At this point, in- running against.
sert the lifters into their
respective bosses in the
engine-making sure to keep them dry. Don't turn the
prop during this process. Doing so will pump oil into the
lifter and will result in an inaccurate clearance. Next,
reassemble all components for that cylinder except the
valve covers. To check the dry tappet clearance, depress
the lifter until it bottoms out by pressing on the rocker.
At this point, use a feeler gauge to check the clearance
between the valve stem and the heel of the rockers. The
clearance should be within the limits prescribed in the
appropriate overhaul manual. If it isn't, install a longer
or shorter push-rod to achieve the appropriate clearance.
Lycoming says that push-rods lengths can be deter-
mined by checking the part number on the end of the
push-rod. The lowest number is the shortest rod, and the
highest number is the longest rod. On older type rods,
says Lycoming, machined grooves will be found on one
side of the push-rod. Three grooves represent the short
rod, and no grooves represent the long rod. After the
cylinder is completed, move on to the next until all are
set correctly.
Finally, know the signs of collapsed lifters. Worn
lifters that have too high a bleed rate or lifters with a
magnetized or defective check valve will only show at low
rpm. At high rpm, signs become less evident. The signs,
according to Lycoming, are high manifold pressure at
idle and engine roughness. On twin engines, a split in
manifold pressure may be an indication of bad lifters.
Completely collapsed lifters are more noticeable at
any rpm and usually result in a noisy engine, rough-
ness, misfiring and loss of power. Running the engine
under these conditions can result in severe damage to
the engine. July/August 1991
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 91
Recip Technology
Top end detective
Successful cylinder repair takes more than simply
following instructions
By John Schwaner
T
op end overhaul experts do more than follow s t e p
by-step instructions for overhauling the cylinder
head. The process is one of playing detective.
Looking for clues to failure, wear that indicates failure
and matching components that will produce a long-last-
ing cylinder assembly for your customer. These are all
key elements in providing good service.
Removing a cylinder also provides a tremendous o p
portunity to inspect other areas of the engine. Why send
in a cylinder for repair if the main bearings require r e
placement or the entire engine requires overhaul?
Inspection upon removal
One of the first items that can be looked for during
the removal of a cylinder is a stuck valve. If the rotator
cap is missing from the exhaust valve, chances are good
the engine has a stuck valve.
When the exhaust valve sticks open the rotator cap
can sometimes fall off the top of the valve. When this
happens, the cap's too big to drop down the push-rod
tubes. Usually it falls to the ground when you remove
the rocker cover. A stuck valve often means that the
camshaft may be damaged. In fact, it's a good idea
to inspect other areas of the engine after any cylinder
problem.
It's not uncommon for cylinders to be damaged from
broken pieces of exhaust valve as they travel from one
cylinder to another. With the exhaust valve broken,
Hydraulic plungers should "spring back" when you
depress them.
92 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
exhaust system pressure isn't isolated from the combus-
tion chamber during the intake stroke. Air is drawn in
from the higher pressure exhaust system and flows into
the lower pressure induction system.
The open intake valve is a pathway for the cylinder
contents, including broken pieces of valve that get
sucked back into the induction system. Inspect every
part of the induction system including the back side of
the air filter for pieces of metal.
Also, make it part of your routine to inspect the t a p
pets whenever you find a stuck valve. If the valve's stuck
and won't close, then the push-rod can disengage from
the rocker arm or tappet socket. When the camshaft
lobe comes around to open the valve, it pushes the t a p
pet outward. If the push-rod doesn't relocate itself back
into the sockets, it jams against the tappet or rocker arm
causing damage.
With the push-rod disengaged from the tappet socket,
the socket is free to come out of the tappet body. If the
socket cocks sideways, it chips the shoulder of the t a p
pet. Jagged chips of steel will then contaminate the oil.
Something's got to give if the cam lobe pushes
against a valve that's stuck closed. The push-rod bends,
the cam lobe smashes, or the rocker boss breaks. A
stuck exhaust valve can also damage the intake valve
train. If the exhaust valve doesn't open, the combustion
gas remains in the cylinder where it compresses during
the exhaust stroke. A good practice is to roll push-rods
on a flat surface to check them for straightness.
After the cylinder has been pulled, check the condi-
tion of the camshaft lobes and tappets. Drag your finger-
nail across the surface of the cam follower and nose of
the cam lobe. If your fingernail catches on the pits, then
the part needs to be replaced. Smashed camshaft lobes
can occur without the pilot noticing the symptoms; the
engine runs smooth but lacks power.
While you're looking inside the engine, look at the
crankcase near the main bearing web. The bearing
shouldn't noticeably protrude beyond the bearing web
(see Continental Service Bulletin M89-14or Lycoming
Service Bulletin 3 2 7 0 . Bearings can shift if they're not
properly retained in the bearing cavity. They're designed
with a crush fit. So if the crankcase through-studs
loosen, the bearings may shift. If a bearing shifts too far,
oil can't flow to the journal and engine failure will occur.
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Another problem to look for is poor connecting rod
ahgnment. This results in the piston being pushed
against the cylinder wall. Piston skirt wear should occur
on the thrust faces only. This wear is 180 degrees apart
and 90 degrees from the piston pin boss. If this pattern
is rotated, the rod should be removed and checked for
twist or bend.
On a Continental 360 Series engine, inspect the rod
I-beam thickness per Service Bulletin M86-11. Connect
ing rods with forging number 626119 and especially
those with the forged "Cn require replacement if the
width is less than 625 inch.
If you're dealing with rocker shafts on Lycoming
TIO-541 engines (used in the Beechcraft Duke), check for
cracks in the weld that secures the rocker shaft support
to the rocker cover. The rocker shafts are held in the
rocker bosses by L-shaped supports welded to the covers.
Years of vibration lead to cracks the weld. If the support
breaks, it allows the rocker arm shaft to slide out of the
rocker bosses far enough for the rocker arm to fall out.
Other Lycoming "angle headn engines use a sturdier box
structure welded to the rocker cover that retains the
rocker shaft in the boss.
This stage of disassembly is a convenient time to r e
move and clean the primer and fuel injector nozzles as
applicable. Soak the nozzles in Hoppe's No. 9 (available
at gun shops) for 20 to 30 minutes, rinse with solvent
and dry.
If you're shipping the cylinder, shove paper or some
type of similar filler into the barrel before sliding the
piston into it. This is to prevent the piston from getting
stuck in the top of the cylinder. If the paper isn't there,
the top ring can lock the piston in the cylinder barrel
near the head and you'll be unable to pull the piston out
of the cylinder. This is because there is an area at the
top of the barrel that is slightly wider than the remain-
der of the barrel.
If you're in this predicament, you may be able to
push the piston back down the cylinder by plugging one
spark plug hole. Then, make a grease fitting attachment
to place into the other spark plug hole. You can then
pressurize the piston assembly by pumping grease into
the chamber-and dislodge the piston assembly from the
cylinder.
Check these items before reinstalling
Prior to installation, the repaired cylinder should be
inspected for valve alignment. Proper valve alignment
occurs when the rocker arm face rests flat against the
valve tip. Poor alignment occurs when the rocker face is
ground at an angle to the longitudinal axis of the rocker
arm bushing.
This happens when the rocker arm is refaced without
mounting it in a fixture that grinds parallel to the bush-
ing axis. Poor ahgnment also occurs when a guide boss
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Recip TBchnoiogy
reams off-center. This has the same effect as having a
bent valve spring; it pushes the valve against the guide
causing rapid wear.
Examine the push-rod ball and rocker arm socket for
proper fit. This is most crucial on hollow push-rods
where oil flows up the push-rods under pressure to the
rocker box. This oil flow requires a leak-tight connection
between the push-rod ball and rocker arm socket. After
years of use the rocker arm socket wears and oil leaks
out of the joint. The valve assembly starves for oil
resulting in rocker shaft and bushing wear and high
valve temperature.
Both the ~ush-rodball and rocker arm socket should
be polished Aound their entire circumference; if not,
replace the push-rod and rocker arm.Good practice is to
keep wear surfaces mated. Iden* the rocker arms and
push-rods so the same wear surfaces go back together
during assembly.
On Continental 0470 through GTSI0520 engines
(except 10-520AE) verify that the hydraulic Lifter and
rocker arm are compatible with the exhaust valve guide.
Continental has used three different exhaust guide mate
rials: aluminum bronze, ni-resist and Nitralloy. The same
model engine can use any one of these guides depend-
ing on its age. Use a magnet to find which exhaust
guide is installed in your cylinder; only Nitralloy guides
are magnetic.
Nitralloy guides use a "full-flow" (constant registra-
tion) lifter and an exhaust rocker arm with an oil squirt.
Replacement cylinders can be updated to the Nitralloy
guide as recommended by Continental; but your engine
could have the older hydraulic lifter that isn't used with
the Nitralloy guide. Check the guide, rocker arm and
lifter to make sure they are compatible before using
the cylinder.
The "full-flow" lifter can be identified bv the wider oil
registration groove. The groove is 1/2-inch wide on the
full-flow lifter and only 9/32-inch wide on the intermit
tent flow lifter. The exhaust and the intake rocker arm
should have an oil squirt hole. The extra oil to the ex-
haust guide prevents valve stem wear.
Use an intake guide seal if full-flow lifters are in-
stalled on the exhaust, and especially if installed on the
intake and exhaust. The creased oil flow to the rocker
box from the full-flow lifters may submerge the end of
the intake guide. When this happens, oil sucks into the
intake system and the engine will burn too much oil.
When installing pistons, keep in mind that the same
style piston should be used in opposing pairs to retain
reciprocating balance. Continental 10-470 through
GTSIM20 engines now use a cast piston with a steel
insert top ring land. These pistons weigh more, as much
as 30 grams more, than the older forged pistons they
replace. Your engine could have the lighter forged pis-
tons, but the repaired cylinder could have been updated
to the heavier cast piston. Make sure that the opposing
pistons are the same style for proper weight match.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 93
Recip Technology
Chromefaced rings cannot be used in chrome (or
Cermichromem) plated cylinder barrels. Terminology
with these items can be a problem. Did the parts depart-
ment order chrome rings or rings for chrome cylinders?
Just remember that shiny faced compression rings do
not go into chrome cylinder barrels.
Torquing and final adjustment
The torque applied to the cylinder holddown studs
must generate enough preload to prevent fatigue failure.
Preload is the clamping force provided by the studs that
holds the cylinder firmly to the crankcase - preventing
the cylinder from moving outward from the crankcase,
and the holddown studs from elongating (straining)
from the combustion force.
Stud tension relaxes if the surfaces squish together
or embed. Embedment is the coming together of two sur-
faces as the contact points deform. Embedment reduces
preload so that combustion force separates the parting
surfaces. The stud elongates and feels tension stress
each time the surfaces move slightly outward from the
crankcase. Such cyclic tension will fail the stud at stress
levels below the stud's yield point. This is fatigue failure.
Fatigue breaks are flat and smooth except for the last
small portion that twisted off as the crack propagated
across the part. The absence of necking and a smooth
rightangle fracture shows that failure occurred from fa-
tigue. Since fatigue requires cyclic stress, a fatigue frac-
ture is evidence of a loss of preload.
Clamping to clean, metal-temetal surfaces prevents
the loss of preload. Don't use sealants on the cylinder
holddown flange. Sealants extrude out from between the
surfaces and allow the surfaces to come together, which
lowers preload. A thick layer of paint under the nut also
can cause the nut to loosen as the paint wears away.
Threads should be clean, undamaged and lubricated
with the manufacturer's specified thread lubricant.
Among lubricants that Lycoming specifies is 90% SAE
50W engine oil and 10% STP. Continental usually speci-
fies Oil Grade 50, MHS27 for cylinder studs and through
bolts. Consult the latest overhaul manual for current
specified lubricants.
Torque values always apply to the nut not the head of
the fastener. Therefore, on Lycoming "body-fit" engines,
torque is applied simultaneously from both sides of the
crankcase. That is, a torque wrench on both ends of the
bolt while tightening simultaneously.
"Body-fit" studs protrude all the way through the en-
gine and have nuts on both ends. Older style Lycoming
engines used captured through-studs that are threaded
into the crankcase. Refer to Lycoming Service Instruc-
tion 1029D for details. And remember that if a cylinder
holddown stud breaks, all the other studs for that cylin-
der should be replaced since they could be close to fa-
tigue failure.
94 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Proper valve clearance is of utmost importance. Zero
valve clearance can be a clue that there is a stretched
intake valve. You need to find out what caused the valve
to stretch.
Preignition, which can be caused by magneto cross-
fire, can generate enough pressure to push the intake
valve face through the hole formed by the intake seat.
The valve face will cup inward forming a stretched "tu-
lip" shape. If this is the cause of the preignition, the
magneto must be repaired along with the cylinder or the
new intake valve will stretch also.
Preignition can also result from using the incorrect
spark plug. Engines modified with high-compression pis-
tons may require a colder spark plug. In these engines
the correct spark plug application is found in the STC
data rather than the reference chart supplied by the
spark plug manufacturer.
Excessive valve clearance on solid tappet engines,
such as the Lycoming 0-235 and 0-290 Series, will
pound and eventually break the valve face. Pounding also
can result from leaking hydraulic lifters that fail to take
up all the valve "lash."
Field-test the hydraulic plunger as follows: While
holding the plunger cylinder between the thumb and
middle finger, depress and quickly release the plunger
with the index finger. Air compressed in the cylinder
causes the plunger to kick back. If the plunger doesn't
fully return, either it's
worn or the check valve
is leaking.
Repeat the compres-
sion test while plugging
the end of the oil inlet
tube with your other
hand. If the plunger still
doesn't kick back, then Damaged tappet body on
the hydraulic plunger is right can be caused by a
worn. If it doesn't kick stuck valve overloading
-
back on the second test, the surfaces.
the check valve seat is
worn and leaking or it's dirty. Clean the cylinder again
and depress the plunger with the tube open. The valve is
defective if the plunger still doesn't kick.
Through years of experience, many technicians de-
velop a mental checklist of things to look for when r e
moving and installing cylinder assemblies. This is not a
complete list, but it is hoped that sharing some of the
key elements of good cylinder work will help build a solid
foundation for cylinder repairs. a May/June 1991
Editor's note: John Schwaner is president of Sacramento
Sky Ranch Inc. in Sacramento, CA. He is the author of
The Sky Ranch Engineering Manual and has been in
aviation for over 20 years. He can be reached by writing
Sacramento Sky Ranch Inc. 6622 Freeport Blvd.,
Sacramento, CA 95822, or call (916) 421-7672, fax
(916) 421-5719.
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 Recip Technology

The geared engine

Down but not out

By G r e g Napert

A
lthough the geared engine is becoming less and
less popular, it's by no means extinct. But its
decreased popularity often leaves technicians
baffled when an occasional geardriven engine pulls into
the shop for maintenance-and business is often turned
away due to the lack of knowledge and stigma surround-
ing this engine.
The geared engine was developed, according to
Texton Lycoming, because the easiest and cheapest way
to get more horsepower out of an engine was to turn it
faster. However, a rather severe restriction is placed on
the propeller rpm; as the prop rpm increases beyond a
certain point, its efficiency decreases. So-the increased
horsepower we get from increased rpm is not converted But the fact that they continue to show up on the
into thrust. The answer: Place a reduction gear device shop floor on a regular basis means that staying familiar
between the engine and the propeller that allows the with them is still important.
engine to turn at a high rpm. This keeps the propeller at David F.McKee, manager of the engine overhaul
a lower rpm to maintain efficiency. shop for Spiders Aircraft Service in San Diego, CA, has
As technology advanced, the directdrive engine been overhauling geared engines for more than 30 years.
evolved into a higher horsepower engine and eventually He says the primary reason that technicians turn away
was producing as much horsepower, at lower rpms, gearbox work is fear of the unknown. Some special tools
as the geardrive engine. As a result, the latter was are required to overhaul a gearbox, he says, but for the
replaced. Lycoming stopped manufacturing it in the early most part the work is straightforward and simple.
'70s. Eventually, parts
became harder and harder
to come by and more
expensive.
Those who turn away
geared engine work justify
doing so because of the
expense and liability in-
volved in overhauling or
worlung on these engines.
One overhauler explains
that the aircraft on which
these engines are used,
for the most part, old and
poorly maintained-
present many liability
risks.
Additionally, replace
ment parts for geared en-
gines have become cost
prohibitive, so very few
people stock park9 or
desire to own aircraft
that are powered by Reduction gear- basic components.
these engines.

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Recip Technology
Generally, speaking, there are two basic ways in
which the gear reduction is accomplished: Through
simple reduction gearing (Continental's) and by use of a
planetary reduction system (Lycoming's).
Continental uses a fairly simple reduction system in
which the crankshaft gear turns a larger one connected
to the prop. This arrangement uses very few parts to
accomplish the reduction, but results in the gearbox
being offcenter with the crankshaft.
The planetary gear system used by Lycoming consists
of a ring gear (driven by the crankshaft) driving small
pinion gears that are connected to a pinion cage. The
pinion cage, in turn, is connected to the propeller shaft.
The system allows the propeller to be axially aligned
with the crankshaft assembly, resulting in a more com-
pact gear assembly and engine.
According to Spiders' McKee, there isn't much main-
tenance that can be performed on the gearbox assembly
because it's enclosed. Lubrication is provided through
the same system that lubricates the engine.
Besides checking the overall condition of the gearbox,
it's a good idea to take a look at the gear housing for
leaks, cracks and condition of the mounting bolts that
secure the gearbox to the crankcase. Follow the aircraft
maintenance manuals to take the gearbox through a
complete inspection.
One thing that can be checked on the Lycoming style
gearbox, says McKee, is the backlash, which is simply
the amount of play in the gear train. To check for back-
lash, grab the propeller and rotate it gently back and
forth in the plane of rotation, without turning the en-
gine. This has to be done with a very light feel so that
play in the engine area is not mistaken for backlash. Ac-
cording to McKee, more than 1/2-inch of play at the 3@
inch station demonstrates excessive wear-the gearbox
should be overhauled.
One of the quickest ways to develop excessive back-
lash is to idle the engine for extended periods of time.
"They aren't designed to idle for long," says McKee. The
gear reduction results in an excessively low rpm at the
propeller, and there's not enough inertia to keep the p r e
peller moving smoothly at low speeds. As a result, it
bounces back and forth as it spins around-beating on
the gears and shaft, he explains.
"The idling speed should only be used to slow the air-
craft down enough to get it on the ground, and then
quickly brought back up to speed for taxi,"he says.
Keeping pilots informed of this f a d can save them
from prematurely having to overhaul the gearbox.
Wearing through a few sets of brakes as a result of high
engine rpm is a cheaper alternative to frequent gear-
box overhaul.
96 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Continental's gearbox doesn't require an inspection
for backlash, McKee explains, because there are fewer
gears. Over time, however, the gears do wear and must
be checked for backlash a t overhaul.
Unique to the Continental gearbox, says McKee, is a
quill shaft that connects the crankshaft to the propeller
shaft. Although it's rare, this shaft has been known to
shear- allowing the propeller to turn freely. When this
happens, he says, it's normally a result of uneven firing
or sudden engine stoppage. Not much can be done to
prevent this, except to ensure that the engine is running
smoothly at all times.
Depending on the type of engine there are various
accessories, such as magnetos and prop governors,
mounted on the gearbox. However these accessory drives
rarely develop problems, says McKee.
A problem area on the Lycoming, he says, is the oil
transfer rings in the reduction gear housing. This is
where oil is transferred from the engine to the prop
shaft. The rings ride in a barrel-like surface and are
prone to wear-somewhat like piston rings. It's quite
common for these rings to begin leaking.
This condition becomes quite apparent when, upon
landing, the pilot brings back the prop to idle and the
propeller goes to the feathered position. McKee says that
pilots have been known to carry around blade paddles to
bring the prop back to the low pitch stops so they could
take off again. "Feathering under these conditions
should alert you that there is wear in this area and it's
time to overhaul the gearbox," explains McKee.
If the wearing of this collar is premature, and the
rest of the gearbox is in good shape, it may be possible
to replace the oil transfer collar only. However, McKee
says this can only be done if the propeller shaft is
splined. If it's the flanged type of shaft, the entire gear-
box will have to be disassembled and rebuilt.
Very few problems arise due to difficulties with the
housing, says McKee. Lycoming's housing is a magne
sium casting that can witkstand a lot of abuse. "I have
never seen a crack develop in one of these," he says.
"Probably the one most important thing to stress to
operators of these engines," says McKee, "is that proper
engine operation is of utmost importance. Of all of the
problems that develop, most can be blamed on improper
operation." a March/April 1991
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 Recip Technology

The art of troubleshooting

the fuel system
By Rudy Swider

roubleshooting an aircraft fuel system has long

been considered an art that separates the profes-
sionals from the amateurs. Before attempting to
troubleshoot an aircraft fuel system problem, you must
first identify the type of system with which you are
working. Working with a float carburetor, for instance, is
quite different than working with a pressure carburetor.
And even similar types of systems vary from manufac-
turer to manufacturer.

Get all the facts

In order to begin troubleshooting any problem that
"appears" to be a fuel system related problem, you have
to get your fads straight and record all engine operating
parameters. The parameters that you should record on a
standard run-up sheet include such things as rpm, mag
drop, EGT, CHT, fuel flow, oil temperature and oil pres-
sure. You should also write down how these numbers
change when the symptoms occur. Some of the fads
to note: The fuel injection unit is the right one for the
engine; the last maintenance action taken before the
symptoms appeared; and how long these symptoms have
been active.
Sit down and do some serious analysis of the data.
There's no room for "shot gun" type troubleshooting. As
little as onehalf hour spent reviewing the data can save
many hours of needless removing and replacing of com-
ponents. Don't get hung up on the internal workings of
one component, rather look at the system as a whole
from the tanks to the propeller.
Know the basics
In general aviation there are basically two types of
fuel injection systems: The PAC fuel injection system and
the Continental fuel injection system. Both systems
meter fuel in proportion to air consumed by the engine.
The PAC unit, however, actually measures the air volume
being consumed by the engine; the Continental system
does not. It makes for a significant difference.
Consider an induction leak on a normally aspirated
engine. Less air is measured by the servo unit, so it only
allows fuel flow out proportional to airflow measured.
You now have a lean running engine. Take this same en-
gine, add a turbocharger (and the same induction leak)
and you get a lean engine, but only when the manifold
air pressure (MAP) is below atmospheric.
Once MAP rises above atmospheric the induction
leak allows air out. not in. The servo unit will now see
The servo regulator i s shown in the relaxed position (engine
shut down). Fuel and air sections are identified as well as
the bellows-type center body seal and the end of the
diaphragm stem. Total regulator travel during normal
operation, after start, is approximately 0.001 inch.
an increase in the volume of air (engine requirements
plus the leak) and meter more fuel proportional to the
volume of air. This gives you a rich running engine.
Consider that the servo unit does not know where the
air is coming from or going to. Although this is an over-
simplification for this article, the servo unit does not
know the type of fuel (fluid, air or liquid) or where it
comes from. If we mix some air with the fuel, the servo
doesn't know the difference and meters the air with the
fuel. Results: The normally aspirated engine will be lean
through all ranges and so will the turbocharged engine.
The air leak is in the fuel, not the induction side.
Most fuel system-related engine operational symp
toms are the result of dirty and/or improperly main-
tained fuel nozzles. When troubleshooting the system,
however, you must distinguish between single nozzle
symptoms and multiple nozzle symptoms. A single dirty
nozzle can cause operational symptoms. A complete set
of uniformly dirty nozzles will not affect fuel metering
and only cause a higher than normal indicated fuel flow.
Typical nozzle problems are of the one cylinder (one
nozzle) category.
Most technicians are familiar with the "Coke bottlen
test to measure even flow from the nozzles. This test is
often mistaken for a calibration test but it is really a
contamination check. The test is performed by removing

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Recip T@chnolo#y
the nozzles from the engine, and directing the spray into
an individual bottle for each nozzle. The volumes sprayed
from each nozzle over a specific period of time are then
compared. Any nozzle that is not spraying a volume that
is similar to the other nozzles is reason to suspect a r e
striction in the nozzle, nozzle line or flow divider.
When a flow divider is installed, idle fuel flow is m e
tered by the flow divider V-notch, not the fuel nozzles.
Contamination here affects idle and idle cutoff. With
proper instruction, the flow divider can be cleaned at the
field level. Without proper instruction, you can destroy
an otherwise repairable component.
RPM hangs
A turbocharged engine experiences rprn hang in the
1,700 to 1,800 range, but only when it's cold after the
first start of the day. You troubleshoot, send in the servo
unit for repair, and it is found that there is oil in the air
regulator of the servo unit. After reinstallation every-
thing works fine for a couple of hours, but you soon see
the aircraft back with the same problem. Is it the servo
unit? Yes and no. Let's look closely at the situation.
It's important in this case to understand the differ-
ence between symptoms, causes and problems. The
symptom is what you actually see or experience. The
cause is what you actually find (i.e., dirty or damaged
nozzles). And the problem is what has to be fixed to p r e
vent the symptoms from reoccurring (such as removing
contamination from the fuel). In this case, the symptom,
cause and problem are as follows:
Symptom: Engine hangs at 1,700 to 1,800 rpm.
C a w : Oil in the air regulator of the servo unit.
Problem: ???
Because the actual problem was not addressed, the
cause and symptom repeat in a short period of time.
Where did the oil come from? The wroblem could have
been that the air filter was not properly dried out after
servicing or that there was a turbocharger seal leak. A
seal leak could have been caused by a problem with the
seal or having the idle speed set too low (below recom-
mended, not allowing the seal($ to work properly).
There are several other reasons for rpm hangs during
engine operation. In most cases, the hang is caused by
an overly rich running engine. Leaning the engine usu-
ally allows you to transition the range and achieve nor-
mal operation above the specific rpm range. Actual prob
lems that result in rpm hangs have been isolated to vari-
ous engine components, depending upon the specific
rprn range. Historically these ranges are:
1,700 to 1,800 only in cold weather and only after cold
soak (first start) contaminated servo regulator.
1,700 to 1,800 Ignition.
1,900 Propeller.
98 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
2,100 to 2,200 Turbo system component or internal en-
gine timing.
2,200to 2,400 Propeller low pitch stops or internal prob
lem. Also differential controller or bypass valve
(wastegate).
Off-idle stumble
Do not confuse off-idle stumble with engine rpm
hangs. Off-idle stumble is the hesitation that can some
times take place as the engine transitions from idle
to higher speeds. This symptom is normally the result
of having one or more of the following items misad-
justed while trying to compensate for a problem in a
different area:
1. Idle mixture link misadjusted too long or short.
2. Idle speed setting not to manufacturer's spec.
3. Engine timing advanced from 3 to 5 degrees past en-
gine manufacturer's recommendations (trying to
smooth out idle).
Problems that occur in order of probability greatest
to least are:
1. Induction air leak.
2. Magneto internal timing shifted.
3. Air leak in the fuel system.
4. Damaged nozzle.
5. Servo unit contamination.
If you are able to adjust the idle mixture linkage on
your PAC unit to the limits specified in PAC's Trouble
shooting Techniques Manual (15-810A), chances are good
that the servo unit is OK and the problem is elsewhere.
This test does not tell you if you are sucking air with the
fuel, as mentioned earlier.
The idle mixture linkage here has the star wheel in the
correct "centered" position. Dimension "A" is approximate
dimension taken from the "Troubleshooting Techniques"
manual.
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 Recip Technology

Air leaking into the fuel

The easiest way to check for an air leak is to connect
a piece of clear tubing, approximately 3 inches long, b e
tween the inlet hose to the flow divider and the flow di-
vider. Ordinary hose clamps will work to secure the tube
in place as fuel pressure at this point is less than 1/2 psi
at idle. Run the engine at idle and watch for air bubbles
in the tube. There should be NO evidence of air. Use
care in performing this test: Do not do it on a hot day
where temperatures in the cowling area may exceed
90°F. At this temperature the reduced pressure in the
fuel line, due to pump lift, can cause fuel vapor to form
and be mistaken for an air leak.
Locating the source of air can be a major problem
requiring you to supply alternate sources of fuel to each
of the connections from the fuel pump back through the
airframe. Many aircraft technicians who work with tur-
binepowered aircraft are familiar with air leaks in the
fuel system that do not show up during a pressure test.
A better alternative to the pressure test is a vacuum test
from the fuel pump to the fuel shut-off valve. Operation
may be improved by turning on the boost pump, depend-
ing on how severe and where the leak is. Do not over-
look the boost pump or main fuel pump as the source of
the leak.
Servo unit myths
There are a couple of popular myths about the servo
unit that need some clarification. Unlike the PS Series of
carburetors, the RSA servo unit has fuel on both sides of
the fuel diaphragm. What technicians refer to as a fuel
diaphragm leak, when fuel runs out the impact tubes
(another misnomer), is really the result of a damaged,
old style, rubber center body seal.
Most pilots never notice the difference in operation
and technicians only find it if they performed the r e
quired leakage check during a l0Ghour or annual inspec-
tion. Servo units built or overhauled since 1979 have a
newer metal bellows-type seal that eliminates the poten-
tial for damage and the 100-hour/annual leakage check.
The second myth is the "bent stem syndrome." Many
technicians have removed a unit for a suspected problem
only to be told that the only thing wrong was a bent
diaphragm stem (the item that couples the fuel and air
diaphragms together and is an integral part of the fuel
diaphragm assembly). There are only four ways that a
diaphragm stem can be bent. Keep in mind that normal
operation does not bend the stem. The four causes are:
1. Part damaged in shipment. In this case the repair
shop would be unable to assemble the unit.
2. Bent during compliance with AD 79-21-08. This would
cause immediate operational symptoms (rich idle).
3. Bent after final calibration during torque check of the
outer regulator nut. Operational symptoms would
again be immediate with difficulty trying to set
proper idle mixture.
The star wheel at its extreme limit o f travel. This position
would be a clue that there may be a problem with the
system such as an air leak.
4. Bent during disassembly if proper instructions are
not followed. This method of bending is the most
likely to happen. Generally, this bending bears no
relation to the actual symptoms being experienced.
The third myth deals with a particular model of injec-
tor servo unit, the RSA-7DA1. This myth deals with
swapping one servo unit with one from another engine.
When the symptoms go away with a changed unit, tech-
nicians tend to believe the servo unit is the problem. In
reality, this unit has attached to it the density controller
and relief valve for the turbo system. The servo unit is
not manufactured nor tested with these items installed.
By swapping units you are actually swapping three en-
gine components at once, and in doing so have not iso-
lated symptoms to just the servo unit. Many an owner
has paid dearly for this.
Troubleshooting a fuel system symptom is indeed an
art. This article only scratches the surface of the many
variable causes and effects that technicians can experi-
ence. The intention is to have technicians look at the
system as a whole, which must include internal engine
problems that give the appearance of a fuel system
symptom. January/February 1991
Rudy Swider is currently employed by Bendix Engine
Controls Division of AlliedSignal Aerospace Company.
He has over 19 years' experience in the industry.
Recommended Reading
The "Troubleshooting Techniques" manual form
15810A, as well as other training and maintenance
documentation on RS/RSA systems, may be obtained
from Precision Airmotive Corporation, Snohomish
County Airport, Everett, W A 98204.

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Recip Technology
Get the lead out
Spark plug maintenance tips
By Greg Napert
A
ccording to Champion Aviation Products
Division, "The main task of the spark plug is to
conduct high voltage electrical current into the
cylinder where a spark is produced to ignite the fueVair
mixture. The spark results from the ignition system's
high voltage current 'jumping' the air space (gap)
between the center and ground electrodes of the spark
plug." Sounds simple, but in practice, operational factors
such as high temperatures, lead buildup and high pres
sures all work toward the spark plug's failure.
Plug selection
The most limiting factor during operation of a spark
plug is the heat, says Jim Quinn, director of distributor
marketing for Champion. Below 900°F, lead bromide and
carbon deposits form causing it to misfire or short out.
Operation between 1,300°F and 1,600°F can result in
molten lead formations that can bridge the gap between
the center electrode and
ground. Above 1,6Q0°F,
the heat from the core
nose can cause preigni-
tion. That's why selecting
the correct spark plug
is critical.
The ideal operating
temperature is between
900°F and 1,300°F. At
this temperature, s i w i -
cant deposits are less
likely to build up. And
those that do are poor
conductors of electricity.
Engine manufacturers
determine which plugs
are most appropriate, and
usually provide a list that
will meet their criteria.
Their selections are based
on everything from spark
- -
,s D ~ U Ereach to overall d e
,$ sign of the plug. However,
.I they do provide some
$ latitude in the selection.
d resistant to these factors and wear more readily, he ex-
Cutaway of typical
spark plug.
100 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Hot plugs vs. cold plugs
"The heat rating of a spark plug is the measure of its
ability to transfer heat received from the combustion
chamber to the cylinder and engine cooling system," ac-
cording to Champion.
"One of the most common misconceptions," says
Quinn, "has to do with the difference between a hot plug
and a cold plug. Many people think that if you have a
hot engine, you want to use a hot plug. That's not the
case and, in fact, it is just the opposite. If you have a hot
running engine, you want to use a cold plug. The reason:
You want to keep the spark plug core nose temperature
within the 900°F to 1,300°F range."
Cold plug design is such that it rapidly transfers heat
and keeps the core nose cool. Design of the hot plug is
such that it holds heat. To achieve this, the length of the
insulation surrounding the electrode is varied.
Massive electrode vs. fine wire
Massive spark plugs use nickel-base electrodes and
have been the standard in the industry for years. They
cost less than fine wire plugs and can be cleaned and
regapped many times, says Art Pierce, technical repre
sentative for Auburn Spark Plug Co.
Fine wire spark plugs use either platinum or iridium
electrodes. These two metals can take the heat and elec-
trode wear much better than the nickel used with mas-
sive plugs. "However," says Pierce, "this quality does not
affect the heat range rating. Fine wire plugs cost more
going in, but provide the pilot with better starts, espe
cially in cold weather, and are less apt to frost over. Fine
wire plugs are also harder to foul and can last up to
three times longer than massive electrode plugs."
Fine wire plugs run cleaner, explains Quinn. This is
due to the fact that the counterbore is much more open,
allowing the free entry of exhaust gases to purge the
counterbore and to scavenge deposits.
The three things that erode the spark plug while it is
operating in the engine, says Quinn, are spark erosion,
heat erosion and chemical attack. As each spark is fired,
a tiny particle of metal is taken with it. In addition, the
high exhaust gas heat and chemicals in the fuel slowly
work at the metal and erode it away.
Nickel electrodes, the most common type, are not as
plains. Platinum electrodes offer high performance but
are still susceptible to heat and chemical attack. Unlike
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 Recip Technology

nickel or platinum, iridium electrodes are impervious to Maintenance and running tips
heat and chemical attack. Spark erosion is reduced, One of the easiest ways to extend the life of spark
resulting in a longer-lasting plug. plugs is by proper rotation on a regular basis. "This can
extend the life of a regular massive electrode plug up
Care and cleaning to 25 percent and a line wire plug up to 50 percent,"
"Most technicians feel that if they clean the end of says Quinn.
the spark plug and gap it, they are done with the plug,"
says Quinn. That's not the case, he explains. There is
one more step.
The terminal well (the end opposite the electrode)
must be cleaned as well, says Quinn. Carbon deposits
inside the terminal well combined with arcing between
the spring assembly can result in what is called flashover
or carbon tracking. Flashover, or carbon tracking, occurs
when the electricity travels from the spring, along a
carbon path, to ground (on the plug shell). This can be
corrected by clearing the insulating material inside the
terminal well and by ensuring that the ignition lead
terminal is clean and in good repair.
"Don't ever clean the electrodes with a wire brush,"
Spark plug rotation schematic.
says Quinn. Doing so causes the metal to cold flow, even-
tually causing problems with gapping or even fracturing
the insulator due to side loading. This is because opposed engines fire different polari-
Improper removal of lead deposits can also lead to ties in different cylinders. When the plug is fired from
problems, he explains. "Too often, these deposits are r e the ground eledrode to the center electrode, the spark
moved by continuously bead blasting in the area of the wears at the center electrode. Conversely, when it is
lead deposit. This results in erosion of the area where fired from the center electrode to the ground electrode,
the bead blast is concentrated," he says. it wears at the ground electrode.
Lead deposits should be removed with a vibrator Rotating plugs from upper to lower positions of the
cleaner; then the plug can be blasted, he explains. When cylinder and, at the same time, from odd number cylin-
bead blasting the flring end of the plug, use small short ders to even number cylinders, and vice versa, you dis-
blasts. Don't concentrate the blasting in one area for any tribute wear equally between the electrodes instead of
given length of time. Another method that can be used just wearing one or the other. (See spark plug rotation
to remove lead is to use Hoppesn"No. 9 gun cleaning schematic.)
solvent. He recommends placing the electrode end of
the spark plug in the solvent overnight. When they're
removed, the plugs should be thoroughly dried and
bead blasted.
A hot- s p a t &g has a longer c w e nose and rramtws heat mwe SW
a c o w w p~lg. 1
man

When gapping plugs, Quinn recommends using cau-

tion not to place any force on the center electrode. To
ensure that you are not straining the center electrode, he
explains, never trap the gapping gauge between the
electrodes. As you move the prongs closer to the center
electrode, measure the gap with a "go-no-go" wire
gauge. Then continue closing the prongs as necessary to
achieve a .Ol&inch nominal gap. "Pinching the wire b e
tween the prong and the electrode can easily crack the
insulating material around the electrode and destroy the
plug," he says.
"In addition," says Quinn, "never use pliers to gap
fine wire plugs." The use of pliers, he says, places too Cold I
p
much strain on the wire prongs and can easily damage Cold vs. hot spark plugs. Notice the difference in the length
or break off the wire. Instead, use gap setting tools that o f insulation covering the center electrode.
push the wire without placing multidirectional forces on
it. Iridium plugs do not require frequent gapping, so
should only be adjusted when the gap exceeds .019inch.

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 Also, says Quinn, communicate to the aircraft opera-
tor the importance of minimizing idle time. At idle, tem-
peratures are such that they contribute to lead buildup 'LUG SPARK PI
and fouling.
7.L
TEMPERA'
Lead fouling can be minimized by proper operation
and leaning of the engine. @
Auburn's Pierce, suggests that lead fouling can be
classified in two categories, low temperature and high
temperature lead. "Low temperature lead," he says,
"shows up first and appears in spark plugs as clinkers
or gravel looking material. High temperature lead
occurs when these clinkers melt into a smooth hard-
glazed surface."
This high temperature lead can become a conductor,
draining off the spark. The lead can also bridge the gap
between the electrodes and prevent the plug from firing.
Both situations are trouble.
Combustion deposit fouling chart.
How long does a plug last?
Discard spark plugs that fall outside of the specified
Factors affecting the life of a spark plug include: O p
limits, that have cracked ceramic or that have
erating temperature of the specific engine, environmen-
been dropped.
tal conditions such as b h sand or high chemical con-
centration, frequency of use and care and maintenance Depending on engine type and operation, massive
of the plug. electrode spark plugs can yield hundreds of hours of
troublefree operation. Properly maintained platinum
Electrode erosion is the key factor in determining
plugs have the potential to last up to three times longer
whether or not to discard the plug, not the number of
than massives. And iridium plugs can yield even
hours installed in the engine. In order to help determine
when to discard a plug, manufacturers provide visual longer service.
guidelines and erosion gauges to measure the electrodes.

Operating suggestions that eliminate lead buildup

By Art Pierce, Technical representative for Auburn Spark Plug

On the ground: Run the engine at 1,200 rpm and lean
the engine for one to two minutes. Much of the low
temperature lead can be cleaned out of the plugs.
(Note: Engine manufacturer's guidelines for preheat,
startiup and run-up should always be followed.)
Before takeoff: Keep the rpm up to at least 1,000. This
aids in proper fuel vaporization, helping to prevent
lead fouling from occurring.
Takeoff roll When cleared for takeoff, go in slowly with
the throttle. Let the engine work to clean itself. R e
member-at full throttle the mixture is over rich for
cooling during climb out.
ARer leveling of? Set cruise power and lean. Consult
your aircraft or engine manual for proper leaning.
But lean!
During letdown: Rapid decreases in power that result in
low power settings can cause super cooling damage to
your engine. And again, the foundation for lead foul-
ing is laid because of the low temperature operation.
Before shutdown: Run engine at 1,200 rpm and lean for
one minute, just as you did after startiup.
Use of TCP: A fuel additive sold by Alcor. It can also be
of great help with lead problems. TCP helps carry
the lead out of the cylinders with the exhaust gases.
Follow the manufacturer's recommendations when
using TCP.

102 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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 Recip Technology

Removal and installation tips from Champion

Removal
Always pull out terminal sleeve assemblies in a
straight line to avoid damaging either the wire, termi-
nal sleeve or barrel insulator.
Make sure that the proper seed deepsocket wrench is
seated securely on the spark plug hex. Do not cock
the wrench.
Do not use an impact wrench.
Always use a six-point socket. Twelvepoint sockets
can contact the terminal thread area and damage
the threads.
Place the spark plugs in a spark plug tray to make
handling easier and to minimize danger of damaging
electrodes.
Be sure to remove the gasket with each spark plug.
Keep plugs identified with the cylinder that it was
pulled from so that proper plug rotation can be
followed.
Connectors
Handle terminal sleeves only with clean, dry hands.
Before installing the connector, wipe it with a clean,
lintfree cloth moistened in methyl ethyl ketone
(MEK), acetone, wood alcohol or naphtha.
Inspect all terminal assemblies and replace those
showing evidence of mechanical or electrical failure.
Make certain that the inside of the spark shielding
barrel is clean and dry.
Avoid overtorquing of the connector nut. Tighten
the nut only an additional oneeighth turn from
finger tight.
Check the security of the connector with a light pull;
use safety wire if required.
kDl November/December 1990

Installation
Always use new and reconditioned spark plugs with a
new copper gasket.
Apply anti-seize compound sparingly to the firing
end threads but never to the first thread. Anti-seize
compound can cause the spark plug to misfire if it
contacts the electrodes.
Always use a six-point socket. Twelvepoint sockets
can contact the terminal thread area and damage
the threads.
Always visually inspect the spark plug for damage
before installing. Check the firing end for ceramic
cracks or foreign matter and inspect the condition
of the threads.
Never install a dropped spark plug. Throw it out
immediately.
Turn the spark plug by hand to within one or two
threads of the gasket.
Always tighten the spark plugs to the torque limits
specified by the engine manufacturer. Avoid over-
tightening.

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Recip Technoiogy

Crankcase welding
OEMs, repair stations at odds

By John Boyce, Contributing Editor

I
f you have been an aircraft technician for any Aerostars with welded crankcases and the subsequent
length of time, you've likely worked on and put back National Transportation Safety Board W S B ) nrlings on
into service an engine that had a weld- the crashes has the question taken on its current vigor.
repaired crankcase. The crashes involving the twin engine Aerostar 600s
This is a safe assumption because of the diminishing had some meaningful similarities. The crashes, one of
number of new piston engines entering service and b e which was fatal to the pilot, occurred within six weeks of
cause a handful of repair stations in the United States each other in the autumn. Both aircraft were operated
have been welding crankcases for up to 21 years. by Air Continental, an Ohio freight hauler, and had en-
You may or may not have given the subject of crank- gines that had about 300 hours of services since their
case welding much thought, but there are those in the last overhauls, both of which were performed by the
aviation industry for whom it has become a heated operator's maintenance department. Both crankcases
controversy. were weld-repaired by Ajax Aviation, a San Antonio, TX,
On one side are the OEMs, such as Textron Lycom- repair station that does nothing but repair-specifically,
ing and Teledyne Continental, who say that repairing weld-repair crankcases.
crankcases by welding is unsafe, particularly in certain The NTSB ruled the cause of both crashes was cvlin-
vital areas. der separation due to heaiisoftening of areas of the
On the other side are the repair stations who do the crankcases. The board further ruled that the separa-
welding and want to continue doing it. They say that tions were the result of Ajax's extensive weld-repairs on
their weld repairs are FAA-approved and that decades of the cylinder decks which caused the softening of the
experience have proven welding to be a safe method of crankcases.
putting crankcases back into service. These rulings set off a chain of events that left many
The OEMs, the argument goes, simply want to get in the aircraft maintenance business confused (and, in
into the aftermarket business which they didn't really some cases, angry) over whether or not welding of crank-
care about when new aircraft produdion was at high cases was allowed by the FAA. Crankcase welding is
levels and the demand for
new engines was brisk.
Millions of dollars are
at stake in this argument.
Not onlv is crankcase r e I
pair a &on dollar busi-
ness, but the difference in
cost to the consumer b e
tween new and repaired
cases, per overhaul, runs
into thousands of dollars.
However, despite the
rhetoric about economics,
the central issue, as is so
often the case in aviation
matters, is safety. Are
welded crankcases as safe
as new crankcases?
While this question
has always been alive in
the industry, it has lain
dormant for long periods
of time. Only with the
1987 crashes of two Technician a t Engine Components Inc. makes a weld repair on a crankcase half.

104 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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 Reclp Technology

authorized by the FAA, as it has been since the 19609, be almost 100 percent related to assembly practices or
but because of some FAA memos and some trade press anomalies other than welding procedures."
reports on the subject, that authorization was brought Among the faulty assembly practices that Tubbs
into question. has found are incorrect torquing of the through-bolts,
As a result of its findings in the two accidents, the which is critical to failurefree performance; incorrect
NTSB recommended the FAA stop repair shops from use of lubricants in the crankcase reassembly; and
welding near holddown studs, through-bolts and other incorrect use of sealant between the parting halves of
"critically stressed areas" unless the crankcase could be the crankcase.
rehardened without excessive warpage of the case. Textron Lycoming takes a different view. Lycoming,
In July 1989, the FAA, through an internal memo as a matter of policy, does not endorse any crankcase
(not an AD) titled: "Weld repairs in unauthorized areas welding for some of the same reasons that the NTSB
of Lycoming engine crankcases," notified its mainte- found that the Aerostar crashes were caused by welding.
nance inspectors to withdraw FAA approval of weldmg Rick Moffett, Textron Lycoming manager of project
in highly stressed areas of the crankcase. engineering in Williamsport, PA, says, "If I do a good
There is no evidence that the inspectors terminated weld repair, and I'm not saying people can't do that...
any approvals based on these instructions because, at you (still) have a heabaffeded zone at the weld that's
least at Ajax and at Engine Components Inc. (ECI), also annealed (softened), metallurgically softened, because
of San Antonio, welding on "highly stressed areas" con- you've heated the material up. And so, right there in the
tinued without interruption. immediate area where you already know you have a b h
"We didn't suspend repairs," says Ed Salmeron, vice stress, you now have soft material."
president of operations at ECI. "They (FM) requested Additionally Moffett says in further explaining his
that we send copies of our repair station approvals and company's position against welding repairs, while good
manuals and so forth." welds are possible, his company has no control over
ECI's vice president of engineering, Jimmy Tubbs, who is doing the welding and the procedure that they
points out that the company does not send proprietary are using.
information to the FAA, but the FAA has a right and a Tubbs doesn't disagree that welding softens the sur-
responsibility to view approvals and manuals on site. rounding metal, but not to dangerous levels. "The yield
Eleven months after the first memo, in June 1989, strength of that material is considerably above the stress
the FAA dispatched another memo in which it notified level that is imposed on the crankcase," he says.
inspectors that the previous memo was rescinded.
However, the confusion over the issue was com-
pounded early this year. A story appeared in a trade
publication in March in which the writer mentioned that
the FAA instructed its inspectors to terminate any existr
ing approvals of weldmg in highly stressed areas of
crankcases, but failed to mention that the previous in-
struction had been rescinded.
Ajax, of course, maintains that it has done nothing
wrong and that the NTSB erred in its assessment of the
causes of the two crashes. The company, which is 12
years old, has been named along with Textron Lycoming
in a lawsuit stemming from the crashes.
"The NTSB sent the engine(s) back to the manufac-
turer," says Henry 'Hank' Bryant, president of Ajax,
"and they're (Lycoming) not going to say anything good
about us...
"What we think,and what the evidence indicates, is
that the engines, when they were put together, weren't
assembled properly. They weren't torqued up properly;
they were either overtorqued or undertorqued. The
NTSB or Lycoming never addressed that possibility.
Poor assembly can just render a crankcase almost sure
of failure. Repair stations even feel comfortable with welding what are
" ... I'm not saying you can't have a poor weld in a defined by the manufacturers as "critically stressed areas."
crankcase and that a poor weld can't fail... I'm just say-
ing that the preponderance of failures that we find can

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Recip Technology
While Moffett and his company are firm in their
position against welding crankcases, the engineers at
Teledyne Continental Motors (TCM) in Mobile, AL, are
not so sure.
Carl Goulet, director of technical support in the mar-
keting department at TCM, explained that the company
position is currently under review and could undergo
a change.
"The company is in a state of flux about what our
position is on repairing crankcase halves," Goulet says.
"There is some consideration toward changing our posi-
tion on crankcase repair."
Goulet indicated that there are differing opinions
within the company regarding crankcase repair but could
give no indication of what the review might produce.
Meanwhile, TCM is sticking by its position as out-
lined in its service bulletin dealing with critical areas
and noncritical areas. The bulletin says the company
has determined that salvage welding in cylinder decks,
main bearing journals and adjacent surfaces is an
unsatisfactory repair.
TCM, by implication, doesn't object to welding of
cracks of less than 2 inches in leneth in non-critical ar-
eas, defined by Goulet "as the sedions of the crankcase
above the cylinder decks, between the cylinder decks and
the backbone."
Paul Wunsch, crankcase manager at ECI, like Bryant
at Ajax, thinks that defining critical and non-critical
areas is pointless.
"From our standpoint," Wunsch says, "there are no
specific critical areas. When you're 5,000 feet in the air,
you show me a noncritical place vs. a critical place. It's
all critical.
"As far as our approvals, we don't have any limita-
tions on where we can weld or the amount of welding.
The bottom line is to make a satisfactory repair wher-
ever you do it, and if you're not satisfied with the repair,
it's not usable."
The repair stations point out that they don't repair
every crankcase that comes to them for repair. There are
limiting factors.
Both TCM and Textron Lycoming admit that they
allow welding on crankcases, but only at the foundry
before the case is machined. This, too, doesn't make
much sense to Wunsch.
106 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
"I don't know what the big deal is," Wunsch says, "a
weld is a weld. If it's bad after machining, why is it all
right before machining. You know, we weld in every in-
dustry; the space shuttle is welded, nuclear powerplants
are welded. I don't understand the big deal."
Moffett says that Textron Lycoming allows in-house
welding to make minor repairs in the casting but not
in what the company considers hlgh-stress areas, such
as the bearing areas and the cam bore area. "Even at
that point we do not allow welding in certain areas,"
Moffett says.
While the OEMs and the repair stations carry on the
debate, one consumer cites the success of the repaired
cases as evidence that the process is a good one.
Mattituck Aviation in Long Island, NY, overhauls a p
proximately 1,000 engines a year and production man-
ager Mahlon Russell estimates that 80 to 90 percent of
those have repaired crankcases in them.
"If you could say that all brand-new crankcases never
ever crack," Russell says, "then maybe there might be
something to saying that repairing them causes them
to crack.
"But obviously, at some point in time, there were all
new crankcases around and they were broken enough for
people to go into the business of repairing them.
"...We couldn't stay in business if every crankcase we
put out cracked and we had to take an engine apart
every 500 hours and (had to) give the guy a new case."
According to repair station people, the OEMs are
against crankcase repair because they want the con-
sumer to buy new components from the factory.
"To be honest," says Moffett at Textron Lycoming,
rooking at it from their standpoint, I would have to say
that's probably true. (But) as an engineer, marketing
doesn't impact our decision on welding. In other words,
this is not a conscious marketing ploy. This wasn't dic-
tated to us from our sales and marketing department.
"These are just metallurgical fads based on looking
at thousands and thousands of service engines that are
returned. As much as people might like to believe these
are conscious things on the part of the company, I don't
believe that to be true." B l l September/October 1990
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 Recip Technology

Tkacking turbo squawks

By Fred Mackerodt

D
iagnosing a turbocharger system malfunction can
be a problem, especially if the technician doesn't
have much recent experience in working with
exhaust blowers.
Since the performance of all components in a turbo-
charger system-the controllers, wastegate and the tur-
bine itself are interrelated, it's often not easy to point a
finger directly at the problem.
Inability to maintain boost at altitude, for instance,
can be caused by a turbocharger that's not closing, or a
controller that's just plain sticking. To complicate mat-
ters, the problem can also be caused by related compo-
nents outside the turbocharger system itself-such as in
the induction andlor exhaust systems. Add to this the
f a d that it's impossible to duplicate operating conditions
on the ground that you have at altitude, and you can
have a real diagnostic bear nipping at your precious
schedule.
According to Steve Kelly, owner of KelPak, with
offices in Visalia, CA, and Vero Beach, FL, which special-
izes in turbocharger overhauls, even the least experi-
enced technician can successfdy diagnose blower prob-
lems if a process of elimination is followed.
The first and the easiest thina to check for is exhaust
system leaks. Exhaust leaks are isually the easiest to
spot because they leave a telltale grayish stain. The
technician should be especially careful to check around
slip joints and clamps. Holes in exhaust pipes are also
a possibility.
Next, according to Kelly, check the induction system.
Induction leaks can sometimes be spotted because of fuel
straining, but not always. The induction system must
often be pressurized to check for leaks.
Any leak in the exhaust or induction system will rob
the turbocharger of the power it needs to operate, and
this power drain, many times, won't show up until the
airplane is at altitude. That an engine will develop f d
boost on the ground usually indicates very little. It
doesn't take much turbocharger power to develop full
boost at sea level.
After the integrity of the exhaust and induction sys-
tems has been established, the next place to look is the
turbocharger system itself. A quick visual inspection of
the wastegate, turbine wheel and compressor wheel can
be made by dropping the related pipes and looking in-
side. A lot of turbochargers that come into KelPak's r e
build facilities have turbine wheels deepsixed by foreign
objects. It doesn't take much of an object to destroy a
turbine that's spinning at 65,000 to 75,000 rpm.
Inspect the turbo assembly thoroughly for cracks and
signs of overheating.
This is also a good time to drop the turbine heat
blanket and check the turbo for cracks, something
that should be done anyway at every 10Ckhour or
annual inspection.
Wastegates can often be diagnosed on the bench or
even on the airplane by disconnecting the oil lines and
pressing the wastegate with shop air. If the butterfly
opens and closes, the wastegate will usually be OK. The
technician should never try to "adjust" a wastegate, how-
ever. Special bench equipment and setup specs are
needed. In any case, wastegates and turbocharger con-
trollers rarely, if ever, come out of adjustment. Trying to
tweak the adjustments is a waste of time.
If these components check out visually, it's time to
pick up the phone and call the rebuild facility. When call-
ing, the technician should have some facts ready: The
pilot's operational complaint, whether the condition just
appeared or developed over a period of time and the
time since the last rebuild. Kelly says that once a turbo-
charger system accumulates up to 1,000 hours or so, the
turbocharger will most likely be ready for overhaul. Tur-
bochargers lead a tough life, and few make it to engine
TBO. About half TBO is ballpark.
While Kelly states that with the facts at hand he can
often troubleshoot over the phone, in most cases, he can
only make an educated guess as to which component (or
components) is at fault.
"If time isn't a problem, I'll try to isolate on the
phone which component is producing the situation and

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Reclp Technology

have the technician send in just that unit for testing.

This can be important with an airplane like the Cessna
421B where removing and replacing the turbo can be a
lengthy job. However, if the components are relatively
easy to remove, such as on a Turbo Altec, we would pre
fer to see all of the components at one time. We don't
charge for checking, and having all of the equipment af-
fords us the best picture of what's going
- -
on. It can also
save the technician and the airplane owner a lot of time
in the long run," he explains.
What tips can a technician offer a customer toward
prolonging turbocharging system life? "The most impor-
tant thing is to keep the oil clean," says Kelly. "You
wouldn't believe how much damage dirty oil can cause in
a turbocharger and how many otherwise good turbo-
chargers have been trashed prematurely because of drty
oil." Kelly suggests a maximum of 50 hours between
oil changes, and personally prefers synthetic oil to the
regular variety.
Kelly also suggests that operators review pilot tech-
nique to extend turbocharger life. "A lot of people in this Dust and dirt are often the cause of damaged turbines.
business believe that it doesn't matter how hot or cold a
turbocharger gets. It's temperature change that causes down the turbo's lubricating system. With the turbine
the damage." still spinning, the oil remaining in the turbo bearing
Care should be taken to avoid both shock cooling and burns up, producing the hard carbon residue we refer to
shock heating a turbocharger. Allow the system to warm as coke. In addition to inhibiting further lubrication and
up in the morning before applying full power, and never not allowing the turbine to spin as freely as it should,
try to pull power abruptly. The key words in operating a coke is also an extremely abrasive material which will
turbochargerequipped airplane are "slow" and "smooth." quickly score bearings and other components, should it
Emphasis should also be placed on allowing at least chip and come loose."
five minutes for a turbocharger to spin down before The best tool a technician can have, according to
shutting an engine off. "We see a lot of coking in turbo- Kelly, is the telephone. "We service turbos all day long,
charger bearings that is probably the result of quick and we're here to help."
shutdowns. When you shut down an engine, you shut

Installing a turbocharger?
Keep these installation tips in mind

When installing a replacement turbocharger, be cer-
tain there is no foreign material in the air cleaner,
the ducting to the compressor inlet or in the exhaust
manifold. Even small or soft objects will cause exten-
sive damage to the turbocharger wheels.
Take care to avoid getting dirt or debris into the tur-
bocharger openings.
Refer to the appropriate maintenance manual to as-
sure proper alignment of the end housing. Adhere to
torquing instructions.
Thoroughly inspect all locking tabs and locking d e
vices to make sure that they are properly installed.
Make sure that old gasket material is removed from
the exhaust manifold mounting flange and inspect
the flange for erosion and flatness. Install new gas-
ket if required.
Inspect oil drain and supply lines for kinking, clog-
ging, restrictions and other signs of deterioration.
Install the turbocharger using all new gaskets and O-
rings (when required). Use a high temperature lubri-
cant on bolts that attach the turbocharger to the
manifold and torque as instructed in the appropriate
maintenance manual.
Prior to connecting the oil supply line, fill the oil
inlet hole with clean engine oil and spin the com-
pressor wheel several times to coat the bearings.

108 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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If the compressor wheel will not spin freely by hand
or if there is any indication of rubbing or scraping,
determine the reason before starting the engine. A
cocked compressor or turbine housing may cause
the wheel to rub.
Assure that the lubricant in the engine crankcase is
properly serviced.
Prime the oil filter if it was changed.
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Before attempting to start the engine, crank the
engine with the fuel off for 10 to 15 seconds or
until the instruments show an oil pressure buildup.
Start the engine and allow it to run at idle speed for
three to four minutes before accelerating.
Check for oil leaks.
July/August 1990
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 109
Recip Technology

Reci~rocatina
enaine troubleshootina u w

Start wi;/7the basics

By Greg Napert

A
ccording to Textron Lycoming, "Troubleshooting
is the stepby-step procedure used to determine
the cause for a given problem and then selecting
the best and quickest way to solve the problem." Sounds
easy, but even the most experienced technicians waste
valuable time looking for problems that, in some cases,
don't even exist.
Effective troubleshooting involves more than one
component. Among the ingredients needed to quickly
and effectively solve problems are:
Identifying that there is actually a problem.
Verifying and isolating the problem.
Taking the correct action to solve the problem.
Even though some of these things seem quite simple,
pressure from an anxious owner, boss or pilot can easily
cause you to overlook the most likely steps and eliminate
simple logic from your game plan.

Identify the problem

In the interest of saving time, one of the most valu-
able steps that should be taken before tearing into an
engine is to talk to the owner, pilot or whoever is di-
rectly familiar with the problem. Once it is clearly known
what the situation is, you can begin the process of elimi-
nation. If you are working on a twinengine aircraft
make sure you are working on the correct engine.
Use resources to narrow the problem to as few possi-
bilities as possible. Don't take the problem as a personal many shops replace perfectly good parts with new parts.
challenge and vow to fix it by yourself. If there is some The old parts, in good condition, are then sent in for
one in the shop who has more experience than yourself, warranty. Manufacturers don't give warranty on parts
for example, consult with them and try to identify the that don't have anything wrong with them. And in
problem that way. most cases you can't return the new part after it has
Most manufacturers also have welldocumented proce been installed.
dures for troubleshooting. There are few instances where Verify the gauges before you do too much trouble
problems are unique. Use the manufacturers' trouble shooting, says McBride. Don't rely on what the gauges
shooting guides, service bulletins and service instruc- indicate, and don't trust others to give you readings.
tions religiously. Chances are you can readily iden* the Start from scratch, read the gauges, verlfy them and
problem by simply referring to a troubleshooting chart. make sure you have all the fads.

Start with the simple and inexpensive Solving the problem

All too often, expensive park are replaced in hopes
of solving a problem, and then it's found that the prob
lem still exists. Exhaust aJl inexpensive fixes before get
ting to the more expensive fixes. Manager of technical
support for Textron Lycoming Paul McBride, who has
been with Lycoming since 1963, says that he has seen
A quick observation of the external condition of the
engine may give an indication of the problem. Some ar-
eas to look at are the intake and exhaust pipes for leaks,
the ignition harness, breather and the engine compart-
ment for excessive oil stains, gas stains or exhaust
stains, says Lycorning.

110 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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Compression checks and borescope inspections may
be especially useful in determining the internal condition
of the cylinder.
Compression checks may give indications of bad
valves or worn rings. Borescope findugs allow the view-
ing of the internal condition of the engine. The presence
of excessive carbon deposits indicates high oil consump
tion, the lack of carbon deposits may indicate continuous
lean engine operation or detonation, and scratched or
Trying to address all conceivable problems related to
troubleshooting a reciprocating engine requires an entire
manual. So instead, Paul McBride, manager of technical
support for Textron Lycoming, was asked to share the
four most commonly asked troubleshooting questions.
These top four were selected based on his 27 years of
experience in customer service.
1. High oil temperature
Unless there is a problem with the temperature
gauge, says McBride, it is normal for low oil pressure to
accompany high temperature.
Causes for high oil temperature can include the
following:
Defective temperature gauge-Verify that gauge is
operating properly and replace if necessary.
Insufficient oil supply-Check oil and service if
necessary.
Insufficient cooling air-Check air inlet and outlet
to cooler and replace or repair parts and ducting
as required.
Oil cooler or lines plugged or partially plugged-
Remove cooler and lines and flush the system.
Thermostatic bypass valve not operating properly or
seating squarely-Reface sweat on oil filter adapter
or replace thermostatic bypass valve.
2. Surging
Due to the f a d that the causes of surging are often
not readily apparent, it can be a rather difficult problem
to troubleshoot. Contributing factors that cause an
engine to surge include:
Dirty injector nozzles- Clean nozzles by flushing in
acetone or M.E.K. and blow out with compressed air.
Faulty governor-Bench check governor and replace
if necessary.
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scored cylinder walls may indicate broken rings. Observ-
ing the condition of the spark plugs may also give you
an indication of how the engine is operating.
Even though replacing components with new ones
is not a recommended part of good troubleshooting
practices, it may be a good idea to swap parts between
engines on twin-engine aircraft. This should be done,
however, only after narrowing the problem to a specific
component, and should be used to verify your findings.
Air in oil lines or wastegate actuator (turbocharged)-
Bleed the system. The engine will usually bleed air
out of actuator and control system by running. If this
does not work, loosen lines and bleed the system.
Injedor nozzle pressure reference system leaking
(turbocharged) - Locate and repair the leak.
Incorrect prop governor-Check part number of gov-
ernor to be sure that correct governor is installed.
Prop blades sticking in hub intermittently-PropeUer
may need to be overhauled due to sticking. Check
stops and angle on blades when against flat
pitch stops.
Carburetor and/or fuel injector too rich-Make sure
that carburetor/fuel injector is properly adjusted or
repair or replace as necessary.
Wastegate binding intermittently (turbocharged)-
Use a wrench to free wastegate butterfly and use a
corrosion penetrant.
3. High cylinder head temperature
The first thing to look at before attempting any other
troubleshooting is to verify that the gauge is actually o p
erating properly. Once the gauge is checked, continue to
look for the following problems:
Engine being operated excessively lean-Check the
combustion chamber for carbon deposits. If there are
none, this is sufficient reason to be suspicious of a
continuous lean engine operation.
Spark plugs of improper heat rating may be installed
in the engine - Check with the engine manufacturer
for approved spark plugs.
Cooling baffles missing, broken or improperly in-
stalled-Ensure that all baffles are installed properly
and not broken.
Partially plugged fuel injection nozzles-Clean with
M.E.K. or acetone and blow out with compressed air.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 111
Recip Technology
Fuel lines of improper inside diameter (I.D.) being
used-Fuel line I.D. should be .085 to .090 on most
engines. Primer lines have the same threaded connec-
tions, in most cases, but have a much smaller I.D.
Engine improperly timed- Check magneto to engine
timing and adjust as necessary.
Mixture control improperly rigged-Rig for complete
travel.
4. Rough idle
Troubleshooting a "rough idle" problem is possibly
one of the most difficult situations because there are
so many possibilities that can cause the engine to
run rough. Problems that may cause rough idle are
as follows:
Mixture too rich or lean
Plugged fuel injection nozzles
Induction air leak
Cracked engine mounts or defective mount bushings
Mount bushings improperly installed
112 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Internal injector leak or won't hold adjustment-
Usually unable to adjust injector at idle. Replace
injector.
Fuel vaporizing in lines and distributor-Usually
encountered at high ambient temperatures and
prolonged operation at low or idle rpm.
Nozzle screen and shroud deformed to extent it
blocks or partially blocks air bleed hole- Replace
nozzle.
Sticking valve in fuel flow divider-Disassemble and
clean valve.
Uneven cylinder compression-Perform compression
check and correct as necessarv.
Improper fuel pressure-Adjust as necessary.
Faulty ignition system-Check magneto drop and
condition of plugs and leads.
Fuel pressure too low-Adjust as necessary.
Primer not locked or leaking- Lock securely or
replace primer if leaking.
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 Recip Technology

Stacking the odds against you

Exhaust system neglect can be disastrous

By Greg Napert

0
KLAHOMA CITY, OK-As exhaust system com- with a defective exhaust system include the risk of car-
ponents are unpacked from their Shipping car- bon monoxide poisoning, decrease in engine performance
tons at W d Colmonoy Corporation, one can only and the risk of fire. Sturch points to the f a d that
be shocked at their condition as they arrive for overhaul. numerous accidents have been attributed to exhaust
"It's amazing that anyone flew that on an airplane," system leaks.
comments John Sturch, general manager, as he observes With these kinds of risks involved, technicians should
one of the mufflers that has been sent in for repair. And be much more alert to the rate of exhaust system dete
this isn't an uncommon occurrence. Sturch explains that rioration, and should increase inspection intervals to in-
approximately 20 to 30 percent of all exhaust systems clude inspection of the exhaust systems inside and out.
sent to Wall Colmonoy are in such bad condition that According to Sturch, "Exhaust systems are constantly
they are beyond repair.. . scrap. exposed to very high temperatures and corrosive envi-
ronments. Temperatures in excess of 1,400°F are not
Risky business uncommon, and when combined with the corrosive
Neglect... is the only explanation for this and it's al- attack of burned and unburned hydrocarbons, it's no
most criminal. Indeed, exhaust systems undergo extreme wonder these systems are subject to failure."
conditions and tempera-
tures, but most of the
parts that are sent for
I
overhaul should have been
removed from the aircraft I
long before they were
apparently pulled.
"Unlike automobile
exhaust systems," claims
Sturch, "which simply r e
duce noise and carry ex-
haust gases away from the
vehicle, aircraft exhaust
systems perform several
important functions. The
primary function of an
exhaust system is to route
exhaust gases away from
the engine and fuselage
while reducing noise. In
addition, the exhaust sys-
I
tem serves an important
secondary function, indi-
redly supplying cabin and
carburetor heat."
The dangers that result
from operating an aircraft

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Look before you leak
There is more to properly inspecting exhaust systems
than simply taking a quick look at the outside of the
muffler, header or tail pipe. The exhaust system must be
inspected inside and out. "We see over 4,000 to 5,000
parts a year, and even with that experience, we cannot
pick up a muffler, look at the outside, and determine
whether it is good or bad. We have to examine the entire
part inside and out to determine whether it is repairable
or not," says Sturch.
The heat transfer area of the muffler is covered by a
"collector" or shroud. Without disassembling the collec-
tor or shroud and thoroughly inspecting the actual body
of the muffler, there is no way to know if exhaust gases
are leaking into the heating system of the aircraft.
Sturch suggests that a technician use a borescope to
inspect the internal condition of the muffler. Internal
baffles that are used to distribute heat and create back
pressure frequently deteriorate before the walls of the
muffler do. Damaged baffles can also cause exhaust
gases to be concentrated on one area of the muffler cre
ating "hot spots" which can weaken or eventually burn
through the metal. Also, explains Sturch, baffles can dis-
lodge and cause restrictions to the exhaust system and
even engine failure.
Sturch suggests that when a baffle is missing or
badly damaged, it is a sign that the muffler has damage
in other areas as well and it is time for a complete
overhaul.
Weld much lately?
It appears as though exhaust systems are easy to
repair. Find the leak and plug it up. Well it's not that
simple. For the average technician with little or no weld-
ing experience, exhaust systems are difficult if not
impossible to repair. Especially if you want the repair to
last for any si cant amount of time.
Exhaust systems are constructed of a fairly light
gauge stainless-steel material. This material should be
welded in a controlled environment using inert gas
welding equipment. Doing otherwise results in weld
Make the pilot aware of abuse
Richard Wagner, president, Aero Fabricators Inc., Lyons,
WI, suggests that the life of exhaust systems can be sig-
nificantly extended depending on the operation of the
aircraft. Advise the pilot that smooth operation makes a
big difference. Allowing the exhaust system to "come up
to temperature" before applying full power will allow the
exhaust components to expand slowly and reduce the
likelihood of cracking.
114 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
inclusions, contamination of the weld from exhaust by-
produds, inadequate bonding and excessive buildup of
weld material. Not to mention that it takes practice to
weld using inert gas welding equipment. "A contami-
nated weld," says Sturch, "is not going to hold up to any
kind of thermal or vibratory stress. Therefore, we do not
recommend doing these repairs yourself."
In many cases, explains Sturch, what ends up h a p
pening when a field repair is attempted, is that a repair-
able exhaust system is made non-repairable. On some
aircraft, this can be an expensive lesson at best, and
depending on the type of aircraft, a replacement part
may not be readily available.
Many repairs in the field are made simply by welding
a patch over a damaged area of a muffler or exhaust
component. Adding a patch without removing the base
metal creates an area where, claims Sturch, air is
trapped between the base metal and the patch. As a r e
sult, the base metal and the patch see different contrac-
tion and expansion rates and failure of the patch will
soon result.
It's all or nothing
According to Sturch, "Any damage to an exhaust sys-
tem component usually sides that it is time for the
entire component to be overhauled. Customers will ask
to have a small crack repaired and we refuse." Sturch
claims that this position is in the best interest of safety
and that repair without overhaul is just not practical in
terms of liability.
Don? despair
Many exhaust systems, however, are salvageable, and
the only way to determine this is by sending your ex-
haust system in for evaluation. Items that may appear to
be scrap upon removing them from the aircraft may in
fact be repairable.
Regular, thorough inspections and proper repair tech-
niques performed by a reputable repair station are the
only way to avoid the possibility of exhaust system leak-
age. When faced with exhaust system repair, don't take
chances... the results could be too costly... even deadly.
Conversely, pilots who reduce power rapidly while in
fhght cause the exhaust system to cool and contract at a
more than desirable rate. Subjecting any mechanical
component to extreme conditions will have an effect on
its life, &Dl MarchlApril1990
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 Recip Technolofly

Overhaul options for your cylinders

By Greg Napeti

T
he introduction of Cermicrome has presented a
new option for restoration of cylinders at over-
haul. The overwhelming acceptance of this new
product has prompted some facilities to offer only
Cermicrome as a salvaging option for cylinders.
But the traditional methods, such as chroming, or
even replacing the cylinders with new, still exist. And
understanding each option is a critical ingredient in pro-
viding the customer with good service at the best value.
Here are the most popular options as they exist today.

New
There are many obvious advantages to using all new
cylinders at overhaul. But the disadvantages, namely
economics, play a major role in choosing salvaging as
an option over new.
Another disadvantage to consider is one of the side
effects of the nitriding process (a process that is used to
harden new cylinders at the factory). As described in the
Avco Lycorning Flyer, nitriding is the process of exposing
the steel cylinder barrels to ammonia gas in the pres-
ence of high heat. The high temperatures break down
the ammonia gas to hydrogen and nitrogen. The nitro-
gen then penetrates the surface of the steel creating a
hardened surface.
This treatment leaves the surface extremely suscep
tible to corrosion, and with aircraft that are flown inter-
mittently, the possibility of the cylinder walls becoming Cylinder heads are not easy to replace and very expensive
corroded is increased. to manufacture. ECI i s researching a new technique that
will relieve cylinder head stress, called improved fatigue
The resulting hardened surface, however, is actually resistance (IFR).
harder than chrome and is resistant to softening in the
presence of high heat. Also, the quality and consistency
of the coating are easily controlled.
Nitriding allows for the use of chrome rings, which
are highly wear resistant, and the process produces a
natural choke to the cylinder that improves the wear
rate of the rings.
Also, using all new components does introduce non-
stressed components to the engine. And the chances of
failure are greatly reduced. If it is economically feasible
to replace all cylinders with new, and the cylinders are
properly preserved during extended periods of non-use,
new cylinders are probably your best option.

Cermicrome cylinder (left) and channel-type chrome (right).
Notice the cracked-up appearance o f the channel-type
chrome barrel.
Chrome plating
According to Engine Components Inc.'s "A Survey of
Commercially Available Processes," traditional chrome
plating produces a finish that is two and one-half times
as hard as steel, but is not oil wettable. To overcome this

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problem, the surface of the chrome must be "posttreated
in a way that the oil will be mechanically trapped on
the surface in sufficient quantities to provide good
lubrication."
The coating that results from this process is normally
called porous or channel-type chromium. Although this
post-treatment partially solves the lubrication problem
inherent with chrome, the plating process and post-
treatment continue to remain an art, and consistency is
difficult to achieve.
Because chrome cylinders are particularly difficult to
break in, cylinder temperatures must be raised consider-
ably to cause the rings to seat. It is because of this that
chromed cylinders should not be mixed on the same
engine with standard steel cylinders.
However, chrome does provide better wear character-
istics than steel, can be used as a restoration process
for cylinders worn beyond limits and does not rust. For
these reasons, chrome should be considered as an option
to extend the life of a cylinder.
Cermicrome
According to Bernie Coleman, vice president at
Engine Components Inc., San Antonio, TX,"Cermi-
crome, as the name implies, is a twwtep process in
which ceramics and chrome are used together to treat
the cylinder barrel."
Cermicrome is patented by Laystall Ltd. in England,
and has been licensed to Engine Components for the
aviation industry.
The process involves impregnating silicon carbide
(ceramic) particles into the surface of a cylinder that has
been hard chromium plated. The resulting surface is one
that maintains the oil wettability of steel, but is much
more durable. The silicon carbide particles that are
impregnated are actually four times harder than chrome
and act as oil retention sites that provide excellent
lubrication characteristics.
In addition, Cermicrome restores original dimensions
to the liner, thereby serving as an excellent salvage p r e
cess for worn cylinders.
The break-in process that is necessary with chrome
engines is unnecessary with Cermicrome. The rings seat
quickly and oil consumption is reduced almost immedi-
ately. Because of this, Cermicrome cylinders can be
mixed w i t h standard steel cylinders on the same engine.
116 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
At only $10 to $20 per cylinder more than chrome,
Cermicrome offers too many advantages to ignore.
Why not the best of both worlds? Cermicrome
on new cylinders!
Richard Moffett, project engineering manager at
Lycoming, says, "We've looked at the process
(Cermicrome) back when it was called something else,
we evaluated it against nitriding and today nitride our
cylinders. I guess you can draw your own conclusions
from that."
Moffett makes it clear that he doesn't see anythmg
wrong with Cermicrome or chrome and says that if the
processes are controlled correctly, they are probably
very good.
Moffett brings up other concerns related to the
reconditioning of cylinders. He concedes that a nitrided
cylinder is very susceptible to corrosion, but that there
are other components in the engine that are corrosive
as well.
If properly cared for, a nitrided cylinder should last
through TBO and beyond. He expresses concern that
someone with Cermicrome or chromed cylinders will be
under the impression that he can leave his plane sitting
for long periods of time without proper preservation.
"My advice would be not to let any engine sit for long
periods of time," Moffett says.
Moffett also says that including the Cermicrome pro-
cess in the Lycoming facility wouldn't make economic
sense. The nitriding process has proven to be a sound
technique for new engines, and if cylinders are worn
beyond limits, they can use a new cylinder from their
available stock (one of the benefits of being the
manufacturer).
What's the use
Consider the frequency of use and the way that the
customer operates the aircraft. These can be factors in
deciding which option is most suitable for the application
at hand. But whichever option you decide to choose, all
are good. Chances are you will find that the most impor-
tant factor in determining what you do with the cylin-
ders is what gives the customer, and you, the greatest
peace of mind.
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Headaches!
It's easy to forget that there are heads on cylinders. The
aluminum head sees tremendous pressures and tempera-
tures throughout its life, and after numerous cycles it
becomes subject to stress cracking.
Unfortunately, the head cannot be easily replaced.
This is probably one of the main considerations for the
OEMs' recommendations to replace the cylinder with
new a t overhaul. Receiving a new head is added assur-
ance that the cylinder will not fail during the normal
TI30 period.
Bernie Coleman of Engine Components Inc. says that
ECI has been looking into solutions to this problem. He
says that they have investigated the possibility of manu-
From the field
Mattituck Aviation, Mattituck, NY,has, since February
'89, instituted a policy of using Cermicrome on aJl of its
overhauls. Says Jay Wickham, president and owner of
Mattituck Aviation, "We took some cylinders (with
Cermicrome) and placed them in high-use applications
cargo aircraft and short-run commuter aircraft-and we
found out that it worked. It is better and has a quicker
break-in than other chrome. To us, that was terrific."
According to Wickham, "Anything that has to be
chromed will get Cermicrome and not Channelchrome.
We will not be able to provide it (Channelchrome) any
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faduring new heads. But adds that the cost of the equip
ment needed for the manufacturing is too high. There
would be little or no return on the investment.
ECI is doing extensive research on a new technique,
says Coleman, that will relieve the stress from the cylin-
der head. The new process called "Improved Fatigue R e
sistance" (IFR) will "erase the memory and rejuvenate
the cylinder head," says Coleman.
According to Coleman, the combination of treating
the cylinder head with Cermicrome and incorporating
the IFR head will restore properties of the cylinder head
to 80 percent of new.
longer. It makes no sense to use Channel-type chrome
when we charge only $15 more a cylinder to use
Cermicrome.
"I don't think we have one person we have dealt with
that has given us any feedback that was not extremely
positive," says Wickham. Reasons for satisfaction with
the product range from reduced oil consumption to
coolness of operation. "It's good and it works," Wickham
says. EQl Janum/February 1990
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 117
Reclp Technology

Spectrometric oil analysis

Used correctly, it can be an invaluable tool for monitoring
...
engine condition.

By Greg Napert

ust as analysis of a blood sample taken by your

doctor during a routine physical examination tells
a lot about the condition of your body, so too does
analysis of your aircraft's engine oil offer clues to the
engine's state of repair," says Dennis Boggs, lubricants
technical specialist with Phillips 66.
"Furthermore, the engine oil test could conceivably
save your life just as readily as the blood test by idenhfy-
ing one or more problems to be rectified."
Spectrometric oil analysis (sometimes referred to as
oil trend analysis) is the practice of analyzing, at regular
intervals, engine oil for contamination, condition of
the oil and the breakdown of an engine's internal
components.
There is some hesitancy by both aircraft engine
manufacturers and oil producers to promote the use of
oil analysis. They fear that technicians will rely too
heavily on oil analysis and set aside the conventional
means of engine inspection.
Bob Mitchell, staff engineer at Shell Oil says, "repro
ducibility and repeatability" (reliability problems) with
oil analysis results can lead to false interpretations of Technician examines engine od prior to sending to lab.
engine condition. He cautions, "If you get a sample (of Engine oil should be analyzed each time the oil is changed,
oil) that is out of the norm, another sample should be which should be every 50 operating hours or every three
months, whichever comes first.
sent immediately to verify the results." He does concede,
however, that oil analysis is becoming more and
more popular. A good rule of thumb to follow when selecting a lab
Phillips 66, on the other hand, does promote engine is that there is no such thing as too much information.
oil analysis. Boggs says that Phillips occasionally runs The more types of information the lab provides, the
promotions in which it provides analysis of the first two better the chance of catchmg a problem.
or three samples of oil free upon the customer switching "Turnaround" time and support are critical proper-
to Phillips 66 aviation oil for his aircraft. ties as well. The quick return of results can mean catch-
Boggs suggests that technicians shop for the best pos- ing a problem before it gets out of hand. And support is
sible oil analysis lab before adopting it as a part of their crucial if special situations arise or reports are difficult
regular program. "A quality oil analysis will be one in to interpret.
which they (technicians) can get the most complete According to Phillips, "Engine oil should be analyzed
analysis possible," Boggs says. "That includes all the each time the oil is changed, which should be every 50
bells and whistles." operating hours or every three months, whichever comes
It is interesting to note there are currently no first. Proper oil analysis usually requires at least three
standard operating procedures among oil analysis labora- samples be taken to establish a baseline. This baseline
tories. However, Avco Lycoming Service Letter No. L171 can then be used to either pinpoint problems or assure a
states that although it does not recommend any particu- clean bill of health."
lar company to perform oil analysis, "only those It is important to build a case history for each engine
companies affiliated with the Spectrometric Oil Analysis through regular monitoring of the oil. A sudden varia-
Laboratory Association (SOALA) are considered to be tion in condition of the oil, or sharp rise in presence of
adequately qualified." metals, is a signal that a problem may exist. Corrective
action, if necessary, can then be taken.

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-- -

Recip Technology

ENGINE PROBLEM CHECKLIST

Used 011 Primary Causes Speclflc Factors EngineIOlllCoolant Conditions Responsible
Test Results
Viscosity Increase Contamination Fuel soot or lead See items under High Solids.

Water See items under Water Present.

Oxidation andor nitration High temperature operation Ail engines: overextendedoil drain interval: inadequate cooling; excessive
peak-power operation.
Natural gas and gasoiine engines: too-lean fuel mixture: overly advanced
spark, excessive idle.

Vlscoslty decrease:
Gasollne engines ~ u edilution
i Rich carburetion Improperly adjusted w malfunctioningchoke.
lmproperly adjusted carburetor.
Excessive engine idling.

Poor combustion Wom or stuck rings. Poor valve performance.

Wrong heat-range spark plugs. Low operating temperature

Ignition difficulties Fouled spark plugs. Improper timing.

Loose w~ringor faulty ignition cables. Faulty condenser coil.

Frequent cold starts Operating condition.

Diesel engines Fuel dilution Overfueling Oversize injectors. Restricted fuel return line.

Poor combustion Ring sticking or breakage. Dribbling injectors.

Poor injector spray pattern. Worn rings and liners. Valve leakage.
Restricted air suppiy or exhaust system.

Cracked or broken fuel-line linings Mechanicalproblems or engine vibration problems.

Rupturedfuel pump diaphragm.

Water present Condensation Low temperature operation Low temperature, short-trip driving.
Low cooling-jackettemperature.Excessive idling.
Inadequate crankcase ventilation.

Cooler core leak Corroded core.

High blowby Ring belt area problems Worn rings or liners. Stuck or broken rings.

Glycol present Coolant leakage Leaking head gasket Defective or blown gasket, Improperly torqued cylinder head.

Leaklng seals on wet side liners Improper installation, Detective seals.

Cracked block or cylinder head Freezing of engine coolant. Overheating from insufficient coolant or stuck
thermostat.

Hlgher-than-normal Outside contaminants;coolants; Metals found in used engine oils See Sources ol Metals.
trace metals by additives; engine metals from
spectroanelysls wear and corrosion

Hlgh suspended Fuel soot; lead compounds Rich operation Overlueling.

solids (gasoline engines) Restricted air intake.
Worn rings or liners, stuck rings Poor mechanical condition of engine.
Plugged or tailed by-pass filter.

Fuel soot (diesel engines) Detective injectors Poor spray pattern. Dribbling nozzles.

High non-suspended Dirt and dust inadequate air fliter functioning Improper or poor preventive maintenance pradices.
sollds
Air leaks in intake system Poor mechanical conditionof intake Plugged or failedfull-flow filter.
system

Engine metals Wear, corrosion or failedpans See Sources of Metals.

Sources of Metals - A Troubleshooting Guide

Remember: The oil check labs' wear metals Trendline eliminates the guesswork!
Aluminum (Al) Copper (Cu) Silicon (SI) Chromlum (Cr) Sodium (Na) Iron (Fe) Tin (Sn) Lead (Pb)
pistons bearings sand, dust, dirt rings anti-freeze engine parts tin-plated pistons gasoline additive
bearings bushings oil additive (minor) cylinder liners seawater (especially piston bearings (major in gasoline
bushings oil-cooler tubes antifreeze additive (usually with iron) dust rings) engines)
cylinders valve guides plated rocker arms oii additive bearings
dirt and dust (some engines) crankshafts
injector shields bearings (some engines)
(some engines)
--

Common Metals I n Dlrt

Estimated %
Silicon..................... 27.7
Aluminum.................8.1
Iron ......................... 5.0
Checklist courtesy of Bristol Labs inc.. Wausau, Wi.

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 According to Phillips, oil tests usually fall into two
categories: spectrometric and physical property tests.
Spectrometric tests are used to determine contami-
nants in the oil, such as dirt, and for wear metals from
internal engine components. The oil is subjected to an
energy source which causes it to emit light. The different
wavelengths of light that are given off can then deter-
mine what elements are present.
Physical property tests include the determination of
viscosity, total solids, water and fuel contamination, and
total acids in the oil.
Boggs says that it is normal for viscosity to increase
somewhat during service and that "many analysts do not
comment on an increase unless it goes up a full SAE
grade over the new oil product." Overheating, improper
air/fuel ratio (which can cause a carbon buildup in the
oil) or a buildup of solids may lead to high viscosity
readings, while fuel dilution may lead to a decrease
in viscosity.
Total solids tests are used to separate materials that
are not dissolved into the oil. These materials include
metal, dirt and "oil breakdown by-products."
Total acid number tests determine the acidity of the
oil. Increased acidity can be an indication of overheating
or oil degradation.
Tips for selecting a lab
The more information that a lab asks from you is a good
indication of how thorough its analysis will be.
According to Avco Lycoming Service Letter No. L171,
the minimum information that should be provided to
the lab is:
engine model number
engine serial number
aircraft manufacturer
aircraft model
aircraft registration number
total hours on engine
hours since overhaul
120 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
It is important to take samples of oil while the oil is
hot. Analysta Inc. recommends that you sample a compo-
nent within 30 minutes after shutdown. A sampling
valve that is installed prior to the oil fdter is the best
method for taking oil from the engine. Siphoning the oil
from the oil dipstick tube is an accepted practice but is
more difficult. The sump or reservoir drain can be used
also, but there is a greater risk of contaminating the oil.
If the sump is used, drain approximately twethirds of
the oil before taking the sample.
Phillips 66 warns "engine oil analysis can tell virtu-
ally nothing about the non-oil-wetted park of an engine,
and, therefore, should not be relied upon as the sole
measure of the condition of the engine." Also, "the spec-
trometric test is limited in that it picks up various small
particles suspended in the oil, but cannot find large
chunks the size of a fingernail."
Oil analysis should NEVER be a substitute for other
forms of inspection such as oil filter inspections or
borescopic inspections. Rather, oil analysis should be
used as another tool that will add to the quality of your
inspection program.
brand of fuel
octane rating of fuel
brand of oil
viscosity of oil
type of oil (straight mineral, or ashless dispersant)
oil consumption
hours since last oil change
date sampled
oil level and sampling time
indicate if cylinders are chromeplated
1 describe any major repair or top overhaul
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Phillips 66 suggests the following dos and don'ts
when starting an oil analysis program
DO make all comparisons to the same engine using the
same quantity of oil.
DO NOT compare readings with that of any other
engine even the same make and model, or on another
wing of the same aircraft.
DO use the same sampling techniques each time. Use
sample containers that have not been used for any other
purpose or left in storage without covers.
DO NOT catch the very first part of the liquid when
it begins to drain, or the very last dregs. Do not drain
when the engine is cold.
DO provide complete information as requested by the
lab, including exact time of the oil change, quarts added
and when, plus any unusual circumstances encountered,
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Recip Technology
i.e., overheating, maintenance repairs or any unusual
flying conditions. Be specific to the brand and SAE
grade of the oil being submitted.
DO NOT test the lab. By sending misleading or incor-
rect information, you are destroying the continuity which
is most important to the testing effort.
DO make an effort to establish a set period (time
or calendar) for changing oil. Establish a trend for
oil analysis.
DO NOT make decisions about an impending
problem, based on one reading of a routine oil analysis.
November/December 1989
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122 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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lbrblne Tichnology

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APS 2000 auxiliary power unit
Basic theory and operation
ike any piece of machinery, the APS 2000 Auxil-
iary Power Unit W2T-47Cl), manufactured by
Sundstrand Power Systems for the Auxiliary
Power International Corporation, is a complex com-
pilation of parts but one which can be installed and
used properly by understanding the components and
their functions.
Knowing the parts
The APU is classified by the FAA ceMied as
TSOC77a Category I, essential for the Boeing 737 Air-
craft. The unit provides electrical power and pneumatic
bleed air for ground and in fhght operations. The unit
consists of three assemblies-gearbox, turbine, and com-
bustor-and is located in the aircraft's tail section.
Monitoring and controlling the engine operations is
the Full Authority Digital Flectron Controller (FADEC),
which is connected to the APU by means of the aircraft
electrical system and the APU engine electrical harness.
It is located in the aft cargo compartment.
The APU Control Unit -mounted in the E33 electri-
cal equipment rack in the aircraft's electronics compart
ment-consists of relays, printed circuit boards, and
control circuits. It assists in sequencing electrical control
signals for APU and aircraft systems operation.
How it works
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Turbine Technology
and delivers it to the diffuser which slows the airflow
and increases the pressure. The diffuser also aligns the
airflow for delivery to the combustor where fuel is mixed
with the air.
The combustion process begins when fuel is injected
into the combustor and ignited by the ignition system.
The fuel and part of the air are burned to produce heat.
The heated gases expand in the combustor liner and ac-
celerate through the turbine nozzle to impinge on the
blades of the turbine wheel.
The rotating turbine wheel extracts the energy from
the heated gas stream to mechanically drive the com-
pressor, gearbox, and the gearbox accessories. The gases
flow from the turbine wheel and then exit through the
exhaust system.
At a determined engine speed, the main fuel injectors
are activated and the starter, start fuel nozzles, and igni-
tion system are deactivated. The engine then becomes
self-sustaining in operation. During the combustion pro-
cess, not all of the air produced by the compressor is
used. The excess air is available as bleed air to operate
the aircraft's pneumatic systems.
Putting it together
The engine assembly utilizes a high-speed internal
rotor assembly and components to power the APS 2000.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 125
Turbine Technology
The turbine assembly consists of the intake assembly,
the rotor assembly, and the turbine nozzle/containment
assembly. The assembled turbine may be replaced with a
new or rebuilt unit using the existing gearbox and com-
bustor assemblies. The quill shaft provides the mechani-
cal means of connecting the rotor shaft to the gearbox
drivetrain. The shaft is splined at both ends and is
driven by the oil impeller located on the end of the rotor
shaft. A metal retaining ring locks the quill shaft into
the oil impeller.
The intake assemblv consists of the air intake hous-
ing, the intake screen, "and the diffuser. The air intake
housing-a onepiece aluminum casting-provides a
support between the gearbox and the engine assembly
and an unrestricted air inlet to the compressor with
provisions for rigid support and attachment of the
rotor assembly.
The intake screen is a stainless-steel removable
screen mounted around the air intake struts of the air
intake housing. It provides engine protection from
possible foreign object damage. The diffuser is a one
piece aluminum casting bolted to the rear side of the
air intake housing.
The air inlet muff, constructed of sheet metal, is
designed to allow the upper half of the muff to rotate
around the stationary lower half. Rotation of the upper
half is necessary for installation and removal of the APU
due to the muff attachment to the aircraft air inlet d u d
structure. The access cover is located at the bottom
of the air inlet muff. With the APU installed in the
aircraft, the access does allow inspection of the air inlet
area and access to the engine speed sensors.
When assembling the rotor, the tie rod is threaded
onto the turbine wheel and extends through the seal
plate assembly, compressor wheel, rotor shaft, and
oil impeller.
Turbine and compressor wheels are connected by
curvic couplings. The bearing capsule installed on the
rotor shaft provides the bearings, seals, and support
attachment for the rotor assembly. The rotor assembly
is held together by the tie rod and tie rod nut.
The turbine nozzle/containment assembly has two
basic components: the containment ring-a high tensile
strength steel ring; and the turbine nozzle-a high
temperature resistant, alloy steel piece. The ring is
positioned and secured by four bolts to the air intake
housing, while the nozzle is secured to the inside of the
ring by seven threaded radial pins. The deflector shield
is threaded on the turbine nozzle to provide additional
turbine wheel containment strength.
126 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
The combustor assembly also has two basic compo-
nents: the combustor housing and the combustor drain
valve. The housing is bolted to the air intake assembly
with the combustor chamber located inside and has
mounting provisions for the ignition ignitors, bleed air
duct, anti-surge bleed valve, combustor drain valve, start
nozzle, main fuel injectors, and exhaust thermometers.
The combustor drain valve, threaded into the combustor
drain boss, is closed during engine operation by air
pressure in the combustor and is spring-loaded open
when the engine is shut down. This allows any accumula-
tion of fuel in the combustor to drain into the combus-
tor drain system.
Fuel draining into this system flows through a clean-
able filter located inside of the filter mount housing. The
fuel drains overboard through the aircraft lower shroud
and access door drains. When the start purge valve is
open, fuel also flows into the combustor drain system.
Fuel flows through a drain line connected between the
purge valve and the filter mount housing.
The gearbox
The gearbox assembly is a onepiece aluminum cast.
ing with machined provisions for mounting the engine
assembly and accessories. The gearbox oil assembly is
supplied by the oil pump mounted on the front of the
gearbox. Oil is drawn from the wet sump that is integral
within the gearbox and delivered through the gearbox
internal oil passages to the gears shafts, and bearings.
During the engine start sequence the electric starter
drives the gear system to rotate the engine rotor assem-
bly. After the engine start sequence has been completed
the engine rotor assembly then drives the gear system
components
Troubleshooting
Fault isolation procedures for the APU are an inte
gral part of maintenance and diagnostic techniques.
The FADEC displays a fault code which provides trouble
shooting information to identify system faults. The fault
code messages scroll and provide fault information
associated with the last 12 APU run cycles. EQI
November/December 1996
The previous information is taken from Auxiliary
Power International Corp. APS 2000 Maintenance
Training Course manual. For more information on the
APS 2000, contact Jean Pierre Foulon at (619) 627-6321.
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 Turbine Technolofly

PT6T twin-pac gearbox overhauls

Not for the meek and timid

By Greg Napert

M
IAMI -Imagine for a minute, if you can that
you're a PT6T gearbox. Well, maybe you can't,
but if you could, you'd have two Pratt &
Whitney PT6T turboshaft engines twisting each one of
your input gears with over 900 hp worth of torque. You'd
have to send that combined horsepower of 1,800 and
then some, through several gears, reducing the input
speed from 33,000 to 6,600 rpm and sending that
awesome power to a central output shaft as the two
engines pulled and twisted on your frame.
Additionally, you would have to provide a means, in
the form of two overrunning clutches, for allowing only
one of the engines to continue to supply power to your
output shaft, in the event that one of the engines failed
to operate-all while maintaining your cool and perform-
ing flawlessly.
And if that isn't enough, you'd be expected to pass an
inspection of all of your gears, bearings, and housings
and come out smelling like a rose. You see, your owner
wouldn't like it if you trashed many of your internal
components; as with all turbine engine parts they are
as expensive as a king's ransom.
Such is the life of a PTGT gearbox, which is used to
power the Bell 212 and 412, Sikorsky S58T and Augusta
helicopters.
Because of this seemingly overwhelming task that's
performed by the Twin-Pac gearbox, and because it
takes special care, attention to detail, and great skill to
successfully overhaul it, only a handful of shops in the
world have taken on the task of becoming a Twin-Pac
overhaul facility.
Airwork Miami's decision to overhaul Twin-Pacs was
made only 12 months ago when its parent company,
UNC, closed down Pacific Airmotive Corp. (PAC) in
Burbank, CA, and left an opening in the marketplace.
The Miami facility already had some 15 years of PT6
experience and was chosen to fill the niche.
John McIntosh, general manager for Airwork Miami,
says, "When we set up the shop for Twin-Pac gearbox
overhaul, we decided we just couldn't afford to have any
gearboxes come back to our facility because we didn't do
our job properly."
McIntosh says that for starters, all of PAC's special
tools, together with the all-important test cell, were
shipped across the country to the Miami facility.
McIntosh also wanted to have his technicians
expertly trained, especially on the gearbox, so he
contracted with Pratt & Whitney to have one of their
lead service engineers come to Airwork to provide the
best training possible. On the heels of that visit came an
"indepth" Pratt & Whitney Canada audit which further
improved the operation, says McIntosh.
They also invested heavily in upgradmg their facility
to accommodate the gearbox overhauls they would be
doing. They set aside a "clean room" where the disas-
sembly, inspection, and reassembly of the gearbox would
take place. Handling of the bearings and shafts was
critical, so they wanted the gearbox area to be climate
controlled and dusbfree.
Tight tolerance work
McIntosh says that an item they decided to improve
on was to change the gauging system for measuring
inside diameters.
He explains that one of the primary objectives during
the overhaul of the Twin-Pac gearbox is to hold extreme
ly tight tolerances when checking such things as ovality
and position of bearing locating bores. Instead of using a
conventional tri-micrometer to check the inside diameter
of these bores, they decided to make an investment in
air gauges which perform a much more accurate and
faster job for what they're trying to measure.
The tri-mike, he says, only gives you an average
roundness of the bore, where as by using a two-jet air
gauge which measures a t two specific points, you can tell
if you're out of round at any one spot and determine the
overall ovality of the bore.
McIntosh goes on to explain that "bearing location
bores always wear somewhat oval in the thrust area. The

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firbin8 Technology
reason is simple: You have two gears that are meshing
with each other under power, and they're trying to force
themselves apart.
"You'll notice the ovality, more or less at the same
place every time. On many bearings, you can also see
evidence of movement, where the flanges that hold the
bearings in place are worn and fretted." The result of
this wear and ovality is that the gears don't align prop
erly, which causes unacceptable tooth wear, patterns and
eventually, damage to the gears.
McIntosh says that if you take a look at the gear
teeth, you can see evidence of improper alignment by
examining the wear patterns on the teeth. Proper
alignment will give you full contact all across the gear
teeth faces.
Oftentimes, the only way to correct this misalign-
ment is to plasma spray the bearing bores to replace the
worn material and remachine them back to spec.
Where the money is
Right from the beginning of the Twin Pack introduc-
tion, the Maintenance Review Board (MRB) concept was
implemented. As with most turbine engines for aircraft,
no parts are inexpensive and there are more of them in
a Twin Pack: for instance, the gearbox alone has 33
bearings and nine major gears.
"The MRB," he says, "consists of a threeperson
board comprised of our chief inspector, our engineer,
and myself. Together, we are charged with the task of
looking at every item that's rejected in our shop. Also,
we look at warrantv claims to determine if there is anv
warranty that can be claimed to return to the customer.
"The three main goals of the MRB group," he says,
"are to make sure the inspector's got it right, to see if
there's anything that's repairable, and to see what's
worn so we can establish trends and histories on parts.
"Our mission," says McIntosh, "is to save our custom-
ers as much money as possible on their overhauls. So by
establishmg histories on parts, we can make recommen-
dations to the manufacturer to possibly increase wear
limits based on our observations.
"An example is if the same bearing continues to come
in time after time and exhibits very similar amounts of
wear, we can consult with the factory to see if the part's
useful life can be extended. I'm using bearings as a hy-
pothesis here, but it could be any part. Or possibly we
can recommend an engineering change to try to prevent
that wear. We work regularly with Pratt engineers to
discover root causes and have had great success at doing
this; they are really good at working with us."
McIntosh continues, "When you're talking of scrap
ping components that are upwards of $20,000 each,
you've got to get it right. We've got to continue asking
questions such as: Is the manual being understood
and correctly interpreted? Is there another method of
inspection?, i.e., Do we have it right?
128 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
"It's important to the customer that we do this, with-
out compromising safety or reliability and within the
bounds of the manufacturer's data and FAA regulations."
Working for the customer
Airwork has made the conscious decision to use
only Pratt & Whitney Canada replacement parts when
overhauling PT6 or Twin Pack engines.
For instance: "The bearings in the gearbox are
very important to the integrity of the overhaul," says
McIntosh. "They are specially made to P&W specs, and
we won't use overhauled bearings. We only use new
OEM Pratt bearings. It's just not worth it to compromise
on this point.
"Also, there's a comfort factor in knowing, that if it
comes in a blue box with white lettering (from Pratt &
Whitney), it's exactly what we need. It has the latest
mods, meets the latest standards, etc., and for the
customer's peace of mind is backed by PWAC warranty.
The potential for loss in the gearbox makes substituting
parts just not good practice," he says.
"Another service we provide to our customers is to
document all the scrap parts and the reason they were
rejected, and provide photographic evidence of why we
rejected parts. We have set up a photo studio to photo-
graph the damaged areas that were cause for rejection,"
he says.
"With very few exceptions," he explains, "our scrap
parts go back to the customer. It's typically in every-
body's interest that he gets the scrap back. We don't
want to store it; we don't want it lying around. We'd
rather have the customer have it and then they're
responsible for disposal. Also this enables the customer
to possibly m o w preventive maintenance practices. He
can see what went wrong with the engine and so forth.
If the customer decides he doesn't want his scrap, we
will store it in a segregated area until we are sure he
won't change his mind. Then we dispose of it in a
mutilated condition to an approved scrap merchant."
Corrosion is the worst enemy
McIntosh emphasizes that many of the gearboxes
they examine at Airwork are usually in much better
shape if they've been used on a regular basis. Running
the gears and bearings, he explains, will keep them lubri-
cated and less susceptible to corrosion.
The problem with corrosion is that it can lead to
premature material failure. If the helicopter sits around
and the gears and bearings begin to corrode, then
metal will contaminate the oil and lead to even further
deterioration.
"One thing I stress to customers is, if you've got an
engine that you've pulled, don't let it sit around on the
hangar floor. Get it out to be overhauled or repaired as
soon as possible. Also, don't wash the exterior after r e
moval; water may get in through seals, etc. or other
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openings. Do not clean filters as they may contain
evidence of the engines operating condition," says
McIntosh.
Things like bearings and gears will corrode rapidly
if they're left just sitting-especially in a humid a t m e
sphere and particularly the upper ones, because the oil
drips off them and they are sitting there unprotected.
A lot of damage can be done to bearings just by letting
them sit.
"In a recent gearbox, several bearings that we
scrapped were rejected due to corrosion, and that's
single point corrosion. In other words, you can see the
point at which the roller or ball and the race were con-
tacting when stopped, and that's where they corroded,"
he says. Unfortunately this type of corrosion will usually
extend across the width of a roller, setting up a potential
failure due to spalling.
Accurate machining-the key to gearbox life
"A good Twin Pack gearbox will have all of the gear
teeth in even contact. And when you look at the gearbox
when it comes in for overhaul, you can look at the gears
and see the wear pattern; it's sort of a polished pattern
that should run completely across the gear teeth. It's
absolutely critical that you achieve this," McIntosh says.
"One of the ways that we ensure perfect alignment
is to use the proper equipment when overhaululg the
gearbox. One of the most critical operations is machin-
ing the bearing bores. We use a very large and accurate
jig boring machine that allows us to custom machine
each gearbox."
McIntosh says that the process of aligning the bear-
ing bores involves first checking each bore to see if it's
positioned properly and within limits. "If the bores are
worn beyond limits or positioned properly, we machine a
certain amount of material out of the bore to prepare it
for plasma spraying. We then spray the bores, reposition
the gearbox cases on the jig borer, and machine them
to specs."
The operation of machining the bores is actually
quite complex because the gearbox is in three pieces: the
output section, input section, and diaphragm.
Tomas Corks, jig borer operator for Airwork, says,
"We start by machining the front bearing bores, bolting
down the diaphragm, machining those bores, then bolt.
ing on the rear and machining those bores. We actually
have to build the gearbox casing up on the jig borer
as we machine each section. It's a timeconsuming and
involved process that results in perfect alignment
between the three gearbox sections.
"We don't always have to remachine all the bores.
Sometimes we do, but more often than not, it's only two
or three bores that we have to remachine," he says.
Emphasis is on inspection
Due to its size and complexity, inspecting for cracks
on the gearbox castings can be quite tricky, NDT techni-
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Turbine Technology
cian Frank Lima, says. "When we have an area that's
questionable, we back up our inspection by doing it over
again, if possible using another procedure. We want to
be 100 percent sure of what we're seeing.
"Most times, it comes out that there is no crack. We
also go through great pains to make sure that our dye
penetrant is fresh, (not out of date) and is maintained at
the proper temperature. In fad, we are all NDT certified,
so that we know what we're doing when inspecting these
parts. Because of the porosity, typical of magnesium
alloy castings, we must control all variables including the
time that the gear case is dipped in the penetrant, the
amount of washing of the penetrant, proper use of
the developer, and proper UV lighting," he says.
McIntosh says that bearing inspection can be a
challenge as well. "When we're handling bearings, we
have to have a very clean environment: We don't hand
die the bearings with our hands due to the oils and acids
on our skin, we use either surgical or cotton gloves."
Tom Etheredge, gearbox shop leadman for Airwork,
says that every inspection starts with a breakdown and
basic visual inspection of the gearbox when it first comes
in. "We then send it for paint stripping prior to NDT;
then we check the locations of the bores on the jig
boring machine. Then depending on what we find for
sizes, and locations on the jig borer, determines which
ones have to be plasma sprayed and remachined; the
preplasma machining can be done at this time.
"We also inspect the four class-sized bolts that hold
the gearbox sections together and keep them in align-
ment. We have to check the holes and make sure that
each one of them is within tolerance. If they aren't, we
may have to reclass them by reaming the hole and using
a different class bolt. When we do this, if one needs to
be reclassed, we reclass all of them so that they're the
same. That way, there's no mixing them up during
reassembly.
"Then all the gears and shafts inside the gearbox are
individually checked for spalling, corrosion, or other
damage," says Etheredge.
"There are no repairs or rework that you can do to
the gears once they are spalled or corroded, but there's
a certain limit on wear pattern that you're allowed. We
check each gear w i t h pin gauges and micrometers to
make sure they're within lifts.
"Also, the PTGT manual contains inspection criteria
for each bearing that includes hardness limits. If you
suspect, through discoloration, that the bearing has been
subjected to excessive heat conditions, you're required to
do hardness testing on a part of the bearing race or cage
that will not interfere with the operation of the bearing.
It's very rare that the bearings overheat, and if they do,
there is usually other damage associated with the over-
heating as well," he says.
Etheredge explains that checking dimensions can be
tricky on the gearbox assembly. "One of the things
we've learned is that checking tolerances and taking
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 129
lbrblne Technology

measurements on the gearbox can be different when it's
assembled vs. disassembled which is why the cases are
line bored when assembled on the jig borer.
"One word of caution to people in the field and at
overhaul facilities," says Etheredge, "concerns the use of
Crisco shortening to hold gaskets or O-rings in place
while assembling the gearbox. This practice can cause
problems. What happens is that the Crisco is not com-
patible with the synthetic oil in the gearbox and so it
doesn't break down. Instead it breaks off and floats
around in chunks and clogs oil ports and passages. In-
stead, these people should be using an assembly fluid
that's made with the same base as the oil so that when
you light up the engine, the assembly fluid will simply
mix into the oil."
It's got to be right the first time
McIntosh says, "One of the reasons that alignment of
bores and dimensional checks is so critical is because
there are no checks for gear backlash and really no ad-
justments you can make once you've assembled the gear-
box. So you've got to get it right the first time when
you're putting it together.
"Again the jig boring job is really the most critical
operation in the overhaul of the gearbox because once
you've assembled the gearbox, there's really no way to
check that the gears are contacting correctly. You're rely-
ing on the accuracy of the jig boring and the tolerances
of the bearings and flange assemblies," he says.

Anti-friction bearings overhaul visual inspection

standard for heat discoloration
Defhition/description-Heat discoloration is surface col- Light Straw Low temperature
oration ranging from light straw to gray depending on Median Straw
the environment temperature and the thickness of the Dark Straw
oxide film that is formed on the surface.
Light Violet
Probable cause-Heat discoloration is usually due to
the effects of heat in the presence of oxygen (exposure Dark Violet (Purple)
of bearing surfaces to hot air environment) or lubricant Dark Blue
breakdown (insufficient bearing lubrication for proper Medium Blue
cooling). Light Blue
Overhaul limits-Functional nonfunctional and cage BlueGray
surfaces: Heat discoloration on all bearing surfaces is
Gray High temperature
acceptable if surfaces do not exhibit abnormal discolora-
tion (dark bluish to purple) after cleaning. Note: Some
oils can cause misleading indications, but the hardness
check is the final arbiter.

130 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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 Gearbox lubrication-a tricky subject
The lubrication system for the gearbox can be somewhat
tricky. The gearbox, when assembled, is basically divided
into three sections. In essence, each side of the gearbox
becomes part of the power section for a PT6 and as
such, it shares lubrication oil with the engine.
The center portion of the gearbox has its own lubrica-
tion system. It has a 'lter, a pump, and the whole thing
is totally separate; this is important to note, because if
there is contamination in either outside portion of the
gearbox the respective power section has to be repaired
as well.
By the same token, there are three filters mounted
on the gearbox-one for each power section, and one for
the gearbox itself. McIntosh says, "We've occasionally
had people send in the gearbox because they found
metal, and weren't aware that the engines needed to be
repaired as well. In fact it's possible to be unaware that
the engines were contaminated and swap out the gear-
box, by doing so contaminating the new gearbox with the
contaminated power section."
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A common occurrence is leakage of oil between the
power sections and the reduction gearbox. Depending on
which way the oil is leaking, you may need to remove
the gearbox for repairs. For instance, if it's leaking from
the reduction gearbox (center) to a power section, it may
be a bad internal seal (scratched, damage or loose) in
the reduction gearbox which would require removal and
disassembly. If it's leaking from the power section to the
reduction gearbox, it may be a problem with the
torquemeter seals, which may be repairable in the field.
You may also have problems with blockage of P3 air
which normally blows air past the carbon seals to keep it
clear. This will allow oil to leak past the carbon seal.
Check for leakage from torquemeter cover preformed
packing, or large preformed packing on torquemeter
(reference 7211-36). September/October 1995
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 131
Turbine Technology
The evolution of vibration monitoring
By Mewyn Floyd
M
any of us are familiar with the "good old" days
when an auto mechanic would apply the end of
his long screwdriver to various points on an
engine and push the handle firmly against his ear.
After an appropriate period for reflection, this pro-
cedure was then followed by the prophetic announce-
ment that some particularly well-hidden and expensive
part of the engine was about to expire unless replaced
immediately.
For more than 30 years, the vibration monitoring
industry has been trying to emulate what at first
appears to be a crude system and replace the human
element with the technological equivalent of sensor,
electronics processing and display mechanisms. If noth-
ing else, it has proven that the human mind coupled
with experience has formidable diagnostic capability.
What the mechanic was "hearing" (and feeling) was
simply the mechanical noises and forces produced by
moving parts that were either not perfectly balanced or
were worn and had undesirable relative motion. The loca-
tion of the screwdriver tip was chosen by experience to
be in areas having good mechanical contact or proximity
to the part that he wished to monitor.
More precision needed
Modern gas turbine vibration monitoring systems
have replaced the technician's ear with sensors which
are capable of detecting vibration signals over a much
wider frequency range than the human ear. In some
applications such as diagnostics of helicopter main drive
gearboxes, measurements are made into the region of
200 KHz.
To replicate the mechanic's experience in locating his
screwdriver tip, engines are fitted with numerous sen-
sors located in positions dictated by structural analysis
and performance expectations. During the development
phase, the sensor outputs are extensively analyzed and
related to the actual engine condition. Finally, a much
smaller number of positions (two to four) are chosen
on the basis of their repeatable, discernible response
to the more probable engine deterioration modes that
are expected.
Objectives for in-flight monitoring systems
The objective of the system is to convert the sensitive
charge signals into something that can be processed by
conventional electronic means in order to extract the two
fundamentally different sorts of information that come
from this type of system.
132 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
The first or primary type of information is directed
to the flight crew and is only concerned with informa-
tion that may be required to determine safety of flight.
The secondary category of information is much more
complex in nature and is designed to assist in the deter-
mination of the mechanical condition of the engine in-
cluding diagnosis and prognosis of any fault conditions.
Primary information is usually restricted to an indi-
cation of the level of imbalance of each of the main ro-
tating assemblies possibly w i t h some separation between
the fan and turbine sections.
Secondary data is for engine maintenance purposes
and ranges from simple cockpit recordings of indicated
levels and rotor speeds with pen and paper, via sophisti-
cated processing and on-board storage, to real-time data
interrogation andlor downlink to a central maintenance
computer.
Fan balancing during revenue flight
The requirement for balancing turbine fans was
driven by the inevitable laws of physics which dictate
that a very large rotating fan placed at the front of
an engine, on a wing and driven around the world's
runways and skyways at various speeds is often going
to have to digest inedible objeds varying from gravel
to hailstones, birds of diverse size and quantity, etc.
Although all engines are designed and tested to handle
these events without problem, the consequences of such
ingestions are often nicks, dents abrasions which lead to
less than perfect balance of the fan section of the engine.
Prior to 1984 the only method available for balancing
required that the aircraft be parked somewhere where
ground running of the engine(s) at high power setting
for considerable periods is permitted.
The basic method consists of ground running the
engine at a specified speed and noting the vibration
magnitude.
A known imbalance weight is then applied to the
affected engine, and the above ground run is repeated.
From these results, knowledge of what balance
weights are already fitted and by use of tabulated data
for the specific engine type, it is possible to calculate the
position and size of the required balance weight.
The computed solution then has to be applied cor-
rectly and the engine ground run has to be repeated in
order to verify that the fan is now correctly balanced.
An improvement to this process involves the use of
ground test equipment which uses either the on-board
azimuth signal if available or adds a specific tachometer
for the test. Such systems also measure the phase of the
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 imbalance, and some are capable of performing balance
calculation algorithms for specific engine types.
Provided that ground running is of no great concern,
this equipment can usually reduce the ground running
time by at least 30 percent.
Since 1984, however, some systems have had the abil-
ity to perform what has proven to be one of the most
cost-effective services ever to be provided by an engine
vibration monitoring EVM system, the ability to process
and store fan balance data during revenue flight.
Choosing to incorporate on-board
EVM systems
The question of whether or not the onboard EVM
system should contain the necessary functions to execute
balancing algorithms and display balance solutions as a
maintenance function on the flight line has been the
subject of much industry debate.
The answer appears to be closely allied to particular
airline operating procedures route structures, type of
equipment, etc., rather than to any simple economic or
engineering principle.
The bottom line is always how much payback can
such a system produce. Here, it's interesting to study
two completely opposite but equally valid philosophies:
Operator case #1 is a large international carrier
operating several engine/aircraft combination types.
Typically such an operator has a large central mainte-
nance base and may well be a repair and maintenance
contractor for certain airframe and or engine types for
other airlines.
Also, the worldwide route structure usually dictates
that aircraft may be away from the central maintenance
base for extended periods.
It is easily understood that such a carrier can make a
good case for having some form of real time data link to
his aircraft so that necessary maintenance actions and
maybe parts can be planned at the next appropriate
waypoint. The direct and consequential costs involved in
having a significant unplanned maintenance event on an
aircraft 10,000 miles away from home base can be very
considerable compared to a similar event at a major
domestic hub.
Once the fundamental decision is made to incor-
porate such a system, the second, and arguably most
important decision, concerns the setting up of the requi-
site infrastructure to make economic usage of the data.
Unused data is all too frequently a product of our
computerized age and is about as useful as a runway
behind an aircraft. Failing to "close the loop" between
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data gathering and consequent maintenance or even
design action is the most common point of failure of
many monitoring systems.
Where such infrastructure has been implemented,
the long-term benefits can be considerable. Some major
airlines in this category collect real-time balance (and
other) data from its fleet of aircraft. The data is then
downloaded into the central maintenance computer and
subjected to verification and smoothing procedures.
Case #2 is the opposite end of the scale with a
commuter or shorbhaul operator with very few aircraft/
engine type mixes to deal with, short turnarounds, and
no self-owned major engine overhaul facility.
Here the aircraft is typically only a few hours or
so away from any one of a number of points at which
replacement of one or more damaged fan blades is
possible with minor schedule impact. Alternatively, since
this is normally only a maintenance issue, the aircraft
just continues flying (or may be rescheduled) until it is
in a convenient location for an engine maintenance
contractor to perform a trim balance run using ground
equipment.
Clearly in such a case the expense of creating the
infrastructure necessarily to obtain the long-term cost
benefits of case #1 is unjustifiable.
Virtually the only scenario of interest to such opera-
tors is if the balance data can be provided on the flight
line, at no additional operating cost, then it may be
used since there are costs involved in using the engine
maintenance contractor.
An "in between" situation exists where such an
operator may simply purchase one set of a balance
capable EVM systems and fit it on a rotating basis to
any aircraft needing trim balance.
Balancing still dependent on operator input
In all cases balancing is an interactive process which
requires the operator to make some informed choices
based on the data output from the system. In some
systems, it may be necessary or desirable to input
additional data such as the current position of any
balance weights already fitted. Other options include the
possibility of the operator asking "What if' questions of
the system in order to optimize his final solution.
Mervyn Floyd is a US.Representative for
Vibro-Meter S.A., a manufacturer of on-board vibration
monitoring equipment for aircraft.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 133
lbrblne Technology
Don't knock it
Prior t o the '70s, the sensing principle for vibration sen-
sors was essentially a spring-loaded coil moving in a
magnetic field. Although this technique produced a
reasonable signal amplitude that was proportional to
the velocity of the vibration, the sensors themselves had
moving parts which were sensitive to wear and even
sticking. This leads to the common maintenance practice
of "tapping" the sensor with a blunt object andlor
removing it as the most probable cause of any reported
system malfunction.
Today all modern gas turbine vibration sensors are of
the piezo-eledric type in which minute electrical charges
are produced in certain types of ceramic or crystalline
materials as the result of forces being applied to them.
By suitable mechanical design, these electrical charges
are related directly to the acceleration or "g" forces
applied to the sensors which are therefore commonly
referred to as "accelerometers."
By suitable choices of piezoelectric materials and
careful design, sensors can be produced that are capable
of lifetime operation at temperatures ranging from
cryogenic (-400°F) to glowing cherry red (1,200°F).
These sensors have no moving parts and have
demonstrated service lives of well in excess of 100,000
hours. The downside of the equation is that the charge
signals that are produced are relatively small and
require routing via special low-noise cabling to the
processing electronics.
In spite of the f a d that piezo systems have been in
common use for over 20 years, the maintenance practice
134 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
of hitting the sensor to see if it produces some output on
the cockpit indicator still persists. Not only does this
produce no output because the frequencies generated
do not pass through the electronics, but it virtually
guarantees that the sensor is damaged and the myth
becomes self-perpetuating!
Provided it is left alone, the sensor is the most
reliable part of an engine vibration monitoring
(EVM) system.
As with many electrical systems, the biggest main-
tenance problem area lies with connectors and cabling.
The special low-noise cabling used with piezo systems
require special handling techniques compared to
standard wiring. The grounding points provided on
the aircraft wiring diagrams must be strictly observed
and maintained.
Electrical connectors are very carefully designed to
be very efficient at transmitting electrical current from
one device to another. In the case of a piezo-electric
system these same connector types are asked to transmit
an electrical charge with virtually no current flow.
Great effort is directed at making the engine side of
the of the installation as robust as practical. This is
partly because of the relatively severe environment
(compared to the airframe) and the fact that this area
is more often open for flight line maintenance purposes
and the inevitable risk of damage.
Once the signals reach the airframe structure, the
environment is more stable and presents fewer problems
from the maintenance viewpoint. July/August 1995
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TFE731 engine control
systems troubleshooting
By Ted Long
T
he heart of the TFE731 engine is the engine con-
trol system. This system consists of the electronic
engine control and a hydromechanical fuel control
unit (FCU). These units working together control engine
fuel in response to power lever movement.
First step in troubleshooting: gathering the
proper information
One of the most important steps of troubleshooting a
WE731 control system problem is the operator debrief.
It is probably the weakest link of the troubleshooting
process. The information that is gathered during this
process will hopefully identify/isolate the malfunction to
a specific area.
During debrief you should start to draw some conclu-
sions to the problem. Are you looking for a common
problem that impads both normal and manual opera-
tion, or is it an electronic control problem, that is the
problem only appears while operating in normal mode?
If it's a common problem, then you would start to isolate
the fuel and pneumatic (73) system and the common
items between the two modes of operation. If it is only
an electronic control problem, then the troubleshooting
process becomes a little more difficult.
In the troubleshooting of the electronic control
system there are usually two types of faults covered: the
hard fault and the intermittent fault (sometimes referred
to as soft fault). A hard fault is defined as an open or
short in the control circuits that causes the electronic
control to transfer to manual mode and will not reset.
An intermittent fault is a fault within the electronic con-
trol system that causes the control to transfer to manual
mode but can be reset; or it is a fault that causes the
engine operating parameters (NJ, N2, ITI,fuel flow, etc.)
to roll up, roll back, fluctuate, etc., but the control does
not transfer to manual mode. The intermittent fault is
generally the hardest and most timeconsuming problem
to isolate.
Once you've analyzed the problem, the next step is
to establish a logical troubleshooting sequence. Before
moving into this area, let's take a little time and address
the test equipment that is available to accomplish some
basic troubleshooting on the TFE731 engine.
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Turbine Technology
I
Flight line tester
What test equipment do you need?
There are three basic pieces of test equipment used
to troubleshoot an analog control system (installed on
the TFE731-2/3 engines) electricaVelectronic problem.
They are: the digital multimeter, fhght line tester (PIN
28990-X), and preinstallation test set, "PITS for short,"
(PIN 91668-X).
Probably the most common piece of test equipment
used to troubleshoot a control system problem is the
digital multimeter. A breakout box, P/N 916718-1, is
available to assist in the troubleshooting process. The
breakout box is designed to ensure positive contact and
that the correct circuit is being read. The breakout box is
connected to the main engine harness that connects to
the EECs J1 connector. Remember that opens and
shorts are easily identified with a meter. But keep in
mind components can read good resistance but stiU
cause a system problem during engine operation.
The flight line tester (P/N 28990@1/-2/-3) is another
piece of test equipment used to isolate electrical faults.
The tester connects in-series between the main engine
harness and the EEC and can be used for both static
and operational checks. Resistance and voltage readings
can be taken from the test box. A multimeter with digi-
tal readout is required when taking these readings. By
placing the switches of the flight line tester in the test
position, signals matching normal operation are sent to
the system component being tested. Monitoring of the
power light and manual mode light is required during
the test. One note on this - the test switch must be held
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 135
Turbine Technology
Preinstdation test set
three to five seconds to ensure the component circuit
being tested is good, which will be indicated by the light
staying on.
The last piece of test equipment to discuss is the
preinstallation test set (P/N 9166881-1) commonly
referred to as the PITS tester. The PITS is a valuable
troubleshooting tool in the fault isolation process. When
installed in place of the EEC, it checks different electri-
cal circuits for proper electrical circuit loads and can
locate faults in an engine component/harness. When
a circuit or component is faulty, the tester will emit
an audible alarm and activate a lamp identifying the
discrepant circuit. The PITS tester is a very valuable
tool when trying to isolate the intermittent problem
(soft fault).
The PITS is used for static checks only. When the
tester is installed in place of the EEC, the engine
should never be operated. A breakout box (P/N 9167181)
comes as part of the PITS. An adapter harness
(E'/N 918352-1-1) is required if the tester is to be used
with a digital electronic engine control.
136 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
--
Break-out box
Two other checks that can be performed using the
PIE are the potentiometer power check and the ITT
harness circuit check. The potentiometer check requires
a 10v DC source applied to the main engine harness that
connects to the EEC J1 connector. This check is to see
if there's any change to the signal that is returned to the
EEC. Any change to this signal will change engine
operation uncommanded.
The second is the I'IT harness circuit check. A mego-
hmmeter is required to check insulation resistance. A
caution to this procedure is not to apply more than
lOOv DC during any segment of the check. Although
these checks are accomplished when troubleshooting
both hard and intermittent faults, they apply more to
finding an intermittent fault.
One key point in troubleshooting electrical problems
with the fhght line tester or PITS is that each unit is
connected in the system where the main engine harness
connects to the electronic control. When a faulty com-
ponent circuit has been identified by the tester, the
problem must still be isolated to either a harness
problem or a component problem. This can only be
accomplished by using a multimeter and reading the
component/h-ess resistance.
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The troubleshooting process
When troubleshooting the system using a multimeter,
always start from the main engine harness that connects
to the J1 connector of the EEC and not at the compo-
nents. This will ensure that problems from corrosion,
pin retention, push-back sockets, etc. are not temporarily
cleared when the electrical connector is disconnected.
Remember also that if a sync system is installed, the
first step in troubleshooting a harness/circuit problem is
to instal a jumper cable that bypasses the sync box. This
will ensure the fault is not in the sync box.
Troubleshooting electronic control faults that repeat
on the ground can be accomplished using a h t a l multi-
meter, flight line tester, or PITS, depending on equip
ment availability. If Ifoubleshooting the system using
a multimeter, the table on this page is a breakout of
resistance values for components.
If the resistance of the components was checked and
it did not expose a fault, temporarily install a known
serviceable EEC and see if the fault cleared. If it did,
replace the EEC. If it did not, continue the trouble
shooting process.
SOLENOID B
,MANUALMWE S O W I O .46 i 5 OHMS
OVERWED SOLENm I i 6 OHMS
THEI#OCWWP
COMPLETE CIRCUIT 3 TO 50 OHMS
HARNESSLL4D 8OHMSMAXAT21% l tC
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Tibine Technology
Intermittent faults, particularly N1 and N2 rpm
roll-up, roll-back, or fluctuation are the hardest problems
to find. The PITS unit is probably the best piece of test
equipment to use in troubleshooting this type of fault.
Although the flight line tester and multimeter can
be used, it's harder to detect the fault and requires
additional personnel.
With the PITS installed, the first step is to check and
reset the lights on the tester. This ensures the unit is
functioningproperly before testing the control system.
Start the test by flexing wire bundles and connectors
while listening for the audible alarm. If a fault is detect
ed, the alarm will sound and the indicator lamp for the
circuit will illuminate. The light will stay on until the
PITS is reset.
Also check the EEC J1 mating connector and both
the sync harness connectors as follows:
Remove the lock wire and back-off connector two
turns; then gently pull the harness connector against the
connector nuts. If a faulty circuit is indicated by the
PITS, the connector has improper engagement. Repair
or replace as necessary.
Applying a coolant to a suspect connector or sensor
may cause an inflight fault to duplicate. Never use cool-
ant in an enclosed or unventilated area, and take Ilrecau-
tions to prevent contact with skin and eyes. Cold pack
the harness connector backshells and PT2/TT2 sensor. If
the PITS alarm sounds, repair or replace the connector
as necessary. There is not a requirement to cold pack the
connector mating with the EEC J1 connector. The check
for proper engagement was adequate.
If the PITS did not isolate the fault, the next step
would be to remove all harness connectors and inspect
for bent and pushed-back pins, pushed-back sockets, cor-
rosion, and contamination like solder material, foreign
objects, and moisture. Check each pin socket for tight
ness by inserting a spare pin into the female pin socket;
then gently, but firmly, p d on each connector to assure
solid wire retention. Also check for proper alignment
of ins and sockets with kevwav on 5 5 ~ i socket
n
connectors and adequate pin retention on all connector
pins and sockets. If all preceding checks have been
complied with and the fault still exists, remove and
replace the EEC in accordance with maintenance manual
procedures. iEl May/June 1995
Ted Long is Senior Instructor for ALliedSignal Aerospace
ALliedSignal Engines in Phoenix, AZ.
/he Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 137
Turbine Technolofly

Thrust reverser maintenance

Thrust reverser overhaul centers provide valuable service/expertise

B
ecause of their size, large engine thrust reversers
pose special problems for commercial technicians.
To maximize an airline's "green time," techni-
cians perform as much maintenance to reversers on-wing
as possible. Since thrust reversers are considered second-
ary structures, commercial technicians are dowed more
flexibility in performing in-house repairs, but not all
repairs can be made on-wing or even in-house.
Some damage, such as corrosion or small pundures,
are usually repaired in-house. When performing patches
in-house, commercial technicians typically evaluate the
repair based on the airworthiness, turn time, and in
commercial airlines where appearance is important, the
cosmetics of the repair.
Reversers are either metal bond or composite. Metal
reversers are usually repaired by a doublerlrivet patch,
while composites can be repaired by a scarf or adhesive Delamination of the Inconel honeycomb on the acoustic
patch. On average, scarf patches are easier to apply and nozzle, on this JT&D thrust reverser at Thrustair, can often
yield a more cosmetic product, but a crucial element to be repaired with plugs and patches.
applying cosmetic patches is the surface temperature to
which it must be tolerant. This is a distinct advantage of an OEM shop. Because
When puncture damage is severe, or if reversers have they have the original tooling used to create the r e
extended in-service hours, technicians may need t o send verser, in overhaul, they can bring the reverser "back to
the unit to an outside repair station. While some airlines blueprint." Independent shops can only work from
operate their own repair and overhaul facilities, complete copies, which may yield subtle but significant differences
with the large bonding autoclaves necessary for large in the structure's contours.
engine composite reversers, others turn to the indepen- To help maximize an airline's "green time," facilities
dent shops or the OEM. like the CAM can perform limited repairs as opposed to
Martin Marietta Aero & Naval Systems in Baltimore complete overhaul. If a unit has a hole in the transcowl,
has produced more than 3,500 reversers for GE Aircraft for example, it may come off wing and be shipped out
engines and is the sole source of reversers for the CF6 for repair. During preliminary inspection or repair, the
family of engines, commonly found on Airbus Industries
A300 and A310, Boeing 747 and 767, and the Douglas
DGlO/KC-10 aircraft. As a natural extension to the
company's production facilities, Martin also operates the
Center for Aircraft Maintenance (CAM).
"When we overhaul a reverser, what that means is
we're adding another lifetime to the unit," says Fran
Cook, one of the managers at CAM. "Repairing a unit
can extend its service time, but what we try to do when
we overhaul a unit is to bring it back to its original
condition. Essentially, we're giving the customer a
new unit."
Metal reversers require extensive tooling for repair
and overhaul and many sections must be replaced. It's
not costeffective to replace composites, however, which
have the advantage of being patched and returned to
their original condition.

Improper field repairs can leave buckled skins and poor

radius and need to be reworked at overhaul.

138 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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;is pidpaldtA'onfor reskinning the outer surface, the damag-

ed and/or corroded honeycomb core is being removed from
this CF6-50 fan reverser transcowl.

product engineering support office. OEM engineers are

usually called upon to review repairs or proposals.
"Sometimes a technician will find a problem, such as
Damage on this CF6-80x2fan reverser transcowl extends
into the NomeP core. Large-scale local repair to perforated
a crack in the torque box upper fitting, that will exceed
skin and NomeP core is required. the limits set in the CF6-80C2 Service Bulletin 7fX61,"
says Randy Murdock, one of the product support
engineers at Martin. "He notifies his supervisor, who
servicing technicians may uncover other problems with
refers it to the airline engineers so that a disposition can
the reverser. "Many times the reverser comes to us and
be made in order to &ow the aircraft to fly." Through
has been stripped," says Cook. "We have to perform a
product engineering support, airline engineers can
series of inspections and will notify the customer if parts
contact the OEM's engineers to request a repair or an
are missing or any other problems are found." Unlike
approval (also F W D E R approval) to fly the aircraft.
overhauled reversers, which are brought back to their
The OEM engineers review the situation and offer the
original airworthiness standard, some units may leave
airline engineering department an approved repair or
the shop with a modified airworthiness tag.
disposition to avoid dispatching the aircraft with the
A valuable service that you should look for in outside reverser deactivated or avoid an AOG situation.
overhaul shops is product engineering support such as
Product engineering support is a valuable service to
that available through OEMs. In most cases, sufficient
the manufacturer as well because it gives them impor-
repair information is available through existing line and
tant information on how products perform in the field.
shop manuals, such as SRMs, CMMs, AMMs, or from
Thrustair Inc. of Sylmar, CA, is another shop that
the airline's engineering departments. Sometimes a
repairs thrust reversers and components. The company
technician will have questions that are not covered in
primarily repairs and overhauls Rohr thrust reverser
existing guidelines, and are best handled by the OEM's
assemblies used on JT3D and JT8D engines installed on

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Turbine Technolofiy
727, 737, and DG9 aircraft. The company also produces
several STCs and PMAs for 727 thrust reversers.
David Hadley, thrust reverser shop foreman for
Thrustair, says one of the biggest problems with a repair
station related to thrust reverser repair is that airlines
come up with their own repair schemes that are
approved by its engineering staff. These repairs aren't
140 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
necessarily bad or illegal; it's just that they aren't done
according to the manufacturer's specifications, so when
they get into its shops, the repairs must be removed and
redone to spec.
He says that by deviating as little as possible from
the maintenance manual with field repairs, costa of over-
haul can be kept to a rninimum. Ba MarcIv'April 1996
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 Turbine Technology

I w

Developing a program to reduce maintenance costs

By Dick Mace

T
he LTlOl engine, installed in the BK117, Bell 222,
and Aerospatiale AS350-D helicopters, as well as
several fixed-wing aircraft, was designed from the
beginning to be a "field maintainable" engine at a time
when most other models on the market required a r e
turn to the factory, or depot, for internal maintenance
and inspedions.
In both the turboshaft and the turboprop models, a
single-stage axial and centrifugal compressor is driven by
a singlestage gas generator turbine. Gas flow is directed
through a reverse flow annular combustor, through the
gas turbine and then through a singlestage free power
turbine. Output power is transmitted to a front-mounted
reduction gearbox via a through-shaft concentrically
mounted within the compressor rotor shaft. All engine
accessories are located on the forward mounted acces-
sory and reduction gearbox. A modular design concept
has been employed resulting in a total of three easily
maintained components: the accessory/reduction
gearbox; the gas generator; and the combustor/power
turbine assembly. The dry weight of the complete engine
is approximately 240 pounds.
Field maintainable items consist primarily of the
hot section module of the engine and the accessory/
reduction gearbox.
Although the most popular way to operate and main-
tain these engines is on a
timelimited basis, there
is a much more cost-effec-
tive way to maintain the
r WROUGHT AXIAL
COMPRESSOR
of the Lycoming LTlOl gas turbine engines. The "on
condition" program allows an engine/module to remain
in operation for as long a time as inspections/checks
indicate it is serviceable.
Prior to this program, all engines operated under a
"hard time" program which assigned a conventional
TBO based upon engine operating hours, and required a
major over-haul at predetermined intervals.
The "on condition" maintenance program
requires that the performance of the engine be moni-
tored at regular intervals, in order to d e t e r h e when
maintenance is required based upon degradation
of power.
For new and newly overhauled engines, the monitor-
ing procedure must be in place within the first 100
hours of engine operation. Older engines which have
accumulated time must be inspected before entering
the program.
For engines which have accumulated more than 100
hours, but not more than 100 hours since new or over-
hauled, a 600-hour inspection and a hot section inspec-
tion must be performed. It's recommended that a power
assurance check be accomplished on the engine before
inspection to highlight any corrective action which may
be necessary while the power module is disassembled
for inspection.
ECCENTRIC G.P. SINGLE CRYSTAL
TURBINE SHROUD G.P. TURBINE

engine.
Following is a mainte- ELECTRONIC
nance philosophy by OVERSPEED
which describes how an
engine may never see an
overhaul shop throughout
ita service life:

On condition
operation
FUELPUMP -
LEAK-REISITANT
A ' WINGED NO. 2
BEARING

' HIGH FLOW NO. 2

AND 3 OIL SEALS

Five years ago, the

FAA approved an "on NARROW SPRAY
condition" maintenance ANGLE FUEL
program for all models FUEL PUMP MANIFOLD
SPLINES
NEW REAR BEARING
SUPPORT HOUSING

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 To accomplish the 6OQhour inspection, perform all
the requirements of the daily/10@/150-/300hour inspec-
tions, plus the following:
Check engine logbook to determine the status of
time and cycle life limited engine components.
(Refer to the latest revision of Service Bulletin No.
LT101-71-0002.)
Perform an operational check on the airflow
modulator.
Perform an operational check on the fuel filter
impending bypass indicator.
If engine showed problems during power assurance,
check with slow start/acceleration or low power,
clean temperature compensator and replace packings
on fittings.
Remove starter, fuel pump, power turbine governor,
and overspeed limiter, and visually insped male and
female splines for wear. Lubricate splines (except
wetspline gears) and reinstall components.
Perform leak and distortion check of fuel manifold.
Perform hot section inspection.
The hot section inspection can be performed in the
operator's shop by any qualified engine technician, and
factory field service representatives available to assist.
Once the power module is in the engine shop, the
inspection is performed as follows:
Measure power turbine rotor blade tip clearance.
Remove combustor turbine module from gas
producer module.
Remove combustion chamber liner and inspect per
maintenance manual. Welding and patch repairs are
authorized. Further disassembly of the combustor
turbine or gas producer modules is not necessary
except to investigate defects or to replace parts
found defective.
Visually inspect power turbine rotor for defects.
Check gas turbine rotor blades and cylinder for tubs.
Using inspection mirror and flashlight, inspect lead-
ing edges of gas generator nozzle vanes for burning,
cracks, or distortion.
Inspect all other components for carbon deposits,
burning, and distortion which could be caused by
clogged fuel nozzles or manifold.
Inspect all components for cracks, tubs, and security
of mounting.
Perform continuity check of MGT thermocouple.
Reassemble and install engine and check for leaks
and proper rigging.
142 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Perform test flight, including topping check and
power assurance check. Establish baseline for the
performance monitoring program to satisfy "on
condition" maintenance program.
For engines which have accumulated more than 600
hours to qualify for the "on condition" maintenance pro-
gram, a 1,200-hour inspection must be performed, which
includes all the above inspections plus inspection of the
accessory/reduction gearbox. This requires removal and
disassembly of the gearbox, and a general check of the
case and cover for nicks, burrs, scratches, cracks b t o r -
tion, and bearing bores for excessive or abnormal wear.
All threaded parts are inspected for damage. Gears and
bearings are then inspected. Also, inspect the following:
Bearings for general condition, surface defects, for-
eign matter, and discoloration due to overheating.
Gear splines for wear and fretting.
Gear teeth for damage and excessive or irregular
wear.
Gears for discoloration due to overheating.
Bearing liners and bores in the case and cover for
fretting and evidence of spinning.
After engine reassembly and installation, the baseline
for performance monitoring must be established dur-
ing test flight. Engines with more than 100 hours of
operation since new or overhaul must demonstrate a
baseline MGT margin of 10 degrees cooler than that
specified on the engine power assurance chart.
LTlOl Plus Series engines
Up until two years ago the LTlOl engine required a
hot section inspection every 600 hours of operation. In
the fall of 1992 the FAA approved extending the interval
to 1,200 hours for engines with updated power turbine
and gas producer turbine rotors installed. This can be
accomplished in the field during any hot section inspec-
tion, or at any time convenient to the operator.
The redesigned turbine rotors are part of a package
of product improvements introduced over the past
five years.
Engines which contain all of the product improve
ments have been designated the "LT101 Plus Series
Engines."
With the introduction of the product improvements,
this fleet has demonstrated a sigmficant reduction in
unscheduled engine removals (UER), maintenance
man-hours per flight hour (MMH/FH), and direct
maintenance costs @MC).
In conjunction with the Plus Series engine, Lycoming
has also developed a PARTnerShip Plan (PsP).
The PARTnerShip Plan (PsP) is Lycoming's mainte
nance service plan (power by the hour) where specific
Plus Series improvements are supplied, and engine
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maintenance costs are controlled through fixed budget-
ing based upon fhght hours.
In summary, a decision to adopt "on condition" main-
tenance for your LTlOl engine can produce a multitude
of benefits and allow you to predict and control costs.
Operators selecting the LTlOl Plus Series program
shall accomplish the following:
(a) Ensure one full flow debris monitor (chip detector) is
installed in engine lube system. Check the debris
monitor daily for continuity; full-time monitoring
with an instrument panel caution hght satisfies this
requirement Visually inspect the debris monitor for
chips at 50-hour intervals.
(b) Record and maintain a log of outside air temperature
(OAT), pressure altitude, and maximum measured gas
temperature (MGT) reached on each start. Any start
temperature exceeding 832 C requires that a power
assurance check (step (e) ) be accomplished before
next flight.
(c) Listen for any unusual noises during engine
coastdown. Investigate cause of any unusual noises.
(d) Replace engine oil at 100-hour intervals, or perform a
spectrometric analysis of engine oil. Perform engine
oil acidity test at 25-hour intervals.
(e) Record and maintain a log of all power assurance
check parameters utilizing the procedure found in the
aircraft flight manual. As a minimum, the following
must be recorded when operating "on condition."
Date
OAT
Pressure Altitude
Torque
MGT
Gas Generator Speed (Ng)
Power Turbine Speed (Np)
MGT Operating Margin (Calculated)
Ng Operating Margin (Calculated)
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l&rbine Technology
Maintenance action is required either when operating
MGT margin is less than zero, or has deteriorated more
than 10 degrees since last power check
Maintenance action is also required when Ng operat-
ing margin is less than zero, or has deteriorated by
1.5 percent since last check.
Perform a power assurance check following mainte
nance action to verify recovery of performance margin.
The performance monitoring requirements are
outlined in Lycoming Commercial Service letter
No. -032, Rev. 3.
Cost effectiveness
Approximately 50 additional maintenance man-hours
are required over the period of a normal TBO to comply
with the "on condition" performance monitoring require
ments. At $50 per labor hour, the total additional cost
amounts to $2,500, plus any additional time necessary
to perform corrective maintenance over that time period.
The alternative of a $100,000+ overhaul cost over-
shadows the effort expended to periodically monitor
engine performance.
The ability to forecast engine maintenance costs is a
great advantage when bidding contracts, or for personal
operational planning. Eliminating the surprise costs of
airworthiness directives and mandatory service bulletins
offers a substantial relief in managing cash flow. W
January/February 1995
Dick Mace is manager of the LTlOl field support
engine program for AUiedSignal Inc. AlliedSignal
Engines (formerly Textron Lycoming Turbine Engine
Division) in Stratford, CT.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 143
Turbine Technology
GE CF700 hot section inspection tips
By Greg Napert
G
eneral Electric's CJ610 and CF700 engine models
have been around the industry since the mid-'60s.
The 700 is a derivative of the 610 (which is used
primarily on the Learjet), and the core of the two engine
models are for the most part, identical. The 700, how-
ever, adds a fan to the exhaust path of the engine and
develops more thrust-thrust that is needed to power
large airframes like the Falcon jet.
Because of this additional thrust, the 700 requires
more attention during the hot section inspection.
Mark Andrews, assistant manager for Kalitta Enter-
prises in Ypsilanti, MI, agrees. He says that the CF700
has a lot more distress in the hot section in comparison
to the CJ610 because of the higher temperature limits.
Because of this, Andrews says they often apply their
years of experience and perform additional inspections
that may not be called out in the basic hot section proce
dures. For example, he explains that the manual didn't
use to require them to pull all of the accessories on the
gearbox and check the drive splines. "But we've been
inspecting these splines for a long time because of the
experiences that we've had. We've seen instances where
wear on the spline has caused the fuel pump to quit
running and resulted in an in-flight shutdown.
"So now we do that on every hot section, and, coinci-
dentally, GE recently came out with a recommendation
to check the splines. But we've been doing it for years.
We also check the carbon seals on the splines for leak-
age and replace them if needed.
"Another thing that we do," says Andrews, "is to
clean and flow check the fuel nozzles at every hot section
inspection. GE's requirements for fuel nozzle cleaning
and inspection are to do them at the 3,000- to 4,000-hour
update, and then again at overhaul. But we've found
that they really need it at every hot section inspection.
Cleaning fuel nozzles isn't cheap, but it makes sense
because most of the damage that we see to hot sections
is due to streaking fuel nozzles.
"A lot of the customers we deal with have extended
maintenance programs and such. So we get a real mix-
ture of customers that have different types of engine pro-
grams and hot section inspection requirements. Some
operators don't require hot section before 1,250 hours
and others anywhere up to 2,000 hours. All others stick
pretty close to the 1,000-hour inspection interval."
Andrews says Kalitta tries to offer the operator o p
tions by developing repairs for nozzles and other compo-
nents in the engine to reduce the cost of overhauling the
engine. "We try to repair as much damage as possible
when it's within limits," he says. "But the 700s have
144 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
been in service for a long time, and with many compo-
nents it becomes uneconomical to repair them, so we
have to replace them."
Checking records
Mark Moody, technician and chief inspector for
Kalitta, says that they verify service bulletins as they go
through the engine to see if it is in need of compliance
with any critical repairs or modifications. "Once we have
the engine torn down, we get the inventory sheet and
document each and every part number and serial num-
ber and then verify that against the logbook to check
cycles and life limits."
Andrews says you've got to be careful when you
check the cycle limits on the parts. There are approxi-
mately 23 parts that are life limited, and it's not uncom-
mon to pull parts prematurely because of mixing up
part number.
Paying attention to the obvious
Andrews says, "On teardown, we evaluate the overall
condition, look for evidence of nozzle streaking, damage
as a result of FOD, cracks, etc. On occasion, we find
streaking fuel nozzles that burn through the first or
second-stage turbine nozzle and damage an entire set of
blades. The second-stage nozzle probably takes the most
abuse as a result of streaking nozzles. The firststage
turbine nozzle doesn't have as much heat concentrated
onto it, so it typically is in better shape than the
second stage.
"A streaking nozzle can also heat up the components
to the point where molten metal begins to come off and
splatters on the firs& and second-stage turbine blades.
The result can be pitting, overheating, blade untwist,
FOD damage and more. Also, excessive heat as a result
of streaking can cause the blades to stretch and hit the
honeycomb shroud. The honeycomb is very hard, and it
can overheat and destroy the blade tips.
"If any blade shows evidence of cracking that's not
related to FOD, you must replace the entire set of
blades," says Andrews. "This is because you can assume
that if one blade has cracked, the other blades on the
disc have been subjected to the same stresses and will
probably crack in the near future. FOD damage can be
either blended if it is within limits, or the individual
blade can be replaced.
"One of the things that we also look for on turbine
blades is blade 'untwist.' To measure the untwist, we use
a protractor that measures the angle of the blades, and
if they have 'untwisted' beyond limits, we have to scrap
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 Twbine Technology

the blades. Again, streaking nozzles will result in warped

and twisted blades."
Andrews says that the transition seal on the midspan
shroud of the fan, "really is the key to ensuring proper
fan performance. What we do initially, is lay the fan in
the housing and do a spin check to listen for rubbing
between the fan and the transition seal. Rubbing indi-
cates that the seal clearances are still within limits. If
there's no rubbing, you need to check the clearance, and
if it's beyond limits,replace the seal.
"The transition seal traps the gases from the turbine
and spins the fan. If it allows the gases to go to the
outer fan blades and bypass the inner fan blades, it will
result in fan inefficiency and will cause high fan rpm or
even an overspeed condition."

The transition seal on this fan housing is the k e y to

assuring good fan performance. It must be checked to
make sure that clearances are within limits.

A little history goes a long way

Carbon buildup on the fuel
nozzle tips can result i n
streaking and/or voids. I f
not cleaned and flow
checked, this can result i n
serious damage to the hot
section components.
Blade "untwist" i s
measured using a
protractor and checking
the angle o f the blades to
the plane o f rotation.
These blades will probably
be scrapped due to an
overheat condition caused
b y a streaking fuel nozzle.
Andrews explains, "That's why it's helpful for us to
get information as to how the engine is running prior
to it coming in for HSI. If the fan's overspeeding, for
instance, I'll take a look at the transition seals and make
sure we're getting a good seal, as well as look at tip
clearances. If the seal is worn beyond limits, we'll
replace it.
"Also, there is a coating on the fan where the
midspan shroud mates with the transition seal. If it's
worn beyond limits, you'll have the same problem as the
transition seal being worn."
Andrews says that you should look at the engine
before tearing it down to determine if there are existing
problems with the transition seal. "You can also tell if
air is bypassing by looking down the tail of the engine.
If you see a white circle around the outer ducting, you
know air is bypassing. The transition seals can be
shimmed to achieve the desired clearance. The aft seal
gets shimmed, but the forward doesn't."
He explains that the forward seal is the one that
actually gives the biggest problems because it's under
the most pressure. "We've scrapped many of the seals
for too thin wall thicknesses because of getting worn,
and reworked many others," he says.

Turbine nozzle damage as a result o f fuel nozzle streaking.
This one will have to be evaluated to see if repairs are
economical.
Combustion liners
One item that always gets overhauled at hot section
is the combustion liner explains Andrews. "Every liner is
overhauled at HSI by replacing the inner and outer
shells and overhauling the cowl and dome. The factory
basically unrivets the shells from the assembly and
installs new material, then welds any cracks and rebuilds
any worn areas of the cowl and dome."

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Fuel nozzles
Because of how critical it is that fuel nozzles operate
properly, Kalitta has an extensive fuel nozzle program
where nozzles are disassembled, inspected, reassembled,
and tested.
Mark Ebby, fuel nozzle technician for Kalitta, says,
"You've got to be very careful with the fuel nozzles; it's
very important to make sure they're flow checked and
cleaned. We first clean them and remove any carbon con-
tamination, disassemble and inspect the components,
clean the intake screens, adjust them for flow (we try to
get around 135-psi inlet pressure; you can open and close
the valve by altering the spring tension in the nozzle
valve), set them on a test bench with clean calibrated
test fluid, per the manual, and check them visually with
a good backlight to assure you're not getting streaking or
voids. A sign that the fuel nozzle valves are opening p r e
maturely is high starting temperatures. This is because
fuel will dump into the combustion chamber before the
engine is ready to light.
"Although the manual does allow for a small amount
of streaking and voids, we reject them if we see any at
all. We feel that any streaking should not be allowed, so
we rework them by polishing the spray nozzle tip, and
that usually takes care of any of the streaking. It's really
important you polish it carefully. You cannot alter the
shape; you can only polish the very surface of the nozzle
tip to remove deposits," he says.
Andrews says, "There's so much liability w i t h the fuel
nozzles. They can destroy a hot section in one engine
start, and we're responsible. That's why we spend a lot
of time working on them in our shop."
Bleed valve blues
Scott Booth, technician for Kalitta, says that bleed
valves also can give an operator a lot of problems. "Al-
though the design is quite simple, it consists of all mov-
ing parts that wear and can jam," he explains. "If a valve
is hanging up, it can cause compressor stalls. Everythmg
has got to be perfect on it.
"Everything wears; either the gates are worn, or the
rollers or the pins that the rollers go on, or the control
arm,housing, etc. On starting, the bleed valves w i l l be
open and as the engine power increases to takeoff, they
close. Rebuild bits are available for the valves, but they
are very expensive."
Booth explains that "you can spend hours on a bleed
valve rebuilding it and trying to figure out which piece is
hanging up and/or causing the bleed valve to sag. You've
got to measure each piece and find out where your wear
146 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
is and try different pieces. I've often thought of getting
a piece of plexi-glass housing for one side so you could
see where it's hanging up. The other thing is that the
actuator itself can be hanging up or something else that
the actuator is connected to, so you should never jump
to conclusions."
Variable vanes
Another item that's inspected during a hot section
is the variable vanes at the intake. "Based on the radial
play of the vanes (more than .020 inches of movement
is unacceptable), the front frame may also have to be
shimmed to decrease the play. You're allowed up to two
shims per vane to reduce the play to an acceptable
level," says Booth.
Test cell
Andrews says, "We'll put an engine in our test cell
on customer request, but normally, after a hot section,
it's not necessary, It's very expensive ($4,000 to $6,000).
"But if we have a customer who operates in a remote
location (like we have one in Venezuela), they usually
request a test cell run so that we can get all the engine
trimming done before we ship the engine, guarantee that
everything runs properly (leak checked and operationally
checked) and be sure that the engine makes power. We
also might use the test cell if we have a known perfor-
mance problem that you were trying to troubleshoot
coming into hot section and you want to make sure that
it's gone."
All for reliability
Many customers expect increased performance out of
a hot section inspection, regardless of how their engine
is running. But if their engine is performing within
specifications, it most likely will come out of the hot
section performing the same way.
It's important the customer knows that the hot sec-
tion is being performed to make sure you have a reliable
engine, not improve performance. However, if the engine
was experiencing some performance problems, chances
are they will be corrected at the hot section inspection.
Andrews says, "The biggest thing that helps us is
when the customer supplies us with prerun information
before it comes in the door. It's really nice to know what
we're dealing with. If there are problems with the engine
we know about, we can address them when we have the
hot sections open and ensure that we'll solve any operat
ing problems." E E NovembedDecember 1994
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 Turbine Technology

Tknd monitoring to enhance

engine maintenance programs
By Jim Fenton

w ouldn't it be nice to know when things might

fail or require maintenance on the aircraft
or equipment you maintain? This may be the
simplest reason to incorporate trending as a part of your
maintenance program.
Effective evaluation of trends can give you insight
into many future events, but, in order to recognize
trends you must first have a program of monitoring in
place. Absent any external requirements from govern-
ment agencies or other organizations, how do you define
a trend monitoring program? The most direct answer is
that you must first evaluate what you want the program
to accomplish and how to establish a program that w i l l
achieve the results you seek.
Assuming you have been able to determine a purpose
for the program, you must evaluate what information
you need and how to get at it. Fortunately, there are
people who have been there before you, namely the
manufacturers of the aircraft that you are using.
;%ether you are maintaining a helicopter, a sport plane,
or . 7 airliner, the manufacturer has probably specified
limi~ for almost every conceivable measurable value on
the aircraft. The specified values will normally be given
as a range or tolerance. Ranges may be greater or less
than a given value or may range from zero to an upper
limit depending on the item being measured.
The tolerances that the manufacturer specifies are
the values you should use for your initial baseline when
you begin to monitor and trend data. The values that
you may measure are many, and include such items as
displacement, (or the distance between objects in a
dynamic state), acceleration (which is typically the mea-
sure used for vibration), temperature, pressure, or speed.
Not all points in a given system yield significant
measurement results. Thus, beyond determining what
measurement to make, you have to determine the
measurement as proposed is critical. For example, while
you could measure the vibration on the fuselage of a
multiengine aircraft, it would tell you very little about
what was happening on an individual engine.
Critical measurements are specific to a given aircraft
and set of systems, but a good program for trend
analysis is more generic. The first step is to determine
the measurements you will make initially. After starting
your trending program, you can add measurements as
you begin to find they are required, or eliminate
measurements that produce no results. Next, determine
the manufacturer's values allowed for the measurements
The turbine engine monitoring program displays critical
parameters and allows remote maintenance sites to access
the information. The system automatically collects and
archives values when specified parameters are exceeded.
you will take and determine what equipment you wiU
need to make the measurements. Finally, determine how
often you will take the measurements and how you will
archive these measurements.
Excellent tools exist to assist you in taking these
steps, and you will find that setting up a system for
trending gets easier the second and third time around.
This is especially true if you have several similar aircraft
where the initial setup and the equipment you will need
is identical. The same manufacturer's specifications that
give you ranges of measurements for various equipment
should also help you determine which parameters are
the most critical, and even what equipment and sensors
are required to conduct the measurement.
Typical parameters for a turbine engine include vibra-
tion and balance measured with accelerometers, tempera-
ture (at specific locations such as the exhaust gas outlet
measurement using a thermocouple), fuel flow rates
or pressures (measured using a device like a flowmeter),
and rotational speed of the engine (measured using
a tachometer).
Raw output from each of these sensors does not
provide you directly with the required information. It
must first be processed, displayed, and interpreted. For
example, the tachometer output must be processed to
give you a rotational speed. However, this information
is of little or no value unless it is compared to the

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Data is recorded for vibration signatures taken at a given time with each data point placed in a cell of the spreadsheet.
(Chart courtesy of Scien tific-Atlan ta Inc.)
vibration reading. Further, the vibration reading can be
interpreted in displacement, acceleration, or velocity, but
does not have much value unless compared with the
rotational speed in a device such as a spectrum analyzer.
Placement of sensors is specific to the aircraft andlor
engine, and the manufacturer's specifications should be
consulted for proper placement. If the manufacturer does
not provide location information in the specifications,
you should be able to get assistance from manufacturers
of the test equipment you will use.
Looking at a broader issue, the methodology for a
program of monitoring and trending should incorporate
two considerations: minimizing the cost of the program
and minimizing the benefits. This entails taking the
right measurements at an optimum interval and acting
on the results to best improve reliability and reduce
operating costs.
For example, one of the goals of performing opera-
tions such as balancing aircraft engines on-wing or per-
forming rotor track and balance on a helicopter is to
reduce unnecessary removal of the engine. This lowers
the cost of the operation, significantly reduces test time,
and dramatically reduces the time that the aircraft is
out of service. Furthermore, trending can allow you
to predict when certain operations that can take the
aircraft out of service will be required so you can
schedule maintenance.
Trending yields condition based maintenance. That
means that you can establish rules and schedules for
maintenance operations that are based on actual require
ments. This results in better maintenance and much
lower overall cost than maintenance based solely on
the flight hours or calendar days.
Establishing baselines
Let's assume that we have already established the
measurements we will make, the sensors to be used,
the positions of the sensors, and the baseline for these
measurements. We are now ready to determine the
intervals. Initially, the interval should be based on the
manufacturer's recommendations, but common sense
says that we should also look at the operational schedule
of the aircraft.
148 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
If there is a regular turn around that can accommo-
date the time required to set up and perform the
measurements, you may want to simply incorporate
the measurements periodically during the turnaround
periods. These initial measurements wdl help provide
you with a second baseline.
As an example, if the manufacturer specifies that
the upper limit of vibration should not exceed 2 mils of
displacement, but you find that the typical range is
actually between 1 and 2 mils, you may have cause for
concern if the value approaches 2 mils. In addition, if
you're making measurements after every 100 hours of
flight time and find that displacement values are chang-
ing dramatically between readings, it probably makes
sense to increase the frequency of your measurements
to allow you to determine if specific actions correspond
to a major change in the vibration measurement.
Evaluating trends
With the measurements, baselines, and frequency
established, you should now be ready to record and
evaluate trends.
Before personal computers became commonplace,
trending was largely a manual process of recording
values in a log or on a record sheet along with the
details on the measurement, the time and date, condi-
tions, and comments. There are many automated tools
for fixed installations on gas turbine engines that can
allow you to record values and which can alert you to
changes that exceed values that you have established.
If you should establish a program that includes con-
tinuous monitoring, there are turbine engine monitoring
systems that can do the trending and much of the analy-
sis for you. But, it is unlikely you will have the benefits
of a continuous monitoring system. These types of sys-
tems are still quite rare on most aircraft where infhght
monitoring is generally limited to a small number of
sensors with cockpit readouts and even these systems
are only found on large airliners. An example of the
extent to which an automated monitoring system on a
fixed installation can integrate various readings from
various sensors on one display and automatic trending is
shown on Page 147.
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- - - - -

Turbine Technology

Without such an automated program, you can use

equipment like an analyzer or balancing system with a
builtin personal computer to generate, archive, and
trend the data. For those maintaining aircraft with few
installed monitoring systems or where measurements
are taken only during maintenance turnarounds, using
test equipment to collect the data and transferring it to
a personal computer program for archiving and trending
may be the best method to quickly initiate an effective
trending program.

Working it through
Now we can work through a sample trending opera-
tion to demonstrate how you can begin to build data
files that will make significant events more obvious. We
will concentrate on vibration data and utilize a spread-
sheet program to record data. This gives us some A frequency spectrum for an engine at a single speed is
relatively sophisticated tools with which to display the shown. Note the peaks at the running speed and harmonics
values. Recording data will be accomplished either by of that fundamental. Changes in the amplitude o f these
taking values in a numerical file format (ASCII) or by peaks can be an indicator of significant changes i n the
engine system.
manually entering values. The chart on Page 148
illustrates the values taken from readings on a jet
aircraft engine. The values for the vibration data shown
are from a single sensor and are a selected group of
values in order to simplify this illustration.
As you will note in this chart, there was a reasonably
consistent trend upward on the displacement measured
at several of the speeds noted prior to the engine achiev-
ing balance. Actually, the largest displacements were
recorded at speeds other than those recorded on this
chart. However, continued monitoring from the point
where the engine was balanced would be required to
predict the normal interval for balancing or other main-
tenance actions on the engine. The longer you maintain
trend records, the more valuable they are in predicting
when maintenance will be required.
With an established program to record and a d on
data collected from a variety of sensors, it becomes
evident that interpreting changes becomes the next skill Vibration signatures are shown from a two plane engine
required to get the most from your efforts. This is by far measurement i n "as-is" condition and with proposed
solution installed. Balance weight placements are also
the most involved and detailed segment of the program. illustrated.
Returning to our vibration measurements, each
engine has characteristics that will be different from
other engines, but there are certain things that hold true engines running at the same time out of phase. The
regardless of the engine. For example, when you look at chart at the top of this page shows an example of a
a vibration spedrum for a given engine speed, a change frequency spectrum for an engine at a constant speed.
in the frequency of a peak in that spectrum (not related An indicator of an impending bearing failure could
to running speed which is a structural component) may be an increase in the rokng element pass frequency
correspond to a weakening of the engine structure or vibration component, while excessive vibration, which
a crack. An increase in amplitude on a peak in the can be eliminated by balancing, could simply indcate
spectrum could mean a resonance problem has occurred foreign object damage or blade wear.
while a decrease in amplitude could result from two

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 149

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Turbine Technology
Further value from trending of measurements b e
comes clear when you find that it's fairly rare where sig-
nificant change occurs instantaneously. Normally you'll
find that trends are clear, and there is usually time to
act when indicators start to head out of norms. Evaluab
ing these changes can make a huge difference in the effi-
ciency of a maintenance program.
Getting results from a trending program takes a defi-
nite commitment with consistency in measurements and
some persistence. However, when you can recognize
problems and predict the occurrence of problems, you'll
150 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
achieve outstanding return on the time you invested in
putting your program in place. EDl
September/October 1994
Jim Fenton is marketing communications manager for
ScientjKc-Atlanta Inc. Signal Processing Systems Division
in San Diego, CA. He also handles OEM, GSA, and
university sales for instrument products. Since joining
ScientificAtlanta five years ago, he has served in a
variety of capacities including quality assurance, product
development, and marketing. Jim holds a bachelor of
science degree from the U.S. Naval Academy.
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 W i n e Technology

Northwest Airlines draws on

vast experience to improve

By Greg Napert

W
hen George Maxwell, shop manager for
Northwest Airlines in Atlanta, Georgia, says
that Northwest has the most experience on
the JT8D of anyone in the industry-he's probably right.
With over 480 engines to maintain and track, the airline
has experience on virtually every model of JT8D to
include the -7, -9, -11, -15, -15A, -17, -17A, -17R, -217, etc.
Over 58 727s and 152 DC9s keep the technicians at
its JT8D engine shop continuously on their toes.
Maxwell says that having an engineering department
Keeping the work flowing
provides a major advantage over some other JT8D over-
To make work flow smoothly, the shop is broken into haul facilities. They don't put condemned tags on parts
sections that correspond with various engine modules unless a part is unquestionably condemnable, such as if
that Northwest has divided the engine into. Experts in it is cycled out or if it is partially destroyed. Parts that
each area then rebuild each of those modules to overhaul are questionable are sent to the engineering department
specifications. with a "hold" tag for future evaluation. Where possible,
Northwest breaks the engine down into the following repair schemes are then developed.
modules:
Module l-referred to as the low compressor area,
C1 and C2. The first two fans back to the low
compressor area and second bearing area.
Module 2-starts at the high compressor (seventh stage
to the 13th stage of compression).
Module 3-referred to as the hot section. Starts with the
fuel nozzles and combustion can and extends to just
behind the T1 rotor which is the first stage turbine.
Module 4-includes the T2, T3, and T4 stages which is
referred to as the interturbine.
Module 5-is the area behind the T4 with the tempera-
ture and pressure probe.
Module 6-is the gearbox at the base of the engine.
Module 7-is the QEC, which is all harnesses, wiring
and plumbing on the engine.
Removed modules are inspected by PMIs (Parts and
Materials Inspectors). An exception is the combustion
liners which are pulled regardless of their condition and Technician a t Northwest Airlines beginning the assembly of
are sent to Northwest's combustion liner shop for X-ray, Module 3 during overhaul.
inspection, and repair.
Northwest's engine shop capabilities include the
ability to remove and install new turbine blades in all
of the compressor and turbine discs and balance the
assemblies. Blade repairs are done by a vendor if they
are in need of repair.

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7hrblne Technology
Special attention
Maxwell says the module that requires the most a t
tention, and that people in the field are most familiar
with, is Module 3-the hot section of the engine.
The hot section on the JT8D requires periodic inspec-
tion in the field and extra attention during overhaul.
Two areas in particular that are in need of extra a t
tention are the combustion liners and the combustion
chamber outer case.
John MacDonnald, training instructor for Northwest
says that in 1985, the No. 1 engine on a 737 in Great
Britain began experiencing a loss of power. The airline
in question kept making adjustments to the fuel controls
to compensate. But the airline didn't realize that a com-
bustion can inside the engine had cracked and fallen
from its mount.
This liner was directing hot gasses at the case. Dur-
ing a takeoff the case ruptured and a section of the can
came out and hit the inspection panel for the fuel tank.
This, in turn, ruptured the panel and it dumped fuel.
When the crew tried to abort the takeoff, they deployed
the thrust reversers. The reversers directed the flames
into the fuselage which resulted in a burned cabin and
numerous deaths.
This prompted Pratt & Whitney to issue Alert Ser-
vice Bulletin 5639 and the FAA to issue AD 86-09-02 to
require compliance with the service bulletin.
SB 5639 essentially requires recurrent inspection of
combustion liners while in service through the use of
visual, isotope m-ray), and/or borescope inspections. The
inspection does allow the initial inspection interval for
new chambers or chambers having been coated with
magnesium zirconate to be extended somewhat.
Magnesium zirconate, a coating used to extend the
life of certain hot section components, is sprayed on vari-
ous components at overhaul. The coating, says Maxwell,
has extended the life of the combustion liner and other
select components dramatically.
The combustion chamber outer case, which has also
had some attention focused on it during the 1985 acci-
dent investigation, has also had a number of problems
that require recurrent inspections, and on some engine
models, replacement of the case at overhaul is required.
Maxwell says that Northwest has replaced over half
of the cases with new generation improved cases. The
new cases, he explains, are made of heavier materials
and incorporate a onepiece flange instead of a welded
flange. "The new design eliminates any cracking prob-
lems," he says.
MacDonnald says that there are three types of com-
bustion cases; the low-powered cases are the older style
cases that are used on the -7 and -9s. These cases have
welded flanges that require ultrasonic inspections and
have the ADS on them for recurrent inspection. Heavier
flanged cases are used on the -11 engines. And the
newest "one-piece cases" are used on the -15 and larger
152 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
engines. These new style cases are much heavier and are
not subject to the ADS.
AD 87-11-07 requires compliance with Pratt &
Whitney Alert Service Bulletin SB5676 which calls for
recurrent inspections of the case flange and the (PS4)
drain boss area for cracking.
MacDonnald says that cracks around the igniter
bosses are very rare and can be welded. "I don't believe
that these cracking problems are related to corrosion.
It's more that no one has ever tracked time on these
cases, and they are getting to have very high time on
them," he says.
"Your inspection of the case should include the drain
bosses, PS4 bosses, and igniter bosses. The boss areas
are allowed to be welded, but you then have to adhere to
a more stringent inspection schedule to assure that no
further cracks develop.
"There is only around 225 psi inside the case," he
says, "but a tremendous amount of volume and area for
pushing outward. It is considered to be a high-pressure,
high-temperature vessel."
Because of this, MacDonnald says that if cracks are
found in the flange bolt holes, the case is totally rejected
and removed from service.
Combustion liner overhaul
Channing Nevin, combustion shop manager for
Northwest, says, "We consider this the premier combus-
tion shop in the world. We overhaul up to 40 cans a
day," he says.
"We're scheduled for about 260 engines this year
with each engine containing nine liners-that's 2,340
liners. That many liners offer a significant opportunity
for savings. Based on the last survey that I did, we were
spending just under three hours per unit, and each unit
Visual inspection is critical for finding all cracks in the
combustion can.
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Magnesium zircona te
coating on combustion can
has resulted in a greatly
extended service life and
less cracking and burning
during service.
was costing us around $863 per unit. That was just an
average. With many cans, all that's required is to set the
tabs and weld a couple of cracks.
"The company has made some siflicant improve-
ments in the combustion liner shop," he says. "There is
virtually no part of the combustion can that can't be
replaced. The mounting flange, the crossover tube,
the individual layers, etc. can all be cut off and new
components can be welded into place.
"We used to have one technician do all of the work
on one can as it went through our shop, but our techni-
cians redesigned the shop as they found better ways to
do things. They have set up the shop in modular areas
for inspection, repair, welding, etc. and have increased
productivity by over 100 percent since we began. Also
each technician moves from one area to the other on a
weekly basis so that they are all versed in every repair
related to the liner.
"When we receive a combustion can in the shop, one
person takes it and evaluates it to determine what it
needs for repairs. They then go to the computer and
design a customized inspection sheet for that particular
can. Each can ends up with its own paperwork. Then
that paperwork is kept as part of its permanent history
and records as it travels from engine to engine.
"What we're seeing from our liners is about 3,000
to 5,000 hours or cycles on each can. Some last longer;
in f a d it's not uncommon to go to over 9,000 hours,"
he says.
In order to make the cans easier to ins~ect.Nevin
says that all cans are sent out for a process called
"bright annealing" in which it is placed in a vacuum
furnace and heated to 250°F - 300°F for about three
hours. Hydrogen gas is then introduced to burn off any
contaminants or coatings. This process also anneals the
liner and relieves any stress concentrations. This also
makes it much easier to weld the liners, because if they
aren't stress relieved, welding has a tendency to cause
cracking of adjacent slots.
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Turbine Technology
Nevin savs that if there are areas that are burned
out and where the metal shows signs of overheating,
"we can actually cut it out and replace it with a small
patch of material."
He says that one of the most important timesaving
devices that they've purchased is a real-time X-ray
machine. X-ray of the can is necessary because of the
way the combustion is built.
The can is built with layer after layer (liners) of
circumferential keyholeslot material. Each subsequent
layer hides a portion of the previous layer, so it's
difficult, if not impossible, to adequately inspect each
keyhole slot for cracking without the use of X-rays.
Prior to having the real-time X-ray machine,
Northwest was having to disassemble the liners (cut off
the base) to inspect them. It then moved to an X-ray
unit that you had to have film developed and then study
the film to determine where the cracks were. Both of
these procedures were very time-consuming. The real-
time X-ray allows them to view each combustion can on
a monitor and allows the technician to locate and mark
each crack that is discovered as it's being observed.
Nevin explains that cracks in the keyhole slots are
quite common, but, depending on the number and extent
of them, and the condition of the material, the cracks
can usually be welded. "We look at everyone of the
keyholes visually and with the X-ray equipment. Most of
the cracks don't have to be welded per the manual; they
are actually self-relieving, but we've decided to go the
extra step and weld each crack to assure that they don't
progress. It's important," he says, "to inspect them
after welding, as cracks can form in adjacent holes as
you're welding."
As much of a time-saving and accurate device that
the real-time X-ray machine is, it's still important to
inspect the cans visually. "Depending on how trained
your eye is, you can often catch surface cracks that
don't show up on the X-ray," he says.
The extent to which the can is repaired puts it into
categories that determine its use and frequency of
inspection that's required. For instance, if the can has
the first six liners replaced entirely, it is classified as a
1A which means that it is practically all new.
Nevin says that "there were as many methods for
restoration of combustion cans as there are companies
doing them, but we've brought the best techniques
together and have standardized our repair practices to
be the most efficient for our shop." E Q July/August 1994
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 153
Fundamentals of vibration analysis
ibration, like heat, is produced at the expense of
useful output in a typical machine. The unbalance
of turbine engine parts may be due to the limita-
tions of the process by which they are formed.
Unbalance may also be created in the buildup of
assemblies by eccentric location of wheels with respect
to their shafts, or by shifting of parts as the rotational
forces and/or temperatures change.
Measuring vibration
Unbalance or vibration of a rotating mass can be
measured with special instruments, and may be mea-
sured in any of three modes: displacement, velocity,
or acceleration.
Displacement is a specific change of position, usually
measured from a position of rest, or a mean position
normally expressed as displacement peak-tupeak or
double amplitude.
Velocity is rate of change of displacement with time
and normally expressed in inches per second.
Acceleration is rate of change of velocity with time,
normally expressed in "g" or gravitational units.
The effects of unbalance are centrifugal forces which
may reduce the operating life of the bearings or which
may excite vibrations of some part within or external
to the assembly. These vibrations may cause structural
failure of the part and also may cause loss of efficiency.
An unbalanced rotor will endeavor to rotate about
a different axis than that defied by the center line of
the bearings. This force is centrifugal in nature and
increases with the square of the speed of the rotor.
For example, a weight of 0.01 gram placed 1-inch
from the rotational axis of a rotor spinning at 10,000
rpm creates a centrifugal force of 0.06 pound. The
same weight creates a force of only 0.0006 pound at
1,000 rpm.
They would rotate about a natural axis much like the
earth and moon revolve in our solar system. The inertial
axis is closer to the larger of the two masses. While
turning, the unbalanced rotor would tend to rotate
around its inertial axis.
Another type of unbalances is created when equal
masses are located equal distances from the center line,
but the shaft has been attached sllghtly off center, pro-
ducing what is known as eccentricity, As the rotor turns
about its natural axis, both ends of the shaft tend to fol-
low a circular path. An equal amount of unbalance would
be indicated for each shaft on a balance machine.
Tendency for shaft movement will also exist when
equal masses are located equal distances from the axis
of rotation, but not in the same plane. The rotor in this
case would have an acceptable static balance, that is,
mounted on knife edges. However, this system should
rotate freely in space, its natural axis would not be paral-
lel to the bearing axis, causing the shaft to rotate about
its principle inertia axis.
>
Equal Masses
Equal Diawrcrsl
Same Plane

Wpes of unbalance
A balanced rotor has its mass distributed equal
distances from the center of the axis of rotation. Instead
of the usual rotating disk, the illustration shows two
balls located within the rotor to focus attention on the
concentration of mass. The rotor is balanced because
each ball has the same mass, is located equidistant from
the plane of rotation, and is located in the same plane,
perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
An unbalanced rotor has more mass on one side of
the axis of rotation than the other.
Suppose the two balls of mass in the unbalanced
rotor were attached by a wire and placed into space.

154 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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.-
/" )i<# ,',.~
... ''':(.'.~ Shaft'B-cusloD
,1Iiift! _
•............•.
,//"
Effects of vibration
With a set of rotating components in balance, bear-
ings must support only the actual weight of the rotating
group. But an out-of-balance wheel can exert many times
its own weight against bearings, shafts, and housings.
This exertion not only wastes energy, but it may
stress these components beyond their limits. The
unbalance creates a constant rotating force when the
speed is constant.
The rotating force increases with the square of the
rotor speed; thus, at low speeds, the rotor wants to
spin about its bearing axis. And as the speed approaches
its operating range, the rotor tends to spin about the
principal inertia axis. Unbalanced rotors will exert
rotating forces on bearings and supports, which may be
transmitted to other components of the engine.
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Turbine Technology
Isolating the vibration
Engine vibrations above specific levels of displace-
ment or acceleration may be harmful to engine compo-
nents. Low frequency vibration can have a different
effect than high frequency vibration of the same
amplitude. A typical TPE331 turboprop engine may have
test requirements for maximum allowable vibration
limits of 0.35 mils displacement on the turbine end of
the engine, and 0.70 mils displacement on the reduction
gear section of the engine.
Turbine wheels, propeller shafts and gears all rotate
at different revolutions per minute. If vibrations exceed
allowable limits, it's necessary to determine the rotating
component to be checked. A band pass filter can be
used between the pickup and meter to isolate individual
vibration frequencies.
By selecting the speed related frequencies of each
major rotating component while the engine is running,
the meter will indicate how much each component is
contributing to the total vibration.
When combinations of vibration occur at the natural
or resonate frequency of such devices as bracket-
mounted relays or lubricating oil tubes, they can be set
into motion, flexing and bending thousands of times per
minute, thereby, accumulating a high number of cycles.
Multisource vibrations can combine to produce
velocity readings not representative of a specific rpm
frequency for any major component. This phenomenon
may be experienced when listening to two engines
operating at slightly different revolutions per minute.
The difference will produce a noticeable change in
sound intensity. This "beat" frequency represents the
difference between the two engines' operating rpm, but
is not the frequency of either engine. Usually none of the
velocities which result from any combination of frequen-
cies are above acceptable levels, regardless of the source.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 155
Turbine Technology
Conducting a survey
A thorough vibration survey will require operating
the engine at all available engine rpms, then taking a
complete scan of frequency vs. displacement at each
engine speed. One method of vibration analysis which
can determine if acceptable levels will be maintained at
all engine speeds is the use of a very narrow band pass
filter with an automatic tracking tuner.
Similarly, other rotating components in the engine
can be tracked by changing the ratio of the monopole
signal to component rpm. In this manner, each major
component can be examined through its full range of
rpm and a plot can be made of these readings.
Vibration analyzers
Today's livetime analyzers are typically microproces-
sor-based vibration instruments that are portable and
use an internal battery to provide power to other sen-
sors. These analyzers are capable of providing displace
ment, velocity, and acceleration measurements. The ana-
lyzers then display the results on a screen, and manipu-
late the information in various ways, depending on the
sophistication of the unit.
These analyzers continuously acquire vibration sig-
nals and update the displayed spectrum. Any spectrum
that is collected can be stored in the analyzer's internal
memory for later inspection, or printed on a standard
printer. The analyzer's designs typically allow for addi-
tional functions such as balancing and measurement of
156 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
sound, temperature, and voltage. These features make
the livetime analyzer well-suited for vibration analysis in
the field.
The illustration at the upper left of this page shows a
typical display of a two-spool geared turbo-fan engine vi-
bration pattern. The velocities of each major component
are clearly shown. Some minor velocities as well as some
harmonic vibrations are also shown.
The real-time analyzer can monitor and display all
the associated vibration frequencies and velocities simul-
taneously. The display can be monitored while the engine
speeds are being varied from minimum to maximum.
Since the range of frequencies that are usually of
interest in the vibration of turbine engines is from
approximately 100 to 200 Hertz, velocity is the param-
eter usually measured. This is especially true if only an
overall reading on a meter is used as a measurement
of vibration. Therefore, it is possible to set a vibration
upper limit to a single value in velocity covering the
100 to 2,000 Hertz frequency range and have it a mean-
ingful measure of the amount of unbalance present in
the engine.
Usual vibration limits range from approximately 0.5
to 1.0 inches per second velocity. In the event the upper
limit in velocity (inches per second) is exceeded, a check
of all frequencies is desirable for the purpose of isolating
which component, or combination of components, is
causing excessive vibration. The real-time vibration
analyzer can be used to isolate the different frequencies
and the amplitude of each peak vibration.
Once the vibration analysis has been completed, the
next step is to determine the possible source of any
out-of-limit vibrations.
The detection of unbalance requires operating the
engine through its full operating range using care to
make frequency selections slowly, being careful not to
overlook any hidden, but critical vibrations.
To successfully analyze survey results it's important
to remember the logical troubleshooting sequence,
define component relationships, and understand systems
operation.
The preceding is an edited version of AUiedSignal
Garrett Engine Division's Fundamentals of Turbine
Engine Vibration mM-159training manual).
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Vibration analysis in practice
Ken Kuchenreuther, assistant engine manager for
Kal-Aero in Battle Creek, MI, says that they have made
it part of the company's normal procedures to conduct a
vibration survey on turbine engines after any work that
can potentially affect the balance. Most of its work is on
Cessna Citations with Pratt & Whitney JT15D engines.
One of the main reasons that it has incorporated the
procedure into its program is to reduce engine noise r e
lated to vibration.
"In reality, there aren't many things that you can cor-
r e d in the field once you've found an ouhf-balance con-
dition on this engine. The only thing that you really have
access to is the fan on the front of the engine, and you
may discover that it's not the fan that is the problem.
"If you discover that it is the fan and/or its rotating
group that are out of balance, you may be able to per-
form what is known as a 'trim balance.' This is where
you add a small amount of weight to the fan hub assem-
bly to correct for any imbalances," he explains.
Most often, if a customer is complaining of cabin
noise. the cause will be the fan. Due to the size of the
fan, vibrations that result from imbalance will typi-
cally produce noise in the cabin.
"There is some noise that you just have to live with
as an operator, and you have to understand what type of
noise is related to vibration or other problems. With
twinengine turbine aircraft, for instance, it's nearly im-
possible to get the engines completely synchronized so
that you don't hear the characteristic 'beat' between the
engines," he says.
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lbrbine Technology
It's sometimes a challenge to balance the fan through-
out its operating range. "We do a vibration survey that
involves accelerating the engine through all speeds," he
says. "If it's out of balance at certain speeds, we try to
adjust the balance at that speed, but it can often result
in vibrations in other speed ranges. We try to obtain a
balance that produces the least noise in the cabin and
keeps all parameters within the acceptable limits as d e
termined by the manufacturer."
Windy days can also affect the balance procedure. As
you're performing a vibration survey, you need to make
sure that the winds are below 5 knots, otherwise, your
vibration analysis will be affected.
Kuchenreuther says that such things as fairings or
cowlings rubbing against the fuselage can be mistaken
for engine vibration problems. And these can be difficult
to find because they typically don't show up on a vibra-
tion survey.
Some practical things to be aware of during the bal-
ancing procedure are that you've got to be careful install-
ing the equipment on the aircraft and be aware of the
bleed air lines. Also, be aware of the suction from the
engine, and make sure everything is clear of the critical
areas around the engine.
The key to performing a meaningful vibration analy-
sis is not making a mistake on the setup. There are of-
ten many steps to setting up the equipment that involve
inputs of data related to engine speeds, etc., and if you
make a mistake on that, it can affect your results.
Also, you have to be aware of the scale at which you
view the data. All data must be looked at on the same
scale to be meaningful. 0 May/June 1994
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 157
nrbine Technology
Getting I00 percent out of a PW100
hot section inspection
By Greg Napert
I
f you're looking for ways to better performance and
seeing longer intervals between hot section inspee
tions and think that it can't be done, think again.
Jeff Holmstead, engine shop manager for TW Express
Airlines in St. Louis, MO, says there are a number of
ways to improve the performance of the engine during
a hot section inspection which will translate directly
to more use of the engine and dollar savings for the
company.
Airflow matching
"One of the best methods for getting better perfor-
mance and longer life out of the engine is to match
the speeds amongst the various rotating groups in the
engine to get the best efficiency, says Holmstead.
"There are three rotating groups on the PW100:
the HP (hgh pressure) compressor group, the LP (low
pressure) compressor group and the PT (power turbine)
group. The PT group is what drives the prop on the
engine, The obje&,e of and balancing speeds
158 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
between these various groups is to get all the airflows
adjusted for compressor and hot section deterioration.
If you can do that and achieve a 35-degree margin after
a hot section inspection, you've done a good job."
The margin, as Holmstead explains, is the difference
between the maximum operating temperature that
the engine is allowed to operate at (corrected for the
ambient temperature and pressure that day) and the
temperature that's actually observed on the cockpit
instnunent dial.
In theory, as the engine wears, gaps, spaces, seals
and tip clearances grow larger, and the engine becomes
less efficient. The inefficiency results in disrupted
airflow, and internal temperatures increase. As tempera-
tures increase, operating margins decrease.
"Because of this," Holmstead says, "Pratt recom-
mends that every engine that undergoes its first HSI
have the vane area on the HP stator increased
by 2.2 percent to compensate for the wear and erosion
ill the COmpreSSOr Sedion. SO, for example, if you have
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a 7.11 flow area, you want to increase the flow class 2.2
percent, or t o 7.27. So we select the segments that will
give us a 7.27 flow area and we send the vane ring to a
facility like Pratt & Whitney or Howmet where they have
a flow chamber and they flow check it as an assembly.
"Then they come back and tell us what we have.
Typically, used vanes flow higher than what's indicated
on the vane itself. So these facilities will usually go
ahead, if requested, and adjust the flow class to what
you need."
Holmstead says that "Pratt's recommended 2.2
percent increase in area of the HP stator is sufficient
for some engines, but we've found through experience
that most require more adjusting in order to get the
35degree margin. That's where a bit of calculating
is involved."
The best way to get a good margin is to have a high
LP speed within the maximum limits, and a low HP
speed so as not to run up against the HP speed limits
over time. In theory, you're trying to extract as much
power out of the engine as possible without exceeding a
certain ratio between the HP and LP to avoid stalling
the compressor.
The stators and vanes in the engine are probably the
easiest way to vary the speeds of the rotating groups to
achieve the desired efficiency of the engine. Vanes and
stators are "flow classed," and can be replaced to affect
rotating group speeds.
Determining the proper combination of the flow
classes of the vanes and stators is a bit of a balancing
act. A number of factors can affect which class you use.
Holmstead says that change in such things as turbine
blades, power turbine nozzles, or even changes in the
compressor section may impact the airflow and force
you to recalculate the vane class that's required for
best efficiency.
"Until just recently, we were trying to figure out the
best way to get the most bang for the buck. When we
started PWlOO HSIs, for instance, we even sent out a
couple of compressor sections to have them overhauled
and reprofiled, but we recently discovered that you can
accomplish the same thing by vane matching, and it's
much less expensive to change the vanes out since you're
in there anyway during a hot section inspection."
Holmstead says that he likes to approach the chal-
lenge of getting the best performance out of the engine
in the following manner:
"Your first objective is to try to reduce the speed
of the HP compressor to compensate for compressor
deterioration over time. To understand why you reduce
the speed, you've got to remember that as the engine
wears, the compressor spins faster to produce the same
power, and this can happen until the maximum compres
sor limit for the day is reached. So at HSI, you need
to bring this speed back down by increasing the flow
rate of the HP vanes. Increasing the flow rate reduces
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the velocity of the air, and that decreases the compres
sor speed.
"However, increasing the HP van area slows the
airflow and results in a temperature increase. So the
next step is to regain this lost temperature margin. The
best way t o do this is to change the class of the first
stage power turbine nozzle to increase the speed of the
LP compressor to the maximum limit that it can go
without overspeeding. Doing so will increase the LP
speed without affecting the HP speed, and will increase
the airflow through the power section to keep the
temperatures down.
"Many people try to change the flow class of the
LP stator to increase the LP compressor speed, but I
recommend not doing this because if you change the
LP stator, you will be affecting two compressor groups
and it's too difficult to decipher which stator group is
affecting the compressor speeds. It may work, but it's
just a shot in the dark. I really think the LP stator flow
class should remain a constant." In fact Holmstead also
recommends that you have the LP stator flow checked to
make sure that it's flowing at the class it's suppose to.
"To summarize, you want to reduce the speed of the
HP compressor. To do that you increase the flow rate of
the vanes, which decreases the velocity of air against the
HP turbine blades. Then to make up for the increased
temperatures due to the decreased flow, you increase the
speed of the LP compressor by increasing the class of
the first stage PT nozzle (typically 8 to 2 percent). If
your LP compressor is already at the maximum speed,
however, you don't want to change it at all.
"So on every engine, the HP nozzle class is increased
and the first stage PT stator class is also increased,"
he says.
"The increase in class of the PT stator is dependent
on how much you need to increase the speed of the LP
turbine, and this can be calculated through formulas use
data collected during a performance run before the HSI
began. Keep in mind always that the speeds have to be
corrected to standard days," says Holmstead.
All of this has the effect of increasingly keeping the
compressor as efficient as possible while still extracting
as much power out of the engine as possible. The final
results may adually be a slight reduction of power, he
says, but it's not really noticeable, and it's worth it in
order to achieve the 35degree margin.
There are also some judgment calls that you can
make; for instance, if the LP turbine is at its maximum
speed you may be able to decrease its speed by decreas-
ing the flow class of the first stage PT stator.
"By using Pratt & Whitney's airflow matching
program per the maintenance manual, we've so far been
100 percent successful in achieving a 35degree margin
on a l l our HSIs. We started this program because we
weren't getting our bang for the buck on hot sections.
We were putting lots of time and money into the HSIs
and increasing our margins minimally."
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 159
Turbine Technology
The sealing rings need to be in full contact with the hous-
ing in order to ensure good engine performance. Check the
seal rings by placing the ring in the housing and running a
feeler gauge around the circumference of the ring.
Another factor that affects performance
Holmstead says that although vane matching has
helped them achieve a high success rate with its HSIs,
there are other factors that need to be addressed in
order to achieve a 35degree margin.
If any seal rings are leaking or are collapsed, for
instance, P3 air (which is the highest pressure in the
engine) will bleed into the gas path. You lose a lot of
efficiency, and beyond that you lose P3 air for cooling
the HP vanes. If the HP vanes are not cooled properly,
you start to see vane segment deterioration a lot earlier
than normal.
With a little common sense and a diligent study of
the PW100, Holmstead says that it's possible to increase
the hours between hot section inspections. The key, he
emphasizes, is in understanding the relationships b e
tween the different rotating groups in the engine, and
keeping track of changes and upgrades of engine parts
through service bulletins and other Pratt & Whitney
Canada correspondence.
P W l 0 0 hot section pointers
Holmstead offers the following observations and
pointers related to the PWlOO hot section inspection:
Don't be alarmed by cracks in the vanes. Cracks on
the vanes are common and should be inspected in
accordance with the maintenance manual. Basically,
convergent cracks, or anything that's opened up
more than 0.020 thousandths is not acceptable. No
cracks are allowed on the leading edge. Some of
the cracks may be repairable, as well. Howmet, for
example, can weld some of the vanes depending on
the extent of damage.
On the LP turbine disc, some of the blades on the
smaller engine are a hollow blade design, and we've
seen some problems with corrosion developing on the
160 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
inside surface of the blade. So we have to have these
blades x-rayed for corrosion. We've seen up to a
95percent rejection rate of these. In the case where
the blades need to be replaced, we upgrade to a
solid blade.
There are a number of spacer checks and fits and
clearances that you have to check while reassembling
the engine. You have to be careful to check and
doublecheck your dimensions because the fit of
one component can easily impact the fit of another
component.
There should be no change in the spacer dimensions
during reassembly of the engine. If you do your
spacer checks and run them through the formula,
and the dimensions are not the same as the original
spacers, double and triplecheck the measurements.
It's on very few occasions that you have to change
the size of the spacers, and often, it's because the
person that did the last HSI miscalculated the dimen-
sions, or many new parts were installed.
The bosses that accept the T6 thermocouple probes
are made of an extremely hard material and there
are times that it's difficult to remove the T6 probes,
and they get jammed in the bosses. To avoid this
problem, use a tap to clean out the bosses each time
you remove a T6 probe; then apply Silver Goopa
compound to prevent the probes from seizing in the
housing at the next removal. The best tap that I've
found so far is a Vertaniummtap made by Vermont
American. Specifically, the tap is a 1/2-20-3B thread
n
pitch. The "3B is important because it specifies the
thread shape. You have to use bottoming taps also,
and don't worry about damaging the case; the tap
will break before you damage the case. In fact, the
tap only lasts for a few runs and then you'll need to
replace it. Also, you've got to be careful because it is
not uncommon to have the tap seize in the hole, and
then it's up to whatever means possible to remove it.
There are a few variations of blade types on the
PW100, so it pays to find out what the latest and
greatest blades are before you replace them. Pratt
went from originally having what they call the
straight broached blade, then to the twodegree closed
blade; then they went to a directionally solidified
(DS) blade with a standard broach and a twodegree
close. Now the latest and greatest is the singlecrystal
or SC blade. This blade has a lifelimit of 8,500 hours.
One of the problems with the 100s is that it's
common for the temperature margins to look good,
but the T6 probes may not be functional. Always
verify that the T6 probes are functional before
assuming anything.
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 Turbine Technology

Some cracks in We vanes are acceptable as long as they

are non-convergent. Check Pratt's maintenance manual
for limits.

Typical tip clearances for the turbine wheel between

!l'urbine blade tip clearances will be tighter on the bottom
the blade tips and segments is about 0.030 than on the top due to wheel droop while the engine is at
thousandths of an inch m h u m and 0.026 inch rest. Clearances should be adjusted to compensate for this.
minimum. You've got to keep in mind that the
turbine wheel shaft with the wheel attached actually
spraying and remachining. It's somewhat subjec-
droops, so you need to use a formula where you take tive as to whether or not a seal ring is collapsed-
the droop into account. We shoot for around a 0.026
basically you want to have good spring force remain-
inch on the bottom, 0.026 inch on the sides and
ing in the ring. The best way to do it is to compare it
0.028 to 0.030 inch on the top. The disc will lift as
to a new ring, and if there is any question that the
it's running so the clearances will equalize. For every
spring pressure is sigmficantly different than a new
additional 0.003 thousandths of an inch, you pick up
ring, you should replace it.
11 degrees of temperature on the engine. So it's nice
to keep these clearances as close as possible to the The HP turbine disc has a stub shaft that must be
recommended limits as possible. NDT'd at every HSI; also, the bolts that hold the stub
To determine whether or not you have a good seal shaft to the turbine disc are replaced 100 percent.
Make sure the weight distribution of the bolts is per
between the sealing rings and the turbine support
the maintenance manual. Essentially, you weigh the
case, place the seal ring inside the turbine support
bolts that are removed and make sure that the same
case sealing area. Take a feeler gauge and slide the
relationship exists between the bolts that were r e
gauge all around to ensure that you have contact all
moved and the new bolts. In other words, if bolt #1
the way around. If you have some gaps, you can try
is heavier than bolt #2 by 2 grams, the new bolts
to spin the seal ring around and pick out your best
should have a 2-gram difference as well. So don't
fit. If you try a few rings and even new rings are
throw the old bolts away-save them for reference.
exhibiting gaps, the housing itself may be warped.
In that case, the housing can be reworked by plasma

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 161

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Rigging the Allison 250-B17

T
he Allison 250 is normally associated with rotor
craft rather than fixed-wing aircraft. The B-17, COORDINATOR SCHEMATIC
however, has been used in past years on fixed- PROP-rowtit
IYRUNI BOVERNOit
wing aircraft to include the A36, P210 and Nomad. \
There are two different rigging cod~gurationswith
the B17: systems equipped with a beta valve (beta
systems) and systems not equipped with a beta valve
(non-beta systems).
Beta valve aircraft include the A36, P210 and Nomad.
Non-beta valve aircraft include Pilatus Britain Norman
turbine islander.
Rigging of this system, as with most systems,
involves a good basic understanding of the engine con-
trol systems. In addition, rigging of the B17 necessitates
having a good working knowledge of the following
systems: the propeller turbine governor lever (also
referred to as the reset lever), the propeller outrigger
lever, the fuel cutoff outrigger lever, the gas producer
lever, the beta control lever and the propeller blade
angle settings.

Rigging check
AUison says that a rigging check should normally
be made after removal/replacement of the engine, coor-
dinator, power turbine governor or beta valve.
The basic rigging check primarily involves checking
the power lever to coordinator relationships. Keep
in mind that coordinator reference points vary from
airframe to airframe, so you'll need to know what these
specific measurements are before you start.
Also, a rigging check should always be made with the
engine shut down, and aircraft cockpibt~oordinator
adjustments should always be accomplished before the
enginetocoordinator control checks or adjustments.
The power lever is connected through the aircraft
linkage to the input lever on the coordinator. The
positions on the power lever quadrant coincide within
plus or minus one degree to the markings on the coordi-
nator protractor.
As a rule of thumb, after each check or adjustment,
actuate the controls in order to check for proper
operation and movement repeatability: Zero degrees
for maximum reverse, 30 degrees for ground idle, 40
degrees for flight idle and 95 degrees for takeoff.
The condition lever should allow engine starting and
shutdown, propeller feathering and the capability to
provide propeller governor setting between 80 percent
and 105 percent of propeller speed.
Fuel shutoff and propeller feathering are affected
simultaneously through positioning of the condition
lever. The condition lever is connected through linkage
to a lever mounted on the top right side of the coordina-
tor. This lever has a maximum angular travel of 40 d e
grees: zero degrees for fuel shutoff and propeller feather-
ing, 18 degrees for minimum propeller setting and 40
degrees for 105 percent propeller speed.
Rigging the propeller turbine governor lever
(also referred to as the reset lever)
To rig the propeller turbine governor, connect the
power turbine lever on the governor assembly in the fol.
lowing manner:
Rotate the input power lever on the coordinator until
the lever pointer is aligned with the 95degree takeoff
position on the protractor.
Make sure that the power turbine lever on the coordi
nator is against the max speed stop. This is an im-
portant step. There should never be greater than
0.001 inch between the lever and the stop, and the
desired final setting is no gap at all. Use a feeler
gauge to verify that there's no gap. Failure to rig the
lever against this stop will result in not being able to
reach full power, possible engine fluctuations at full

162 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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power or possible hung starts. If adjustment is
required, adjust the cable length at the coordinator
until the holes in the rod and power turbine governor
lever align-with the lever against the stop.
Take up any cable looseness, attach the cable with
the lever, and make sure that the cable extends into
the rod ends past the inspection holes to verify that
the threads are adequately engaged; then, lockwire
the jam nut into position. Actuate it several times to
check for proper operation and readjust if required.
Rotate the coordinator input lever fully clockwise.
The lever should be aligned with the zero degrees
maximum reverse position on the protractor.
Then check the position of the governor assembly
power turbine lever. It should be approximately
1/8 inch or 3mm from the max speed stop.
Return the coordinator input power lever to the
95degree position, and check that the governor as-
sembly power turbine lever is again at the maximum
speed stop position.
Rotate the coordinator input lever (power levers) in
the cockpit for freedom of movement. There should
be no evidence of binding.
Rigging the propeller outrigger lever
Proper rigging of the outrigger lever is critical for
proper operation. Improper rigging of the outrigger lever
could result in N2 speed that's either set too high, or
too low.
If adjustment is required, install a rigging pin, then
adjust the cable length at the governor assembly end in
a manner to load the propeller governor lever against
the minimum speed stop.
Take up cable looseness and attach the cable to the
prop governor lever. Don't forget to check that the
threaded rod ends are engaged sufficiently by checking
the inspection hole on the rod end. Then lockwire the
jam nuts and remove the rigging pin.
Place a 0.001-inch feeler gauge between the maximum
speed stop and the propeller governor lever. Move the
condition lever rearward clockwise until the propeller
governor lever contacts the maximum speed stop. The
feeler gauge should drag when being removed, which
indicates that the prop governor lever and the max
speed stop are in contact. The condition lever should
move freely without evidence of cable binding.
Now, move the condition lever until the prop gover-
nor lever contacts the minimum speed stop. There
should be no evidence of cable binding and the rigging
pin should insert freely. Actuate the lever several times
to check for repeatability and to determine if more
adjusting is required.
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I Proplpower turbine governor schematic I
Speed set
1Rolalad by i
Relief vabe Fl~elghl~ I
0 011inlel Hlgh pressure 011 011
dra~n Py Gxerrnr servo orcssure
Fuel cutoff outrigger lever
Rigging the fuel cutoff outrigger lever is also an
important step. Improper rigging of the fuel cutoff could
result in the condition lever not shutting off when the
condition lever is pulled a l l the way back. This could
result in fire in the turbine.
To adjust the fuel control cutoff lever, position the
condition lever on the coordinator to align with the
rigging pinholes and insert the rigging pin. Rotate the
fuel cutoff lever on the fuel control in a counterclockwise
direction until the lever engages the fuel cutoff detent
(labeled C.O. on the detent plate).
If adjustment is required, adjust the fuel cutoff tierod
until the holes in the rod ends align with the holes in
the coordinator fuel cutoff outrigger lever.
Adjust the rod end on the free end of the fuel cutoff
tierod until the holes in the rod end and fuel control
fuel cutoff lever align. Then, attach the rod end to the
lever, torque properly and check that the threads on the
rod are fully engaged with the rod end. Then lockwire
the jam nut.
Remove the rigging pin and rotate the coordinator
condition lever toward the rnax position and check the
coordinator fuel cutoff outrigger lever for freedom of
movement.
Rotate the coordinator condition lever toward the
minimum position and check that the governor mini-
mum stop position and fuel cutoff occur simultaneously.
Actuate it several times to check the repeatability and
adjust if necessary.
Condition lever movement is limited by the stops on
the prop governor lever. The rigging pin should insert
freely at this point.
Gas producer lever
Improper rigging of the gas producer lever can cause
N1 to be limited at either maximum power or reverse.
To check the gas producer lever, place the coordina-
tor input power lever at the 95degree takeoff position
and see if the fuel control gas producer lever is against
the maximum speed stop.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 163
mrbine Technology

Beta control lever

GOVERNING SECTION SCHEMATIC 00VRRN01 SIllNO
The beta control lever
6AS PRODUCER FUEL CONTROL -9 Q, *.

OOlflNoR LcvH
should always be rigged
before setting the propel-
@ r, r m ~ n n rrmuruar
ler blade angle.
0 r, ACUL~RATIOM batow, nnsm. There are two
methods for rigging the
r, aovawo~snvo rrrrsm: beta control lever. One is
to use dimension "A"
and the other is to use
Lt
INVUl
dimension "D."
Dimension "A" is
recorded in the engine
assembly inspection
maintenance and overhaul
record (Part 4 of the
engine logbook), or it
can be determined by
following the procedures
outlined in Beta Control
Valve Checks and Adjust
ments in the Operations
Manual.
To find dimension "A,"
. you should first establish
3 the beta valves initial
rigging position. This
The lever should be approximately 45 degrees past measurement should be recorded to help with original
the vertical. If the lever requires repositioning, loosen beta valve installations, field replacement assemblies and
the nut and reposition the lever and or the serrated field replacement of individual beta valve parts.
washer (the 24 teeth on the washer should be toward the Next, remove the propeller from prop mounting
outer lever). Be careful not to overtighten, this may flange and the beta valve from the prop gearbox and
cause binding of the lever shaft. reinstall the check nut on the aft end of the beta
If further adjustment is required, adjust the gas pro- control rod.
ducer control tierod until the holes in the rod ends a p Push the beta control rod into the sleeve until it
proximately align with the holes in the fuel control gas bottoms out and install a 0.185-inch diameter pin
producer lever and the coordinator gas producer. through the beta valve port.
Adjust the free rod end of the gas producer control Gently, pull the beta control rod rearward until the
tie-rod until the holes in the rod and the fuel control gas rear face of the spooled end contacts the pin without any
producer lever align. Then, attach the tie-rod to the lever excessive force or slamming of parts.
and ensure that the threaded ends are again engaged, Then measure the distance between the rod endcap
and safety the jam nut. rear face and pin end. Record this dimension as the beta
Now, move the input lever to the position which p r e valve rigging dimension "A."
vides the maximum reset of the fuel control gas pro- Then, move the spool back and forth throughout its
ducer lever. In this position, the gas producer lever ro- travel to ensure that there's no binding.
tates clockwise with either a forward or rearward move Install the beta valve and propeller, and connect the
ment of the coordinator input power lever. coordinator beta control lever to the beta valve using
At this point, the fuel control gas producer lever dimension "A,"
should be approximately 3/16 inch from the minimum Place the coordinator input lever at the 95degree
speed stop. takeoff position. If required, adjust the beta control rod
Return the coordinator input power lever to the 95- until the distance between the rear face of the rod cap
degree takeoff position and check that the fuel control and pin equals the recorded rigging dimension "A."
gas producer lever is against the maximum speed stop. Adjust the beta control tierod length until the holes
Finally, rotate the coordinator input power lever sev- ,
in the rod ends approximately align with the holes in the
eral times to check for freedom of movement, ensure coordinator beta control and the beta control rod. Then
repeatability and to see if further adjustment is needed.

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PROPELLER HUB ASSEMBLY
attach the beta control tierod length until the holes in
the rod ends approximately align with the holes in the
coordinator beta control and the beta control rod.
Attach the beta control tie-rod and adjustment plate
to the coordinator beta control lever with a bolt and nut.
The adjustment plate must be positioned on the lever
so that the scribed lines on the plate and lever are
aligned.
Adjust the rod end on the free end of the control
rod until the holes in the rod end and the beta control
rod align.
Attach the tierod to the beta control rod, tighten jam
nuts and lock wire, and actuate the controls to assure
that there's no binding.
An alternate procedure can be used when dimension
"A" is unknown; it's inconvenient to remove the propeller
or the aircraft manufacturer doesn't recommend using
dimension "A."
Although workable, Allison says that this alternate
method is less precise and should be a second choice.
To use this alternative method, disconnect the
coordinator beta control lever from the beta control rod
and place the coordinator input lever at the 95degree
takeoff position.
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Firmly push the beta control rod by hand until it
bottoms out and measure the distance between the beta
valve cover and rod endcap. Record this measurement
as dimension "D"in the engine logbook.
Pull out the beta control rod until the rod endcap is
1.08 inches from dimension "Dmand adjust beta control
tierod length until the holes in the rod ends approxi-
mately align with the holes in the coordinator beta
control lever and the beta control rod.
Attach the beta control tierod and adjustment plate
to the coordinator beta control lever with a bolt and nut.
The adjustment plate must be positioned on the lever so
that the scribe lines on the lever and plate are aligned.
Then, adjust the rod end on the free end of the beta
control rod until the holes in the rod end and the
beta control rod ahgn. Finally, attach the tie-rod to
the beta control rod, tighten jam nuts and lock wire.
Then actuate the controls to check for binding and
proper operation.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 165
Turbine Technology
Propeller blade angle setting
To set the propeller blade angle, place the coordinator
power lever in the flight idle position (marked by 40
degrees on the protractor). Place the coordinator condi-
tion lever in the maximum forward position. At this
point, the governor assembly will be at the maximum
speed stop and full rotated clockwise.
Then, disconnect the air line at the Py elbow at the
governor assembly and cap the opening. Disconnect
the oil line at the propeller controlled oil port of the
governor assembly and connect a filtered air supply or
a regulated nitrogen supply to the open port.
Apply pneumatic pressure of 100 to 120 psi, actuate
several times, and adjust the blade angle setting nut to
achieve the flight idle blade angle for your particular
installation (turning the nut clockwise one turn will
increase blade angle approximately 1 degree). Cycle the
coordinator power lever several times and return to
the 40-degree position.
Remeasure the blade angle and adjust as necessary.
Once properly adjusted, disconnect the pressure
source from the governor assembly. The prop will auto-
matically go to the feathering position due to internal
spring forces.
186 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Then reconnect the oil line to the port, remove the
cap and reconnect the Py air line.
An alternate method can also be used to adjust the
blade angle.
First place the coordinator power lever in the 4 0
degree position and place the coordinator condition lever
in the maximum forward ~osition.
The governor assembly prop governor wiU be at the
maximum speed stop and fully rotated clockwise.
Hold the feedback rod sleeve forward against the
I locknut. Then, adjust the distance between the rear of
1the sleeve and the forward face of the pilot tube to 1.85
to 1.90 inches for 6degree blade angle and 1.75 to 1.80
inches for lodegree blade angle.
Conduct an engine run and check prop speed at
flight idle. Prop speed may range from 56 to 69 percent
depending upon ambient temperature, propeller model
and aircraft installation.
Turn the locknut clockwise to increase blade angle
and reduce N2 rpm (one turn equals approximately 3
percent N2 rpm change). % l
Januaflebruary 1994
' Editor's note: !The information presented in this story
was extracted from Allison's 250B17 Series Turbo
I Rigging training video.
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 Turbine Technology

ALF 502 major periodic inspection

Coordination between the factory engineers and the overhaul
center is critical to ensure best performance

By Jimmy Gates and Gerry Riffle

T
he MPVHSI (major periodic inspectionhot
section inspection) on the ALF 502 is a 2,000-
hour inspection of both the cold and hot sections
of the engine. Both MPI and HSI are performed in
conjunction with each other.
Although there are some other applications of the
ALF 502, the most common applications are on the
Canadair Challenger and the British Aerospace BAe146.
Because of the type of applications and operators
involved with these aircraft, most Textron Lycoming ALF
502 turbofan engines are maintained under Textron's
power by the hour program called COMP (comprehensive
operating maintenance program).
COMP helps cut costs to the operator by providing
parts and labor during an MPI/HSI. This provides a
unique opportunity for the engine overhauler to interact
directly with factory engineers. Following is a typical
scenario involving the receipt inspection and return to
service of a facility that
maintains a large number
a vibration survey is performed. The vibration survey
is a very useful tool in identifying any outof-balance
condition that exists in the rotating components. While
maintenance is performed on the engine, any outof-
balance component can be accessed and rebalanced to
prevent any future problems.
As part of the COMP, all data is then relayed to
Textron Lycoming's performance evaluation engineers.
If an engine is marginal or has a performance problem,
Textron will be able to interpret the data to identify the
module or modules that need maintenance.
Before removing the engine for MPVHSI, the engine
indicating system is checked for accuracy. This step helps
determine if the engine actually has a low performance
problem or the engine just needs a routine MPI/HSI.
Typically, however, the combustion liner, diffuser curl
and other components require some level of repair
or replacement.
COMBUSTOR TURBINE MODULE

\
of these engines, KC / FAN
Aviation, Dallas: Bh
In compliance with the I"
COMP, KC Aviation first
briefs the customer on &c-!iz;f3b
the procedures necessary
to complete the work
scope. Then, a fivepoint
run is performed with
and without blanking

-
plates installed in the
engine bleed air system.
Installing the blanking
plates isolates the engine
from the aircraft and
ensures that the bleed
system on the engine has
no leaks which may cause
T7 GAS PRODUCER MODULE

performance problems.
The performance data
recorded during the
fivepoint run is then
corrected to reflect the
engine's performance
during standard day con-
ditions. After completion
of the performance run, t ACCESSORY DRIVE MODULE

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 Next, panels and cowlings are removed from the
engine and it's prepped for removal. Once the engine is
placed in the stand, the inlet and thrust reverser assem-
blies are removed. The panels, cowlings, inlet and thrust
reverser are put in storage to prevent any damage.
AU of the remaining QEC (quick engine change)
items (bleed air, duds, hydraulic pump and lines, EPA
can and wiring harness) are removed, inspected and kept
in one location. The engine is then washed so that all of
the external lines, wire bundles, brackets and housings
can be inspected for chafing or cracks.
Next, the engine is moved into the engine shop and
access to the power producer module begins. During
access all of the remaining- lines and wire bundles are
inspected for any discrepancies.
Upon removal of the power producer, the first stage
compressor rotor blades and the stub frame support are
inspected for possible oil leaks and cracks. The module is
then mounted in a workstand.
The combustor turbine module is removed from the
gas producer module. At this time a detailed dimensional
check is performed on the combustor and gas producer
modules. On engines with a performance problem,
these figures can be a useful tool in identifying which
components require repair or rework. For example, the
combustion liner tang engagement to the first nozzle
and the fit between the turning vanes and the diffuser
curl are critical. The tighter the fit, the more efficient
the airflow within the engine.
The gas producer module contains a hlgh-pressure
turbine section and a compressor rotor assembly. An
MPI requires a borescope inspection be performed on
the compressor rotor, stators and the compressor
case halves. And every second hot section inspection
performed on a specific engine requires the high-
pressure turbine assembly be removed and a fluorescent
penetrant inspection be performed on the first turbine
rotor blades for cracks.
Before removing the second high-pressure turbine
rotor, tip and axial clearances are measured and
recorded. Also, the second turbine is removed, inspected
and the wheel diameter measured and recorded, and the
spacer between the second turbine wheel and the first
L b i n e wheel is removed and inspected.
The axial clearance is then measured between the
second turbine nozzle and the first turbine wheel
and recorded, and the second nozzle is removed and
inspected.
Also, the tip clearance is taken between the first
cylinder and the first turbine wheel and recorded, and
the first cylinder is removed and inspected. Then, the
axial clearance is measured and recorded between the
first turbine wheel and first nozzle.
The L2 engine operates at a lugher temperature than
the L2C engine, therefore the axial clearance is tighter
on an L2 (0.082) than an L2C (0.096). Finally, the first
168 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
turbine is removed, and inspected, and the wheel diam-
eter is measured and recorded.
Because of Textron's involvement in the COMP, all
of the tip and axial clearances are sent to the Textron
engineers. Textron then evaluates these figures along
with the performance data and works with the techni-
cians to correct any turbine inefficiency.
In conjunction with the removal of the high-pressure
turbine assembly, a borescope inspection is performed on
the compressor section. The inspection will reveal any
broken stators, damaged compressor blades and any
plasma coating missing from the compressor case halves,
which cause excessive tip clearance.
The plasma coating can be reapplied, by an approved
vendor, which helps to restore the efficiency of the
compressor section.
If a discrepancy is found, the compressor rotor must
be removed. All of the stators are removed from the case
halves, and the case halves are sent out for repair. The
stators are cleaned and inspected.
The compressor rotor is inspected and if any discrep
ancies are noted, the rotor is sent to Textron for repair.
While at Textron, the rotor is disassembled and
inspected. Applicable service bulletins, such as SB
724203 (inspection and rework of the third-stage
compressor disk), SB 724229 (application of Sermatel-W
to rotating compressor components to prevent corrosion)
and SB 720267 (inspection and repair/modification of
first-stage compressor disk), are complied with during
the repair. The rotor is reassembled and balanced to
s~ecificationsand returned for installation.
The first and second lugh-pressure turbine wheels,
along with the turbine spacer, are also shipped to
Textron for deblading, cleaning and inspection. If neces-
sary, the turbine blades are changed to increase the
wheel diameter and increase the turbine efficiency.
After the wheels are reassembled, they are balanced to
reduce vibration.
Additionally, work is performed on the combustor
turbine module. The fuel manifolds are removed.
inspected, cleaned and a flow check is performed to
ensure a proper spray pattern is obtained. The correct
flow and spray pattern are essential to ensure peak
performance, but generally, the fuel manifolds will
go from HSI to HSI without causing any major perfor-
mance problems.
The-combustion liner is also inspected for discrepan-
cies. If any discrepancies are noted, the liner is removed
and sent to an approved vendor for repair. The plasma
coating is removed, and the liner is inspected for cracks.
The cracks are welded, and the plasma coating is
reapplied. This is an essential component to ensure
peak performance.
During the inspection and access of discrepant parts,
the engine logbook is reviewed, and all part and serial
numbers are cross-checked with the removal of any part
to ensure an accurate logbook is maintained.
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For example, the current hours and cycles are taken
and then added to each lifelimited com~onent.This
prevents any component that has reached its cycle life
from remaining in service. These parts are removed and
returned to Textron.
Reviewing the logbook also provides a list of appli-
cable service bulletins that can be performed. This List is
given to the customer and the benefits of compliance
with these bulletins are explained. Service bulletins allow
for the rework or introduction of improved components
which, in turn, provides better performance. Sometimes
an improved part is introduced and installed into the
engine. At a later date a service bulletin is issued, which
incorporates the part previously installed. The customer
is notified that the service bulletin requirements have
been satisfied. It also decreases the amount of unsched-
uled maintenance, reducing downtime and operating
expenses.
As the repaired and/or replacement parts arrive,
each part is inspected before installation. Each part
and serial number is recorded along with any service
bulletins that were complied with. In performing mainte
nance on the ALF 502 engines, Textron and KC are
always refining clearances and buildup procedures to
achieve and maintain a high level of performance.
During the installation of the compressor rotor, for
example, the clearance between the impeller and spacer
is adjusted to the minimum limit, to obtain maximum
performance.
If necessary, an undersized cylinder is ordered and
then locally ground to match the turbine wheel size.
Minimum tip clearance is critical in obtaining maximum
performance.
The turning vanes are installed and adjusted to
a height calculated to match the height on the diffuser
curl. This will provide a smoother transition of airflow
from the combustion liner to the high-pressure turbine
section.
AU of the buildup dimensions are recorded and kept
on file along with all of the service bulletins for future
reference.
After building the CT and GP modules, the power
producer is installed on the fan module. All of the QEC
items are reinstalled, and the engine is installed on
the aircraft.
The aircraft is moved to the run-up area where the
engine is started and leak checks are performed. If there
are no leaks, the engine remains running and the over-
speed system is checked. Using test equipment, the
technician can verify redundancy in the system. The test
equipment is also used to shut down the engine and this
completes the functional check of the overspeed system.
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Turbine Technology
The overspeed system is equipped with two speed
pickups. Should one of these pickups become inoperable,
the operator can still dispatch the aircraft by performing
an overspeed shut down with the aircraft system. How-
ever, he or she must have this problem corrected as soon
as possible.
A five-point run is again performed with and without
b1arh-g plates, and vibration surveys are taken. If the
fan or the low-pressure turbine needs to be balanced,
a complete set of surveys is performed, and balance
weights are calculated. Another set of surveys is taken
to venfy the vibration levels have been lowered. The
throttles are then checked for alignment, and the bleed
band opening points are checked.
The performance data recorded is converted to
reflect standard conditions and is again relayed to
Textron. Premaintenance run data is compared with
post-maintenance data. Incoming and outgoing data is
given to the customer. This provides the customer with
a baseline to which future performance data can be
compared.
The cowling and panels are then reinstalled, and the
aircraft is given a thorough preflight. The appropriate
technicians are then designated to fly with the aircraft
for testing.
During takeoff, performance data is recorded, and
vibration surveys are taken on both engines. This data
is recorded throughout the flight at predetermined
altitudes. Throttle alignment is monitored throughout
climb and descent, and the bleed band opening points
are recorded. Other departments are also monitoring
and recording flight data.
Once on the ground, the aircraft is given a thorough
postflight. Adjustments, if any, are done and the aircraft
is run again. After all adjustments are made and engine
and aircraft logbooks are completed and put aboard the
aircraft, the aircraft is ready for departure. If the depar-
ture date coincides with a weekend day, a technician
from each department is standing by. This helps ensure
a smooth departure. EJlNovember/December 1993
Jimmy Gates is the ALF 502 lead technician for KC
Aviation, and Gerald Riffle is the engine shop program
supervisor. Gates has five years' experience and is
involved in the day-May operations. Rifle has 31
years' experience in turbine engines and oversees all
engine maintenance.
/he Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 169
Turbine Technology

GTCP 36-150 hot section inspection

By Marty Park

T
he AlliedSignal GTCP 36150 a d a r y power unit
is a fully automatic, constant speed gas turbine
engine used on a wide variety of aircraft and
ground power applications that include the Embraer
EMB-120, Aerospatiale/Alenia ATR 42, Falcon 900,
Canadair R J and the Fokker 100, to name but a few.
The unit has gained much popularity over the past eight
years with continued growth anticipated in the years
to come. As of this date, there are over 1,300 units
in service.
While the aircraft is on the ground, the 36150 is
designed to provide both electrical and pneumatic power,
either simultaneously with main power, or independently.
In-fhght operation varies with the type of aircraft.
The APU may serve as an emergency electrical power
source only or supply bleed air and electrical power
concurrently. In some applications, in-flight operation
is prohibited.
The 36150 APU consists of a singlestage centrifugal
compressor, an annular reverse flow combustion cham-
ber and a singlestage
radial in-flow turbine.
To ensure long life and
continued efficient engine Garrett 36-150
operation, it's important auxiliary power unit
that periodic inspections
are performed with ex-
treme care and accuracy.
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESS
One such periodic check
involves a hot section
inspection, commonly
referred to as an HSI.
and properly supported, it's ready for disassembly.
A careful visual inspection should precede any detail-
ed checks.
Visual inspections will eliminate any unnecessary inspec
tion procedures as well as determine the extent of any
further inspection. If damage is suspected, perform a
fluorescent penetrant inspection on the suspect item.
The majority of the engine components may be
repaired or replaced locally during the inspection
process. However, there are three major components
requiring inspection that are not field replaceable and
for which AlliedSignal will only authorize replacement
by an authorized overhaul facility because access into the
gearbox is required. These components are the compres
sor, rotor, the labyrinth seal and the turbine rotor.
Should any of these three items be damaged beyond
acceptable maintenance manual limits, AlliedSignal rec-
ommends that you terminate the inspection, reassemble
the AF'U, and send it to an authorized overhaul facility
for repair.
LABYRINTH SEAL
DIAL INFLOW TURBINE

The hot section

Currently, a detailed
HSI on the 36150 must
be performed after 3,000
operating hours. Allied-
Signal has incorporated
the "oncondition" mainte-
nance concept in lieu of a
scheduled overhaul time
period. It's worth noting

-
that there is no borescope
requirement for this
turbine engine.
Once the APU is
removed from the aircraft

170 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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 Tufbint?Technology

maximum bend. Blades bent due to thinning must not

exceed a 90-degree maximum bend.
Hot gas sulfidation can also cause blade tip erosion.
Blade tips with missing metal due to erosion must not
exceed a .25-inch maximum depth on each blade. This
dimensional check is accomplished with the use of a
vernier caliper and referred to as diameter "D."
The overall diameter 'ID" dimension must not be
less than 6.443 inches at its minimum point. In order
to confirm a serviceable turbine wheel, it's good mainte
nance practice to measure dl blade tips.
Again, if the turbine rotor fails to meet any of
these inspection requirements, return the unit to an
( authorized overhaul facility.
3
Com~ressorrotor: no damage allowed. I1 Clean and inspect remaining components
With the three major components ins~ected.clean
Compressor rotor inspection and inspect the remaining items. Don't use
Since a damaged compressor rotor would mean trichloroethane to clean titanium parts. After coming in
contact with chlorinated chemicals, titanium parts can
having to return the APU to an overhaul facility, it's
crack and fail if operated at high temperatures.
best to inspect it as soon as possible. With the inlet duct
halves and screens removed, access is provided through
the inlet air holes in the compressor housing.
Using either a flexible fiberscope, or a small mirror
and flashlight, inspect the visible portion of the compres-
sor rotor. Inspect each blade for foreign object damage
which includes nicks, dents and possible cracks. No
damage is permitted.
If no damage is found, remove the stationary hot
section components to expose both the labyrinth seal
and turbine rotor. These subassemblies consist of the
turbine housing, combustion chamber, turbine nozzle,
deflector shield, and deswirl and containment ring.
Once removed from the unit, it's suggested that
these items not be cleaned nor inspected until after
the labyrinth seal and turbine rotor are determined to
be serviceable.

Labyrinth seal
Visually insped the labyrinth seal for damage. The
seal is susceptible to axial cracks and cracks that have
branched. A maximum of six cracks is permitted
between the cooling vent and the outer seal edge.
Cooling vents with cracks which extend to the outer
seal edge must be isolated from each other by at least
one cooling vent without cracks. The labyrinth seal is not
a line replaceable unit; therefore, if any of the cracks are
found to be out of limits, terminate the inspection.

TClrbine rotor
Visually examine the turbine rotor blade tips, saddle
area (the valley between each blade end), contour and
hub area. No cracks are allowed.
If the visual inspection is satisfactory, then perform
a dimensional inspection. Blades that are bent due to
foreign object damage must not exceed a 15degree

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Turbine Technology

Keep in mind that questionable components should

go through a fluorescent penetrant inspection in
accordance with MIL-1-6866 to determine the extent of
the damage.
For example, critical inspection criterion involves
the turbine nozzle assembly. The nozzle directs the hot
gases for proper impingement on the blade tips of the
turbine wheel. The high level of stress imposed creates
an item susceptible to cracks and possible feathering.
Damage tolerances and repairs are spelled out in the
maintenance manual.
If the nozzle fails the inspection criteria, field replace
ment is authorized. If a new nozzle is installed, the
proper clearance from the turbine wheel will need to
be re-established. Again, the maintenance manual will
idenhfy the proper shimming procedures to establish the Labyrinth seal: Maximum of six cracks allowed between
correct clearances. cooling vent and outer edge seal. AU cracks must be
The reliability and performance of your APU is separated by at least one cooling vent without cracks.
directly related to the care and accuracy taken in this
periodic inspection. For the latest hot section inspection adjustments. It's a good practice to check this alignment
procedures, always refer to your engine's maintenance before applying a thin coating of compound (RTV 3145)
manual. on the mating surfaces of the power section and turbine
housing assembly.
Reassembly Once the turbine housing assembly is secure, the
With all items cleaned and inspected, the unit is remaining components can then be reinstalled and the
ready for reassembly. This procedure will be the reverse unit placed back on board the aircraft. EQi
of the disassembly. During this process, it's important to September/October 1993
ensure that the match mark on the combustion chamber
is properly aligned to the power section. Mar@ Park is a senior instructor at the Garrett General
Do not pry on the combustion chamber during the Aviation Services Division, AlliedSignal Technical
assembly to align it with the turbine housing. If neces- Training Center. He has over six and onehalf years'
sary, remove the turbine housing to make the required experience with the GTCP3G150 APU.

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 liirbine Technology

Dealing with fan damage

JT15D repair

By Greg Napert

T
he fan on the turbine engine is subject to damage
from all types of FOD (foreign object damage)
including rocks, birds, ice and deer.
Deer! you say? Yes, deer, says Jeff Holmstedt,
technical support specialist for Pratt & Whitney Aircraft
Services in Naperville, IL. Holmstedt tells the story of a
Citation that landed on a remote airport and struck a
deer running across the runway. The deer apparently
struck the leading edge of the wing, and portions of
the animal ended up being ingested into the intake,
damaging the fan.
Fortunately, though, deer strikes are not so common
a cause of fan damage, at least on the JT15D.
Holmstedt says that most common cause of damage
to the fan blades is ice. "It typically happens that some
one will be operating in icing conditions without the anti-
ice turned on the lip of the engine, and then they finally
turn it on after the ice has built and it lets loose and
strikes the fan with great force.
"The ice," he theorizes, "typically explodes and melt.
before it does any damage to the rest of the engine, but
if the ice hits the 'TI'probe, "it'll break the probe off
which can damage the fan and/or the engine's internal
components. Then you have major impact damage.
"We've seen a whole set of blades needing replace
ment as a result of the T1 probe being hit, and serious
ripping and tearing of the blades when that happens."
Holmstedt savs that it isn't a bad idea to stress to
pilots the importance of keeping the anti-ice on at all
times when they're anywhere in the vicinity of icing
conditions.
"Bird ingestion is probably the second most common
problem," he explains. "Birds can cause some serious
deflection of the blades so the blades, along with the
rest of the gas path, must be looked at carefully after a Be sure the tangs o f the puller are properly seated in the
dome before applying pressure.
bird strike.
"Another problem is small stones and other miscella-
neous FOD, but it seems that this type of damage is less ing with the compressor stator, the compressor and then
frequent these days because people are just more aware continuing through the turbine assemblies. "There's a
of keeping ramps clean, and there are fewer and fewer good chance that any damage that shows up aft of the
aircraft operating out of unimproved strips." fan will result in the engine having to be pulled and sent
to an overhaul facility," he says.
Evaluating the damage "Service information letter (7039) that's out for the
-49," according to Holmstedt, "says that if you have any
For strikes or damage of any kind, Holmstedt says
type of damage, you have to inspect for loose retaining
you really need to assume that the object not only struck
rivets on the case inlet stator and replace all the rivets
the fan, but continued through the engine and exited out
(per SB 7264) if any loose ones are found. There have
the exhaust duct. If the strike was within the gas path
been some problems in the past with bird strikes or
area, you'll need to perform a gas path inspection start-
FOD incidents which result in the rivets jarring loose."

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Turbine Technology
Proper indexing of the fan i s critical to proper
reinstalla tion.
If there is no evidence of any damage except the fan,
Holmstedt says there are some flyback limits in the
maintenance manual that can be followed to ferry the
aircraft to where repairs can be made.
Making field repairs
Field repairs, such as filing and blending nicks and
scratches, can sometimes be done to the fan blades
depending on the extent of the damage. The mainte
nance manual specifies exactly what's repairable and
also addresses the number and types of repairs that can
be accomplished. Among the criteria taken into account
in the manual are fan balance, high stress areas of the
blade and the depth of the damage.
Blending allowances change from model to model so
it's critical that you're using the blending limits from the
proper engine manual.
Holmstedt says there are various ways that people
like to address damage. "The way we do it here is to
take a jeweler's file first across the damaged area to
remove the majority of the damage; then we use a fine
grade stone to remove what Pratt refers to as 'striation'
marks (machining marks) caused by the file.
"We then radius the damage according to specifica-
tions in the maintenance manual. You need to remove
all of the damage, but you don't file a fan blade like a
propeller blade. In other words you don't dress the entire
leading edge; you just blend in the area that's damaged
and leave the rest alone."
Holmstedt says never to use a drernmel or any kind
of power tool for blending because it takes off material
too quickly. "The blade material is fairly soft and easy
to remove. I recommend masking the area first to avoid
damage to the rest of the blade going over the damage
with a jeweler's file first then blending it with a 150grit
square stone. You should also file with the grain of
the blade so that you don't set up any stress marks,"
he says.
If it turns out that damage is beyond that which is
field repairable, it may be repairable at the overhaul
174 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
level. Holmstedt cautions not to assume blades are
scrap before sending them into an overhaul facility for
evaluation. "The overhaul facility," he says, "may have
the capability of doing such things as moving blades
around so that balance is maintained, or use other tricks
to accomplish the repair and stay within the limits. So
never scrap the fan, fan blade or hub without sending
it to an overhaul facility for evaluation. They may be
able to save something that you would have other-
wise scrapped.
"In an overhaul facility," says Holmstedt, "we have
the luxury of taking the fan assembly apart and can
dress each blade individually, then weigh the blades back
up and balance the fan. So we're not limited to the
on-wing limits that field technicians are."
Removing the fan
If any of the damage to the fan is questionable or
isn't field repairable, the fan will have to be removed to
send to an overhaul facility. Although the procedure for
fan removal is quite simple, it requires the use of a num-
ber of special tools that have the potential for causing
some serious damage. So if it's your first time perform-
ing the task, you'll want to consult with an expert for
some advice and a little hand-holding.
Begin by bending up the tabs on the lock-washer on
the front hub and removing the bolt. Keep the bolt for
reuse and throw out the key washer.
You'll then need to use the special puller to remove
the dome. Holmstedt recommends spraying some lubri-
cant on the end of the puller so that it can spin on the
tip of the dome nut tooling. Make sure that the portion
of the tooling which you're pushing against is backed out
far enough so that the dome can move outward; other-
wise, you can put too much pressure on the dome slots
or on the tooling and damage the dome or tooling. You
should also make sure that the fingers that fit into the
dome are seated properly. You can now proceed and pull
the dome.
At this point, you'll need to index the fan assembly to
the engine. There are a couple of points to remember
when doing this. First, the fan assembly is balanced with
the entire compressor assembly. So even if blades are
replaced, and the fan is balanced separately, the fan
needs to be reinstalled in the same position so that the
compressor remains properly balanced. Secondly, don't
ever trust previous index marks to be accurate. The
engine may have been rebalanced, or overhauled and the
old marks may not be applicable.
To index the fan assembly, Holmstedt says to mark
the fan to the case at the 12 o'clock position with an
approved marker, then go to the exhaust d u d at the rear
of the engine and mark the low turbine to the case at
the 12 o'clock position. You then should mark the fan
hub to the fan blade, and then the hub to the shaft.
After you've properly indexed the fan assembly,
straighten up the tabs on the cup washer to prepare the
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 Turbine Technology

tangs on it which are locked into position on the fan

shaft. As you remove the nut, these tangs have a
tendency to be forced outward if the cup washer spins
with the nut, and this will lock the nut into position, not
allowing you to remove it.
There are a couple of precautions that you should
take to prevent this from happening. First, you'll want to
put some penetrating oil on the nut and allow it to soak
Fan removal and install checklist (Typical) in for a couple of minutes. Also, you may want to try to
TSN' , CSN
hold the cup washer to prevent it from spinning with a
pair of Channellocks or other suitable holding device. It's
MECH IN$P
a good idea also, to index the cup washer to the shaft
1. Jr(f&x 1611 assoMb1y to low turbino i1!1somblY.1t1d low corf',prO".>-Sor shat!

2, Rem<J1IOT1 probe. if Mcess.ary.

with a marker so that you can tell if it's spinning with
the nut.
3 Remove dome nut Ncte~ Oiscard Iockwashar <lno rotain spacar,

4. Pvl! fan dof1e. If the cup washer does start to spin, you should try
Note: AS-(.lirG PUUIt' pad
appro)l.lmale spar~ Assure dome spacer
is nCI seated againM dorr,e
i~ re\o1.i!)O(j
leaVQ 1!'.2-inch
to retorque the nut and back it out again a number of
5, UnSlak()cup "'3$~ at)(!remove loci<. nut times until it breaks loose and the nut turns freely. At
Cauti'Jl): Must rotate P::::IWef<tino in clockwise directIon to romo'o'e 1"1\)1
Do not Qxcood 6.200 ioch-pounds Dril nUl at twO slCt locations if nut any point during removal of the nut, Holmstedt says that
do~ no: braak iW6r1'Y

6 Heff1o..••
e Ian "sing puler.
you should not let the torque on the Powerdyne exceed
I ASSUfe spacor is falalne<:! in position Crt i1ppt/c(,lblel~
over 6,200 inch-pounds.
8 Rewrd PiN to wmk. /Jfdet/part requirements and ad\l'ise It's not uncommon, he says, for technicians to break
g InstalJa!k>nof pr<JpiIr spacers the socket by overtorquing. When this happens, the
10 tn:>Ia/lhma3$ornbly, tangs of the tooling break off and typically shoot off
Hir<t; Heat hub. Fan should &eat 110mB, let hu~ cool to room i\1l11ptt(aIO'1)
belQfe torquing. down the shaft of the engine and end up bouncing
1 1. SG<l1 tan w:th lock nit. using mant&:'1aoc£ manual proceduro.
around inside a plenum in the shaft. The engine may
12. Finallorqt;1) out per ma~ntt:lrartCe manuaL TorClw,.
then have to be disassembled to retrieve the pieces of
13 Sai(,;-ty1ocknut
the tooling. Holmstedt says that he has actually had that
14 Coofirm corne spacer is Ins\afod
happen to him one time, but was lucky that he was able
15, kmtall dorm.t assemtty, sea! and 1mque bolt
No~e; Ass,m~ dome bull sp<!C€r is correctfy ins.tafIW to retrieve the tooling pieces with a small instrument,
16 Safely dome boil some clay and a bit of luck.
17, Reins1a!:TI probe (11rem()vooj
Holmstedt says that the retaining nuts that don't give
18, Fir,alin5POC!ion
him any trouble are the ones that are properly lubricated
when they're installed. The cup washer should be lubri-
cated on the side that presses against the nut, he says,
and it should be dry where it presses against the shaft.
There are some rare occasions the nut becomes so
fan retaining nut for removal. Holmstedt says the best
tool to use for straightening the cup washer is a tightly bound up, that it just can't be removed. If this
flat-head screwdriver that's modified by tapering and is the case, you may have to drill the nut off, which is
grinding the corners off. a very delicate operation. It must be done extremely
At this point, you're ready to attach the tooling for carefully and you should really consult with an overhaul
removing the nut. This is where the removal can get facility before attempting this.
tricky. The tooling consists of a special socket that fits Mter the nut is removed, you simply attach the fan
onto the nut, another socket that fits onto the shaft and puller and carefully pull the assembly until it's removed
a Powerdyne unit (torquing unit) that attaches to both from the shaft. Be careful, of course, not to damage the
sockets for removal of the nut. What you're actually do- Tl probe. Holmstedt says that "most of the manuals
ing with the equipment is holding the nut and spinning recommend removing the Tl probe, but you really don't
the shaft. So this means that you're spinning the shaft have to if you're careful. If you simply rotate the fan,
clockwise to remove the nut. you can corkscrew the assembly out of the engine with
This is extremely important to understand because the Tl probe in place. This can prevent you from remov-
you're setting the Powerdyne for clockwise rotation, ing the probe, which, when the engine is installed on the
which seems to go against logic. However, if you set it aircraft, is sometimes difficult to get to."
incorrectly, the Powerdyne is capable of damaging the When you send the fan to the overhaul facility, it's
tooling or the shaft. very important to give the facility the fan trim weight
Another thing you need to know is that you have to size and location as marked on the engine data plate.
watch the torque closely on the Powerdyne as you're You also should review the logbook in case the trim
backing out the nut. The cup washer has a couple of weight was moved for some reason and wasn't indicated

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Turblne Technology

like all the other balance

weights. So your informa-
tion is important.
Holmstedt says that
"many times, the trim
data on the data plate
does not correspond with
where the weight actually
is. He suspects this
happens because an over-
haul facility will forget to
put a trim weight back
An overhaul facility can on, or the engine's gone
dress blades individually.
through an overhaul
This gives them the ability
to make repairs not and the engine was
allowed in the field. rebalanced, but the data
plate was never changed.
"Sometimes, we also
find no trim weight where one was supposed to be or a
trim weight in the wrong location. If this happens, we've
got to investigate the reason why. You can't assume any-
thing. Because you might add a trim weight where you
shouldn't, and it will end up causing an unbalanced con-
dition or a vibration," he says.

The fan can be removed with the T1 probe installed if you
carefully corkscrew the fan out of the engine.
on the data plate. The trim weight is a weight that
balances the fan to the rest of the rotating components
in the engine.
The overhaul facility needs to know this information
because the trim weight must be removed when it
balances the fan. When the balance is complete, the
trim weight is then reinstalled so that the compressor
remains balanced. There's no way for the overhaul
facility to identify the trim weight because it looks
Installation
Holmstedt says that installation is pretty much
the reverse of removal but offers the following tips to
prevent unnecessary frustration.
He says that by heating the fan hub slightly with a
heat gun you can usually press and seat the fan onto the
shaft. Holmstedt prefers this method to using the
Powerdyne to seat the fan because you avoid the possibil-
ity of damaging the splines of the shaft if you don't have
it aligned properly.
You also need to remember that the Powerdyne needs
to be set for counterclockwise rotation and to adhere
strictly to the torquing instructions in the maintenance
manual. El July/August 1993

176 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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 lbrbine Technology

Hot section inspection tips for the

Sundstrand T62T-40C Series APU
By R.J. Shope

M
any of today's APU operators or maintenance units, the recommendation or the requirement for a
facilities are unfamiliar with the name midlife or an HSI on some engines has been reinstated.
Sundstrand, when the topic of APUs is brought Without getting into the specifics of each installation,
up. They still call these APUs by their old name of Solar field experience has shown that units installed in an
or Turbomach. Solar Turbines International was the enclosure or that are subjected to higher operating
original manufacturer of the present Sundstrand units. and/or heat soak-back temperatures, normally require
Sundstrand power systems, one of the larger aerospace an HSI before their cycle life limit is reached.
manufacturing companies, acquired the Turbomach The life limits and inspection requirements for the
Titan APU product line from Solar in 1985. Sundstrand APUs are covered in the maintenance
Within the Sundstrand APU product line there are manual for each model and by two very important
currently 21 different versions or models of the Titan service bulletins. The two bulletins are: SRT-62T49-76
APU. As with the other engine manufacturers, and SB-T-62T49-77. SB 49-76 provides the latest life
Sundstrand assigns a different model designation to limits for all Sundstrand models.
each engine, usually associating it with a particular air- These units originally had an hourly andlor a cycle
craft installation. There are several models that will fit life limit. Several years ago Solar/Turbomach deleted the
in different aircraft though, such as the basic T62T40C.
Sundstrand does not require a midlife or should we
say a Hot Section Inspection (HSI) on the major-
ity of its units. When these APUs were first
placed in service years ago, they had
TBOs with a midlife inspection
requirement. As the units matured
and gained field experience,
they were updated and
modified with product
improvements and newer
materials. As the life
limits or overhaul times
increased as well as the
reliability of each unit, the
requirement for an HSI
was deleted from
Sundstrand's inspection
requirements. The units
were basically put on an
on-condition basis. It was
up to the operator to
determine if the unit
required a midlife or HSI.
As product improve
ments and new technology
materials were incorporated
into these units, their useful life
increased from 3,000 cycles to
9,000 cycles. However, with the
increasing number of installations and
the increased cycle life limits on these

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 177

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Turbine Technolofly
requirement for the hours and put all of the units on a
cycle limit only. Today's operators are utilizing their
APUs longer than before. The cycleto-hour ratio of many
units is less than 2-tel. In the past it was 3-to-1. Many
engines sent back to Sundstrand for overhaul, when the
hourly limit was still in effect, had very low cycles. Once
torn down and evaluated, these engines exhibited very
little wear.
When the cycle limit was only 3,000, the majority of
the units would operate without having to complete an
HSI. Now that FAA requires APU installation centers to
install all new APUs STCs in a fireproof enclosure and
that the cycle life limits have been increased to 9,000 on
certain models, we are seeing the need again to complete
a midlife HSI. This also greatly improves the likelihood
of all of these units reaching their designed cycle life
without a problem.
The most recent Sundstrand model, the T62T-40C9
installed by KC Aviation in the BAe-800A and 1000A,
has the first mandatory 1,50@hourHSI inspection
requirement. It's a 9,000cycle unit with all of the latest
product improvements, and is installed in an enclosure.
When to perform an HSI (when not specified
by manufacturer)
All of the Sundstrand APUs utilize a constant speed
fuel control, which keep the units at 100 percent speed.
Normally the EGT, or exhaust gas temperatures, during
no load and fully loaded conditions, will give indications
that an inspection is required. The engine has to be
pretty worn, though, for this to be noticed. And typically
a fuel control or electronic control box needs to mal-
function in order for the unit to exhibit speed-related
problems.
Most of these units operate between 500°F to 600°F
without a load. In their fully loaded state, with bleed and
shaft output, these APUs typically operate between
900°F to 1,200°F. This depends on the type of aircraft
and the installation. This is why this installation-
related information is important. The operator or the
maintenance facility needs to know what's normal for
the particular installation.
If the normal no-load or full-load EGTs increase or if
the units start shutting down on an overtemperature
malfunction, then it's time to investigate.
Another sign that there may be a problem is if there
is a fuel smell in the bleed air. The Sundstrand APU
utilizes a combustor design with O-rings in six venturies
for the six-injector main fuel manifold. If the unit is
subjected to higher than normal operating temperatures
and/or heat soak-back after shutdown, these O-rings can
become hard and allow fuel to seep. The outcome is a
mild fuel smell in the bleed air.
Sundstrand has recently come out with a service
bulletin, SB T-62T49-79, which replaces the standard
O-rings with O-rings P/N 179800, manufactured out
178 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
of a KALREZmmaterial. This service bulletin is highly
recommended whenever an HSI is performed.
Another indicator is a normal byproduct of combus-
tion-carbon. During the life of these units both soft
and hard carbon can build up in the combustor. A
small amount is normal and will normally burn off
during operation.
The operator will see this during heavy loading such
as a main engine start assist. The APU exhaust will emit
an occasional amount of black smoke. If it only does this
once in awhile, then it's nothing to be concerned about.
On the other hand, if the unit smokes continually
under all conditions and will not carry a load, then it's a
good indicator that excessive carbon has built up in the
combustor. This is more prevalent in installations
with enclosures.
Combustor housing
Besides building from normal combustion, carbon can
build up prematurely if there's a restriction to one of the
six main fuel injectors or if the O-rings leak as noted
above. Sundstrand has come out with a service bulletin,
T42T-49-78, introducing the low carbon combustor liner,
P/N 171924-100. By improving the airflow characteristics
of the liner, it has reduced carbon buildup by a factor of
18-to-1. This is recommended to all operators whenever
the combustor section is disassembled far enough to in-
stall it or during hot section and/or overhaul.
Another indicator that would lead you to an HSI, is
surging during start or while carrying a heavy bleed
and/or shaft load. This can occur during a main engine
start with the APU on line. Once the hot section erodes
or carbon builds up, the clearances inside the engine
open up. This decreases the airflow efficiency through
the engine and reduces the surge or stall margins of the
engine. This can also be caused by the hard carbon par-
ticles lodging themselves between the vanes of the tur-
bine nozzle. The engine takes longer to start and the
EGT exceeds recommendation. Many times the engines
will shut down automatically due to high EGT.
Most operators want to adjust the fuel scheduling of
the FCU continually to compensate for this, but in real-
ity they're only masking a more serious problem. This
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goes back to knowing what the normal operating param-
eters of the APUs are. If, over a period of time, the unit
takes longer to start, or operates hotter, and at times
surges, then it's time for an inspection.
Starting the HSl
The first thing a service facility should do before a t
tempting a hot section is to complete a thorough bores-
cope inspection of the combustor, the turbine section
and the inlet area of the engine. This can help determine
the work scope required and alert you to foreign object
damage @OD) or other damage.
With certain installations the APU can be accessed
well enough to complete the inspection without removing
the unit. On others that are installed in enclosures, we
normally recommend removal of the unit to complete the
inspection in the shop.
Ideally, it's best to run the units on the stand to
velzfy the correct operational parameters. By doing this,
you can also set the acceleration and speed of the unit.
These adjustments are difficult to complete if the unit is
installed.
During disassembly of the engine it's important to
follow all of the manufacturer's recommendations on in-
specting and cleaning of the combustion section and the
fuel manifold. The carbon will build up in the six venturi
assemblies of the combustor. If during the inspection
these injectors are not correctly cleaned out, the APU
will exhibit premature carbon buildup again in a very
short ~eriod.
T& combustor liner should be inspected for any
cracks, heat discoloration, etc. The maintenance manual
covers the limits for serviceability. There are normally
not any discrepancies found with these liners. Our
only recommendation is to install the new low carbon
combustor liner, P/N 171924-100, and the KALREZ"
O-rings, P/N 179800.
If the facility completing the HSI is authorized to
remove the turbine nozzle, then extreme care should be
taken when removing the six radial locating pins, P/N
160652-1. These six radial pins align the diffuser and the
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turbine nozzle in the air inlet housing. They should be
lubricated with an approved lubricant as per the m a i n k
nance manual before removal. It's very easy to shear the
head off these pins during removal. Once sheared, it is
almost impossible to remove the remaining pieces.
As with any turbine engine, match-mark all compe
nents before removal. This assures the correct reassem-
bly. The nozzle guide vanes should be inspected for
warpage and/or cracks. The turbine wheel and blades
should be inspected for any wear or damage. The limits
for both are covered in the engine manual.
During the inspection the maintenance facility should
also clean and inspect the start fuel nozzle, the start fuel
purge restridor, the combustor drain assembly and the
main fuel manifold.
Assembly tips
When reassembling the engine, it's important to
correctly align the turbine nozzle because the clearance
between the turbine wheel blades and the nozzle throat
is very critical. Refer to the correct maintenance manual
for the model APU being inspected for this dimension.
This is another reason for removing the unit from
the aircraft.
It's recommended that you position the engine verti-
cally for turbine nozzle installation. When the engine
is horizontal, it's difficult to center it correctly. When
installing the six radial locating pins back into the air
inlet housing, be sure to lubricate them with anti-seize
compounds. As with any gas turbine engine, don't use
any anti-seize compounds containing lead. The lead
will react with the alloys in the engine and lead to
component failures.
When reinstalling the combustor liner and other com-
ponents, such as the fuel manifold, fuel nozzle, etc., use
caution not to bend any of the tubing. We see occasional
fuel manifold failures from cracks after someone ab
tempts to realign the plumbing or overtorques the B
nuts. Proper torque of the six main fuel manifold injec-
tor Bnuts is important. If these are overtorqued, the
injector can fracture under the Bnut and leak fuel.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 179
TurbineTechnology
Sundstrand has a new Inconel 625 alloy main fuel mani-
fold available for current production units, and it will be
available soon through a service bulletin.
Installation tips
After the APU is installed back in the aircraft, a
thorough installation survey should be completed. If
the unit is installed in an enclosure, then the internal
temperatures of the enclosure and the performance of
the exhaust eductor should be measured. The amount of
airflow from the exhaust eductor, measured in inches
of water, will control the cooling in the enclosure.
Sundstrand has nobto-exceed temperature limits for
the areas surrounding the engine. If these are exceeded,
due to an improperly sealed enclosure or from a mis-
aligned or inefficient eductor, then damage to the APU
and/or premature hot section wear could result.
With all installations, it's a good idea to calibrate the
EGT and the percenbof-speed indicators at least once
a year. We've found that indicators that are out of
limit can result in operators misadjusting the APU speed
and/or acceleration.
180 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
During the installation survey, the unit should be
baselined to establish its operating perimeters for future
trend monitoring. This includes correct light-off, accelera-
tion, operational speed, n d o a d and full-load EGTs. These
should be measured in the fullcold and the full-heat air-
conditioning positions.
There is at least a 200°F difference between maxi-
mum EGT between hot and cold AC positions in most
aircraft. This is due to the operation of the air cycle
machine. In most aircraft, the temperatures will be
higher in the full-heat mode. Refer to your aircraft opera-
tions manual for correct system information.
Most operators don't perform trend monitoring on
APUs. The data, however, is good to have if operational
problems come up. Gathering trend information will help
technicians diagnose problems and minimize the time
required for troubleshooting. El May/June 1993
R.J.(Jeffl Shope is the director of APU programs for
KC Aviation in DaLlas, TX.
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 Turbine Technology

Compressor washing
Keeping those compressors clean can reduce corrosion
and ensure optimum performance levels

By Greg Naperf

T
he many years of operating turbinepowered
aircraft have proven that a clean engine is a
happy engine. Turbinepowered aircraft operated
near and around dirty, dusty, corrosive or otherwise
contaminated environments are prone to buildups of salt
and other chemicals on the comDressor section of the
engine. And these buildups, if n i t taken care of on a
regular schedule, can lead to corrosion and loss of power
due to disturbances in airflow.
The most important factor in determining if and how
much to wash the compressor is knowing where the
aircraft in question is operating. Remember that it's not
only aircraft that operate directly over saltwater that
require this procedure, saltrladen air may be encountered
for 75 to 150 miles inland under certain weather condi-
tions, says the Allison Gas Turbine division of General
Motors. If there is anv doubt about the conditions in
which the engines are operated, wash daily. Water
won't hurt the engine, but salt and chemicals will, says
the company.
According to Pratt & Whitney Canada's manuals,
most gas path contamination occurs in the compressor
section and comes from air pollutants in the altitude
range of sea level to 5,000 feet. These contaminants
range from salt over saltwater areas, to particulate
matter over industrialized areas, to herbicides and
pesticides in agricultural areas.
In fact, operating frequently over large industrialized
cities can be as harmful as operating directly over
saltwater.
Pratt says that these contaminants eventually
impinge on the airfoil surfaces of the compressor rotors,
stators and diffusers and result in a reduction in aero-
dynamic efficiency of the compressor and thus loss Technician at HeliJet in Eugene, OR, performing a
of power. compressor wash on a Bell 212.
For aircraft operating in these types of conditions,
all engine manufacturers stress a diligent program of plished on a regular basis for the purpose of removing
compressor washes to keep contaminants and corrosion salt or other contaminates and for preventing corrosion
to a minimum. are known as desalination washes. Washes that are done
as needed to restore performance of an engine, typically
The wash accomplished using commercial cleaners, are referred to
The compressor wash generally consists of nothing as power recovery washes.
more than rinsing the compressor section of the engine The washes, in almost all cases, are accomplished by
with clean water, and sometimes with a solution of motoring the engine with the starter, paying attention to
commercial cleaners as specified by the manufacturer. manufacturers' recommendations regarding starter over-
Engine manufacturers typically classlfy the wash into heat limits. Some manufacturers, however, recommend
two distinct categories. Regular water washes accom-

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 lbrbino Technology
running washes with the engine at idle. For motoring
washes using the starter, an auxiliary power supply to
reduce the drain on the aircraft's electrical system is
recommended.
Clean water
One mistake that's often made is assuming that
water that's clean in appearance is suitable for washing
the compressor. The appearance is not nearly as impor-
tant as the mineral content of the water.
Pratt says that the water used for gas path cleaning
is extremely critical. The use of water from sources such
as filtration plants, wells or fresh water lakes, can at
times introduce a higher level of contamination than
what you're trying to remove from the blades.
An example of this, says the company, is that typical
fitration plant water supplied to metropolis areas
contains chloride or salt contenta in excess of 100 parts
per million (pprn). And many environments where air
craft operate only have 1 ppm in chlorides or salts.
Because of this, it's recommended that demineralized,
deionized or distilled water be used. Allison says that the
conductivity of the water is the best indicator of levels
of mineral content (chlorides, sulfates, sodium and
other elements).
A maximum electrical conductivity, says Allison, of 3
micrornhos per cubic centimeter would be theoretically
ideal. However, a more practical level of 20 micromhos
per cubic centimeter maximum would control the above
impurities to a level of less than 10 ppm. (Pratt &
Whitney Canada provides a Gas Turbine Operation
Information Letter No. 5 that specifically describes how
to determine these levels and offers information on
vendors who provide the necessary equipment.)
-typical
Compressor wash system schematic
T MUWIlQl &Illlo(
3
S
E
*3
5 U.S. gabno
(IOWlrsl
182 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
General precautions
It should be stressed that every manufacturer
recommends different procedures for the performance
of compressor washes. Adherence to these specific
procedures is a must.
The following, however, are some of the general
precautions that are offered by a selection of engine
manufacturers:
Disconnect any pressuresensing lines and cap them
off to avoid contamination of the fuel control or bleed
valve system. Some manufacturers also recommend
blanking off the bleed valve or providing some way to
keep it closed during the wash.
At ambient temperatures below 35OF, most manufac-
turers recommend that an antidetonation or anti-
freeze injection fluid be used to prevent freezing.
Make sure before starting that the airframe inlet
ducts and screens are clean and the engine is cooled
to ambient temperature (wait a minimum of 45
minutes after shutdown of engine).
Never apply a solid stream of liquid directly at
compressor blades. A solid stream of liquid may
cause excessive stress of compressor blades.
Never exceed the starter duty cycle.
If solvent is used, make sure it's drained from the
engine to ensure that it isn't ignited on engine
start-up.
The circuit breakers should be pulled to prevent igni-
tion during the wash procedure.
Continue injecting water during spooldown until the
engine stops to assure rinsing the base of the blades.
But stop spraying after the engine stops rotating.
I The engine must never be left overnight or for an
extended period in a contaminated condition.
Most manufacturers recommend a drying run; first
restore all the lines and filters to the original configu-
ration and reactivate the ignition system. Then,
immediately following reassembly of the engine after
the compressor wash, start and operate the engine
for a minimum of five minutes to ensure d moisture
has been removed.
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l o t section inspection tips for the

jieneral Electric CJ61O
By Mike Salisbury

P roper care and maintenance of the CJ610 during If you have the opportunity to perform a ground run
the 1,000 hours preceding hot section inspection at night (or even at dusk), you can see streaking fuel
(HSI) will not only prolong the life of hot section nozzles and hot spots by standing a safe distance behind
components, but will also reduce the cost of HSI. and below the jet blast (when doing this, always wear
The General Electric CJ610 engine operates on 1,000- protective eyewear). If you see a hot spot or discoloration
hour hot section intervals up to 3,000 hours, at which in the flame, you could have a fuel nozzle problem, as
time, the CJ610-4, -6 and -8A models comply with a well as a combustion liner or turbine nozzle problem. It
4,000-hour TBO extension, and yet another extension takes a well-trained eye to discern the difference.
can be performed to give the engine an ultimate life of After you've performed a thorough ground run and
5,000 hours before overhaul is required. The -1 and -5 do have examined the operating records, you're ready to
not have a TI30 extension and require overhaul at 3,000 pull the engine. The maintenance manual prescribes a
hours. The CJ61(19 model is the exception to the rule, method of performing a hot section without removing
requiring an HSI every 600 hours. the engine. Don't do it. An efficient technician can pull
Always be on the lookout for any abnormalities or the engine, perform the inspection and reinstall it in less
changes in the flight parameters. Recording the EPR, time than it takes to fight with an engine that's mounted
EGT, rpm, fuel flow, oil pressure and outside air tem- on the aircraft.
perature is recommended on the ground and at every Furthermore, on-wing hot section inspections don't
5,000 to 10,000 feet, up to your max altitude, at least allow for thorough inspection of lines, hoses, clamps and
once a month. For best results, take these readings while various other items. Should any of the components, such
the lefb and righbhand EGT or rpm are matched. as the fuel control, overspeed governor, fuel nozzles,
Before you begin the hot section inspection, always gearbox, etc., require repairs or replacement, you could
try to get a recent set of flight parameters from the spend countless hours trying to tighten a hard-to-reach
pilots to keep with your incoming and final ground run I bolt, or find yourself safety wiring upside down with a
results. If the aircraft
gauges haven't been
calibrated recently,
-. a
calibration, as well as a
thorough J e N a l on the
entire engine indication
system siould be
accomplished.
There's nothing worse
than chasing an engine
problem all day long to
find out you have an
indication problem. If the
pilot is reporting a perfor-
mance problem, accurate
flight parameters are a
must for troubleshooting.
Upon performing your
incoming ground run, be
sure to note any abnor-
mal operation: slow start,
fast start, hot start, high
EGT, low EPR, and any
oil or fuel leaks.

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 183

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Turbine Technology
flashlight in your mouth. It's also more probable that
you'll scratch the aircraft paint or break the No. 3
carbon seal upon removal and installation of the turbine
rotor. The point is: You can perform a much more
efficient, quality-oriented inspection of the engine when
it's removed from the aircraft.
Once the engine is removed, perform a thorough
inspection prior to standing the engine upright to do the
hot section. By the way, this is the best time to perform
a 200/40@hour inspection.
Check all the filters. If you've got a contamination
problem, it's best to find it now. Also, inspect all the
gear splines for excessive wear. Should you find a worn
gear, you'll still have time to pull the gearbox and have
the gear replaced before the hot section is complete.
One very important thing many people overlook is
checking the front frame inlet guide vane integrity.
Every engine will have some loose inlet guide vanes, but
if you see excessive movement in the vanes, the engine
may have a vibration problem. Check the bleed valve
gates for drooping and all the other variable geometry
components. If these exhibit excessive wear, you should
think about sending the engine to an authorized facility
for a vibration workscope.
If the vanes are simply loosening due to routine
operation, you should reshim these as required per the
manual. If left unattended, they will continue to get
worse, and the cost associated with the repairs will
drastically increase.
As a rule of thumb, radial movement of a variable
vane less than .015 to .020 inch can be repaired inexpen-
sively by replacing the shims and bushings. If the move
ment is more than .020 inch, you'll most likely need to
replace the variable guide vanes and/or send the front
frame to a repair facility to the engine on its nose and
begin disassembly. Before you start, go ahead and mark
the turbine cases top and bottom and mark all locations
of clamps and brackets. This will save you a lot of time
upon reassembly.
During disassembly, be sure to measure and record
Stage 1 and 2 turbine tipto-shroud clearances as
required by the maintenance manual. Excessive
clearances in the turbine section will cause performance
deficiencies. If the turbine blades are not too short,
the shrouds can be replaced, but, they should be match-
ground to the turbine rotor.
Before removing the hot section components, be sure
all the required parts have been properly index marked
as specified in the maintenance manual. Once you've got
the hot section components removed, it's imperative they
be properly cleaned for inspection. This may require acid
tanks, dry or wet media blast, or just plain solvent.
Once the turbine nozzles are clean, you can begin the
inspection process in accordance with SEI-186. About 90
percent of all engines we see require some sort of repair
to the turbine nozzles, whether it be major or minor.
184 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Many of the sources of vibration and abnormal wear
can remain hidden to the untrained technician and
eventually result in metal fatigue, parts failure and even
engine failure. Signs of engine vibration can include
excessive circumferential cracking to the inner band of
the Stage 1 turbine nozzle. Streaking fuel nozzles or
improper fuel nozzle cutoff can burn a hole through the
Stage 2 turbine nozzle partitions. An inadequate fuel and
air mixture in the combustion section can cause turbine
nozzle partitions to warp and burn out.
If the Stage 2 turbine nozzle is P/N 6028T79G01 or
3902T49P01, commonly found in the CJ610-8A model,
be sure to measure the leading edge thickness of every
partition as prescribed in the maintenance manual.
Many people aren't even aware of this requirement, but
it's very important. Many of the CJB10-1, 4, -5 and 8
engines still operate with a very primitive Stage 2
turbine nozzle P/N 37R601096P112.
This nozzle has very little resistance to thermal
distress and should be replaced with the new style, P/N
6010T32P01. The old P112s are actually limited to
700-hour HSIs and, therefore, have increased mainte
nance costs.
Circumferential cracking to the outer band o f the Stage 1.
One of the most expensive parts involved in the in-
spection is the combustion liner. The overhaul process,
which should be accomplished by a GE-approved facility,
includes removal of both the inner and outer shells,
repair of the cowl and dome assembly, and reinstallation
of a new set of inner and outer shells. An improperly
assembled combustion liner can cause high EGT combus-
tion rumble and a host of other problems.
The maintenance manual also recommends that
fuel nozzles be removed, cleaned and flow tested at the
3,000- and 4,000-hour HSI. Our experience dictates that
this should be done at every HSI.
Fuel nozzles play a very important role in the longev-
ity of all the hot section components. Even the smallest
of contaminates can penetrate all the aircraft and engine
filters and lodge in the fuel nozzle, causing either a
severe streaking problem or restraining the valve cage
assembly, thus, not allowing the fuel flow to respond
properly when the throttle is retarded. This causes
severe thermal distress to the hot section components.
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One of the most important procedures during the
assembly process is to measure and record turbine
nozzle areas and turbine tip clearances. Any time a
turbine nozzle goes through a major repair, the airflow
area is subject to change. If the engine performs well on
the incoming run, measure the area prior to repairs, and
adjust the nozzle to the same area. When removing and
installing the turbine rotor and case assembly, clearances
can increase and cause poor performance, or they can
decrease and cause rotating and stationary components
to come into contact.
During engine installation, some items on the air-
frame are commonly overlooked. AU mounts should be
inspected for proper dimensions, properly torqued fas-
teners and correct safety wiring. Also, check hydraulic
and fuel hose to be sure they aren't timelimited. If they
are, make sure they aren't close to expiring. Additionally,
Excessive thermal distress on Stage 2 nozzle in T-case
with shroud.
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mrbine Technology
be sure the fuel control is rigged properly, ensuring both
the cutoff and max stops are correctly achieved. Finally,
make one last check of all clamps, wires, nuts and bolts
(even the ones you didn't disturb) to make sure they are
properly connected and torqued.
After the HSI and installations are complete, a
proper ground "power assurance" run is necessary to
verlfy proper operation. This is where your incoming
readings come in handy. Ideally, you want the engine to
perform better than it did when it came in for inspec-
tion. However, don't be alarmed if the engine is running
a little bit warmer. New combustion liner shells need to
"burn-in" and conform to the airflow characteristics of
the engine. If a new liner was in stalled, the EGT may
drop back after 10 to 15 hours of use. Remember,
though, that any drastic change in parameters requires
immediate troubleshooting attention.
Even though the main fuel control may have been
properly rigged during installation, it could still require
adjustment for the rnax and idle rpms. When adjusting
max and idle screws, adjust no more than six clicks at
one time, and always turn back two or three clicks in the
opposite direction to remove hysteresis in speed lever
and drive rod. Never adjust the screws to the end of the
travel. If you're getting no response from makmg the
adjustments, there's no need to keep adjusting. PdI the
fuel control and pump and have them tested.
After the HSI is completed, continue to take engine
parameter readings on a regular basis. Any fluctuations
noticed should be addressed immediately. Thorough en-
gine prefhghts should always be performed with a good
flashlight. Also, occasionally look up the tailpipe at night
for irregular flame patterns. January/February 1993
Mike Salisbury i s a customer service representative
for BIWET International Sales and Support, Inc. in
Tulsa, OK.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 185
Helpful rigging tips for the PT6
By Gary Byard

ne of the keys to rigging a PT6 is to think in the cam assembly is set into the same holes on both

0 terms of rigging engines in pairs, and not ad-

dress the engines individually. It's like building a
house, if you don't establish a good foundation, you'll
engines and that all connections are made in the
same locations.
The real trick is to get the sister engine exactly the
never get the rest of the house right. same way. You've got to have that cam follower in
When rigging a pair of engines, it's important that exactly the same position as the sister engine. If not,
both engines be configured identically. Arm angles, rod- when you come up out of the gate in the cockpit quad-
end lengths, cable play, etc. will cause problems if they're rant and go into reverse, or beta, and one cam follower
not identical from engine to engine. is more forward than the other, the engine with the cam
Prior to rigging, make sure that all P, and PSlines follower deeper in the cam box will begin to go into beta
are good and tight, and that the P3 filter is clean. If and reverse, while the other engine will remain in the
there's a leak or the filter is dirty, you may rig to cover forward mode.
up a problem. Otherwise, when someone goes to change Again, this is the very foundation for proper rigging.
a filter, or tighten up a line, it ends up throwing off Both cam followers need to be in exactly the same
the rigging. position on both sides.
The rigging process can be basically broken into You now need to rig the beta valve beta arm and
two areas: static rigging (with the airplane at rest) and prop reverse cable to the cam box. To accomplish this,
dynamic rigging (with the airplane running). The more unhook the prop reverse cable from the cam box and set
time spent in the hangar setting the engine up statically, the beta valve flush. Then hook the cable up and set the
the less time you're going to have to spend on the length so that the beta valve remains flush.
dynamic portion. Now, set up the interconnect link that goes between
the fuel topping governor (see Detail A, page 187) por-
Static rigging tion of the prop governor and the reverse cable. To ad-
The best success can be achieved by brealnng the just this interconnect properly, set it up so there's a
static rigging down into three separate areas: the cam slight amount of pressure holding it against its stop. Be
box, the fuel control and connecting arm to the cam box, careful not to shorten it up too much, though, because
and the reverse cable and beta valve beta arm. it'll have an impact on the reverse cable- which will tend
Start by rigging the airframe power lever to the cam to pull it and alter the blade angle.
box. This is done by
moving the power lever to
idle, then setting the cam
box to idle. This is prob
ably one of the most criti-
cal portions of the static
rig. You want to get the
cam follower as d e e ~as
possible into the forward
mode or trough (see
Detail B) of the cam
assembly, making sure
that it's not even slightly
into the beta range. To
accomplish this, adjust the
rod end on the cable com-
ing off of the airframe.
At this point, make
sure that the rod end in

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PROPELLER GOYERYOR
PROPELLER GOVERN0
I Y T l R M U R M RM)
This needs to be given some attention because if you
don't have the arm secure against its stop, the governor
may sense an overspeed mode when there is none, which
will cause fuel flow and torque fluxuations at or near
max propeller rpm.
The next step, is rigging the fuel control to the cam
box. The fuel control rods between the fuel control and
the cam box on both engines have to be exactly the same
length. Even two or three turns of the rod ends can
cause engines to behave differently, and you'll never be
able to compensate for it. This will show up in operation
when a pilot complains of having an engine that lags in
power in the early portion of power lever travel, then
goes past the power lever of the other engine in the later
portion of travel.
Once you have the FCU arm hooked up evenly on
both sides (in accordance with the measurements called
out in the manual), you then move the power lever to
the end of the quadrant, making sure to leave approxi-
mately a 1/2-inch cushion. Make sure that the cam fol-
lower is 1/4 to 1/8 inch from bottoming out on the fuel
control actuating lever (saddle). You can then use a rub
ber band to hold the arm against the max N1 stop, then
adjust the center washer and the vernier of the FCU
until they line up.
You now have the cockpit power levers, the cam
box and the fuel control unit set at takeoff and have
statically rigged the power levers to the engines.
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Turbine Technology
Dynamic rigging
Once you're running the engines, have established
idle, have good oil pressure and everytbmg else checks
out OK, you can start the dynamic rigging by adjusting
the primary blade angle.
At this point, your mission is to try to achieve
symmetrical thrust on both propellers. To accomplish
this, keep in mind that you're rigging the props to the
airframe, and not the engine to the airframe. Also
remember that the propellers move the air and the
engines supply the power to do it.
Blade angle is incredibly critical if you're going to get
the engines to accelerate the same. If one prop's taking
a larger bite of air than the other, it's simply going to
accelerate much more slowly, regardless of how you
adjust the engines.
Once you're on-speed, primary blade angle doesn't
come into play because the prop governor takes over
and maintains the blade angle. During acceleration
and in reverse, however, the blade angle is affected by
your settings.
On most aircraft, if the beta valve is flush, you
should set the nuts under the spinner (that pull the beta
valve) at approximately 2 1/16 inches (this will vary
dependmg on the configuration). From this setting, the
nuts typically won't require more than a couple of turns
to get the correct blade angle. I've found that each turn
on the three nuts will roughly give you 120 footpounds
(20 footpounds per flat).
Once you've got the blade angle set, move the power
levers up and run the engine at a specific power setting
(roughly threequarters of the amount of torque that the
engine will pull), then make a note of where the power
levers are located.
Power lever alignment is very simple. The washer
between the outer arm and the inner arm of the fuel
control is serrated. The amount of teeth on the inner
and outer side of the washer is different. What you do
to adjust the power levers is to move the center washer
forward or backward, while maintaining the outer lever
and inner washer at the same position.
Take a marker and make a line through all three. If
you want to move a power lever forward, move the mark
on the center washer forward. If you want to move a
power lever back, move the mark on the center washer
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 187
Turbine Technology
back. Roughly, six serrations movement of this washer
will give you approximately onehalf of knob of power
lever movement.
When you move the center washer, all you're doing is
adjusting the "dead-band," which is the amount of move
ment from the time you move the power lever until you
get movement of the fuel control.
188 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Once the power levers are aligned, it's a good time to
make sure that you've got max prop rpm set (prop lever)
and max N1 stop set. At this time, you need to deploy
the trim anvil (which is noted in the aircraft manual)
and make sure that you've got your max N1 (in most
cases this is 101.5). Even though this may be set up in
the test cell, I prefer to make sure that it's right and set
it up on the wing to assure that the pilot's got 101.5 N1
at altitude if it's needed.
Finally, the gas generators need to be adjusted so
that the acceleration on both engines is identical. Accel-
eration is critical because if the props don't accelerate
symmetrically in the forward mode, it'll be three times
worse in reverse and beta mode.
One of the ways that I've had success in doing this is
by the use of two adjustments. Many folks tend to adjust
n acceleration domes only,(this is really an abused
the
adiustment). You can also affect the acceleration of an
e gine by simply adjusting the idle rpms. In other words,
if the right engine is slow to accelerate, you just give it a
little bit of a head start.
In essence, I've had a lot of success in adjusting accel-
eration by using the idle as a coarse adjustment (for
example, set the idle on the slow engine at 54 to 54.5
percent, and the fast engine at 53 to 53.5 percent), then
use the acceleration domes for the final adjustments.
These tips should help you better understand the
basic concept behind rigging the PT6,but remember that
the aircraft and engine maintenance manuals are critical
in providing necessary information for each installation.
This is only a guide, and shouldn't be used in lieu of the
applicable maintenance manuals. KQi
November/December 1992
Ga2y Byard is senior engineering services coordinator
for P&WC Aircraft Services Inc. of West Virginia. He
has been employed with P&WC for over eight years and
has over 13 years of field experience with PT6 engines.
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 TurbineTechnology

Garrett TFE731 Major Periodic

Inspection (MPI)
By Cecil Orozco

ith over 6,000 Garrett TFE731 turbofan Servica Bulletin No. Engine Model
engines currently in operation, more than TFE731-723105 -2 engines
1,300 Major Periodic Inspections W I s ) will -3106 -3
be performed this year alone. Chances are, if you work -3233 -3B
around 731 powered executive aircraft, you've already -3466 -4
been or will be exposed to the MPI. -3263 -5

What is an MPI? How long should it take?

A Major Periodic Inspection differs from a Hot
Section Inspection (HSI) in that an MPI includes a fan
gearbox inspection, as well as other inspections outside
of the hot section. It's important to differentiate between
the two because an HSI can be required alone in the
Since this is an inspection and not an overhaul or
periodic maintenance, there's no definite answer. A new
engine in for its first MPI might be just an inspection
and take as little as five days.
I

event of conditions such as overtemps or excessive What tooling is required for the MPI?
excursions into the Automatic Power Reserve (IIPR). An array of special tools is used during the MPI.
The Illustrated Tool and Test Equipment Manual will
When is an MPI required?
prove invaluable in helping convert tool part numbers
Garrett service bulletins specify the time intervals for given in the instruction to a pradical illustration for
all 731 periodic inspections including the MPI. Even fin- the tool.
though the majority of 731 engines are on a 1,40@hour The 731 engine uses cuwic couplings and stretched
MPI interval, some engines remain on a 1,050hour shafts to couple the major rotating components. These
interval. If extended intervals (up to 2,100 hours) are shafts require special f i e s and rams which allow for
available, the service bulletins will define the codigura- engine disassembly and reassembly.
tion changes required to
qu@ for these exten-
sions. The service
bulletins also refer you
to the appropriate Light
Maintenance Manual
(LMM) for the inspection.
Generally, a 100hour
overrun beyond the speci-
fied interval is allowed,
but the time between the
next MPI will start from
the specified time, not the
overrun time.
The following is a
list of service bulletins
pertaining to MPI require
ments for the various
dash number 731s.

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 189

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 Turbine Technology

cation is essential to
FAN MODULE determine the customer's
expectations. Ask the
customer if they want just
the inspection and parts
changed out that have
exceeded limits or if they
have a specific perfor-
mance margin in mind.
SB TFE731-72-3001 and
the logbook's life limited
'-=:>- part log cards must be
,'~ /<Y/ ,
consulted. SB 72-3001
\ FAN BYPASS STATOR defines the cycle on 731
engines. It also defines, by
\ PLANETARY GEAR ASSEMBLY part number, the cycle life
FAN SUPPORT ASSEMBLY
limit of all components
that have limits.

Incoming
considerations
An engine calibration
TURBINE AND COMBUSTION MODULES and performance evalua-
tion run are required
ITT THERMOCOUPLE prior to an MPI and upon
HARNESS
return to service. This is
often referred to as the

\
TRANSITION DUCT
TURBINE INTERSTAGE \

NOZZLE
ASSEMBLY
\ HP TURBINE
"Four-Point Run," because
data points, (N1, N2, ITI,
F/F, P2.3 and P3 param-
eters) are taken at four
HP TURBINE specified power settings.
WHEEL Data are then reduced to
THRUST NOZZLE
AND EXHAUST standard sea level condi-
tions for engine margin
~ evaluation, and can also
be used to determine any
deficient engine areas.
During the perfor-
mance run, a couple of
additional checks can be
performed to save time
The fixtures and rams will be taken up to pressures and gain a better look at the engine. The fuel manifold
as great as 8,000 psi. Because of these high pressures, assembly pressure check is a required incoming check at
it's essential to take proper care and precautions when MPI, and can easily be combined with the performance
using these tools. The fixture rods which transmit the run by adding two more pressure gauges to monitor
pressure to the engine shafts require an inspection every primary and secondary fuel flow pressures.
100 stretches. If there's any report of oil odor in the cabin, many
shops will add one more gauge to check the No. 4 and 5
• Where can an MPI be performed? bearing cavity pressure . •
Although an MPI can be performed "on-wing," it's A compressor wash is a required part of the MPI
advisable to perform an MPI in a clean, well-lighted en- which can be performed either before or after the •..

gine shop. This will greatly reduce the man-hours in-
volved and enhance the quality of the inspection.
Most MPIs are performed on engines that have come
up on the inspection interval and still have performance
margin when they arrive. Good customer/shop communi-
inspection. On the 731 engine, a compressor wash won't
significantly change the performance because these
aircraft operate with very little time below 10,000 feet
which is where compressor pollutants are picked up.
A routine periodic inspection is also part of the MPI.

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The inspections
The Light Maintenance Manual's Chapter 7240-00,
Inspection/Check Table 603 lists the inspections required
during an MPI. Please note that the list will differ from
installation to installation.
On all engines, the Electronic Engine Control (EEC)
requires a control system overspeed check. Don't confuse
this check with the overspeed shutdown check required
by a fuel control change. This check inputs overspeed
signals to the computer and verifies its proper operation.
The overspeed shutdown check sends 28 volts to the
overspeed solenoid and doesn't check the computer's pro-
tective circuits. If the engine's going to be sent out for
MPI, the computer will need to go along.
An oil change is also required, though it's not found
in the LMM's inspection section, but rather, in the
servicing section of Chapter 7240-00.
Tooling used to stretch shafts exerts pressures o f up to
8,000 psi. Take care and proper precautions when using
them. This photo illustrates a ram being used to remove
the low-pressure tie-rod.
Notes on disassembly
Remember that the Light Maintenance Manual is
written to accommodate the engine's modular concept.
This is especially true in the hot section where there's
more than one way to access the combustor and hgh-
pressure turbine components. This can lead to confusion.
Close adherence to Paragraph 16 of the LMM, the hot
section inspection is suggested to avoid confusion over
procedures.
There will be more than 30 measurements taken
during disassembly and assembly. Some require repeti-
tion within .001 inch.
Because of the man-hours and possible frustration,
it's critically important that a shop has a standard prac-
tice of taking these measurements. Micrometer orienta-
tion, the point at which the measurement is taken and
the amount of load applied, all need to be well-defined.
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Recording teardown pressures is also very helpful.
The shafts on the 731 engine are stretched to a specific
measurement not to a pressure. Recording the pressures
at which the stretch shaft nut starts to loosen, for
example, will provide a pressure that can be reused on
assembly to attain the same shaft stretch.
Other additional measurements that may be taken at
disassembly that facilitate the assembly process include:
Teardown stretch measurement and pressure of the
fan shaft.
Orientation measurement of the No. 3 bearing inter-
race to low-pressure compressor shaft. (Taking this
measurement may catch a slipped spring washer
prior to torquing the No. 3 bearing retainer nut on
assembly. This is a worthwhile procedure due to the
likelihood of this spring slipping and time required in
torquing the No. 3 bearing retainer nut.)
An orientation measurement of the third-stage low-
pressure turbine shaft to the tierod. (After removing
the thrust and exhaust nozzle but before removing
the low-pressure turbine module. This will verify that
the low-pressure turbine and compressor are properly
engaged on assembly.)
Orientation measurement of the high-pressure
turbine seal plate and the high-pressure shaft. (This
will allow earlier detection of incorrect orientation.)
Remember, these additional measurements do not
replace the required final measurements and are only
recommendations.
If your shop is equipped with a flow bench, flow the
high-pressure and first-stage low-pressure turbine nozzles
to gain additional insight.
On Dash-2 engines that still have the old style outer
transition liner, the liner should be inspected for distor-
tion. If the liner is distorted, the engine will need to be
sent to a facility capable of performing a compressor
zone inspection.
Also on Dash-2 engines, checking the outer transition
liner (OTL) for distortion on disassembly will reveal a
liner that might require rework.
Inspection
The requirement for component inspections is stated
differently in the fan area of the manual compared to
the hot section area. Both, however, refer you back
to the individual component section of the LMM, which
should be used as the definitive source. For a quick
reference, the addendum to the inspection/check section
of Chapter 72-0000 gives the LMM reference by part
number for all parts to be inspected during the MPI.
Also the standard practices section of Chapter
72-00-00 provides the cleaning procedures for the parts
leading up to the inspection.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 191
Assembly
With all the parts in hand, and a well documented
teardown, assembly is almost fun! Hopefully, you will
have accurately recorded your teardown measurements.
A thorough cleaning of the flanges and curvic coupling
surfaces will be helpful in obtaining the disassembly
measurements.
A couple of notes on the assembly sequence: Make
sure the No. 3 bearing is installed prior to stretching the
forward end of the low-pressure tierod. If not, there's a
possibility that the stretch pressure will be transmitted
to the tooling wrench leaving it belled and stuck in the
bearing cavity.
Beware of the No. 3 bearing retainer, the installation
of which is called out with the No. 3 bearing. Despite its
name, it has a tendency to fall out of position. For this
reason, it's usually installed later with the coupling shaft
assembly, which secures it. Be careful though, because
it's easily forgotten when in stalled in this sequence.
You may also want to install the fuel nozzle manifold
after the combustor is installed, but prior to transition
duct installation. This sequence allows you to visually
verify proper manifold installation.
192 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Return to service
An outgoing performance run is required after an
MPI, and is performed with the engine installed on the
aircraft. The data is collected in the same fashion as the
incoming run. Remember the MPI is an inspection, not
an overhaul. These numbers may reflect little improve
ment in performance margin unless new components
were installed.
A vibration check will be done with an outgoing
performance run. Normally, if all rotating parts are
returned to their original orientation, the vibration will
be well within limits. It's common to try to reduce vibra-
tion even more by balancing the fan.
Engines operating with the Digital Electronic Engine
Control (DEEC) will need to venfy that the fault
memory is cleared before the aircraft is returned
to service.
Additionally a follow-up SOAP check is required after
25 operating hours. This establishes a new base line for
future checks.
It's interesting to note that in the past four years,
Major Periodic Inspection intervals have been extended
from 1,050 to 2,100 hours. This leaves only one MPI
between core inspections. This has reduced cost of
ownership, but has increased the significance of a quality
Major Periodic Inspection. September/October 1992
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By Clay Sevier
T
he LTS 101 turbine helicopter engine was intro-
duced in the late 1970s. Although the engine is
simple and can be maintained in the field, reliabil-
ity and low maintenance have not been the LTS's strong
points. The engine, though, has received many improve
ments that have cured many of its past shortcomings.
One of the main culprits that contribute to its check-
ered history has been the power turbine "blisk (bladed
disc), a cast onepiece shaft and disc arrangement that
is prone to cracking. These cracks appear at the blade
trailing edges and are extremely difficult to detect.
The FAA responded by issuing AS87-1149, which
requires the LTS 101 Power Turbine Rotor to undergo
an FPI (Fluorescent Penetrant Inspection) every 50
hours. The process of inspecting each blade properly is
both tedious and timeconsuming because of the small
cracks that can easily be missed.
At 100 percent rpm, the LTS 101 Np (power turbine
speed) is approximately 37,000 rpm. At this speed, if a
blade breaks off, the mass imbalance of this blisk can
cause the entire power turbine assembly to leave the
Porilion 16 bearin1
Power l u r h i ~rsbnlia
Porilion 14 bearing
IT
Power tuhhe electronic
marspeed qNsm
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engine! This is why Textron Lycorning redesigned the
blisk and developed the IBPT (Insertable Blade Power
Turbine Rotor).
The IBPT kit includes the insertable bladed power
turbine retention system, modified No. 3 bearing housing
and a replacement power turbine nozzle.
This has eliminated the power turbine trailing edge
cracking problems associated with the cast rotor, as well
as the 5@hour interval FPI required by Airworthiness
Directive 87-1149. The power turbine cycle increased
from 8,300 cycles on the cast rotor to 11,000 cycles on
the IBPT.
lVoubleshootinglow power
The following scenarios should be followed while
troubleshooting the engine for low power. These are only
outlines for troubleshooting, however. More detailed
information can be found in the LTS 101 maintenance
manual (7740-00) and the appropriate airframe mainte
nance manual.
ImrlsYa blah eom
l d n a rotor
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lbrblne Technology
Low power-MOT (Measured Gas
~ernperature)within limits
When troubleshooting the LTS 101 for low power
(MGT within limits) first check the indicating systems.
Inspect and repair the following systems as necessary:
OAT (Outside Air Temperature), MGT, Ng (gas generator
speed) and torque.
The following are the causes of low power when the
MGT is within limits:
IIltrottle linkage adjustment. For this adjustment, you
should also refer to the airframe maintenance manual.
If the instruments and throttle linkage appear to be
functioning normally, check the Np (power turbine
speed) governor rigging. Inspect the Np rigging and
rerig as necessary.
Clogged airframe fuel filter. Replace filter as per
airframe maintenance manual. Also make sure that the
fuel shutoff valve is fully open.
Ng speed adjustment. Refer to the LTS 101 mainte
nance manual (73-2000) because the adjustment may be
set too low.
Overspeed trip governor. To check if it is in "test
mode" or malfunctioning, just close off the Py (governor
servo pressure) line to the overspeed limiter and per-
form the power assurance check. Make sure the test
switch is in the normal position. Check to make sure a l l
fuel control system lines are tight with no evidence of
corrosion or cracks (refer to Section 73-10-00 of the LTS
101 maintenance manual). If you find that you have
control system air leaks, here are some corrective steps:
1. Disconnect the PCline at the inlet to the PCfilter.
2. Apply 50 to 80 psig filtered air (10 microns) to the
PCfilter inlet.
3. Open the throttle. This will close the Py deceleration
restridor and pressurize the Py system.
The cover and parting surfaces on the fuel control
governor which produce a thick foaming of the soap
solution do not represent a leak of sufficient magni-
tude to warrant concern. These leaks were present
during initial calibration and were compensated for at
that time. Audible noises of air escaping inside the
fuel control or governor are also normal.
4. If a leak is found, inspect and retorque fittings or use
conical seals to eliminate leaks. If necessary, repair
or replace tube assemblies or fittings. Blend repair
light surface nicks, burns and damaged threads per
Standard Practices, Section 7 0 0 0 0 . Be careful not
to overtorque the fittings.
Dirty PC filter. Clean or replace the filter to eliminate
a possible airflow restriction. Procedures for PCfilter
maintenance and differential pressure check are in
section 73-0000 of the LTS 101 maintenance manual.
194 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Fad@ temperature compensator. Remove the
temperature compensator from the engine. Tighten both
countersunk screws on the back of the compressor to
eliminate air leaks. Gently pull on the bellows stackup
and then release. The bellows should move freely and
return to its original position. If not, clean the tempera-
ture compensator per section 73-00-00 of the mainte-
nance manual. Alter this procedure, install new packing
on all fittings, then cap off the Pg circuit and repeat the
power check.
Px line blockage. Check the Px line, from the T1
sensor to the fuel control for blockage. If clogged, flush
all lines using an approved cleaning solvent per the
maintenance manual.
Contaminants in the power turbine governor or Pg
circuit. Clean the power turbine governor with an a p
proved cleaning solvent per the maintenance manual.
Lodged fuel manifold or restricted fuel nozzles. Using
Customer Service Letter (CSL) 074, connect a 0-to
1,000-psig pressure gauge into the fuel control output
line to the fuel manifold flow divider. Perform start pro-
cedures and monitor the pressure. At idle, this pressure
should be between 160 and 200 psig. Accelerate the
engine and continue monitoring the pressure. This
pressure should not exceed 400 psig in the normal
power range. Should the fuel manifold fail to meet these
requirements, replace the manifold.
Anti-icing vdve and Environmental Control Unit
(ECU).These items are designed to bleed air from the
compressor and can sometimes bleed more air than they
should with excessive power loss being the result. To
check, block off their ports on the engine and perform a
power check.
Other areas to check
- FOD, erosion of compressor blades and the pres-
ence of dirt will all reduce your compressor's efficiency.
- The combustor drain valve is normally closed,
and if this valve stays open during operation, a loss of
airflow will result.
- The LTS 101 Series engines utilize an inlet airflow
modulation ring that extends into the airflow path at
low rotor speeds and reduces airflow to the axial
compressor by 13 percent. By restricting the airflow, the
pressure increases and overcomes the back pressure in
the engine and eliminates the possibility of a compressor
stall. This flow fence ring should open at 85 percent
power and stay open. Should this ring stay closed or
partially closed, the result would be low power. Check
the flow fence and the flow fence actuator for proper
operation as per the LTS 101 maintenance manual.
- Check thermocouples for resistance and shorting as
well as coast downtime. After engine shutdown, binding
accessories will shorten the specified coast down time
and will be robbing power from the engine.
- Also perform a functional test of the fuel manifold
as directed in the LTS 101 maintenance manual.
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Low power-high MOT
Check the following with high measured gas tem-
perature.
Diffuser P3 gaskets. This check can be difficult with
an inspection mirror and flashlight. The following
procedure gives a more positive result and reduces the
chances of missing a blown gasket. Gaskets should be
replaced when bubbles are present. But keep in mind
that slight leakage from underneath bolt heads is not
unusual:
1. Disconnect power supply to exciter box.
2. Scroll and remove the upper half on engine models
equipped with inlet.
3. Close the engine fuel valve.
4. While motoring engine, spray a soapy water solution
on diffuser P3 fittings. Do not exceed starter cycle.
Internal checks
Internal checks require complete disassembly and
should only be performed by a qualified service center.
The following areas are suspected of causing low power:
Combustor liner fit. Check to make sure the combus-
tor liner fits and has no visible leaks that could affect
performance.
Gas producer shroud seal rings. The two seals and
two springs seal the gas producer shroud to the gas prc-
ducer nozzle. The seals, if worn, can cause a sigmficant
loss of horsepower. These seals should be measured for
thickness and circumference as per the specifications in
the maintenance manual. Check rings for fretting and
wear, and check springs to determine that a positive
spring tension exists in order to keep the rings firmly
sealed against the springs and the gas producer shroud.
Gas producer turbine shroud tip clearance. Check tip
clearance as per maintenance manual. Confirm that the
GP rotor to shroud tip clearance is within the limits
s~ecifiedin the manual.
Impeller shroud coating. To properly inspect requires
complete disassembly. Make sure that no parent metal
is present.
Gas producer nozzle and power turbine nozzle WEFA
(Williamsport Effective Flow Area). To achieve proper
performance levels, the gas producer nozzle WEFA
should be smaller and the power turbine nozzle WEFA
should be larger. This allows for an unrestricted flow of
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gases through the engine and allows maximum perfor-
mance levels to be reached. For example, increasing the
gas producer nozzle WEFA will slow down N1, and
increase specific fuel consumption and T4. The following
chart explains the relationship of different nozzle flow
areas and their effect on N1 speed, fuel consumption and
temperature:
N1 SFC T4
Close GP n o d e increase decrease decrease
Open GP nozzle decrease increase increase
Close PT nozzle decrease decrease increase
Open PT nozzle increase increase decrease
Nozzles have a tendency to "bow" and lose their
WEFA history set forth at the factory. When ordering
these nozzles, be sure to keep the WEFA history in mind
and remember that your nozzles may have "bowedn from
the original specifications and may be causing your low
power problem.
Other troubleshooting tips
Finding metal chip sources. Searching for metal chip
sources can be difficult when inspecting bearings that
are internal and not directly visible. To assist in your
inspection, flush the bearing with a solvent such as
Varsol. Catch the runoff in a clean cup, preferably one
with a lighbcolored interior. Inspect this solvent runoff
with a strong light for the presence of metal chips.
Positive chip sightings would indicate that the bearings
should be changed. Serviceable bearings should be
relubricated with engine oil.
Finding oil leaks. If you have ever experienced a
nagging oil leak that defied sourcing, try using a black
hght. Turbine oil appears milky white under a Zyglo
black light. If you still can't isolate the leak, clean and
dry the engine or gearbox. Run the aircraft until the
leak manifests itself; you should then be able to locate
the source. July/August 1992
Clay Sevier i s a licensed A&P technician currently in
charge of marketing maintenance services for Petroleum
Helicopters Inc. (pH0 and its subsidiary, Evangeline
Airmotive Inc. (Em.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 195
Turbine Technology

Jet lube
Do you know what you're putting in that turbine engine?

By Greg Napert

Theturbine-powered
typical
owner
aircraft involves the following: An
pullsscenario involving
his or her aircraftoilinto
servicing for a
a maintenance
facility and requests that the oil be checked and, if neces-
sary, serviced. The technician then checks the logbooks
for the last entry which specifies the type of oil added,
and services the oil accordingly.
Very seldom are questions asked regarding advan-
tages or disadvantages among the various turbine oils
on the market, nor do debates arise over which oil
should be used.
The subject is one that's not discussed because,
unlike its recip engine counterpart, there's very little
information, if any, about the subject that's made readily
available to pilots and/or technicians.
So is this a problem? It is, if you consider there are
oils available that are very different in composition and
effectiveness, and choosing the right oil, according to
manufacturers, can make a difference between having to
perform premature maintenance and getting the most
out of an engine.
Oil manufacturers aren't trying to hold back or hide
information about their products; it has more to do with
the fact that the largest consumers of turbine oil are the
airlines and that general aviation represents a relatively
insignificant portion of the market. Because of this,
much attention is given to the airlines and little effort John Esser, chief engineer for Mobil Oil Corporation,
is made selling to or educating the general aviation in Fairfax, VA, explains that the U.S Navy, in coopera-
community on turbine engine oils. tion with Pratt & Whitney Aircraft and Mobil, developed
a second generation of synthetic lubricants in 1963, now
History known as "Type II" under MIL-L-23699. These new oils,
The first turbine engines in the '40s were lubricated he says, were capable of service at temperatures up to
with mineral oils. Mineral oils, however, were found to lOO°F higher than Type I oils.
be unsuitable for use in turbine engines and significantly From that point forward, MIL-L-23699 became the
hindered their development. standard for the industry. Type II continues to be the
As commercial aviation prospered, the need grew for most widely used oil today. Currently available Type II
a new lubricant that could withstand the demands of the oils are: Mobil Jet Oil II, Exxon 2380, Aeroshell 500 and
turbine engine. In 1951, the first approval by the mili- Castrol 5000.
tary was granted for a synthetic lubricant under U.S. Harry Pinchevsky, aviation accounts manager for
MIL-L-7808. This oil, referred to as "Type I," was a Royal Lubricants, manufacturer of Aeroshell oils, says
three centistoke oil, which meant that it flowed easily at that "all 23699 oils have been around since the '60s.
extremely cold temperatures. They're all pretty much the same because they all
Although the oil was a significant improvement over contain essentially the same base stock. They all have
mineral oils, the properties of the oil were such that they good all-around characteristics and are approved to
didn't meet the needs of continually developing engines. minus 65°F."
Higher pressure and temperature operating extremes Pinchevsky says that there is limited application
along with tighter clearances and more power called for for the old Type I oil. Because Type I oils were three
an oil that could withstand these developments. centistoke and the Type II are five centistoke oils, the

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Navy, he explains, still insists on using it in the colder
regions of the country. And some aircraft continue to
use it on APUs-APUs become cold soaked at altitude
because they aren't operating. If the need should arise to
start the APU, some claim that the lower centistoke oil
will aid in starting. This theory, however, isn't supported
by most people, since the Type I1 oils have a wide
enough flow range to cover all bases, and the charader-
istics of the Type I1 oils far outweigh the need for
extremely low pour points.
Pinchevsky says that another specification to be
aware of is Milspec 85734. This oil, he says, is essentially
a Type I1 oil with additives that was developed for higher
loadcarrying capabilities. It's most commonly used,
he says, in applications such as helicopter gearboxes.
But these additives take away from some of the other
characteristics of the oil. so it's not recommended that
it be used for turbine engines. Shell and Exxon were the
only ones to develop it with limited applications.
New standards
Until recently, all oils were developed in conjunction
with the military. Typically, the military worked with the
engine manufacturers and oil companies to develop a
Milspec. The Milspec was then published and the oil
companies would produce an oil that would fit the
specification.
Recent advancements involve pushing the capabilities
of the turbine engines even further. What this means
is smaller engines, producing more power. As a result,
current engines run at even higher temperatures and
have even tighter clearances. Further, engine TBOs have
increased from a low of 4,000 hours up to 10,000 hours
on some of today's engines.
Esser says that tight clearances mean that oila
remain in service longer than they did in the past. He
explains that labyrinth seals (air seals) were quite
common in the past. With a labyrinth seal, he says, a
certain amount of oil was expected to blow past the seal.
The engine would then have its oil serviced and as a
result of this cycle, the oil would be continually
replenished.
Today, two turbine oil manufacturers have introduced
a new generation oil to the marketplace designed specifi-
cally for modern engines. These oils are Mobil's Jet Oil
254, which was introduced in 1984, and Aeroshell
Turbine Oil 560, introduced in 1987. They're referred to
as a third generation oil. According to Esser, these oils
excel in the ability to withstand high temperatures
without breaking down.
Engines that aren't subject to higher temperatures
and that aren't experiencing any problems with coking
or oil deposition probably wouldn't benefit from these
new oils, explains Esser. But some engines are really
tough on oils. They've got hot spots which cause frequent
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coking and carbon deposits. Examples of these engines,
he says, are the Allison C250, Garrett 331 and Lycoming
LTS-501.
To evaluate whether to go to a third generation oil,
Esser says that you need to determine if there are
problems with coking and/or carbon deposits. If the
engine isn't coking, there's no reason to upgrade.
Pinchevsky says that third-generation oils essentially
are a Type 11oil with an improved additive package that
improves the cleaning capabilities of the oil. He says that
Aeroshell560 is known for performing throughout a
wider temperature range than Mobil's, but he adds that
Mobil's oil has better characteristics a t high tempera-
tures. It has accomplished this though, he says, by
sacrificing performance a t intermediate temps.
Keep in mind that these new oils aren't approved for
all aircraft, says Pinchevsky. Shell just recently approved
its oil for use on certain models of the Allison 250,
for example, but both companies say that the oils are
approved for most engine types.
Note also that the color of the new third-generation
oils is darker than the Type I1 oil. "It actually looks like
it's used," says Esser. "It's because the additive is dark in
color. Technicians have been known to open a new can
of 254 and think that it's bad. The color is due to the
additive package and is supposed to be that way."
Servicing
Esser says that regardless of the type of oil being
used, it's important to continuously monitor the engine
oil through an oil analysis program to determine if a
different oil is needed and to establish oil change
intervals if necessary,
"If you find out that the viscosity of the oil is coming
out s ~ i c a n t l y
higher than what the books call for, you
have two choices: Use a better oil, or do more frequent
oil changes," he says.
He explains that in addition to oil analysis, observing
carbon buildup and deposits during scheduled and
unscheduled engine inspections can provide clues to the
effectiveness of the oil being used.
Swapping and mixing oils
Esser says that although Mobil has proven that there
are no problems w i t h mixing its turbine engine oils with
other synthetic turbine oils, there are some manufadur-
ers that still recommend that you don't mix. Pratt, for
example says that changing from one brand to another
requires not only that you drain and refill, but that you
drain, flush and refill. GE and most other engine manu-
facturers, however, don't require any special procedures.
Pratt's requirements, explains Esser, can create grief
for the technician. What do you do when your FBO only
stocks one lubricant and a customer is using another?
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 197
Turbine Technology
"My opinion is that any approved lubricant can be
mixed satisfactorily with any other approved lubricant
and work OK. All that happens when you put a Type 11
oil into an engine that has a Type 111 oil, for example, is
you depreciate the quality of the Type III by a ratio of
how much you put in, to the amount of Type I1 that's
in the engine. Our tests in the laboratory show this to
be a fact.
"Additionally, every oil that passes 23699 has under-
gone compatibility testing. So that's proof positive that
there's no problem with mixing. The military insists that
all oils are compatible so that they can use any oil at
any time," says Esser.
If you're interested in swapping to a completely
different oil all at once, however, Esser doesn't recom-
mend it. "Sometimes we've found that if vou drain out
one oil and put in a third-generation oil, you can
chemically shock the engine and break carbon loose
which can subsequently become lodged in oil passages
and cause problems. We suggest, instead, a slow conver-
sion process."
This can be accomplished, he says, when you convert
via topoff, by adding it a little at a time as servicing is
needed. Eventually, all existing oil will be changed out to
198 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
the desired brand. He says that this allows any deposits
to break down over a long period of time, making it less
likely that there'll be problems.
Both Pinchevsky and Esser say that if a different oil
than what's currently being used is inadvertently added,
that there's really no problem. You should just leave
it in there.
Storage ot turbine oil
Esser says that all turbine oil must be used
immediately upon opening the container. Turbine
oil is hygroscopic, he says, meaning that it absorbs
moisture from the air.
Motor oils for recip engines don't absorb moisture;
you can open the can and leave it in the open and
nothing will happen to the oil. On the other hand, if
you open a can of Jet oil, within five days, it'll absorb
enough moisture from the air that it will be beyond the
condemning limits.
"A rule of thumb is that if you open up a can of
Jet lube, use it right away, and don't let it sit around,"
he says. BDl May/June 1992
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Allison 250 C201C20B
Turbine module maintenance tips
By Jim Taylor
M
ost people believe that a hot end inspection
is only required as a result of a hot start.
Although most hot end inspections are due to
hot st&, or an afterfire, the need for a hot end can
be prompted during steady state, power transients, one
engine inoperative and/or emergency multiengine
operation.
All of these operational modes have turbine tempera-
ture limits, and if these limits are exceeded, some form
of maintenance or inspection will be required.
There are a few points to remember when you look
at the charts in the &on maintenance manual and are
trying to decide whether or not the limits have been
exceeded. First, get the most accurate maximum tem-
perature figure, and the length of time of the overtemp
that the engine experienced. Vague data would force you
to assume a worst case scenario.
After receiving a report on a hot start, check the part
number of the third stage turbine wheel in the turbine
log cards. Third stage wheels with P/Ns 6898551,
6898567, 6898733, 6898743, 6898753 or 6898763 have to
be replaced if they have exceeded the following limits:
810°C to 927°C for more than 10 seconds, or anything
over 927°C. m e previously mentioned third stage wheel
P/Ns were to have been removed from service by August
31, 1990 as per CEBA1174.)
The first items to remove for a turbine inspection
on the A-250 are the outer combustion case, and the
discharge tubes. These items are "on condition." They
should be given a close inspection every time they're
removed.
Some of the key items to look for during the hot end
inspection are:
The combustion liner -
Check it for cracks, localized bulges and warpage. R e
gardless of whether you make combustion liner repairs,
or install an exchange liner, make sure the liner going
in has CEB 1299 incorporated. This is the bulletin which
adds weld beads around the fuel nozzle and igniter
ferrules. The mod has been successful about 98 percent
of the time in solving the problem of "carbon clinkers"
forming in the dome section of the liner.
If you discover or know that you have these "carbon
clinkers" or "carbon fingers" forming in your liner,
do yourself a favor and take steps to stop them from
forming. These deposits form and break off quickly and
continuously. As the chunks fly into the turbine, the
impact erodes the first stage wheel, causing loss of
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Turbine Technology
power, compressor surges and expensive repair bills.
Bulges on the skirt of the liner usually indicate streaking
in the fuel nozzle.
The fuel n o d e -
Check it by removing from the outer combustion can.
Connect the P3 fuel line back up to the fuel nozzle, then
hang the fuel nozzle into a large glass mason jar. With
the ignition turned off and the throttle open, motor the
engine and observe the fuel spray pattern. If you see any
streaks or voids, replace the fuel nozzle.
Rkst stage n o d e -
Remove the first stage nozzle shield to help you get a
better look at the first stage nozzle and the first stage
blade path. Sometimes, the deflector that's welded onto
the dome of the first stage nozzle shield is warped and
the edge is wavy. That's
fine, as long as it's not
cracked, or the edges
aren't burned.
With the nozzle shield
removed, you can now
have a good look at the
first stage nozzle. Use
good lighting and a &inch A good view of the first
steel rule to measure the stage mzzle can be seen
cracks if you see any. with the turbine section
Inspect each vane, and removed from the engine.
measure and record the
number and the length of any cracks that you see. Check
also for erosion, convergent cracks (V-type notching) and
pieces missing from both the leading and trailing edges.
h e r and outer bands -
The two rings of material that hold the vanes in
place are called the inner and outer bands. These require
a detailed inspection as well. Pay particular attention to
cracks that go into the "saddle areas," which are the
vanes that wrap around the support struts of the G/P
(Gas Producer) support. Axial inner band cracks can
sometimes extend into the diaphragm, and run circurn-
ferential. Circumferential cracks in the diaphragm can
cause excessive power loss.
Blade path -
The blade path of the first stage wheel which is an
integral part of the second stage nozzle, must be in-
spected for blade tip rub and metal transfer from the
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 199
7&nbIneTechnology
m i c a 1 hot section tools used for the A-260.
blade tips. Rubs in the blade path area aren't allowed.
They're usually indicators of an overtemp, or possibly
a result of some kind of serious misalignment of the
turbine supports. Both of which are serious enough
situations to justify removing the turbine and sending it
to an Allison approved shop for repair.
The blade path is a sprayed on material called
metalizing.
A good bond of metalizing to the nozzle is critical to
the performance of the engine. Overtemps can weaken
this bond, and cause lifting of the metalizing.
A severe overtemp can also result in a breakdown of
the metalizing. Lifting and missing blade path material
is a good reason to remove the turbine and send it ta an
approved Allison facility.
Although the blade path can be difficult to see, a hot
end inspection would not be complete without taking the
time to look through each vane on the first stage nozzle
and inspecting the entire first stage blade path.
M i n e blade8 - procedure:
The turbine blade tips are another important item to
inspect. F'irst of all, make sure all the blades and all of
the tips are there. A buildup of material on the convex
side of the blade is an indication of rub. This sign should
also be accompanied by scraping or burn marks in the
blade path. Blade tips that are in good shape have
square sharp corners, and the top of the blade is
completely flat and square to the blade path.
Blades with rounded corners or a taper along the
tops of the blades are showing signs of erosion and wear.
These conditions usually accompany low power and
compressor surges.
2W The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
After completing a hot end inspection and reviewing
your data with the limits in the maintenance manual,
you have three options: No problems found and the tur-
bine can be returned to service. If there's an excessive
amount of damage, the turbine has to be sent to a repair
facility for overhaul. If there's damage only to the first
stage nozzle, you can replace the nozzle yourself.
Tlps for replacing a first stage nozzle
Replacement of the first stage nozzle shouldn't be
attempted unless you've had specialized training, or
the assistance of someone who is very familiar with
procedure.
It may be possible to contact an Allison distributor
and get the assistance of an Allison technical represen-
tative if necessary.
You also need to acquire the special tools needed to
do the job. These tools (see photo) are typically available
from an Allison dealer.
Some points to remember while performing this
Bendix fuel controls have to be removed before the
turbine module is taken off; however, CECO fuel
controls can remain in place.
As the turbine comes off the engine, take care not to
damage the N1 and N2 coupling shafts.
After the turbine is removed, check the gearbox for
the following:
If the torquemeter nut is leaking, the gearbox should
be pulled and repaired.
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• The turbine mounting surface "G" shouldn't show any
signs of lifted or missing material.
• Take a good look at the No.4 bearing for nicked or
spalled balls. With a flashlight, look inside the pinion
gear and check the No.2 1/2 bearing to make sure
all the rollers are still round and turning smoothly.
You then need to dismantle the turbine module. A
couple of items to remember while disassembling the
turbine are:
• If the oil pressure tube to the No.8 bearing is
removed, it must be installed prior to installing the
No.8 oil jet. Before the No.8 oil jet is reinstalled,
the pressure tube should be blown clear with shop
air. Once the oil jet is in place, pump som,e turbine
oil through the pressure tube, and make sure it
comes out of the oil nozzle in a steady stream. The
stream of oil should also be targeted to the balls
of the bearing.
• With the aft side of the first stage turbine wheel
exposed, inspect the rim for cracks. Also, give the
first stage blade path a close look, checking for lifting
and/or missing pieces of the blade path material.
• When inspecting the first stage nozzle, make sure to
check any damage against limits in the maintenance
manual. As a general rule, large pieces missing from
more than seven vanes, or cracks going through the
saddle area are not repairable.
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Assembly tips
The turbine goes back together much the same as it
came apart. The following are a couple of tips that
should help you:
• Use petrolatum to hold the fiberglass packing in
place on the aft side of the first stage nozzle .
• Remember to safety the No.8 bearing nut by deform-
ing the locking rig into one of the three notches in
the stub shaft of the first stage wheel (not the
notches in the tie bolt nut). Use a pin punch with the
end rounded off to accomplish this.
• Follow the steps in the maintenance manual for
torquing the No. 8 sump nut. To help get a good seal
between the sump nut and the G/P support, make
sure the U-ring groove is spotlessly clean. Also, the
No. 8 sump nut should have the seating face lapped
and the threads should be thoroughly cleaned.
m March/April 1992
Jim Taylor is on contract from Standard Aero Inc.
with GM Allison Gas Turbine Division, as a Model 250
representative and is located at Bell Helicopters Textron
in Canada. He has been involved with the Allison 250
for 12 years.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 201
lbrbine Technology

Inspecting turbine ignition leads

By William L. Austin

A
critical but often overlooked component required
for turbine engine startup is the turbine
ignition lead.
The ignition lead transfers electrical energy from the
ignition source, or exciter, to the ignition plug by means
of a radio frequency interference (RFI) shielded conduc-
tor assembly. Components critical to proper functioning
of the ignition system lead are: the internal center wire
of the lead, its outer shielding, contactors and threaded
fitting. The lead assembly also provides mechanical and
environmental protection for the conducting components.
Regular, preventive maintenance helps avoid costly
repairs and unscheduled maintenance. Often, cables
don't appear worn but may have poor connections or
weak shielding that can actually be near failure.

Inspection
Visual inspection of the ignition lead assembly will
usually reveal the need for functional testing, more
detailed examination or outright replacement.
An inspection of the shielding while the lead is in
place on the engine, with ends connected, may reveal
clues to problems. Warning signals can include chafed
or pinched leads, missing or improperly located lead
support clamps, and any evidence of heat damage.
After completing an in-place inspection, uncouple the
lead at the igniter plug end and inspect for any unusual
disconnection force. The exciter end should then be
uncoupled and a thorough inspection accomplished.
Remember, however, that a dangerous eledrical
charge may be stored in the ignition exciter. Therefore,
be sure to ground the conductor carefully before
disconnecting the lead.
Turbine lead connectors
Pin-and-socket connectors such as those used on Pratt
& Whitney-Canada or Garrett engines require special
attention when connecting or disconnecting. The connec-
tor assembly must be inserted or removed in a straight
line to ensure that the pin and socket are not distorted.
In addition, the shielding should be held in place when
tightening or loosening the coupling nut to prevent the
lead from kinking or twisting. Check the coupling nut for
stripped or damaged threads.
Worn contact assemblies can cause arcing and result In
heat rise and damage to the connector. Greenish oxidation
is evidence of the heat rise. Igniter lead at bottom had to
be cut away because the connector was fused to the pin.
Key rejection criteria
Certain conditions observed during lead inspection
are the cause for rejecting the lead and replacing it with
a new or overhauled lead. Of particular concern is the
condition of the shielding at the coupling ferrule joint.
Broken or frayed wire strands can degrade the ground-
return path necessary for ignition and increase RFI
emission levels. A lead with more than four broken
shielding wire strands should be replaced.
Inspect the contact socket for evidence of corrosion
or electrical arcing, and seals and insulators for
dielectric breakdown or physical deterioration. Then, test
terminal assemblies for contact socket tension and seal
integrity by using the appropriate lead tension gauge.

202 . The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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Lead removal and installation
When disconnecting the lead from the igniter, avoid
twisting the lead assembly. Remove the lead connector
from the igniter in a straight line, avoiding any side load
pressure on ceramic igniter components.
When installing the lead, be sure to always install the
igniter first. Never install igniters to the lead by holding
the cable rigid while rotating the igniter. This action will
• •
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result in a twisting of the inner conductor until the insu-
lation is separated. Always install lead connections in a
straight line.
Also, the use of a petrolatum product (grease, etc.) to
reduce contact sticking is not recommended. This will
further deteriorate the silicone wire insulation and result
in reduced strength and life of the insulating material.
Testing
Test leads that appear to be in marginal condition for
continuity using an ohmmeter capable of measuring low
resistance. A resistance reading greater than 0.005 ohm
per foot indicates the lead should be replaced.
Replacement of individual lead components or
patching of outer shielding is not recommended. Lead
wiring kits are usually available through the manufac-
turer. Use them in accordance with the appropriate
service manuals. ~ January/February 1992
William L. Austin is supervisor of product support for
Champion Aviation.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 203
Turblne Technology
TPE331 gearbox inspection
By George Nixon and Glenn Hunt
T
he Garrett TPE331 is a turboprop engine utilizing
a two-stage centrifugal compressor, an annular
combustion chamber, a threestage axial turbine
and an integrated gearbox.
One of the areas of the TPE331 engine requiring
periodic inspection is the integral gearbox. The
frequency of inspections may vary by engine model and
the required intervals are outlined in the appropriate
engine service bulletin.
Although these bulletins identify the scheduled
inspection requirements there is also the potential
requirement for unscheduled inspections.
Unexpected events such as prop strikes, bird strikes,
lightning strikes and spectrometric oil analysis program
(SOAP) abnormalities can dictate the need for a gearbox
inspection. The SOAP program can save an operator
considerable money by identifying problem areas before
a costly failure occurs. Knowing the various metals and
G A R R E T TPE331 GEARBOX
HYDRAULIC TORQUE TYPE
GEARBOX ASSE
204 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
alloys used in different parts of the engine (SIC P331-97)
and reviewing the SOAP indications can help pinpoint a
damaged area or component.
For example, a high iron and nickel reading could
indicate failure in an area made of M50 steel. In the
gearbox this could indicate a problem with the idler gear.
Protectivehandling aids such as latex gloves will
prevent damage from body acids. Even wiping out a
gearbox with a rag can leave behind fine pieces of lint
that will inevitably find their way into a small oil
passage or orifice, restricting oil flow.
There is a very small screen inside the negative
torque transfer tube that seems to catch any stray par-
ticles and, if blocked, will affect the negative torque
sensing (NTS) operation. If you begin experiencing a
faultering NTS check during the ground runs, this tube
can be removed from the rear of the gearbox and
checked for a clear passageway.
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In most cases the TPE331 gearbox is manufactured
of a magnesium alloy, which in itself requires special
handling and care. Particular attention is required in
this area because the magnesium is especially sensitive
to corrosion. A slight scratch in the protective coating
can cause corrosion problems as time progresses.
Minor corrosion and scratches can be repaired by
removing loose paint, exposing the magnesium, remov-
ing the corroded material, treating the area with the
prescribed solution, filling the corroded area if neces-
sary, and priming and repainting the area. Pay attention
to bubbles in the paint, missing paint and obvious corro-
sion pits and discolored areas.
The inspection process begins by removing all the
external components for inspection. This includes the
beta tube, pitch control assembly, feather valve, prop
governor, negative torque sensor orifice assembly,
negative torque sensor housing assembly and torque
load assemblies (for engines utilizing the strain gauge
torque system).
Make sure to be careful handling these components.
One item, the beta tube, is a precision machined part
that must be absolutely straight and clean of burrs,
scratches, etc. ... Should something come in contact with
the tube that caused a burr, or more seriously, a bend,
the beta tube would be unusable.
Next, remove the nose cone or output gearbox hous-
ing. It's not necessary to disassemble this unit during
a routine inspection. Now, the forward face of the
diaphragm is exposed. The oil transfer tubes and planet
carrier and gear assembly must be removed next. Then,
using particular care not to damage the gearbox housing,
remove the diaphragm or intermediate gearbox assem-
bly. Remove the fuel control drive gear train as an
assembly and don't disassemble. Finally, the accessory
gear housing assembly and compressor bearing support
assembly can be removed.
These procedures, if followed correctly, have prepared
the gearbox and associated assemblies for the actual
inspection process. It should be noted that it's not neces-
sary to disassemble components unless specified in the
inspection procedures. Most requirements can be met
without this action.
FLOATmQ CAM 1
L
m! REQUUTOR
A6SElSLY
DRNE TRAIN QURB HYDRAULIC TORQUE
SENSOR
IDLER GEAR WAFT
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The component inspection begins with the prop pitch
control. The unit must be disassembled and inspected
for freedom of movement of the input shaft and sleeve
assembly. Check the body for excessive wear or damaged
areas. Inspect the cam assembly, roller and pin for wear
and dimensional tolerances. The sleeve guide should
then be visually inspected for cracks or bending.
Although not common, a sleeve guide could be bent by
a high-impact blow, resulting in a binding of the sleeve
in the guide. Replace any part that doesn't meet inspec-
tion criteria.
Inspect the shaft oil seals for grooving, severe scoring
and damage in the seal bore, and replace parts that
don't meet inspection criteria. Reassemble the unit with
new O-rings and gaskets and rig according to the mainte
nance manual specifications.
Next, inspect the nose cone or output gearbox
housing assembly. The bearing must be inspected in
accordance with the procedures given in the standard
practices chapter of the maintenance manual.
Inspect the entire housing for cracks. Keep in mind
that if the inspection is the result of a prop strike,
cracks would most likely be found in the area of the four
alignment holes. There are no allowances in this area.
Inspect gear teeth and splines for excessive wear, pitting
or chipping and be sure they are within limits. Loose or
damaged inserts must be replaced as necessary.
If alignment holes are elongated, send the assembly
to the factory for evaluation. If it's repairable, the
factory will sleeve the hole and return the unit to ser-
vice. Since the housing is magnesium, a close inspection
for corrosion must be performed especially in areas
where dissimilar metals contact the magnesium.
The oil transfer tubes should be checked for splits,
nicks, gouges, wear, chaffing or flattened areas. Teflon
tubes should be checked for black spots. These spots are
caused by corrosion and are an indication of the Teflon
breaking down. When this happens, cracks wiU begin to
appear. None are allowed.
Generally speaking, any obvious damage to the gear
or bearing set constitutes replacement. A more detailed
inspection, however, should be conducted. Ensure, also,
that the measurement over wires' (MOW) dimensions
etched on each of the gears match within .001inch of
each other.
The ring gear support should be checked for cracks
and bolt hole elongation. Cracks aren't allowed and the
maintenance manual will provide the tolerance for
elongation. Also, inspect the mating surface for wear.
Check the external splines and flats of splined locks
for wear and replace splined locks if they're worn.
If the engine has a strain gauge torque system, it's
very important that you closely inspect the torque ring
cable. Deterioration or cuts in the cable, bent or broken
pins, or damaged connectors can result in loss of torque
indication or a faulty torque output indication. A little
extra time in this area would be time well-spent.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 205
 INTERMEDIATE GEARBOX
(DIAPHRAGM ASSEMBLY)
HYDRAULIC PUMP DRIVE
STARTEWGENERATORDRIVE
PROPELLER (POVERNOR DRIVE
1
HIGH-SPEED
PINON BEAAlNQ
At this time be sure all service bulletins relative to
this area are complied with.
One item that is unique to the 331 engine is the
torque sensor. It will require calibration following gear-
box reassembly. The vast majority of the 331s operating
today have a hydraulic torque sensor while the newer
engines have an electronic strain gauge system. The
torque sensing system is capable of sensing negative
(when the propeller is driving the engine instead of visa
versa) and, through other components in the gearbox,
changes the prop blade angle to a more positive pitch,
allowing the engine to drive the propeller.
If you have a hydraulic-type torque sensor, you will
need an NTS machine. This machine pumps engine oil
through the entire gearbox and allows the technician to
set the NTS "trip" pressure on the negative torque
sensor to the maintenance manual specifications. This is
a critical step if the NTS system is to operate properly.
If the torque system is of the newer type utilizing a
strain gauge, the procedure is completely different and
doesn't require the use of the NTS machine.
The prop governor, starter-generator drive, hydraulic
pump and idler gears must each he inspected. You may
find more spline wear in the prop governor drive than
in the others.
One of the major items to be inspected is the dia-
phragm assembly or intermediate gearbox assembly. This
unit houses the gears to transfer power to the nose case
and some of the accessory drives. Inspection is required
on the diaphragm assembly and the accessible portions
of the following installed components: sun and bull
gear assembly, high-speed pinion gear shaft assembly,
accessory idler assembly, accessory gear assembly and
the oil scavenge pump assembly and plumbing.
206 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
OIL PICKUP TUBE FOR
GEARBOX SCAVANQE
Inspect the high-speed pinion bearing assembly. The
unit must be removed front the diaphragm housing for
this phase of the inspection. Then, inspect the bearings,
gear teeth and gear teeth load surface. Defects that
cannot be detected with a .031 stylus are acceptable.
The oil scavenge pump, tube and screen assemblies
should also be inspected for cracks, contamination or
other damage. No cracks are allowed on the pump. In
the case of oil contamination, the scavenge pump assem-
bly must be disassembled to allow inspection of the rotor
set and the pump interior.
The next item to look at is the sun and bull gear
assembly. Visually inspect the teeth for breakage. Some
repairs can be made in accordance with the repair
manual. Inspection of the gear teeth load surface is the
same as that stated for the high-speed pinion. Perform a
visual inspection of the drive end of the sun gear teeth
for wear. If the teeth exhibit surface distress over a
localized area, the assembly must be returned to an
authorized service facility for inspection.
Also, the splined coupling load surfaces should be
inspected for pitting, chipping and wear. In the case of
load surfaces on one side of the spline being in limits
and the other being out of limits, position the coupling
with the unacceptable side to the right and etch the
words "this side forward" on the coupling.
Lastly, inspect the gear housing assembly for binding
of assembled gearing and unusual wear patterns. Check
for chipped and broken teeth. Check nozzle assemblies
for contamination and distortion that may affect spray
pattern. Also inspect the oil pressure pump assembly for
freedom of rotation and evidence of binding.
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When all items have been repaired, treated or
replaced, the process of reassembly can begin.
Remember, this is a simplified overview of the gear-
box inspection process. You'll find that repetition of the
procedures coupled with experience is helpful in assuring
quality workmanship. a
November/December 1991
George Nixon is supervisor of a support group for
technical training and a technical writer located in
Phoenix, AZ, and Glenn Hunt is a technician based in
Los Angeles Airport Service Center. Both are employed
by AlliedSignal Garrett General Aviation Services Div.

TYPICAL WEAR METALS

AND THEIR LOCATION FOR GARRETT TPE331 ENGINES
The ft;1!iJwinginformati01t is provided to assist the maintenance technician in locating the
component(s) responsible for the metal(s) in the oil and/or filter.

ALUMINUM Oil splash guard (-3 engines), gearbox (6A only), intermediate gearbox
(-11,-14, and -15 engines), some oil filter end caps, planetary pin locks,
torqu.e sensor housing, oil pump housing, idler gear housing (strdin gauge
only)

COPPER Accessory bearing separdtors, turbine bearing nut. HSP journal bearing
(when applicable) and pump bearings

BRONZE on pump bushings, torsion shaft bushings (except strain gauge engines),
(Copper and lead in oil) accessory bearing separators, prop pitch control bushing, torque sensor
metering valve

BRASS Garlock seal housings, oil-air coolervernatherm valve seat

MAGNESIUM Input housing, intermediate housing. planetary housing, output housing

SilVER Plating on bearing separators, thrust plate (counterclockwise engines only)

*M-50 STEEL Compressor bearings, turbine bearings, high-spc>ed pinion bearings, bull
gear bearings. front and rear prop shaft bearings, prop governor needle
bearing, torque sensor idler gear beatings (except Series I and II engines),
planetary gear bearings

* AllOY STEEL Gears, torsion shaft, prop shaft, main bearing separators
(NickeJ/Chrome)

STAINLESS STEEL

17-4 Bellville washers, {;arbon se.al belJows, turbine bearing retainer

300 SERIES Beta tubes. washers, bolts

400 SERIES Somefealhering valves (valve and piston)

*CARBON STEEL

CHROMIUM

BERYlUUM

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lbrbine Technology
Too hot to handle
Temperature indicating systems
By Greg Napert
B y its nature, the typical temperature indicating
system is relatively troublefree. The problem is,
when there's trouble with the system, it's likely
to err on the side of showing too little temperature-
resulting in the pilot demanding more of the engine and
overtemping it.
That's why it's important to periodically check the
system for accuracy and to promptly address any
problems. But to properly do that, there has to be a
thorough understanding of the operation of the tempera-
ture indicating system.
The basics
According to Richard Floyd, engineer for Barfield
Instrument Corporation, in Atlanta, GA, the basic
system consists of temperature measuring probes, a
cockpit indicator and the wiring necessary to complete
the circuit.
The probes are composed of two dissimilar metal
wires, electrically joined, which when heated produce
a voltage. The point where the wires meet is called a
thermocouple junction, or simply thermocouple.
The operating temperature and the type of applica-
tion usually dictate the metals that will be used to make
up the thermocouple system. Chrome1 and alumel are
used up to 1,200°C, copper and constantan to 300°C,
and iron and constantan to 400°C. Turbine engine
thermocouples are chromel-alumel (K type) and are
shrouded to increase their life. The type of thermocouple
also determines voltage generated per degree of tempera-
ture change. A chromel-alumel thermocouple generates
40uV, or 40 millionths of a volt per degree centigrade.
Turbine engines may have from four to 16 probes
mounted in a ring and connected in parallel to give an
averaging of the temperature inside the engine and to
provide redundancy. The leads that are connected to the
indicator, even though not directly connected to each
other, also form a thermocouple and are referred to as
the cold junction.
The total millivoltage that can be measured at any
time in the system is actually the difference between
the voltage that the hot junction is generating and the
voltage that the cold junction is generating. Keep in
mind that the indicator is a thermocouple junction, and
that this junction will induce a voltage into the system,
equivalent to the ambient temperature it's exposed to.
The hot and cold junction concept is important
because if you were to measure the voltage in the system
208 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
at any time, the result would be the difference between
the hot and cold junctions, and when converted to a
temperature reading) wouldn't be an accurate indication
of engine temperature. For example: If the engine were
at 600°C and the indicator at 35OC, the reading you
would get (without correcting for it) would be 565OC) the
difference between the two.
Therefore, the voltage created by the cold junction
(the cockpit indicator) must be taken into account when
gauging the temperature of the engine. Typical moving
coil indicators do this by using a bimetallic compensating
spring that expands or contracts depending on ambient
temperature.
When you pull the indicator out of the cockpit and
attach a meter to the thermocouple leads, you create a
cold junction at the meter that you're using. If you're
using a meter that doesn't compensate for ambient
temperatures, you'll need to measure the ambient
temperature and add the equivalent millivoltage to
your readings.
Turbine temperature indicating systems which use a
simple moving coil instrument for a cockpit indicator
(normally identifiable by the two posts on the rear of
the instrument vs. a multipin connector) require a very
specific lead resistance. The most common is 8 ohms,
but it may be as high as 25 ohms. To provide for con-
stant system resistance, an adjustable resistor block or
spool is used; this allows the technician to set system
resistance to the required value. It's important, says
Floyd, to determine system resistance prior to perform-
ing any tests or troubleshooting the system.
Because chromel-alumel wire has a relatively high
resistance per foot, the drop in voltage from the engine
to the indicator would be too great if used for the entire
system. To overcome this, chromel-alumel is used in the
wiring harness from the thermocouples to the wiring
block on the engine; then copper constantan is used
from the terminal block to the cockpit.
Many systems use servodriven or digital indicators
which operate on slightly different principles. With these
systems, the lead resistance is not so critical and may
vary from a few ohms to a few hundred ohms. Some
aircraft have indicating systems which require twice the
normal millivoltage per degree of temperature change.
Normally it's distinguishable by a loop resistance of 16
ohms. These aircraft typically necessitate special or
modified test equipment.
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Testing
Unless specified otherwise by the aircraft manufac-
turer, testing of the temperature indicating system
consists of basically three separate tests: Loop resist-
ance measurement, insulation test and runout of the
cockpit indicator.
The equipment that you use to measure and perform
these tests must have adequate ranges, resolutions and
accuracies to meet all requirements for the system under
test. Barfield's 'ITlOOOA or a JetCal unit from Howell
Manufacturing are examples of instruments that are
capable of performing such tests. As with any test
equipment, it's imperative that the cerMcation, normally
annually, be maintained to ensure accuracy of the
equipment and validity of test results.
The loop resistance is important because the system
is calibrated based on this figure. Aircraft manufacturers
normally require this resistance to be maintained within
a very limited tolerance, usually +/- 0.05 ohms.
To perform the test, the leads must be disconnected
from the indicator in the cockpit and a Wheatstone
bridgetype device used to measure the total circuit
resistance. If the test fails, all connections should be
inspected to ensure integrity andlor the resistor block
or spool should be adjusted so that system resistance
meets the required value. An open loop will indicate an
infinitely negative temperature and some systems will
display an open symbol. Keep in mind that if this test
is performed with the indicator connected, it may
be damaged.
Floyd says that care must be taken in handling the
indicator as it may have no dampening for the meter
pointer when disconnected from the system. These
instruments, he says, are very sensitive to shock and in-
ternal jewels and polished pivots can be easily damaged.
To avoid damage, short the two terminals (posts) on
the indicator together with a piece of conducting wire
and leave it there (unless you're testing it) until the
instrument is reinstalled in the panel. The wire acts like
a shunt and provides dampening for the pointer.
T y p t d tuMm tsmp. lndloatlng s y o m
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The insulation test is fairly straightforward as well.
To perform this test, the indicator must also be com-
pletely disconnected from the system. A current is then
applied to either of the leads and the aircraft ground to
assure that the insulation is sufficiently high so as not to
affect system calibration. If this current is applied with
the indicator connected, it may be damaged.
According to Floyd, the insulation used on high
temperature leads is subject to moisture absorption and
carbon deposits, which may degrade the effectiveness of
the insulation. Floyd says that if the failure is due to
moisture absorption, a simple engine run may burn off
the moisture and return the system to within acceptable
values. Otherwise, follow normal troubleshooting
~roceduresto isolate the cause.
The runout test consists of simply using a calibrated
instrument to check the indicator for accuracy. The
indicator usually requires the most accuracy at critical
engine operating temperatures, and will be less accurate
at other extreme temperatures. To check the indicator, a
test set that meets the required accuracy specifications,
typically plus or minus five degrees, must be used.
For systems with moving coil indicators, the instru-
ment that you're using to check the indicator must then
be set for the system resistance (8, 15, 22, etc.). The
indicator is then checked at all of the temperatures
spelled out by the aircraft manufacturer. Each tempera-
ture indication must be within the tolerances specified.
Remember that if the test equipment doesn't have
cold junction compensation, it will be necessary to
measure local ambient temperature and compute the
corresponding temperature offsets.
These three tests are typically all that are required
by the aircraft manufacturer; however, you may want to
perform at least one additional test. Floyd says that,
although rare, thermocouple probes have been known
to open at high temperatures and test out OK at room
temperature. To test check for a bad probe, it's neces-
sary to isolate the probe from the rest of the system (on
some engines, this requires disassembly of the engine).
The probe must then be heated to temperature and
checked. If the loop opens as the thermocouple probe
is heated, it should be discarded. One such piece of
equipment capable of performing this test is the JetCal.
It's relatively difficult to damage any of the compo-
nents or your test equipment while performing these
checks. Just keep in mind that the test equipment must
be set corredly when checking the indicator. Applying
power to the indicator can damage it. There is no signifi-
cant amount of power in the temperature indicating
system, so it's not likely that you'll damage your meter.
Floyd says that although temperature indicating sys-
tems are simple, they operate on very minimal voltages.
Because of these low voltages, the system can be easily
interfered with-that's why it's critical that the system
be well-insulated, maintained and calibrated in order to
give you accurate readings. GD September/October 1991
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 209
Ibrbine Technology

JTI SD hot section inspections

I
t's that time again. Time to roll the aircraft into the This is also a good time to accomplish a cross mani-
shop and pull a hot section inspection (HSI) on fold leak check on the fuel manifold assembly. This check
those Pratt & Whitney JT15Ds that have operated ensures that primary fuel is not leaking into the second-
faithfully for the last three or four years. But first you ary manifold. To accomplish this, simply remove the line
need to locate someone who can give you expert advice on the fuel transfer tube that's connected to the second-
or do it for you. This isn't a job for the amateur. An ary manifold. This is located at the 6 o'clock position
array of special tools is required to pull and inspect on the engine. At idle, there should be, a t most, a fine
virtually every major component on the engine, and mist of fuel coming from this tube. If there is more
learning how to use them requires practice and than 60ccs per minute leakage (described by McIntyre
experience. as a steady stream of fuel), the manifold needs to be
overhauled.
Preinspection
The preinspection begins with an examination of the Teardown
impeller. If there's damage to the impeller, there's no This is where a good amount of experience is a
need to even consider the trouble of removing the hot necessity. The vast array of tools, knowledge of how to
section. You'll need to pull the engine instead and send use them and a considerable amount of practice remov-
it in for overhaul. ing subassemblies are required during both teardown
Once you've made it past the first hurdle, the next and reassembly.
step is to determine and document the condition of the The hot section on this particular engine has grown
engine. This will provide evidence of the way that the to be more complex in the last few years. Due to the fact
engine is running prior to tearing into it. That way, that service bulletin 7264 must be complied with which
you'll know if your inspection has altered the perfor- involves replacing rivets in the compressor bypass stator,
mance of the engine.
Dave McIntyre, shop
supervisor for Pratt &
Whitney Canada Aircraft
Services Inc. in
Naperville, IL, recom-
mends that after dl
instruments are verified
(N1-low-turbine speed,
N2 high-turbine speed
and I'IT-inter turbine
temperature) and the
bleed air ports are blocked
off to eliminate error,
perform a fivepoint run-
up as described in the
engine maintenance
manual. This run-up is
basically a recording of
power settings at takeoff,
takeoff minus 2 percent,
minus 4 percent, minus 6
percent and minus 10
percent. After the hot
section, the engine wiU
be run again at these
settings. Also, remove,
clean and inspect the oil
fdter for- evidence
.
of
internal damage. McIntyre stresses the importance of checking and double-checking that each step is done
correcgy as you reassemble the engine.

210 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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removal of the fan assembly is now a necessity. It's the
only way to gain access to the stator.
The first step in performing the HSI is to remove the
thrust reversers. McIntyre says that you'll make it easy
on yourself if you note the position of the throttle feed-
back cable. After doing this, it's time to remove the aft
inner bypass duct; this is a convenient time to do further
checks on the temperature probes and harness if the
resistance checks were found to be bad during the
preinspection.
The emergency shut-off cable should then be discon-
nected being careful not to drop the pin connector.
Remember also that the turnbuckle on the end of the
cable is leftihanded. "Don't forget that," says McIntyre,
"when you resafety wire the buckle at installation."
Marking items for ease of reassembly is important
during all phases of teardown. In particular, mark the
clamp locations for the T6 harness during disassembly of
the exhaust duct. When removing the duct, start with
the 3/l&inch bolts first; then remove the 5/l&inch bolts,
and use the reverse procedure at installation. This will
eliminate confusion and speed up the process. Also, says
McIntyre, use caution not to damage the No. 4 bearing
or carbon seal while removing the duct.
Removal of the low-turbine assembly is best accom-
plished prior to removal of the steady mount. First,
register the fan and low-turbine assembly by marking the
assembly according to the maintenance manual. When
Inspection of the combustion liner is critical. Look
for cracking and inspect the wear areas for thickness
of material.
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lbrbine Technology
all necessary components are removed, use a plastic bag
to cover the No. 4 bearing. The bag will protect the
bearing from contamination and also prevent you from
depositing corrosive salts from your hands. Next, gather
up all of your strength, grasp the low-turbine assembly
and pull it out just enough to slide your hand onto the
shaft so that you can steady it and prevent damage to
the shaft andlor air seals. The second-stage low-turbine
stator assembly can now be removed.
You're now looking at the heart of the engine-the
HT (hlgh turbine) disc. At this point, or after you
remove the low-turbine stator, tip clearances may be
taken. Remember to use rubber blocks to force the small
d u d assembly aft so that it's in the proper position
while you're taking measurements.
Igniters, remaining "C" flange bolts and low-turbine
stator support assembly can now be removed.
At this point, remove the HT disc per instructions in
the maintenance manual. It's helpful, says McIntyre, to
rotate the disc back and forth slightly while pulling it so
you're sure that the blades aren't bindug. All compo-
nents including the No. 3 bearing baffle, small exit d u d
assembly (which contains the shroud segment housing)
and large exit d u d can now be removed.
Inspection
Unless you're well equipped to inspect the low-turbine
stator assembly and HT disc, it's best to send them to
an approved overhaul shop for inspection, disassembly
and repair. Most shops will turn around the parts in one
to two days and are properly equipped to inspect the
components and make any necessary repairs.
McIntyre explains that even with no rub on the blade
tips, the disc should be sent to the shop so that the
wheel can be checked for roundness, balance and stretch-
ing. It's also too time-consuming to disassemble the
small d u d assembly yourself. Better to let the overhaul
shop deal with it.
While in the overhaul shop, the small d u d assembly
will be disassembled, thoroughly inspected and damaged
components repaired or replaced. Shroud segments are
normally replaced due to wear, warping and/or cracks
and ground to final clearance (usually .025 to .026 inch).
Grinding the segments while installed on the engine is
no longer necessary, says McIntyre, since final clear-
ances can be achieved in the shop.
If any blade shift is noticed on the HT disc, it will
need to be reriveted with new rivets. Additionally, if the
shift is more than .020 inch, the disc must be sent to
Canada for a thorough inspection.
When you send the disc into the shop, he says, r e
member to include trim weight information that's
stamped into the engine data plate on the bottom of
the engine. The trim weight is the weight that is added
when the entire compressor, HT assembly and shaft are
balanced as a unit. They must be removed while the disc
is being balanced, then reinstalled after it's balanced.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 211

Turbine tip clearances are checked before removal and
after installa tion.
A major part of the inspection now involves replace
ment of the wear strips and deflector support ring that
lies at the end of the diffuser tubes. Also, close scrutiny
must be given to the diffuser tubes themselves. If cracks
are found in the tubes that are beyond limits, repair
kits are available, but the pipe that's located next to the
No. 3 bearing oil seal line can't be repaired while the
engine's on the aircraft. If this pipe is found to be out
of limits, replacement can only be accomplished in an
overhaul facility. New wear strip part numbers can be
determined only after determining the PIN of the gas
generator case. Its P/N can be found, says McIntyre, at
the 12 o'clock position.
In addition to new wear strips, a new or reworked
deflector support ring and hot sections must be in-
stalled. Use caution, says McIntyre, not to drop any nuts,
bolts or rivet stems into any of the diffuser tubes. He
suggests counting the nuts and bolts as they're removed
and making sure they're all there when you reinstall. If
there are any missing during reassembly, you're going to
have to go fishing for them. It's also possible, says
212 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
McIntyre, to reassemble the deflector support ring
and hot sections outside of the engine. Just leave five
hot sections off the bottom so that the assembly can
be reinstalled.
The combustion chamber liner and fuel nozzles
should then be separated from the stator support case
and inspected. Fuel nozzles should be inspected carefully.
Since it's only possible to clean nozzles at hot section,
they typically require overhaul or replacement. Don't
skimp on making sure that they're working correctly and
don't hesitate to replace any that aren't. Streaking
nozzles are probably the No. 1 contributor to damaged
components in the engine. Give close attention also to
the combustion chamber liner for cracking and worn
igniter or fuel nozzle grommets. Service bulletin 7199
repairs loose igniter grommets. McIntyre also comments
that torque values should be observed when reassem-
bling the liner to the support case. "The liner should
float after assembly. If not you may be binding the liner
with a support plug," he says. Also, remember that the
fuel nozzles must be pressure checked after they're
reinstalled in the manifold.
Assembly and installation
McIntyre says that it's a good idea to check compo-
nent fit prior to installation in the engine, especially if
new parts are used. A good example is the fit of the
large exit d u d to combustion liner. Also, any tricks that
can be used to help align components as you're sliding
them into the engine can only serve to protect those
components and ensure proper fit.
Two 10-32 bolt heads can be cut off and used as
guide pins to install the small d u d assembly. Keep an
eye out for alignment marks if parts are being reused,
and check all necessary measurements according to the
maintenance manual if new parts are used.
If the stator was replaced or reworked (SB 7296),
new measurements will need to be taken to determine
the thickness of the spacer required for the HT disc.
The spacer comes in one size, says McIntyre, and will
have to be ground to size as measurements dictate.
"We've rarely had to grind them though," he says,
"they normally seem to fit."
McIntyre also cautions not to get carried away install-
ing the HT disc and to remember to install the spacer
and air seal before installing the disc. "It can be installed
without these items," he says. "Failure to install the
spacer will result in the HT disc rubbing on the stator
assembly, and failure to install the air seal will result in
damage to the engine." He also explains that alignment
of the master splines on the HT will be easier if their
location is marked with a marker on the aft side of the
HT disc, and on the end of the shaft in the engine.
"When pushing the disc into position, push it as far
forward as possible by hand, so that the disc is started
on the snap diameter. The disc can be heated before
installation too so that it slides into place easier, but
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remember to let it cool to room temperature before
torquing the nut. Otherwise the final torque will not be
correct once it has cooled off," says McIntyre.
While checking HT blade tip clearances, be sure
-
again to use rubber blocks to hold the small duct assem-
bly (as during the removal check) in the running posi-
tion. The maintenance manual allows .015 to .029 inch if
previously run segments are being used, and from .023
to ,029 inch for new segments. Smaller clearances are
allowed for previously run segments because they have
already been exposed to heating and cooling cycles and
are less likely to bow. If any grinding of segments is
necessary, be sure to cover the gas generator case to
prevent the grinding residue from entering bearings or
other areas it might damage.
When installing the combustion liner, McIntyre sug-
gests that you pay attention to the alignment of the ig-
niter bosses and the fuel transfer tubes. In fad, he says
that he's seen a few instances where technicians have
reassembled the entire engine and when they went to
install the igniters, found that the liner wasn't lined up
properly. They were then faced with having to tear it
down again.
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Use caution, says McIntyre, to torque everything
according to maintenance manual instructions. Torques
may be different among the same part with different
part numbers, so verify everythmg as you're putting it
back together. Also, get some help from someone when
you install the low-turbine assembly. You'll need the
extra set of hands to hold the fan steady and aligned
with the marks you made during removal. And if you
pull out the low turbine, be sure you don't disengage the
lugs on the low-turbine stator. Check that the lugs on
the stator are properly engaged by making sure that it
doesn't rotate.
After all other components are installed and all main-
tenance manual instructions are complied with, reinstall
the thrust reversers and complete a ground performance
run-up.
If everything was done correctly, you're back in
business. 5 July/August 1991
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 213
TurbineTechnology
TFE731 engine control systems
By Ted Long
he heart of the TFE731 engine is the engine con-
trol system. This system consists of an electronic
engine control and a hydromechanical fuel control
(FCU). These units, working together, control engine fuel
in response to power lever demands.
In the early 19709, Garrett Engine Division, a divi-
sion of AUiedSignal Aerospace certified the first full
authority electronic engine control for the business avia-
tion community. This control, referred to as computer,
electronic fuel computer, engine computer, etc., is the
heart of the TFE731 engine control system. This Full
Authority Electronic Control System provides full elec-
tronic control of schedules and uses the hydromechanical
control as a backup. It provides fuel scheduling as well
as surge, overspeed and overtemperature protection.
Modes of operation
In order to understand the fuel control unit (F'CU)
it's essential to know the two modes of engine opera-
tions. The 731 engine uses a hydromechanical fuel con-
trol to meter fuel and satisfy engine thrust require
EL-
214 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
ments. The unit is capable of operating in either the
"mechanical mode" (no electronic input) or in conjunc-
tion with the electronic engine control, "normal mode."
When operating in the mechanical mode, the engine
fuel system is considered to be in the "manual mode" of
operation. During this mode, the FCU responds to the
governor setting and is controlling the N2 m h pres-
sure) spool. Moving the power lever positions the gover-
nor control which resets the governor to a different
speed requirement. When operating in manual mode, the
electronic engine control is not controlling engine param-
eters so the operator must observe and adhere to engine
speed and temperature limits.
System operation in conjunction with the eledronic
control is termed normal mode. This is the desired mode
of operation. During normal mode, the power lever posi-
tions a mechanical linkage connected to both the gover-
nor control and a variable resistor in the FCU.
During normal mode, the governor functions only as
an, overspeed governor. Engine operation is, changed by
movement of the variable resistor which sends a signal
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to the electronic control. The control analyzes the follow- Input signals
ing input signals: spool speed, ITT,inlet temperature The following information is needed by the control
0 2 ) and inlet pressure (Pt2). unit so that it can react properly to engine operation:
Based on these signals, the control sends a signal to
the FCU torque motor to alter fuel flow... thus, matching N1 rprn The N1 (low pressure) spool speed is ex-
engine speed to power lever position. The control gov- tracted from the aft section of the engine, No. 6 bearing
erns N2 (high pressure) spool speed. Since each engine cavity. The speed signal is generated by a dual element
sensor commonly referred to as the N1 monopole. The
has a predictable and repeatable Nl/N2 speed match,
sensor provides two speed signals, one to the engine con-
controlling this spool produces a desired N1 speed.
trol and the other to the cockpit indicator.
In normal mode of o~eration.the FCU resuonds to
commands from the electronic control and, in response N2 rprn The N2 (high pressure) spool speed is sensed
to those commands, automatically provides start control, by a speed sensor commonly referred to as the N2 mono-
rprn governing, temperature limiting,acceleration and pole. The N2 monopole is a dual element sensor,
deceleration control and steady state operation. The con- mounted to the transfer gearbox, and provides two sig-
trol also incorporates a full-time parameter monitoring nals: one to the engine control and the other to the
system which automatically reverts to manual mode of cockpit indicator. The signal to the engine control is the
operation if any faults are present in the input/output primary input used for the various schedules within
component circuits. the EEC.
So far we've discussed the two modes of operation. FIT (Intemtage Turbine Temperature) ITT is sensed
Now, let's turn our attention to the control and the at station five of the engine and is commonly referred to
various items that make it function. as T5. The ITT input to the control provides for tempera-
ture control and engine limiting. Like the monopoles, the
Electronic control ITT harness provides two separate signals: one to the
There are two types of controls installed on the control and the other to the cockpit indicator.
TFE731 engine. The first is an analog control installed
PLA (Power Lever Angle) The PLA signal comes
on the majority of the -2 and 3 engines, commonly
from a variable resistor in the FCU and is used as the
referred to as Electronic Engine Control or EEC. The
command input for engine speed. Remember, by moving
next is the digital control currently installed on -2 and
the power lever you've changed the variable resistor in
5 engines, referred to as Digital Electronic Engine
the FCU which inputs a signal to the EEC to alter en-
Control or DEEC.
gine operation. This, along with the other inputs, wiU
Some of the advantages of a digital unit are: The
modify engine speed by changing fuel flow to
incorporation of software programs rather than solely
the engine.
hardware configurations allows greater flexibility with
more sophisticated fuel
schedules, builtrin test
functions that identify
causes of system malfunc-
tions, increased unit reli-
ability and more accurate
and less timeconsuming
adjustment procedures.
Although these units
are different internally,
the input and output
components are the same.
The control requires the
following inputs and out-
puts to maintain normal
mode operations. For ease
of discussion during the
following sections, both
units, EEC/DEEC, will he
referred to as EEC.

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F%2 Tt2 (Total pressure and temperature at engine
inlet) This dual element sensor is mounted at the inlet
of the engine and sends total temperature (Tt2) and
total pressure (Pt2) signals to the control. Maximum
engine speeds are based on outside air temperature and
pressure altitude.
Output signals
Once the control has received this information, it
must process the signals and react. These are the output
signals. The following are the components that the
output signals serve:
Torque motor The torque motor, located in the hydro-
mechanical FCU, is a dual coil motor that controls fuel
flow to the engine during normal mode operation. Fuel
flow depends on the signal coming from the EEC which
is driven by the various control schedules.
Overepeed solenoid If the EEC senses a predeter-
mined N1 or N2 speed, the overspeed solenoid is ener-
gized stopping fuel flow to the engine. The solenoid is
physically located in the FCU.
Surge bleed valve (AB) The surge bleed valve, located
between the low-pressure and high-pressure compressor,
is controlled by two solenoids (A and B). The
solenoids are mounted on the outside of the engine by-
pass d u d and are energized/deenergized to control air
pressure to the surge bleed valve. A signal from the EEC
control positions these solenoids to prevent engine surge.
Manual mode solenoid Located in the FCU, the
manual mode solenoid is energized when the engine is
controlled by the electronic unit. In the event of an elec-
trical mal€unction/inpuboutput component fault, the con-
trol would deenergize the solenoid and engine operation
would then be controlled by the governor in the FCU.
The system would automatically transfer from normal
mode to manual mode of operation.
MODES OF OPERATION
MANUAL
NORMAL
--*-----
men L m surgefree response within the desired temperature and
0
-
%
216 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Control schedules
We've discussed both normal and manual operation
and the input and output signals needed for EEC
operation. Now, we need to tie all these areas together.
During engine operation, the EEC constantly receives
input signals from the engine and, based on the control
schedules, governs fuel flow and surge valve protection.
Several basic schedules are used within the control to
accomplish this task.
During an engine start, the electronic control
schedules fuel flow to accelerate N2 rprn up to idle speea
while maintaining a conservative ITT.Fuel flow is
scheduled as a function of N2 rpm, As the N2 speed
signal increases so does fuel flow. As the engine acceler-
ates to idle rpm, the EEC selects the governor schedule
to control engine speed. During steady state operation
at the idle position, engine speed is controlled by the
governor schedule.
Keep in mind that although N1 rprn is monitored in
the cockpit, the schedules are controlling N2 speed. At
idle, N2 rpm, PLA, ITT,and Pt2 Tt2 are inputs to the
governor schedule. When the power lever is in the idle
detent, the schedule establishes an N2 rpm that will
deliver the required N1 speed to provide approximately
225-pound idle thrust. The N1 rpm will vary with
ambient conditions while providing consistent thrust.
As the power lever angle increases, speed will
increase up to governor schedule limits. As the engine
accelerates, the input signals wiU cause the applicable
schedule to accelerate the engine. At a maximum PLA
(power lever full forward), maximum thrust is influenced
by air density and outside air temperature as sensed by
the Pt2 Tt2 sensor. Then, depending on this input, the
governor schedule will select either the flat rate (FR) or
maximum speed 0 limiting schedule.
The governor schedule is also influenced by an
established ITT limit within the EEC. If the ITT signal
exceeds this limit, the control will reduce fuel flow to the
engine until the signal is below limit. Normal engine
deceleration is accomplished through changing the PLA
which resets the governor schedule. A rapid deceleration
command from the PLA could cause a spool speed
mismatch (Nl-N2). To prevent this, a surge schedule is
selected that sends commands to open the surge valve
and relieve the surge potential.
In summary, all engine operating parameters are
controlled by electronic control schedules. The control
will select the schedule best suited to provide rapid
speed limits.
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The schedule selection is dependent upon inputs from
N1, N2, ITT, Pt2 Tt2 and PLA. Erroneous or faulty input
signals will cause abnormal engine operation and are
often traced to a failure in an input/output component
or the electrical connectors.
This article is not intended to make you an expert
on the TFE731 engine control system but to give you a
basic understanding of how this fuel control unit and
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Turbine Technology
electronic engine control function together to control
fuel to the engine. Hopefully by understanding these
relationships, troubleshooting and repair of the system
will become much easier. 5l May/June 1991
Ted Long is a technical training instructor for Garrett
General Aviation Services Division of AlLiedSignal in
Phoenix, AZ.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 217
Turbine Technology

Fuel nozzle maintenance

Frequent cleaning and inspection can save $

By Greg Napert

uel nozzle cleanliness is a major factor affecting

the lives of turbine engine hot sections; and so it Figure 1 - Spray Paffemsof Va'an'ousNozzles
follows that keeping them clean is a maintenance
task that can pay great dividends. However, not all of
them require regular maintenance. Only certain types of
nozzles on specific engines warrant it.

mpes of fuel nozzles

Probably the most popular types of nozzles used in
smaller turbine engines today are the simplex and
duplex nozzles. Both are pressure atomizing-type nozzles.

a
SIMPLEX SPRAY PATTERN DUPLEX SPRAY P A l T M N
Atomization is the breaking up of the fuel into tiny par-
ticles resulting in a spray or mist. Simply speaking, this
means that each relies on fuel pressure and an orifice to
atomize the fuel. Although there are many ways to do
this, the basic principle involves forcing fuel under
pressure through an orifice with the orifice metering
and controlling the spray pattern. The spray pattern is
- and len& of the orifice.
determined bv the size.- shar~e
The simPGx nozzle contains only one orifice from
which the fuel is sprayed. Pratt & Whitney's PT6 is a HYBRID AIRBIAST SPRAY PATTERN
good example of a simplex nozzle. The nozzle contains
an internal screen and a distributor to spread the fuel
evenly as it approaches the nozzle tip. This type of
were developed. The airblast nozzle relies solely on air
nozzle is the most susceptible to dirt and carbon buildup.
pressure to atomize the fuel. This technology works well
The reason, explains Paul Owens, manager of Pratt &
for larger, high-powered engines. In order to apply the
Whitney Aircraft Services in Long Beach, CA, is that
airblast technology to a wider range of engines, a deriva-
during normal operation the fuel relies on the polished
tive of the airblast nozzle, known as the hybrid airblast
inner wall of the nozzle to provide proper distribution
nozzle was created. This technology combines pressure
and atomization.
and air atomization into one nozzle.
The duplex nozzle works on the same basic principle,
Hybrid air-atomizing fuel nozzles, says Parker, are
but contains two orifices from which fuel is sprayed. The
only slightly affected by fuel viscosity, unlike their pres-
two orifices are usually concentric with each other; for
sureatomizing counterparts. The spray angles are much
instance, one orifice is a hole in the center of the nozzle,
less affected by contamination and combustion chamber
and the second is a ring around the first. The duplex
changes, and the fuel is more evenly distributed. Accord-
nozzle allows the engine to combine a starting fuel
ing to Owens, the new Pratt & Whitney PW-100 is an
system and main fuel flow into one nozzle. The split
example of an engine that incorporates this technology.
system (starting and main fuel flow) is also used with
To illustrate the effectiveness of the airblast, says
simplex nozzles but is accomplished by using only a
Owens, simply observe the spray patterns of each nozzle.
couple of the nozzles for starting, then adding the rest of
The simplex nozzle produces a spray pattern that is a
the nozzles for normal operation. Knowing the difference
hollow conical shape. The hybrid airblast produces the
between the starting nozzles and main nozzles can be
same conical shape, but the same fuel is distributed
quite helpful when troubleshooting the engine.
throughout the entire area inside of the cone as well
According to Parker Hannifin Corporation, manufac-
(see Fig. 1).
turer of many of today's fuel nozzles, engines that have
Higher efficiency and lower maintenance require-
sufficiently high air velocities in the combustion chamber
ments of the airblast nozzle have spurred a trend for
can atomize the fuel using air alone without relying on
converting to this type of nozzle as the development of
fuel pressure. For these engines, airblast fuel nozzles
small gas turbine engines progresses.

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Inspection and cleaning
Proper cleaning and maintenance of all types of
nozzles are imperative. Nozzles that are most susceptible
to contamination are the pressureatomizing type.
Due to the design of most pressureatomizing nozzles,
carbon buildup or dirt contamination of the inner wall of
the nozzle orifice can adversely affect the spray pattern.
This can lead to streaking or drooling (fuel dripping
from the end of the nozzle), damaging components in
the hot section.
There are many factors that affect the cleanliness of
these nozzles such as fuel contamination, operating envi-
ronments, etc. One factor that seems to si&~cantly
affect buildup of contaminants on the nozzle is frequent
starts and stops. This is particularly true in fuel nozzles
in small turbine engines such as the Allison 250 or
Pratt & Whitney PT6. And it's because of this that The result o f nozzle streaking can be burned through
engine manufacturers recommend frequent inspection vane rings.
and cleaning.-
"In fact," says Owens, "the more often you inspect
Although methods for checking and measuring spray
them, the better off you can be financially. It's cheap patterns vary, the basic method involves pulling the
insurance." P&WC recommends varying the frequency
nozzle assembly from the engine, applying fuel under
of nozzle checking and cleaning based on the aircraft's
pressure to the assembly, and observing the spray
operating conditions. Normally, the interval falls between
pattern for evenness and proper fuel distribution.
200 to 600 hours, says Owens. Keep in mind that some
On the PT6, for example, the nozzle assembly is
engines do not require frequent nozzle cleaning, while
checked by observing the spray pattern against a back-
others need regular attention. An engine that doesn't is
light to make sure that the spray pattern is within the
the JT-15D. This engine, says Owens, requires that
prescribed limits. Additionally, the spray is checked for
nozzles be pulled and cleaned at hot,-section time only.
streaking, which appears as fine white lines or drooling.
Failure to adhere to frequent inspection and cleaning
Brushing the tip lightly while fuel is run through the
schedules for the engines that warrant it can result in
nozzle using a softrbristled brush such as nylon can help
burnt and cracked vane rings, combustion liners and
to eliminate streaks. Use caution to not be overly aggres-
even turbine blades. Tom Jory, representative for Pratt
sive cleaning the tip of the nozzle. Any distortion to the
& Whitney Canada, says that streaking nozzles have
orifice can change or destroy the spray pattern. Drooling
been known to burn a hole straight through the vane can sometimes be eliminated but is usually the result of
ring and impinge hot gases on the turbine blades. The
a more serious problem, such as a seal leak or excessive
hot gases flowing directly onto the turbine blades carbon buildup on the nozzle tip.
produce excitation that warrants scrapping
- - - the blades
a $20,00@plus proposition.

The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 219

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W n e Technology

In addition to this simple inspection, nozzles can be

cleaned by the use of decarbonizing solution in an ultra-
sonic cleaner. After decarbonizing, the assembly is
rinsed in clean water, spray checked and the tips are
brushed. Any nozzle tips exhibiting signs of streaking or
drooling are replaced.
Cleaning some of the airblast nozzles can be a bit
more involved and is usually accomplished in the over-
haul shop. These nozzles are typically cleaned using a
process known as pyrolytic cleaning. The components are
cleaned by placing them in an oven and heating them to
the point where the carbon deposits are converted into
an ash that can be easily removed by normal chemical
cleaning. The assembly's individual components are
cleaned, NDT'd, dimensionally checked, reassembled
and tested.
Keep in mind that many of the older design nozzles
can't tolerate the process of pyrolytic cleaning.
In the total scheme of things, nozzle maintenance is
a small price to pay to s-cantly extend the life of the
engines. "It is a preventive maintenance action," says
Jory, "not a rectification action. You don't wait until they
are filthy dirty and streaking all over. You have to keep
them clean at all times." Bl MarddApril1991

PRIMARY FUEL DRAIN FUEL

SECONDARY FUEL P3 AIR

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Allison
By Jim Taylor
he Allison 250 has become an exceptionally
popular engine over the years. There have been
over 23,000 of them produced and they have
logged a total of 767,000,000 flight hours. The engine is
separated into compressor, gearbox, turbine, combustion
section and fuel system.
The main focus of this article. however, will be the
compressor. Helpful hints involving three principal
maintenance tasks will be covered: The changing of the
No. 1 carbon seal and bearing, the replacement of the
case halves and the installation and removal of the
compressor.
Changing the No. 1 carbon seal
A leaking No. 1 carbon seal is usually identified by an
oily film around the bleed valve area. In some really bad
cases, oil can also be found at the inlet of the compres-
sor, around the 6 o'clock strut on the front support.
The torquemeter and oil pressure lines that transmit
pressures from the plenum chamber to the cockpit
gauges on older 500s are plastic. It's good to keep in
mind that these lines have been known to break, espe
cially after the engine has been removed or installed.
The leaks produced by these lines breaking are mislead-
ing because they produce symptoms similar to a serious
carbon seal leak. The difference. however, is that there is
no torque or oil pressure.
Once it is determined that a carbon seal leak exists,
the compressor section must be prepared for further
maintenance. Before tearing into the No. 1 bearing area,
it's a good practice to familiarize yourself with the
Allison maintenance manual. Note that Allison recom-
mends you put the compressor in the vertical position.
And to make the job easier have a 7/32 ball driver Allen
bench and a snap-on HDX78A wrench on hand.
The first step-remove the front support. Not only
does this procedure require removing the split line bolts
around the circular flange, it also requires that you
loosen the forward two bolts along the horizontal split
line of the case halves. This will ease up the squeeze that
the case halves are putting on the pilot of the front
support and will make removing and installing the front
support easier. The next step is to remove the l/4inch
nut at the front of the bullet nose. To lift off the
support, gently tap the bullet nose with a plastic mallet
to overcome the O-ring friction. Do this while applying
a steady lifting force to the support and maintaining
a tight grip on it. This will prevent the support from
injuring you or falling on the floor.
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maintenance
Once the front support is off, it's a good practice to
pressure check the oil transfer tubes. Remember that
these tubes will give you the same symptoms as a leak-
ing No. 1 carbon seal. Many people don't do this step
until after they've changed two or three carbon seals.
You can do a quick check quite easily by supplying about
15 pounds of shop air to one of the oil fittings on the
front support. Then block the corresponding hole on the
side of the bullet nose with your finger. Submerge the
whole apparatus in a bucket of water and look for air
bubbles coming out of the anti-ice air slots. Make sure
the air you hooked up to the front support is connected
to an oil fitting and not an anti-ice fitting.
To remove that hard-to-get circlip for the No. 1 bear-
ing housing, your best bet is to use a good set of needle
nose pliers or duckbill pliers.
A word of caution: If you're going into the No. 1
bearing area because of suspected bearing failure, make
some arrangement with rags or plastic bags to prevent
any debris from the bearing area from falling down
inside the compressor assembly before you take off
the bearing housing.
You should find a spring and a cup washer on top
of the No. 1 bearing. The 9/16 nut sitting on top of the
bearing is a 100 percent replacement item. It should be
used only once and then discarded. The dustcaps prevent
oil from getting inside the compressor rotor via the hole
in the center of the No. 1 bearing shaft.
During the assembly of the compressor rotor, a
special tool is inserted in the hole and senses the end
of the tie bolt. A combination of this tool and a large C
micrometer are used to determine the stretch on the
tie bolt. A word of caution, when removing the nut, use
care not to damage the brass ball retainer. The preferred
method is to test your socket and make sure there's
no way it could slip down and touch the ball retainer.
Technicians, in the past, have accidentally damaged
the retainer when removing the nut, then reinstalled
the damaged bearing only to have it fail in a few
short hours.
To remove the bearing, first establish if you have a
puller groove on the forward side of the inner race. If
you do, you should use puller P/N 23005023 as per CEB
1171. Use the older puller P/N 6796925 if there is no
puller groove, if you don't have the new puller or if
you're not sure what kind of bearing you have. When
using the old style puller, you're actually pulling the
bearing off with the seal follower. Again, if you think
you've damaged the bearing in this process, replace it
with a new bearing.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 221
Turbine Technology

Compressor section schematic

for A250·C20, ·C20B.

If anyone of these internal oil transfer tubes crack or break, the

symptoms are similar to a No. 1 carbon seal lea! Pressure check /he
struts when the tront suPPOrt IS removed.

Compressor case assembly

gearshatt
!spur adapter
The gear that meshes WIth these teeth can
get bent during ins/allation ot the
compressor if the rotor is not constantly
turned.

Cap on the No. 1 bearing nut keeps oil out of the

all outlet act,'f!SS hole to the end of the tie bolt, 011
contamination in the access hole and inside the
compressor rotor results in vibrations Replace this nut
every time. Diffuser vane
assembly

A couple more pointers: • The No.1 bearing area assembled in the reverse
order to which it was dismantled.
• Remember to change the bearing nut, and if the old
nut has a red or yellow cap, use a new bearing with The No.1 bearing is seated by torquing up the No.1
the nut. Chances are you have an old style bearing bearing nut. The No. 1 ball bearing is a one·way thrust
(pre CEBl171), and the nuts for these older bearings bearing that accepts a light forward thrust load from the
are not available. Only the new nuts (PIN 23004538) compressor rotor. Other than analyzing the bearing and
with the black caps are available, and these must be figuring out where the thrust shoulders are, the easiest
used with the new bearings (PIN 6898607). way to install this bearing correctly is to make sure the
• Even if you just wanted to change the bearing, you puller groove is up, or on the forward side during instal·
should also change both the carbon seal and the fol· lation. Again, when torquing the nut, be careful not to
lower. Remember to always change both the follower touch the brass ball retainer. If you think you have dam·
and the seal assembly. Clean both of them well before aged it, replace the bearing.
installation; however, don't touch the mating surfaces Before installing the No. 1 bearing housing, set the
with your fingers. spring and cup washer back on the bearing. Also, have a
look at the bearing damper in the housing to check for
• Over the last couple of years I've been installing all of cracks and that all of the fingers are present.
the carbon seals in the engine absolutely dry, with no The mating of the housing with the circlip on the out-
detrimental results or effects to date. The previous side of the carbon seal is a two-person job. One person
technique was to soak the seal in oil before installa· should hold the carbon seal up with the aid of two screw-
tion, and that has produced mixed results-namely drivers lightly leveraged under the seal and against the
stiff rotors and occasionally leaks. balance rim on the first stage wheel. The second person,
• A little money can be saved when changing the seal with one hand, lowers the housing onto the seal and
by buying a kit to change just the carbon element in bearing assemblies. This person also makes sure that the
the seal assembly. spring and cup washer are in place. With the other hand

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the person squeezes the circlip on the carbon seal with a
good pair of needle nose or duckbill pliers.
With one person pushing down on the housing and
the other resisting that force with the two screwdrivers,
there's a fair amount of force involved. However, with a
little bit of finagling, the snap ring will eventually pop
into place. Check to see if the snap ring is fully seated in
its groove by trying to move one of the tangs of the
circlip. If it moves relatively easily, and the other tang
follows along, the circlip is in the right place. Don't go
any further until you are sure the circlip is well seated.
It's common for the circlip to hang up in one place. If
this is the case, a concentration of some leverage from a
screwdriver, lightly pried up against the bottom of the
seal, will seat the ring.
The front support goes on next. The two holes in the
forward end of the bullet nose of the front support,
engage the two pins on the No. 1 bearing housing. The
hole that is off center accepts the pin that is responsible
for locating the front support relative to the bearing
housing. This pin also acts as an anti-rotation pin. The
center hole allows the threaded pin on the bearing hous-
ing to come through the front support, and when the
nut is tightened, it holds the support in place axially,
relative to the housing.
When locating the front support to the case halves,
put the scavenge fitting at or about the 6 o'clock posi-
tion. The final seating of the front support to the case
halves is done using hand pressure. Don't draw the front
support up to the case halves with the bolts. Push into
place by hand; then tighten up two bolts until they are
almost snug. Pulling the front support in with the bolts
can damage the pilot ring on the aft side of the front
support. Once that is bent the support won't sit right.
The misalignment will cause vibrations, rubs and maybe
even a bearing failure.
Inspection and replacement of the case halves
Refer to the maintenance manual for specifics on the
inspection criteria, and for the proper sequencing of
tightening the splitline bolts when removing or replacing
the case halves. The torquing procedure for the splitline
bolts can be confusing. If possible get another person
to read out the sequence while you do the tightening
and loosening.
The intent of the inspection criteria for the case
halves is to have them removed from service when
certain conditions exist. If the plastic looks like it's
lifting, replace the case halves.
A good place to look for lifting plastic is along the
splitline. Along this cross section, you can observe how
the plastic is maintaining its grip on the parent steel
material of the case halves. The plastic usually starts
lifting from the bleed band slot. Sometimes little pieces
of plastic break out. That's OK, providing the pieces did
not come from the rator blade path area, and as long as
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the hole left in the plastic
is acceptable per the
limits in the maintenance
manual.
The key to analyzing
eroded plastic is to look
for any exposed base
metal, if you see any
metal exposed around the
base or root of the vane,
remove the case halves
from service.
The plastic that
covers the root of the
vanes serves two func-
Notice how the rub, shown tions: One is to smooth
in the bottom photo has the airflow through the
transferred the heat discol- compressor, and the other
oration to the inside o f the is to prated the rootof
wheel, as shown on the top* the vane from erosion.
The root is the most
highly stressed part of the vane. Any material removed
from this area could result in a vane failure.
Certain types of rubs in the plastic are permitted as
long as they are light and there is no evidence of the
plastic Wting. Some overhaul companies actually set the
clearance between the plastic and the rotor blades so
tight, that they rub right from overhaul. This is done in
an attempt to increase the efficiency of the compressor.
Rubs between the stator vanes and the compressor
rotor, however, are not allowed. If rubs are noticed in
this area, pull the compressor from service immediately
to correct the problem. Rubs on the rotor are most
commonly caused by either corrosion between the stator
vane band assemblies and the case halves skins (which
results in the vane band assembly lifting into the rotor)
or from misalignment of the case halves during installa-
tion. These tubs are usually found in the fifth stage area.
Any signs of blueing associated with rubbing is quite
serious. Blueing indicates that the material affected has
been stressed by the heat of the friction. The effecta of
this friction usually penetrates quite deeply. The slightest
tint of blue on the surface can be seen on the inside of
the wheel as well, and left unchanged, can quickly turn
into holes and subsequently, an underpowered engine.
Removal and installation of the compressor
To remove the compressor, the turbine must first be
removed. This will allow you to use the 2 1/2 bearing
guide when installing the compressor. With the turbine
and the compressor removed, take a really close look at
the 2 1/2 bearing.
Check each roller for spalling, dents or flat spots. If
there are any, reject the bearing. Also, carefully inspect
the roller retainer. If the rollers are loose and it looks as
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 223
Turbine Technology
if they're about to fall out, change the bearing. Prior
to reinstalling the bearing, pack the rollers with
petrolatum.
It's also a good idea to count the shims at each
location before removing the compressor. This will be a
great help when reinstalling the compressor.
When mating the compressor with the gearbox, keep
the rotor turning, and seat the assembly onto the gear-
box by hand. Don't draw it up with the mounting bolts.
It's not unusual for inexperienced technicians to bend
the first stage reduction gear. This happens because the
teeth of the spur adapter may not be completely engaged
with the spur teeth of the fuel control, oil pump, idler
Here are a couple of guidelines for inspecting and blend-
ing the rotor blades:
Blending blades for foreign object damage O D )
should be done with s m d hand files and India stones.
Always work the tools along the length of the blade
while maintaining the aerodynamic shape of the leading
edge. If you're removing a nicked corner, do it in a
straight line. AUison's maintenance manual states that
you can blend as many blades as you want, provided that
you don't exceed the limits for each blade. Remember
though-the more material you remove, the less power
the engine will develop.
224 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
gear and the mount bolts for the compressor were done
up before the compressor was seated. If the gear is bent
during this operation, it is likely to fail.
These tips are far from complete and it should al-
ways be kept in mind that the instructions in the main-
tenance manual override them. It is hoped that this in-
formation, learned from years of working with the A250
will serve to reduce damage to components that are ex-
pensive, and will assist you in expediting your work.
Jim Taylor is an Allison 250 shop supervisor for
Standard Aero in Montreal, Canada. He has been
working with Allison 250s for 10 years.
Consider the performance of an engine before you
start a big blending job; if the power is low, a lot of
blending might put the performance below the limit.
Also, if you're looking at a rotor where all the blades
have rounded corners, a very thin appearance and the
trailing corners are starting to curl, you have a severely
eroded compressor. At this point there's no point chang-
ing case halves or blending the blades, just replace the
whole compressor. a January'February 1991
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Protecting today3 turbine hot section
How far have coatings come?
T
oday's turbine components have come a long way.
Or have they? Despite some advances in technol-
ogy, hot section components could still use a little
extra protection, especially for those who operate their
turbinepowered aircraft in harsh environments.
There are some exceptions to this. For instance, some
engines are designed to be used on aircraft that are not
exposed to adverse operating environments. The Pratt
JT15D or the Garrett TFE731, for example, are engines
that are primarily used with high-performance business
aircraft. The likelihood that this equipment will operate
off of dirt strips or near saltwater is unlikely. But
engines such as the P&W PT6 or Allison 250 are more
versatile and more likely to see these environments.
Engines that are regularly exposed to saltwater
environments, those used to power amphibious aircraft,
or turbines used in helicopters that stir up dirt and dust
from their landing pads still struggle regularly with
trying to make it from TBO to TBO. For these operators,
who are willing to try anything to extend the life of their
components, standard coatings do not seem to provide
adequate protection.
The most critical element that the internal compo-
nents of the turbine engine have to deal with is erosion.
The more contaminants that are present in the air, the
more rapid the erosion.
Manufacturers ~ r o t e cthe
t turbine from erosion
through mechanic2 methods such as intake screens and
particle separators. However, not all contaminants can
be removed before they reach the inside of the engine,
so the coatings must be able to resist these forces. D e
signing a coating to be erosion-resistant is not as simple
as it may seem. The coating must be hard enough to be
able to resist erosion, yet not so hard that it will be
brittle and crack too easily.
Another factor that takes its toll on turbine hot sec-
tion components is corrosion and oxidation. Although
corrosion that forms at any temperature is not good, hot
corrosion or sulfidation (the type that forms at higher
temperatures) is particularly damaging to turbine compo-
nents. The operating environment and operating prac-
tices are major factors in determining if an operator will
have problems with sulfidation.
According to Robert Specht, director of sales and
marketing for Sermatech, a blade coating facility based
in Limerick, PA, not all turbine engines experience prob
lems with sulfidation. Sulfidation occurs only at certain
temperatures and, generally speaking, is a result of a
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Turbine Technology
combination of the proper temperatures, operating envi-
ronment and operating factors such as frequency of o p
eration. Some operators never experience any problems
with sulfidation, says Specht.
Coatings that are placed on blades and vane rings are
designed to be highly corrosion resistant. This is due to
the very pure aluminum oxide (AI2O3)outer layer. The
aluminum oxide is very resistant to attack from salts
and penetration of oxygen that can accelerate the corro-
sion process.
Jim Nuse, sales manager for Howmet Corporation's
Wichita Falls Refurbishment Center, explains that many
operators can eliminate sulfidation by simply adhering to
a strict schedule of compressor and turbine washes. Bill
McCune, manager of marketing communications for
Sermatech, recommends that products used to rinse off
components should not be too alkaline or acidic. McCune
recommends using detergenbtype cleaners that are a p
proved by the engine manufacturer.
A product used by some operators to prevent
sulfidation is a product called Sermaloy J@. This coating,
accordmg to Sermatech, is designed to provide resis-
tance to high- and low-temperature corrosion and oxida-
tion. The coating is used a number of different ways. For
years, it has been used as a touch-up type of coating,
says Specht. Small areas that had coating missing due
to damage or repairs were coated with Sermaloy J. It
is now being used more often to entirely recoat compo-
nents that need to be stripped and recoated. Some
manufacturers are even beginning to supply new
components with Sermaloy J.
Sermatech appears to be the only company marketing
a coating specifically to combat the sulfidation problem
for small turbine aircraft. Sermaloy J is in wide use
throughout the industry. In fact, Nuse says that Howmet
regularly uses Sermaloy J for certain repairs and applica-
tions that have been approved by the manufacturer. In
addition, companies such as Superior Air Parts out of
Texas have been selling new PMA'd turbine components
that are coated with Sermaloy J. But recently,
Sermatech has restricted sales to those that have pur-
chased the coating in the past and have made Sermaloy
J a proprietary coating.
Sermaloy J has gained its popularity because
Sermatech has done a great job marketing the product,
says Nuse. This is not to say that the product is not a
good one. In fact, many operators swear by it and recom-
mend it for use in harsh operating environments. But
under normal conditions, there are other products that
perform just as well, he says.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technolo~yMagazine 225
Turbine Technology
Turbine components appear new after repair and coating.
There are a number of companies that use their own
proprietary coatings that have been approved by the
engine manufacturers. These companies work regularly
with OEMs to upgrade their coatings.
226 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Do you have a choice of what type of coating you
want on your turbine components during overhaul?
Most overhaul shops will comply with any request
that you may have regarding what types of coatings
you want on your components. However, Tim Douglas,
manager of P&WC Aircraft Services in Naperville, IL,
says that it is not usual for a customer to request
special coatings, unless they are having problems with
sulfidation.
Nuse says that they will work with customers who
have special requests; however, they will not inadverb
ently apply coatings simply because a customer requests
them. "We will only apply coatings if they are approved
for use by the manufacturer," he says. "If an operator is
having a problem with sulfidation, we'll go to the manu-
facturer and recommend a certain type of coating. If we
have problems getting the OEM's approval, we may then
go to the FAA and perform the required testing to get
the coating approved."
Generally speaking, says McCune, coatings are
designed to last for the entire life of the TI30 for the
engine that it is being used in, but the people inspecting
the blades should be aware that allowing missing coating
to go untended could result in blade failure. McCune
says that it is important to recoat blades that are
missing coating.
r or-some operations, worrying about the types of
coatings that are going on their turbine components is
not one of the biggest things that there is to worry
about, says Nuse. But being aware of the variety of ways
in which to extend the life of their components can
result in substantial savings. kQl November/December 1990
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Gentlemen-Start your engines
But be sure you know how
By Greg Napert
T
he blink of an eye-that's how long it takes to
burn up a turbine engine. And it's no minor
expense. Overtemping a turbine during run-up
can result in replacement of parts costing tens of
thousands of dollars. In most cases, if you destroy a
turbine engine you can kiss your job goodbye.
So who in their right mind would want to perform a
p r e or postinspection run-up on a turbine engine? The
answer is: Everyone.
The run-up of a turbine engine is the ultimate experi-
ence in the life of a technician, the icing on the cake, the
reward for a job well done, proof of performance and
verification of technical expertise.
And not everyone has the opportunity to do it. Only the
most experienced, most responsible and most reliable
technicians are usually chosen for the task.
From the FBO's point of view, however, this is an
area where liability becomes a major factor, and the
primary concern is making sure that the technician who
is handling the customer's aircraft is qualified.
So how does the typical FBO train a technician to
handle and run up turbine engines? How does it assure
itself a certain degree of comfort when one of its techni-
cians taxis a multimillion dollar aircraft out onto the
ramp to run it up? And what are some of the concerns
that the technician has to deal with when performing
this task?
The training
"Young technicians always get frustrated because
they always feel they're ready before they really are,
comments James Clifford, manager of turbine engine
maintenance and rework for Kal-Aero in Kalamazoo, M1.
"It takes a long time-sometimes years before you can
send a guy out and not have to worry about it.
"You can burn up a Garrett 331 in less than three
seconds," says Clifford. "Three seconds is actually plenty
of time when you know how to read, but it's not long if
you have to think.Reaction has to be an instinct."
Kal-Aero believes in hands-on experience, explains
Clifford. "What we do to train a technician," he says,
"is take him out in the aircraft and let him sit in the left
seat for several months so that he sees what's happen-
ing. Eventually, he begins to ask questions and starts to
understand the different systems and how they operate.
We then place him in the right seat for awhile with the
experienced technician holding the checklist and have
him quiz the trainee on the actions that he would take
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under certain conditions. This assures the experienced
technician that the trainee knows what he is doing.
"After a period of time, depending on the trainee and
the type of aircraft, we will actually let the trainee
perform the run-up. During the starting process, we will
pose imaginary problems and supervise the trainee's
reactions to these problems."
Clifford stresses that the trainees are not inexperi-
enced technicians. As a matter of fact, he says that none
of their technicians on the floor, during their day shift,
have less than two years' experience. The people who are
chosen for this type of training have already proven
themselves, he says.
Phil Reinpold, turbine division manager for Turbo
West Beechcraft, a corporate aircraft repair facility in
Broomfield, CO, says that training typically begins with
shift leaders and foremen. "They normally send them to
school first, then the trained individual, on an as-needed
basis, would train other technicians in the facility,"
he says.
"In most facilities," says Reinpold, "some form of
keeping tabs on technicians' ability, such as a run-up
card, is used." The run-up card is one that is signed off
for different aircraft and procedures that each technician
is cleared to perform. "It's kind of like an airmen check.
The shift foreman trains you on a specific model, and
you're only authorized to run those specific airplanes
for the company. These are in-house procedures only,"
he says.
Staying safe
"You can never rely on a pilot to provide you with
accurate information," says Clifford. "At Kal-Aero, we use
a system of very detailed run-up checklists that we use
before and after maintenance.
"The preinspection run-up checklists," explains
Clifford, "give us the ability to venfy the condition of the
engine prior to performing any maintenance.
"This is done for a couple of reasons. First, it gives
us information that allows us to verify the effects of the
maintenance that we perform on the engine and/or
engines. And second, it prevents us from being accused
of doing something to the aircraft that has affected
its performance. We know for sure how the engine is
running before we do any work on it.
"Our p r e and postinspection checklists, which we
develop for individual aircraft, were designed to cover
ourselves thoroughly. They were developed by combining
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 227

Sample o f card used to identify technicians that are
qualified to perform run-ups on aircraft.
the information in the pilot's operating handbook with
information in the maintenance manual. In addition, we
are constantly updating and adding new information
based on our experienced. This flexibility allows us to
reduce errors and keep ourselves current."
The run-up
"All turbine engines have the same unforgiving
characteristics," says Clifford, mainly, that you cannot
overtemp them nor can you allow them to hang in what
is defined by the manufadurer as the critical range.
"This critical range is the rpm at which the engine
has the capability of producing harmonics that can cause
the engine to destroy itself. It would probably be safe to
say that this critical range is at approximately the 30 to
50 percent power range for all engines.
"To avoid this range and excessive temperatures, be
sure that a turbine engine does not hang up at any given
point. A good rule of thumb is that the rpm should con-
tinue moving upward through the entire start sequence.
As soon as you see the gauges stop moving, there's a
good chance that there's a problem."
Reinpold explains that the battery should always be
checked for charge level prior to starting. A low battery
results in the engine spinning too slowly, and when fuel
is introduced into a slowly spinning engine the likelihood
that damage will occur is increased, he says.
"One thing that many technicians don't think of
during a run-up," adds Reinpold, "is foreign object
damage @O ' D). I know one operator who would sweep
up the entire ramp before doing a run-up on a turbine
engine. This isn't such a bad idea. Or at least to do the
run-ups where there is not any potential for FOD.
Normally, FOD doesn't affect the piston airplane, but
boy, if you run something up to high power, which you
do with a turbine, it's easy to FOD the compressor, and
it's also very expensive."
Another item to check for, says Reinpold, is to make
sure that if there is anv kind of oil cooler door or cowl
flap, that it is open. "I've seen many instances where
you are out there on a hot day and you forget to open
these flaps and the oil temperatures shoot way up."
228 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Reinpold also suggests, if possible, having two people
present when performing the run-up, one t ~ ~ ~ e r f the
okn
run-up, and one to write down all the facts and figures
and keep track of the paperwork. Having two people
also allows you to more thoroughly analyze the situation
and is more likely to result in better troubleshooting,
he explains.
Horror stories
"It was down at an airport on one of those 'Hey,
could you come down here quick?' kind of jobs," explains
Reinpold of Turbo West. "I had to run an airplane on
a prepurchase performance run and there was some
question as to whether the aircraft was making specs.
Having run these things hundreds of times previously, I
went through the normal checks-circuit breakers and
switches in the correct positions, etc. and began throw-
ing the fuel to it.
"I had previously discovered that the condition levers
and power levers were the same lever (on later models
the condition lever and power lever are separated), but
when I started the engine and it began to run away on
me, I was not prepared, and began searching for the
condition lever to cut the engine. It wasn't there!
"I pulled the levers back but it kept accelerating. To
make matters worse, there was a small spring clip that
you had to release to pull the lever all the way back. I
had no idea that it existed. Needless to say, it was a very
expensive repair."
In a similar story, Clifford of Kal-Aero describes
the time that a technician (not employed by Kal-Aero),
burned up a couple of engines while performing a
preinspection during the purchase of an aircraft.
"We had a customer here around a year ago who sold
his King Air El00 to an operation that had been flying
Aero Commanders. On the day they were to take deliv-
ery of the airplane, they had their chief technician take
the airplane out to do an inspection. He was used to the
Commander and thought that the start procedures were
the same because the engines were basically the same.
On the Commander, he was accustomed to continuously
holding down the start switch and the engine would
start normally. But the start switch on the B l O O
provided continuous fuel enrichment; when he continued
to hold down the start switch on this aircraft, it burnt
up the engines."
Regardless of the story, the common thread that
seems to run through these disasters is that the run-up
was done in haste. "The important thing is to take
your time," says Reinpold. "Scope out the cockpit for
differences and study the manuals thoroughly, because
no matter how much experience you have, you are
susceptible to making mistakes."
September/October 1990
Aircraft Technical Books
800-780-4115
www.actechbooks.com
 Turbine Technology

Rigging your TPE331

Don't let it get you down

By Greg Napert

L
OS ANGELES-Poor landing characteristics, split
engine parameters, split power levers, split rpm
control levers and difficulty in setting power or
rpm. These are all symptoms of an improperly rigged
TPE331.
To the A&P with little or no exposure to the TPE331,
rigging can be a nightmare. What appears to be a
mishmash of entangled control rods, levers and stop
screws, however, is actually a quite straightforward
common-sense control system.
Making common sense out of this control system is
what Glenn Hunt, crew leader at Garrett General Avia-
tion Services Division in LA, does for a living. "Follow
the manual-step by step," explains Hunt. "In order to
get it right, it's important to start from the beginning."
Hunt explains that the most simple approach to
proper rigging of the TPE331 is to isolate the rigging
process into four distinct steps: Rigging the aircraft,
rigging the engine to itself, interfacing the engine and
airframe control linkage assemblies together and mak-
ing sure that the propeller flight idle blade angle is
correctly set.

Static rigging
Hunt suggests that whenever problems exist with the
rigging, start from scratch to determine the problem.
This is because it is nearly impossible to zero in on a
specific problem such as incorrect rod lengths, incor-
rectly installed protractors, misadjusted stops, etc.
"Begin by verlfylng that the airframe and control
lever rigging is proper," says Hunt. Refer to the appro-
priate manual for this information.
If at all possible, says Hunt, it is much easier to rig
the fuel control, pitch control and prop governor prior
to installing the engine on the aircraft. Of course, if the
engine is installed, it is possible to statically rig the
engine, but is more difficult.
If the engine was removed for a gearbox inspection,
says Hunt, the pitch control will have been disassembled.
In this case, make sure that the protractor on the pitch
control is set by turning clockwise as far as possible. The
slotted screws on the protractor allow you to move it
back and forth several degrees.
"A mistake that some technicians make is to turn
one protractor on one engine counterclockwise, and the
protractor on the other engine clockwise. If this is done,
you'll never get both engines to synchronize. The pro-
tractor must be set identically on both engines,"
explains Hunt.
Once the protractor is pushed clockwise as far as
possible and secured, install a 118inch rig pin through
the linkage and into the slots provided in the protractor
at zero degrees, 40 degrees and 100 degrees to assure
that the linkage is aligned with the protractor. Once
this is done, you're on the right track. The pitch control
is rigged.
The manual fuel valve has the same protractor as
the prop pitch control; both must read exactly the same
throughout the entire range. Also, the manual fuel
valve must hit its high and low stops at the same time
that the prop pitch control reaches its high and low
pitch stops.
"If you get that done correctly," says Hunt, "you
have accomplished the majority of your static rigging.
This is the area that typically gives you most problems.

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Turbine Technology
"Keep in mind," says Hunt, "that the linkage rod
lengths are set to a specific distance and should not be
changed." However, if they have been disassembled for
some reason, specific directions for determining rod
lengths are in the maintenance manual.
If the manual fuel valve control and prop pitch
control protractors do not align with each other exactly,
there is a micro adjust that can be used to align them so
that they track together.
When the engine rigging has been accomplished,
connect control cables from the airframe to the engine
and make necessary adjustments as instructed in the
airframe maintenance manual. Once all connections to
the aircraft are made, verify that the power levers and
condition levers are in the correct positions with respect
to the adjustments on the engines. Full reverse in the
cockpit should show zero degrees on the engine, flight
idle should show 40 degrees, and takeoff 100 degrees.
Fuel control unit with the
manual fuel valve pinned at
40 degrees. This should
correspond with the angle
on the prop pitch control.
Adjustments
Adjustment and verification must be made in a num-
ber of areas including adjustment of the stops on the
prop governor and underspeed governor. The stops on
the manual fuel valve, however, are made at the factory
and should not be changed. Refer to the appropriate
maintenance manual to accomplish the following:
• Verify pitch control and manual fuel valve rigging.
• Adjust proper flight idle blade angle.
• Adjust and test underspeed fuel governor high and
low stops. These adjustments are sensitive and must
be made in small increments.
• Adjust and test the propeller governor high and low
stops. The high stop, on Woodward fuel control units,
is not functional. Make sure, however, that it is not
preventing the underspeed governor from reaching
its high stop.
• Adjust and test the underspeed fuel governor reset.
• Adjust and test propeller governor and underspeed
fuel governor separation.
• Adjust the underspeed governor reset, screw V.
This is also referred to as reverse low.
• Adjust the propeller governor high, screw X.
• Adjust the propeller governor reset, screw W.
230 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Fine adjustments to max
power and flight idle can
be made by removing these
plugs and turning the
adjustment screws.
With all of these steps accomplished. The engine
should be properly rigged to the aircraft. When rigging
to synchronize with another engine, however, final ad-
justments must be made.
Still having problems?
One error that is commonly made, says Hunt, is
assuming that the flight idle blade angle is properly
adjusted.
If the levers are aligned in the cockpit and the
protractors on the engine are perfectly aligned, yet the
engines are still running at different speeds, many
technicians overlook the fact that the flight idle blade
angle could be out of adjustment, Hunt explains.
They may try to compensate for the blade being out
of adjustment by making adjustments to the flight idle
or intermediate fuel flow. "Check the flight idle blade
angle first," says Hunt. "If the blade angle is incorrect,
you may have difficulty tracking both engines together."
If the flight idle is found to be correct, and all of the
rigging is done properly, it may then be necessary to
check the flight idle or intermediate fuel flow adjust-
ment. This adjustment will increase or decrease fuel to
match your fuel flow and rpms at flight idle. Pull off the
plugs at the back of the fuel control that are marked
"INT W" (flight IN) and "MAX PWR" (max power) and
make adjustments as necessary.
Before stopping the engine to make adjustments,
make sure to let the engines stabilize. Let the engines
run for at least a minute before taking readings. "They
like to wander around a lot," explains Hunt.
Keep in mind that flight idle adjustment must be
made before the max power adjustment is made. This is
due to the fact that the flight idle has an effect on the
max power adjustment, but not vice versa.
Before you try it
Hunt suggests that the quickest way to learn engine
rigging is to spend some time with a technician who
has experience rigging the TPE331. He also stresses the
importance of following the manual step by step.
"Rigging is like an art," says Hunt. "I've heard so
many stories from pilots who have had their engines
unsuccessfully rigged by technicians. Unless you really
know what you're doing and follow the maintenance
manual precisely, you can really get yourself into
some trouble."
Aircraft Technical Books
800-780-4115
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How well do you know your TPE331 engine?
From the pages of Contact, AlliedSignal Aerospace Company's newsletter
Aviation maintenance technicians are often called upon
to troubleshoot and corred engine control system
problems. These situations can be caused by improper
rigging or a system component malfunction. Use the
following scenario to test your control system knowledge.
Problem No. 1
After completing a scheduled airframe and engine
inspection, the propellers were installed on the engines.
The engines were rigged and started for the test run.
After the engine oil was warmed to operating tempera-
ture and the initial check completed, the engines were
shut down. Flight idle blade angles on both propellers
and flight idle fuel flows (Wf) were adjusted. The engines
were then started and run to verify adjustments. With
the propellers off the locks, speed levers at minimum
and power levers at the flight idle detent, the following
data was recorded.
Indication Left engine Right engine
rI"= 88% 81.5%
Flight idle Wf 159% 163%
The engine rigging and propeller blade angles were
rechecked and found to be correct.
Based on your understanding of the engine control
system and rigging procedures, what is the most
probable cause?
A. Right engine turbine efficiency has deteriorated to
below minimum requirements.
B. Underspeed governor interference on the right en-
gine is causing a reduction in engine speed.
C. The propeller blade station was measured from the
blade hub instead of the -propeller
- centerline.
D. The higher beta pressure available when the engine is
running may have caused a reduction in flight idle
blade angle.
Refer to Answer No. 1 for the correct response.
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lbrbine Technology
Problem No. 2
Different flight crews reported the same problem
differently. The basic gripe was high torque at flight idle
with aircraft yaw upon the approach to landing.
The maintenance crew checked the flight idle blade
angle for each propeller blade per the maintenance
manual, then changed the propeller and set the flight
idle blade angle. The ground run checks showed all the
parameters as normal.
As the power levers were retarded to flight idle
during the flight test at 5,000 feet above ground level,
torque on the left engine increased to about 20 percent
power, with accompanying aircraft yaw.
Based on the problem statement and your knowledge
of the control system, select one system which would
most likely cause this fault condition to occur:
A. The propeller governor, for increasing the propeller
blade angle.
B. The propeller pitch control, for not maintaining the
correct blade angle.
C. The fuel control unit, for increasing the fuel flow.
D. The propeller pitch control, because the reset opened,
draining oil from the reset position, resetting the
propeller governor controlling range.
Answer No. 1
The correct answer is C.
Measuring the blade station from the blade hub
instead of the propeller centerline, moves the station
mark further outboard. Incorrectly marking the blade
station will cause higher flight idle blade angles to be
set because of the twist in the propeller blades.
Answer No. 2
The correct answer is C.
The fuel control unit meters fuel to the engine under
varying temperature and altitude conditions. An inter-
mittent fuel scheduling malfunction within the fuel
control sensors may cause unexpected fuel increases. El
July/August 1990
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 231
lbrblne Technology

PT6 hot sections for the '90s

By Greg Napert

ny technician who has split a Pratt & Whitney

PT6 for a hot section inspection (HSI) is familiar
with the anticipation associated with the task.
Hopefully, delivering bad news is not part of this inspec-
tion and the engine will be reassembled with minimal
hassle and expense.
Preventing major expenses has always been of utmost
concern to all aircraft operators, but it hasn't been until
the last few years that we have learned how these
expenses can be reduced by stressing a few simple
maintenance procedures and by educating pilots about
the costs associated with careless engine operation.

Don't break new ground

Because the PT6 has been around for such a long
time, most technicians have had some kind of contact
with it. The comfort level with the PT6 is fairly high,
and as a result, many shops that have never performed
an HSI are making the effort.
For those who choose to do this work, it is important
to remember that there are resources available that can
provide helpful tips, installation information and updates
on the latest installation techniques. Besides the appli-
cable aircraft and engine maintenance manuals, hot
section repair shops, in most cases, have years of
ex~eriencebehind them and are in close contact with
many operators in the field. Tapping from this resource
can save you a great deal of time and money.
What to expect
Perhaps one of the most common misconceptions,
says John Green, technical representative for Pratt &
Whitney's P&WC Aircraft Services in Naperville, IL,is
that the performance of the engine will improve after a
hot section inspection. Everyone must be aware that this
is not necessarily the case.
If the hot section inspection is being done because
of performance problems associated with hot section
components such as deterioration or distress, the result
should be improved performance. When dealing with a
performance problem, be sure that all appropriate
troubleshooting has been accomplished prior to splitting
the engine. Few things get an aircraft owner more
excited than going through the time and expense of
opening the engine, fmding no apparent cause for the
problem and then suggesting that the instrumentation
be adjusted or the compressor bleed valve be replaced.
A scheduled hot section inspection, however, is done
primarily to determine the condition of the parts. "In
most cases," says Green, "all you are really doing is
Technician uses special tooling that holds compressor
turbine wheel while removing retaining bolt.
ensuring that the parts in the hot section are going to
make it to the next inspection or overhaul, whichever
comes first." In many cases the components are
reinstalled in the same condition.
Preparation for removal
Prior to splitting the engine for inspection, it is
extremely important to know how it's performing. Hav-
ing a firm understanding of all engine parameters can
provide you with clues that can aid in troubleshooting
the engine if there is a problem and will provide a
reference point after HSI.
First on the list is making sure that all instrumenta-
tion is properly calibrated. Particular attention should be
given to torque and temperature indicating systems. The
engine's temperature sensing system ('I'5) should be
checked first. Temperature gauges should then be
checked to make sure that you're receiving an accurate
indication of the engine's performance.
After all instruments are verified, perform a run-up,
a performance check and talk to the pilot so that all
operating parameters are known, both in flight and on
the ground.
Removal and inspection
Removal of the hot section components is actually
quite simple and should be accomplished by following the
applicable maintenance manual. However, it does take
some practice to use the special tools that are needed to
disassemble the engine.

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Take care when splitting the engine to note the condi-

tion of components, and record all fits and clearances
before removal.
Record the clearances between the tips of the com-
pressor turbine (CT) blades and the shroud segments
with a tapered feeler gauge before p w the CT disk
from the engine.
When using the puller to pull the CT disk from the
engine, be sure to continuously rotate the disk with
small movements back and forth. This is to assure that
the blades are not binding anywhere and that no damage
is incurred to the blades during removal.
Inspecting hot section components takes a very sharp
eye and much practice. Cracks are at times difficult to
see and sulfidated (corroded) blades are not always
readily apparent.
If the hot section components are inspected according
to the maintenance manual, and all parts are within
limits, the hot section may be reinstalled into the engine
without further disassemblv. Remember that it is not
always necessary to break down the small duct assembly
if there is no apparent damage. Make sure to use appropriate shipping material, such as
If auestionable areas exist that are not addressed in these custom-made containers.
the maintenance manual or if damage is found that is
beyond prescribed limits, call a reputable hot section r e Most facilities will pregrind the shroud segments and
pair facility for guidance or send them the components. compressor turbine blades so that the clearances, when
installed in the engine, are to your specifications.
Off to the hot section shop There are two schools of thought regarding having
Want to know a quick way to lose your job? Pack the the shop grind a hot section to final clearance.
hot section in a cheesy box with little or no packing Some technicians prefer to grind the segments to
material and make sure that the parts will knock against r i a l clearance after the hot section components are
each other for a good portion of the trip. installed in the engine. By doing so, you maintain con-
It's incredible how many times this actually happens. trol of grinding the exact clearances into the hot section
And it's inexcusable. No expense should be spared on that you desire.
highquality, durable packing materials when shipping Others wish to have the hot section components
hot section components. Some shops, such as Prime ground to final clearance prior to installing them in the
Turbines in Hyannis, MA, provide special shipping engine. According to Les McIsaac, owner of Prime Tur-
containers for shipping these parts. At costs of $40,000 bines, grinding in the engine increases the risk of
or more for a bladed CT disk, the price of good shipping contaminating the engine with grinding residue.
materials becomes relatively insi&icant. "Anything that can be done to keep the area as clean as
When sending the small duct assembly and the possible will avoid the risk of damaging the engine."
turbine disk, be sure to send the No. 2 bearing cover as McIsaac also says that their methods for final grinding
well. This cover is used for the pregrind in the shop. are extremely accurate and save the time and expense
Using the same cover that is installed in the engine will associated with using a hand grinder on the hot section.
help assure that the alignment of the small duct assem- Tim Douglas, service center manager for P&WC
bly to the compressor turbine is accurate. Aircraft Services in Naperville, says that they will grind
If you're interested in getting the warranty promptly to final clearance on request. But he cautions that in
credited to your customer, it's important to send along some instances, differences in individual component
information on total times and cycles that are on the dimensions and resulting fit may lead to slight variations
components. in blade tip clearances observed at installation.

Communication with the shop Installation

Communication with the hot section repair facility is
vitally important. Many decisions may have to be made
such as the use of new or refurbished parts, the replace
ment of partial or entire sets of blades and clearance
specificatioas.
It's tempting, after receiving shiny new components
from the hot section shop, to quickly install them and
run-up the engine to see how it's going to work. But at
no time during the hot section inspection is it more im-
portant to pay particular attention to detail.

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Turbine Technology
Inspect the work that was done at the hot section
facility. Even though you may have great trust in the
shop that you sent the parts to, the technician that over-
hauled the hot section components is human. Double
check the work. Safety wiring, segment grinding, blade
grinding and small d u d assembly must all be done
properly. Also check the components carefully for any
damage that may have been incurred during shipping.
After determining that the hot section components
are in serviceable condition, check that the No. 2 bearing
cover has been properly indexed to the vane ring. Then
install the hot section components as described in the
maintenance manual.
If the compressor turbine wheel is installed and the
clearances are greater on one side of the wheel than the
other, make sure that the small duct assembly is loaded
with rubber blocks as described in the maintenance
manual. If it is properly loaded, it's possible that the
No. 2 bearing cover has not been indexed properly. Try
pulling the CT wheel, reindexing the small duct assembly
to the No. 2 bearing cover and reinstalling the compo-
nents. If there is still a problem, the segments may
require grinding.
Over the years, Pratt & Whitney has revised certain
fits and clearances, including C.T. blade tip clearance.
This has been done to improve engine performance and
reduce instances of blade rub. The maintenance manual
calls for a slightly greater tip clearance when replacing
old segments with new, because new segments expand
and contract at a greater rate.
Before mating the power section to the compressor
section, make sure that the sealing rings are in good
condition. Fretting or wear on the inside surfaces of the
sealing rings can cause a knife edge to form on the
rings. This knife edge not only reduces the effectiveness
of the rings, but may cause excessive wear on the mating
surfaces of the power section. For the small cost of
replacing the sealing rings, it's worth the effort.
234 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Making it last
Perhaps the most important maintenance function
that can be performed by the technician is to simply
make sure that the fuel nozzles are cleaned and spray
checked regularly. Streaking nozzles can act as a blow
torch on the inside of the engine, quickly destroying
components andlor greatly shortening their life.
"Many operators do not realize this," says Douglas.
He suggests starting with recommended intervals in the
maintenance manual. The frequency of cleaning and
spray checking should then be adjusted as conditions
require and as inspection results indicate.
Depending on the operating environment of the
engine, frequent compressor washes may be in order. If
operating in heavy industrial areas, dusty areas or near
the ocean, compressor and engine washes can improve
performance of the engine and increase the life of
some parts.
Reducing costs by educating
"Pilot operation probably has the largest impact on
the engine," says Les McIsaac, "but we as technicians
don't have any control of that." McIsaac explains that
most technicians are far removed from the operations
area and that the most effective way to make operations
aware of the effects of improper operation is to show
them the burnt vane rings and eroded blades.
Douglas agrees, "Many operators don't realize the
effect they can have on the life of the hot section compo-
nents. Making them aware of this before problems arise
is a good way for the technician to gain the respect and
confidence of his customer. May/June 1990
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 Turbine Technology

Through the eyes of the borescope

Photographing hard-to-reach areas through borescopes helps spot
potential problems and provides visual record

By Joseph A. Bergner

T
he use of borescopes in aviation has proved to be
a valuable tool for monitoring the internal condi-
tion of turbine or reciprocating engines, landing
gear, wing interiors and other areas of the aircraft.
The borescope can be made even more valuable when
coupled with photographic equipment. Incorporating
photography into the borescope is simple, inexpensive
and can add to the versatility of the equipment that you
already have.
Simply fit a 35mm camera to the scope and take
your pictures. Resulting photos can then be enlarged to
examine, in greater detail, areas like the hobsection and
combustion chamber of turbines, or in reciprocating
engines, cylinder walls, the tops of pistons and valves.
Photographs also furnish a valuable record of visual
inspections which can be checked after subsequent
inspections to see if any changes have occurred.
Different scopes for different folks
Certain borescopes lend themselves to particular situ-
ations more readily than others... and some more readily
to photography.
Straight'rigid" scopes always carry the image back
to the eyepiece and camera on "hard-optic" relay lenses.
They are illuminated either by fiber optics (bundles of
glass fibers) with a light source outside the scope or by a
bulb on the tip of the probe. Each type of illumination is
suitable for certain applications. Many technicians prefer
lighbbulb illumination, for instance, for viewing more
accessible areas of large engines.
Rigid scopes are straighbline and provide the best
resolution-and therefore the best photos. They're also
the easiest to position and control when you're taking
the picture. They can "see" around right angle bends
through special lenses but not around curves.
When using rigid borescopes, service personnel usu-
ally prefer fiber-optic illumination. Advantages that fiber
optics offer include: no bulb to burn out, less possibility
of breakage and lower operating temperatures-impor-
tant safety considerations when checking engines.
Flexible scopes can also be used with cameras. These
scopes can be wriggled deep inside an engine, instru-
ment panel or other area and can be maneuvered around
curves. They're frequently the choice for inspecting less
accessible areas of turbines.
The flexible scope utilizes two bundles of glass fibers;
one for illumination and one for carrying the image back
to the eyepiece and camera. It provides less resolution
than the rigid borescope, but has its own place in diag-
nosing the condition of aircraft engines.
Hocus focus
Technicians, with a little patience, can learn to b e
come proficient at the art of borescope photography.
To take a picture, you simply add an adapter to the
scope and attach the camera. The borescope, focusing
from very close distances, then becomes the camera
lens. The field of view through the scope, or its camera,
is normally 55 degrees, about the same as the human
eye.
The subject is normally viewed through the
viewfinder of the single lens reflex camera with the cam-
era adapter attached to the borescope eyepiece. The
adapter contains the lens through which the camera will
focus.
The adapter usually magnifies the image to fit the
film plane of the camera. However, if you wish, you can
use the lens of the camera in place of the adapter, pro-
viding it sizes the image on the film correctly.
Total system magdication is a function of the view-
ing distance from the borescope's prism (on the objective
lens) to the surface being examined. A 1 3/8-inchdiam-
eter scope has a 1:l "unity ma&ication," the same as
seen with the naked eye at 4 inches from the surface.
But when the lens is 2 inches from the surface, it almost

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Turbine Technology

doubles the mag&cation. Therefore, the closer you get, Polaroids also serve to test for the correct exposure
the larger the scale of the photograph. A Grnm-diameter time for less sensitive films. Since Polaroid film is much
fiberaptic illuminated borescope is 1:l at approximately faster than regular film, you have to shoot your final
2 1/4 inches. photos at four or five times greater exposure time than
Technicians will often want large magmf~cationand the Polaroid.
largescale photos when they're looking for damage to
the tops of pistons for evidence of damaged rings, Let there be light
carbon buildup on valves, defective head gaskets or One of the biggest skills in borescope photography is
cracked heads. This requires a very short viewing using light correctly. Due to the reflective properties of
distance and results in a small area of coverage. carbon, only 10 or 20 percent of light is reflected back
Sometimes, however, a technician will want to move from the interior of engines. Aircraft technicians must
the lens further away in order to view and photograph position the borescope light and viewing head to give the
more of the area. desired field of view, with enough light for a reasonable
As you move the lens back from the subject, you time exposure.
increase the viewing distance and therefore must The best way to be assured of a proper exposure is to
increase the exposure time. Doubling the viewing dis- '%racketn your photos. For example, take three photos,
tance quadruples the coverage area in the eyepiece and one underexposed, one correctly exposed and one over-
camera. You therefore must quadruple the exposure exposed. This will correct for any errors that you have
time, taking special precautions that your camera is made in your calculations and will assure that you get
stable and doesn't move. the correct exposure.
Cameras can usually be fitted with Polaroid attach- Areas on the periphery of the picture will be brighter
ments. Polaroids can be used to check for proper focus at higher exposures, especially when you're viewing a
and exposure. And although its resolution is less than curved surface.
regular negative film, a Polaroid shot can also give you Using high-intensity Mercury-arc exterior light
a quick photo when time isn't available for normal sources with your fiber-optic scope can more than double
film processing. the light intensity at the tip of the probe. Such sources
minimize time exposure.
They're recommended
when you're inspecting
and photographing inter-
nal surfaces with very low
reflectivity.
The normal exterior
halogen light source oper-
ates at 150 watts. An
inert gas high-arc source
can provide the equivalent
of 1,000 watts because of
its high color temperature
and tiny size.
An adapter for your
borescope costs as little as
$300. You can purchase a
35mm camera, Polaroid
attachment and adapter
for as little as $1,900.
After you have the
equipment, it just takes
practice to add expert
borescope photography
to your skills.

This system chart from Olympus demonstrates the many possibilities available for Joseph A. Bergner is chief
your borescope. engineer for Lenox
Instrument Co. Inc.

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 Turbine Technology

Video technology offers advantages

The latest in video technology offers many advantages
to conventional photography, such as the ability to store,
and replay at will, entire inspections. Among the leaders
in this new technology are Olympus, Welch AUyn and
Optronics Engineering.
The types of equipment available range from video
cameras that are adaptable to conventional borescopes,
to the latest electronic chip (CCD) cameras. Two such
cameras are the Videoimagescope offered by Olympus
and the Videoprobe 2000 offered by Welch Allyn. These
systems send back electronic images through a miniature
camera located at the end of the probe. The image is
transmitted by this miniature camera by wire, in real
time, to be viewed and analyzed. The CCD technology
still uses fiber optics to illuminate the image being
viewed.
One of the advantages of CCD technology is that
probes can be made significantly longer than conven- removal of the equipment from the borescope which
tional borescopes. The down side, however, is that CCD permits the user to directly view the image through
probes are relatively large in diameter and are not the eyepiece.
practical for use in many applications. Welch AUyn says means for transmitting inspection
Video cameras designed for or adapted for use with images over long distances by satellite, teleprinters and
borescopes offer flexibility in that the camera can be telephone modems are currently under development. In
used with various existing borescopes. Optronics' S-1 addition, says Welch Allyn, new technology such as
Borescope Video Camera System, for instance, can be computer interfacing and video digital enhancement
adapted to any borescope that is on the market, says are becoming readily available for use in video-imaging
Optronics. The video camera design also allows for the systems. kEl Ma-ch/April 1990

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Turbine Technology
Turbine ignition fault isolation
By Michael Most
idden from view, the workings of an ignition
exciter may seem mystifying. But a working
knowledge of what is, in fad, a relatively simple
device, provides the aircraft technician with much of
what he needs to efficiently isolate ignition system
malfunctions.
Typical turbine ignition systems
The exciter works in this way: A series of electrical
pulses build in a capacitive tank circuit until a sufficient
charge exists to arc across the gap at an igniter plug.
It is this burst of electrical energy that "lights off"
the fueVair mixture in the combustion section of a
turbine engine.
Some turbine ignition systems are powered by
alternating current. In these designs, source voltage is
stepped up in the exciter by a transformer and stored
in the tank circuit until adequate voltage exists to fire
the igniter.
Currently, manufactured turbine ignition systems
are powered from the aircraft's DC bus. Because direct
current is the source of power for the exciter, a vibrator
must be used to produce a pulsating DC in the primary
winding of the exciter's transformer.
238 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
The stepped-up voltage leaving the transformer is
stored in the capacitive circuit until a predetermined
electrical potential is reached. This level is established by
carefully calibrating the size of the gap in the discharge
or trigger tube. The wider the gap, the higher the voltage
must be to arc across it. This increases the voltage
stored in the capacitive circuit and so the output voltage.
Turbine ignition systems are given a joules rating
based on energy output. It is calculated by measuring
the amount of power expended by the exciter over the
duration of discharge and expressed in terms of joules.
Low tension ignition systems are generally considered
to have an output of from 1 to 4 joules, while high
tension systems have an output of 4 or more joules, with
peak exciter output exceeding 15,000~.High-tension
systems are potentially lethal if mishandled.
Proper operation
Proper operation of a turbine power plant's ignition
system is imperative. Ignition system malfunctions may
prevent starting, lead to a hung start, or worse, a hot
start requiring overhaul of the engine. In flight, a weak
(or cool) spark is likely to prevent airstarts or render an
auteignition system ineffective.
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I
All other factors being equal, the temperature of
the spark produced by any given system is determined
by the power delivered to the igniter electrodes. The
temperature of the spark is an important factor in ignib
ing the m e of kerosene and air that is burned in a
turbine engine.
Kerosene is not as volatile as other aviation fuels
and is therefore more difficult to ignite. Also, air-fuel
mixtures are relatively lean, and compression and
consequently temperature of the mixture is low when
compared to those of a reciprocating engine.
Under these circumstances, the temperature of the
spark is critical in ensuring positive ignition, and any
decrease in voltage to a level below that for which the
system was designed will reduce the temperature of the
spark and make starting difficult.
Troubleshooting
Since the capacitive circuit in the ignition exciter will
charge to a certain level before discharging, the output
voltage of the unit should not vary greatly. Any decrease
in voltage delivered to the igniter electrodes is most
likely caused by a voltage loss in the circuitry between
the exciter and igniter.
Such losses may be caused by carbon tracking, a
breakdown in the ignition lead insulation, cold flow or
worn or corroded connectors. Anytime engine starting
becomes difficult, voltage
losses should be investi-
gated as a possible cause.
Low-input voltage at
the exciter is another
problem which produces
unacceptable starting
characteristics, most likely
the result of low bus
voltage, or possibly line
losses between the bus
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Turbine Technology
and exciter. Evidence that this condition exists is mani-
fested in the form of a reduced sparking rate.
Turbine ignition systems are designed to give opti-
mum performance at a given rate, depending on engine
requirements. A system that is designed to arc eight
times per second at 28v may only provide one spark
per second when input voltage drops to 16v. The reason
that the spark rate decreases while output voltage
remains stable is that a reduced input voltage causes
the exciter's capacitive tank circuit to store current at
a diminished rate.
The storage circuit will continue to discharge when
voltage reaches the level necessary to arc the gap at
the trigger or discharge tube, holding output voltage
at a constant level. But because the current available
to charge the storage circuit is less, it takes longer to
build an adequate charge. This increases the time
between sparks.
No voltage at the exciter input will prevent the
igniters from firing at all. This may be caused by a
circuit open or faulty ignition relay. Defective ignition
leads, igniters or exciter components, such as an open
transformer, winding or shorted capacitor, may also
prevent firing.
These defects should be easily isolated using standard
troubleshooting techniques. As most multiengine aircraft
are powered by turbines, exciters and igniters may be
swapped between power plants to see if the problem
follows the component. Source voltages and circuit losses
may be traced and verified using a multimeter. Always
follow the manufacturer's troubleshooting recommenda-
tions as outlined in the appropriate maintenance
publications.
A problem in a turbine's ignition system is a likely
source of reduced starting efficiency. When the time
between compressor rotation and sell-sustaining speed
becomes unacceptable or starting temperatures are
elevated, ignition system performance should be
evaluated.
An understanding of the relatively simple operating
principles of a turbine's ignition system and a logical
and systematic troubleshooting strategy should improve
the efficiency of fault detection and isolation within
the system.
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 239
Turbine Technology
few simple igniter inspection tips
When considering the critical role that turbine igniters
play in the turbine ignition system, caution should be
exercised when handlug igniters. A few simple mainte
nance practices can increase reliability and add to the
life of the igniter. Champion Spark Plug recommends
the following: (refer to Champion Aviation Service
Manual No. AV6 for detailed information on cleaning
and servicing).
Cleaning
Removal of residue from the shell exterior should be
accomplished prior to inspection, using a dry cloth or
fiber bristle brush. Do not. under anv circumstances.
remove any deposits or residue from the firing end
of low-voltage igniters.
Terminal end insulator well should be cleaned with a
cotton or felt swab saturated with Stoddard Solvent,
wood alcohol or MEK. Do not use carbon tetrachlo-
ride or a metal brush for cleaning.
Cleaning of high-voltage igniters may be accomplished
with standard spark plug abrasive, unless the igniter
incorporates an oxide insulation coating. Igniters
incorporating an oxide insulation coating should not
be cleaned with abrasive cleaners.
Do not clean the firing end of a low-voltage igniter.
This will destroy the semiconductive oxide insulation
and damage the igniter.
240 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
Inspection
Reject igniters if they show thread damage, cracked
or loose ceramic in terminal well, or chipped, cracked
or grooved ceramic in the firing end insulator.
Rejed igniters if wrench hex or mount flange is
physically damaged, or if the electrode or shell end is
severely burned or eroded.
Rejed any igniter that exceeds wear limits or in your
judgment would exceed limits before completion of
additional scheduled operating period.
Reject any igniters that have been dropped.
Installation
Use caution when installing the igniter leads. Do not
apply excessive sideloads. This could crack the
insulator and fail the igniter.
Do not force an igniter into the burner can if binding
is noticed. Remove the igniter and correct any rnis-
alignment between the combustion liner and the
burner can. Then install the igniter. Misalignment
will chafe the igniter and lead to premature failure.
Install all igniters, new or used, with a new gasket.
This ensures proper heat transfer, a conductive path
to ground and a good gas seal. It is very important
to use the proper gasket. Refer to the engine
manufacturer's specifications.
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 mrbine Technology

Automated trend monitoring

Sophisticated sensors and recorders promise to reduce
troubleshooting and downtime, improve flight and maintenance
crew communication

By Edward G.Tripp

T rend monitoring is becoming more and more

familiar to people in the aviation community.
Most of the focus has been on powerplants,
and the most advanced work has been dedicated to
turbine engines.
Trend monitoring can be very basic and apparently
casual. A sharp pilot catches a change in a sound, a con-
trol response or the indication on a gauge. He notes it,
attempts to isolate it and then reports it to maintenance.
Good operators record operating parameters during
some stabilized condition for each flight. The records
are analyzed for any change from established baselines,
averages or recommended levels.
Many pilots are inefficient monitors, recorders and
reporters of mechanical or other system-related prob
lems: "It just doesn't feel right." "It runs rough." "The
needle wags real weird." "Center couldn't read me."
Loaded with that kind of information the best a
maintenance technician has to start with is a general Semco Instruments Inc. turbine engine trend monitoring
area of the airframe or a particular system. It involves and recording system installed in a Pratt & Whitney PT-6.
a lot of time and frustration. Extensive troubleshooting
frequently results in an unhappy customer as well, due Some systems use a squat switch to record flight time
to a high bill, or because an aircraft is not available for a and aircraft cycles.
trip, or both. The data is sent to a central processing unit where it
Automated trend monitoring (ATM) is changing all is stored and processed. Typically, the important param-
of that. Electronic developments, and the increasing eters, including overlimits, cycles and time, are stored in
application of digital technology to replace analog sys- non-volatile memory.
tems and displays have led to considerable progress in Some units are maintenance-dedicated, others include
the ability to monitor, record, analyze and report data. cockpit displays. The cockpit displays immediately annun-
Accuracy levels of both sensors and displays have been ciate overlimits or other malfunction. In some cases, the
greatly improved. Mechanical systems sensors increas- cockpit displays automatically will store overlimits after
ingly are being replaced by electronic ones. electrical power is shut off and annunciate them the next
time electrical power is applied.
How ATM works
While each system and method is different, those ATM's strengths
currently in use employ what is called gas path analysis. ATM can more accurately and frequently monitor
Essential turbine engine operating parameters are and record critical operating parameters than human. In
measured. These include gas temperature; engine rpm, emergencies or other intense situations, operating limita-
such as N1 and N2; propeller or rotor rpm; and oil tions can be exceeded without the pilot being aware of it.
temperature and pressure. Ambient conditions, such as ATM constantly monitors, and records or stores any
pressure altitude, airspeed and air temperature also variation as well as its duration.
are measured. This information can be used to verify operations
Time functions, such as clock time and operating within prescribed limits, analyze engine condition, and
time, cool down and shutdown times, and cycle informa- for troubleshooting or diagnosis.
tion (starts, shutdowns) are measured and recorded.

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Turbine Technology
It also closes the communications void between pilots
and maintenance technicians, and enables the latter to
go directly to a problem rather than spend a lot of
time- and money- troubleshooting or inspecting.
In actual operation, ATM has demonstrated its ability
to accurately record and report an event so that appro-
priate maintenance action can be taken. Additionally,
several documented instances have provided enough
information so that an expensive removal, teardown
and detailed inspection-plus the resulting loss of use of
the aircraft-that otherwise would have been performed,
was avoided.
The cost of such inspections can run well over
$30,000. Just one such experience can more than pay for
an ATM system. At a less dramatic level, ATMs can be
useful for detecting faulty or intermittent gauges. A low
reading torque gauge, for instance, could lead to inad-
vertent overtorquing and subsequent engine damage. It
can also lead to maintenance action to ensure that all
available power is being used.
ATMs can produce a large amount of data. Improp
erly used or understood, the information can overwhelm
technicians. This can distract users from the powerful
capability of the systems to get critical information to
flight and maintenance crew members.
"I.
, C. >
Teledyne Avionics Power Analyzer and Recorder flowchart as installed in Aerospatiale SA365N1 helicopter.
242 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine
This concern has been given a lot of attention in
recent years. Increasingly, standard data output ports
are included to permit dumping data to a PC or a
printer for later analysis. This makes the system easier
to use and more flexible, and reduces the need for
highly skilled, dedicated data processing personnel. It
also encourages appropriate use of the trend analysis for
predicting future service needs.
New developments
Several firms, including engine manufacturers and
overhaul facilities, offer data reduction, analysis and
reporting services to reduce the workload at operators
and service organizations. Commercial software also is
available to users that will automate data reduction and
analysis on site.
Dramatic improvements in the ability of small chips
(microprocessors) to receive and manipulate increasing
quantities of data or information have helped increase
the number of functions one system can perform. Builb
in test (Bite) and fault annunciation are becoming
features of more equipment and systems. In avionics,
these capabilities are beginning to appear in relatively
low cost, panel-mounted equipment. But ATM is still
expensive. Estimated cost of systems for general avia-
tion aircraft is $15,000 to $25,000.
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In addition, electronic engine instrument and crew
alerting systems (EICAS), that have the builbin capabil-
ity to provide automatic engine trend monitoring, are
increasing. As more new aircraft employ h t a l data-
bases, multiple system monitoring capacity is expected
to increase.
Who3 who in automated trend monitoring
There are several dedicated engine trend monitoring
suppliers. These include Teledyne Avionics of
Charlottesville, VA, and Semco Instruments Inc. of
Valencia, CA. TrendKey is an ATM developed in a joint
venture by Keystone Helicopters of West Chester, PA,
and Shadin Company Inc. of Plymouth, MN. Most of the
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Turbine Technology
These developments, led by ATM for turbine power-
plants, will emphasize the role of the technician as
diagnostician. It will also enable him or her to more
quickly isolate and repair faults and failures.
approvals obtained are for rotary wing aircraft, although
Teledyne's Power Analyzer and Recorder (FAR) is
approved for the Cessna 208 Caravan I. Approvals for
retrofit on other fixed wing turbine aircraft are being
sought by these companies. a November/December 1989
The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine 243
Ibrbina Tachnology

244 The Best of Aircraft Maintenance Technology Magazine

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