The Universe

Universe
Universe is an aggregate of all the existing matter and space as a whole. A number of
theories and hypotheses have been put forth to explain the nature, origin and facts about
universe. Various inventions like telescope, space-crafts, have made it easier to gather
information about the universe. But we know very less about universe.
How big is the universe?
Scientists assume the width of universe to be about 105 light years.
Units to measure the distance in universe
 Astronomical unit
The distance between the earth and sun is measured in astronomical unit.
1𝐴𝑈 = 1.5 × 1011 𝑚
AU is used to express the distance between the planets in solar system.
 Light year
The distance travelled by the light in one year at the speed of 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠 is
called light year.
1 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 9.46 × 1015 𝑚
Light year is used to express the distance between the stars, galaxies, width of
galaxies, etc. It is used to express almost all the distances.
Show by calculation that 1 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 9.46 × 1015 𝑚
Solution:
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (𝑐) = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡) = 1 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 365 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 365 × 24 × 60 × 60 𝑠 = 31536000 𝑠
1 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = ?
We know,
1 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 𝑐 × 𝑡
= 3 × 108 × 31536000
= 9.46 × 1015 𝑚
 Proxima Centauri is the closest star to earth after sun. It is at a distance of
4.25 light years away from the earth. It means the light from the Proxima
Centauri star takes 4.25 years to reach the earth’s surface.
 The light from the sun takes 8.33 minutes (8 minutes 20 seconds) to reach
the earth. So, sun is 8.33 light minutes away from the earth.

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  Parsec (Parallax of 1 second)
The distance at which mean radius of the earth (1 AU) subtends an angle of 1
second is called parsec.
1𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 3.1 × 1016 𝑚
1 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 3.26 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
Parsec is used to measure the astronomical distances quickly.
Galaxy
Galaxy is the system of stars, star clusters, dust and gases held together by gravity.
Some information about galaxies
 All the member stars of the galaxy revolve around the centre of the galaxy which
is known as the galactic centre/nucleus.
(Some astronomers believe that the galactic centre is a black hole. The black
hole is a very massive dead star that has extreme gravity. Due to this, the black
hole can even trap the light passing through it and is invisible.)
 There are about 1012 (𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎 2 × 1012 ) or more galaxies.
 The galaxy in which our earth/solar system lies is The Milky Way Galaxy.
 Andromeda is the nearest galaxy for us (2 × 105 light years away)
 Range of diameter of galaxy
3 × 103 light years – 3 × 105 light years
Theory behind the origin of galaxies – The Big Bang Theory
According to this theory, “The entire matter of the universe was accumulated in the form
of a fireball in the past. When the fireball exploded (with a Big Bang), the stars and
galaxies and all the constituents of the universe were formed.”

This theory even suggests that the stars and galaxies are moving away from each other
and thus the universe is expanding
Types of galaxies
On the basis of shape, galaxies are of three types:
Galaxies Examples
Spiral Milky way, Andromeda
Elliptical Fornax, Sculptor
Irregular NGC 6822, IC 1613

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The Milky way Galaxy
It is a spiral galaxy consisting of our solar system.
 Astronomers estimate there are about 100 billion(1014 ) stars in the Milky Way.
 The solar system is located at one of the (three) spiral arms of the Milky Way.
The sun is about 2.5 × 104 light years away from the galactic centre.
 The solar system completes one revolution of the galactic centre of the Milky
Way in 2.5 × 108 years. This time is called cosmic year
Constellations
Constellations are the group of stars having fixed shapes. They resemble the shape of
human, animals, Gods or goddesses. There are 88 known constellations. Examples:
Aries, Cancer, Aquarius, Leo, Libra etc.
Some important constellations
 Ursa Major or The Sapta Rishi
 It is a group of seven bright stars (Duphe, Merak, Phecda, Megrez, Alioth,
Mizar and Alkaid).
 It is also known as The Great Bear and Big Dipper.
 The Duphe and Merak are always found in straight line joining the Polaris
(Pole star or Dhruva Tara)
 It resembles the shape of plough, question mark or frying pan.
 It is seen in the northern part of sky in April.
 Ursa Minor
 It is also a group of seven bright stars but are closer to each other.
 It is also known as The Small Dipper or The Small Bear.
 The Polaris is found at the tip.
 It is seen in the northern part of sky in the month of July and August.

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 Polaris is a bright star that appears almost directly above the North Pole. It is also
called North Star or Pole Star. It remains in the same location throughout the year
making itself a useful navigating tool. It lies in the tip of the Ursa Minor.
 Orion or The Kalpurus
 It also consists of seven major stars.
 It represents a hunter. The middle three bright stars are supposed to be
the belt of the hunter.
 It is easily seen in the months of January and February in the middle sky
of northern hemisphere.

Zodiacs
Zodiacs are the constellations that lie along the plane of ecliptic. Ecliptic is the apparent
path of the sun across the sky. There are 12 zodiacs. The passage of the sun through
the zodiac was used to determine the time in a year. Zodiacs represent the months.
The 12 zodiacs are Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio,
Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius and Pisces.
Ophiuchus is taken as the 13th zodiac sign. The sun passes in front of Ophiuchus from
November 30 to December 18.
All zodiacs are constellations but all constellations are not zodiacs.
Constellations are the group of certain stars having a fixed pattern as seen in the sky.
But zodiacs are the 12 constellation which lie along the plane of ecliptic. All
constellations do not lie in the plane of ecliptic. Thus, all constellations are not zodiacs.
Differences between zodiacs and constellations
Constellation Zodiacs
They are the group of certain stars having They are the constellations which lie
a fixed pattern. along the path of ecliptic.
They are 88 in number. They are 12 in number.
All constellations are not zodiacs. All zodiacs are constellations.

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Importance of zodiac/constellation
 Position of constellation were used by navigators to find their location in sea,
deserts during night.
 Constellations were/are used to develop the calendars.
 Some constellations are seen in certain seasons and months. So it helps to know
the seasons and months.
 The study of constellations have a great importance in astrology.
Some misconceptions related to zodiacs
 There are billions of people in the world but the zodiacs are only 12 in number.
Therefore there is no any scientific reason to determine the fate and future of
individuals on the basis of their zodiac which is itself common zodiac for millions
of people.
 Marriages are arranged by tallying the zodiacs of bride and groom and it is
supposed to be unsuccessful if done without tallying. But there is no any
scientific reason behind it.
 If a groom is born on new moon day, he is often called ‘Aunsia’ in many rural
communities, and bride for him is also chosen from ‘Aunsia’. If it is done, it is
believed that their conjugal life wouldn’t go smoothly. But this has no any
scientific reason.
 It is believed in many communities that the attitude of a person will be according
to their zodiac. But it has no any scientific reason as attitude is determined by
environment during childhood, schooling, profession of parents, feeding, etc.
 Many people prefer to put on certain gems according to their zodiac but there is
no scientific reason behind it.
 Many people select particular day for travelling and initiating important tasks on
the position of moon on certain zodiac which lacks scientific reason.
Differences between galaxy and constellation
Galaxy Constellation
Galaxy is the system of billions of stars, star Constellations are the group of stars having
clusters, dust and gases held together by fixed pattern.
gravity.
They don’t resemble human beings or .They resemble human beings or animals.
animals.
There are about 1012 galaxies There are 88 known constellations
There are not many galaxies, which are There are many constellations, which can be
visible to the naked eyes. observed with the help of naked eyes.

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The Solar System

Solar system is composed of the sun, eight planets, satellites, asteroids, comets,
meteorites etc. The solar system is located in The Milky Way galaxy. (At a distance of
2.5 × 104 light years from the galactic centre.
The Sun
The sun is a medium sized star. More than 75% of mass of the sun is composed of
Hydrogen and less than 25% is composed of Helium. Huge amount of energy is produced
in the sun due to thermonuclear fusion reaction. (Refer to chapter energy) The sun is
at a distance of 2.5 × 104 light years from the galactic centre of The Milky Way. The sun
completes one revolution of the galactic centre of the Milky Way in 2.5 × 108 years. This
time is called cosmic year.
 Mass − 2 × 1030 𝑘𝑔
 Diameter − 1.392 × 109 𝑚
 Surface temperature − 6 × 103 ℃
 Core temperature − 1.5 × 107 ℃
 Distance from earth − 1.5 × 1011 𝑚
The sun consists of three layers:
 Photosphere – central, hottest and thinnest layer
 Chromosphere – middle layer; thicker than photosphere; seen during total
solar eclipse
 Corona – outermost and thickest layer
The solar wind is a stream of charged particles released from the Sun at a high speed
(500km/s).

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Planets
Planets are the heavenly bodies which revolve around the sun in elliptical path without
being intersected by path of other planets.
There are major eight planets in the solar system: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.

Time
Time to Contents No. of
Average to Average
Name of Diamete Spin on of known
Distance Orbit S temperat
Planet r Axis (a Atmospher moon
from Sun un (a ure
day) e s
year)
57,900,000 88 -183 °C to Sodium,
Mercury 4,878 km 59 days None
km days 427 °C helium
Carbon
Dioxide
108,160,000 12,104 224
Venus 243 days 480 °C (96%), None
km km days
Nitrogen
(3.5%)
Nitrogen
149,600,000 12,756 23 hours, 365.25 (77%),
Earth 14 °C 1
km km 56 mins days Oxygen
(21%)
Carbon
227,936,640 24 hours, 687 Dioxide
Mars 6,794 km -63 °C 2
km 37 mins days (95.3%),
Argon

778,369,000 142,984 9 hours, 11.86 Hydrogen,

Jupiter -130 °C 79
km km 55 mins years Helium

1,427,034,000 120,536 10 hours, 29 Hydrogen,

Saturn -130 °C 82
km km 39 mins years Helium

Hydrogen,
2,870,658,186 51,118 17 hours, 84
Uranus -200 °C Helium, 27
km km 14 mins years
Methane

Hydrogen,
4,496,976,000 49,532 16 hours, 164.8
Neptune -200 °C Helium, 14
km km 7 mins years
Methane

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Information about planets
1. Mercury
 Smallest planet
 Nearest planet to sun/ Fastest planet to revolve sun
 No atmosphere
 No moons
2. Venus
 Brightest planet
 Also called morning star or evening star
It can be seen in the eastern sky before sunrise and in the western sky just
after sunset.
 Hottest planet of solar system
This is because the atmosphere of Venus is mainly composed of CO2 which
traps the solar radiations. (Mercury has no atmosphere on the other hand)
 Closest to Earth
 Nearly of same size of Earth. So, often named as sister planet or twin
planet.
 No satellite
3. Earth
 Only planet with life.
Presence of oxygen in atmosphere, adequate water and suitable
temperature have made life possible.
 1 satellite – Moon
4. Mars
 Red planet
This is due to the presence of a red mineral rock called limonite.
 Second closest planet to Earth
 Presence of two polar caps
 Presence of Nix Olympia(Olympus) – an extinct volcano (3 times more in
height than Mt. Everest)
 Two satellites - Phobos and Deimos (Deimos is the smallest satellite of
solar system)

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 5. Jupiter
 Largest planet
 Red spot present in the atmosphere (which is still a mystery)
 Fastest spinning planet
 79 satellites (67 as per the book) – Ganymede, Europa, Io, Calisto
 Ganymede is the largest satellite of Jupiter. In fact, it is the largest satellite
in solar system.
6. Saturn
 Second largest planet
 Prominent rings (only three visible distinctly)
 Floating Planet
Its density (0.68 g/cm3) is less than the density of water.
 82 satellites (62 as per government book)
 Titan is the largest satellite of Saturn. It has its own atmosphere of nitrogen.
7. Uranus
 First planet discovered by using a telescope
 Atmosphere consists of ice.
 27 known satellites – Titania , Miranda, Aerial, Umbrial, Oberon
 Titania is the largest satellite of Uranus.
8. Neptune
 Farthest planet from sun and earth
 Coldest planet
 Slowest revolving planet
 Orbit of Neptune overlaps with the orbit of Pluto.
 14 known satellites
 Triton is the largest satellite of Neptune
Pluto was considered as planet before. But International Astronomical Union in 2006
revised the definition of planet which excluded Pluto from the planets. It is kept in the
category of dwarf planet. The reasons behind excluding Pluto as a planet are its smaller
size; its orbit overlapping with the orbit of Neptune; and its orbit not lying in the same
plane as the orbit of other planets.

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Satellites
They are the heavenly bodies which revolve around the planets in their own orbits. They
are often called moons.
Natural satellites
Those naturally occurring satellites which revolve around the planet in their fixed orbit are
called natural satellites.
Moon is the natural satellite of the earth.
Artificial satellites
Satellites made artificially on earth for the specific purpose and launched into the space
through rockets are called artificial satellites. Most of the satellites are geo-stationary as
their period of revolution is same as the period of rotation of earth and they are stationary
relative to earth.
Reasons for launching artificial satellites
 To collect more facts and information about the universe. (Scientific satellites)
 To forecast weather (Weather satellites)
 For telecommunication (Communication satellites)
 To know the exact position of navigators in the air or oceans (Navigation satellites)
 For military intelligence (Military satellites)
Moon
Moon is the only natural satellite of the earth.
 Mass 7.2 × 1022 𝑘𝑔
 Diameter 3476000 𝑚
 Mean distance from earth 3.85 × 108 𝑚
 Temperature range −125℃ 𝑡𝑜 130℃
Sidereal month and synodic month
Sidereal month Sidereal month
It is time taken by moon to complete one It is the time period between two
revolution of the earth. consecutive phases of the moon.
It is the one revolution of earth by moon It is the one revolution of earth by moon
with respect to earth. with respect to sun.
1 1
It is of 27 3 days. It is of 29 2 days.

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Asteroids, Inner planets and outer planets

They are the heavenly bodies which revolve around the sun between the orbits of Mars
and Jupiter. They are also known as minor planets, planetoids or baby planets. Pallas,
Juno, Vesta, Eros, Hermes, etc. are some asteroids. Pallas is the biggest asteroid.

(Previously, Ceres was taken as the biggest asteroid but now is kept in the group of dwarf
planets.)

They are rich in a zone (between 1.7AU and 4AU from the sun) which is called asteroid
belt.

The planets which lie inside the asteroid belt are inner planets. They are Mercury, Venus,
Earth and Mars.

The planets which lie outside the asteroid belt are outer planets. They are Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus and Neptune.

Inner Planets Outer Planets

They lie inside the asteroid belt. They lie outside the asteroid belt.
They are Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. They are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and
Neptune.
They are also called terrestrial planets. They are also called Jovian planets.
They are solid. They are gaseous.
They are smaller than outer planets They are larger than inner planets.

Comets
Comets are the non-luminous chunk of ice, dust and gases, which revolve around the sun
in highly elliptical orbit and form a tail as they come closer to sun. So they are also
called tailed stars.
When comets come near to the sun, the ice melts due to the solar radiation and the dust
particles are pushed in opposite direction due to solar wind which appears like a tail. But
as the comet becomes far from the sun there is decrease in effect of solar radiation and
solar wind due to which the tail of the comet shortens and disappears gradually.
Parts of comet
A typical comet has three main parts: the nucleus, the coma and the tail. The nucleus
consists of frozen gases, dust and ice. As the comet approaches the sun, the outer layers
of the nucleus evaporates which is called coma. The nucleus and the coma together are
called head of the comet. When the comet approaches nearer to the sun, the coma is
pushed into opposite direction to form a tail due to the effect of solar wind.

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  Comets are seen in an interval of many years.
This is because comets are non-luminous and are visible only when they approach
the sun. As comets revolve around the sun in highly elliptical orbits, it takes many
years for the comet to be back to the sun once it becomes far.
Halley’s Comet is seen in an interval of 76 years.
 Some comets disappear forever.
This is because
 The comet loses some of its mass during every revolution of the sun and
gradually become smaller and finally disappear.
 Some comets are collided with other heavenly bodies like Shoemaker-Levi
comet collided with Jupiter in 1994.
Some common comets are Halley’s Comet, Temple-Tuttle, Enke, Donati, Bennet,
Schwasman-Washman, Shoemaker-Levi, etc.
Meteoroids
Meteoroids are the small pieces of stony matter falling from the space to the earth due to
the earth gravity. They are also called shooting stars and falling stars as they appear
like the stars shooting from one point to another point in the sky.
When the meteoroids enter into the atmosphere of the earth, they burn due to the friction
with the air and produce a white streak of light behind them.
When the meteoroids are small they burn up completely and do not reach the earth’s
surface. They are called meteors. Very big and bright meteor is also called fireball.
When the meteoroids are very big and do not finish up by burning, they reach the earth’s
surface. They are called meteorites. The meteorites form the craters on earth’s surface.
Types of meteorites: stony, irony and stony-irony. Stony meteorite have more silica,
irony meteorites have more iron and magnesium and stony-irony have silica and iron in
balanced amount.
Meteor shower is referred to the fall of many meteors at a time. They are seen in the sky
of north and south poles.
Differences between meteor and meteorites
Meteor Meteorites
They finish up by burning in the They do not finish up by burning in the
atmosphere and do not reach the earth’s atmosphere and reach the earth’s surface.
surface.
Initial mass is lesser. Initial mass is greater.

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