CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

1.1 Introduction:

Language studies have revealed that human language is far more sophisticated than
previously thought. It is not as simple to use technology in language teaching and
learning as it is to instruct in a traditional classroom. To fulfill the learning objectives,
technology in the classroom need multidisciplinary teams of technological specialists and
educators. Computer scientists, engineers, linguists, artificial intelligence experts,
cognitive psychologists, mathematicians, and logicians are among those who work on
computer assisted language acquisition.

Educational technology has been used since the second part of the twentieth century.
Technology invaded the lives of students in educationally and economically advanced
nations in the late 1950s and is now evolving on a daily basis. In today's world, the use
and availability of educational technology makes it easier and more convenient to store
vast amounts of data. Using modern educational technology to handle instructional
practises and many other things is successful. The use of Computer Assisted Language
Instruction (CALI) changes teaching procedures, particularly near the end of the
twentieth century. Learners may connect all around the world to attain their global
educational goals with the support of CALI in foreign language instruction. Computers
and other electronic devices are useful in this regard.

The quest for and study of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) in the United
Kingdom, or Computer-Aided Instruction (CAI)/Computer-Aided Language Instruction
(CALI) in the United States, is succinctly stated by Levy (1997: p. 1) in an influential
book. (Ellis 2004) said that From the "classic" drill-and-practice programs that
characterised CALL in the 1960s and 1970s, CALL is now based on a wide range of
information and communications technology applications and methodologies that aid in
teaching and learning foreign languages. CALL is being employed in more current

0
incarnations, such as a virtual learning environment and Web-based distant learning. It
also includes the use of corpora and concordances, interactive whiteboards, computer-
mediated communication (CMC), virtual world language learning, and mobile-assisted
language learning (MALL).

According to Markee (1997) the last two decades, the interest in the development of
computer technology in language teaching has grown among researchers (e.g., Alderson,
2009; Fullan, 2011; Hargreaves, 2013; Murray, 2018; Wedell, 2009). Hassan & Sajid,
(2013) described the basic barriers in using CALI in EFL classes are divided into three
groups: teacher-related, system-related, and school-related. Teacher-related barriers refer
to teachers’ lack of knowledge and understanding. That is, gender, age and experience are
not in harmony with teachers’ own beliefs and values. They may have negative opinions
and considered CALI as additional workload. They may bind themselves to the existing
and traditional practices and the new change becomes a threat to them. System-related
barriers are due to the lack of mutual understanding and trust between providers and
users, such as between administrators and teachers. Wedell (2009) has argued that there
is a need to put the teachers in the hub of the technological process. Likewise, Carless
(2011) gives more emphasis on the contextually based approaches to the academic
technology like computers, internet and multimedia.

Waters, (2017) viewed that the extensive field of linguistics requires paying more
attention to the importance of using computer technology that can contribute to language
teaching. School-related barriers are mostly due to lack of a supportive culture for change
in societies. There is also a very conservative atmosphere in educational institutions with
dearth of supportive management and inadequate school resources. The progress in EFL
teaching demands administrators to equip EFL teachers with the latest computer
technology in Pakistan (Farooq & Soomro, 2018). In this regard, multimedia and
computers with additional applications of internet may be helpful for English teachers.
Being skilled in using technological equipment, teachers can be a powerful source to
bring changes in the educational system by encouraging and applying these powerful
devices in English language teaching in Pakistan. In the globalized world, sometimes,
government and policy makers are forced to adopt and borrow those technological

1
innovations that other countries are applying (Rogers, 2015). In Pakistan, government
and policymakers sometimes want to change this scenario, but the instability of political
situations prevents the benefits of this system (Farooq & Soomro, 2018).

2.1 Computer and Language Learning

2.2 Pakistani perspective:

In the Pakistani education system, English teachers are divided into two sections: (1)
those who have no tendency to use computers in language teaching and want to continue
using traditional methods of teaching; and (2) those who want to use computers for
innovation in EFL teaching. From primary to secondary levels, all the teachers are
provided with periodical training on using computers so that they can upload assessment
or evaluation reports online to the administration. However, the focus on using computers
for instructional purpose is entirely ignored. At a higher secondary level, EFL teachers do
not have such opportunities to attend computer training organized by the district
administration. In all developed countries of Europe, America and South Asia, computer
technology is being used to harmonize the education system with the latest technological
progress (Tai, 2012). Several studies on CALI to improve students’ oral and writing skills
were conducted during the last two decades. For example, Chow and Ge (2011) in
Taiwan, Khadria (2002) and Charmonman (2014) in Thailand, and Machnaik (2012) in
Singapore have investigated gender-based differences in attitudes and the impact of age
and experience on using computers in EFL classrooms. In Pakistan, some of the
Computer assisted language learning (CALL) is a type of computer-based learning which
has two important features: bidirectional learning and individualized learning. CALL
focuses on learning, and not on teaching. CALL provides the material that is used in
teaching to facilitate the language learning process. Computer based learning is actually
is self-paced learning depend on student-centered learning material. Several other terms
are used in replacement of CALL in the language learning such as technology-enhanced
language learning (TELL), computer assisted language instruction (CALI) and computer-
aided language learning. (Pegrum 2009: p. 27).

2
CALL is based on the philosophy in which the lessons should allow the learners to learn
on their own by using structured and/or unstructured interactive lessons with available
materials from computer. Structured interactive lessons are the type that had been
systematically arranged formerly and has scaled through the performance measure, while
unstructured interactive lessons is an impromptu lessons that are formulated and are yet
to be subjected to performance measure. A combination of face-to-face teaching and
CALL is usually referred to as blended learning. Blended learning is designed to increase
learning potential and is more commonly found in language learning than pure CALL
(Pegrum 2009: p. 27).

In recent years, technology has been prevailed in all parts of our lives from
communication among friends to shopping, from education to media tools. Now
technology made it easier for people to interconnect throughout the world by means of
computers and without doubt the Internet. Furthermore, the development in the field of
technology has not stopped and no doubt it will go on developing and this makes “the
world flattened”. As Friedman (2005) claimed “The world is being leveled”; and on
every minute this leveling process is continued. It doesn’t matter, where someone is, in
Russia, in Pakistan, in Australia, or elsewhere, s/he has the opportunity to contact with
people around the world without time limit or constraints; computers and the Internet
provide platform and this world wide communication occurs through them. Same as for
the field of education, it is becoming more important to study the integration of
technology or bringing the technology to your education system. However, the next
question arises is whether teachers are ready or trained for integrating technology into
their classrooms. To familiarize the ESL teachers with the currently used platforms,
applications and strategies that can assist in enhancing and reinforcing the language
learning through CALL. The main purpose of this study is to highlight the challenges and
obstacles in implementing Computer Assisted Language Learning strategies by ESL
teachers by examining the teachers’ professionalism and motivation in the
implementation of CALL tools in ESL classrooms at secondary level to understand and
utilize the best methods and modes to engage and motivate the ESL teachers to use
CALL in classrooms at secondary level.

3
1.2 Literature Review:

As Hubbard (2009) says,

“As computers have come more a part of our everyday lives- and
permeated other areas of education- the question is no longer whether
to use computers but how. CALL researchers, developers and
practitioners have a critical role in helping the overall field of second
language learning come to grips with this domain (p. 1).”

We are getting involved with technology every day and it is getting more advanced and
present in the daily life. Technology has pervaded a great many students’ lives especially
in developing and developed countries’ witch technology such as mobile phones,
interactive videos games and social media plateforms (Moyle, Wijngaards, & Owen,
2012). Although the use of technology is depend upon its access and intensity that varies
place to place and person to person. (Sanchez, Salinas, Contreras, & Meyer, 2011) and its
uses are generally not connected to educational purposes, new generations of (Journal of
Second and Multiple Language Acquisition – JSMULA Vol: 1 Issue: 1 20-38, 2013 22)
students are more comfortable with technology for entertainment purposes though they
use it in their life for a variety of purposes such as for communicating with friends,
gaming and listening to music. So the students’ access to the Internet easily, use it for
several purposes, teachers also must feel comfortable to join their students to benefit from
their being used to with technology to infuse into daily classroom activities (Barsotti, &
Martins, 2011; Gray, Andrews, & Schroeder, 2012) and bring it to individualize learning
processes to realize them what’s the best use of technology more than that in a traditional
classroom (Volman, 2005; Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2011).

The existing literature shows that teachers are keen to integrate technology into their
classrooms and benefit from CALL-based activities; however, what computer courses
they did may not facilitate them using CALL-based activities (Wentworth, 1996; Keirns,
1992; Hargrave & Huse, 2000). The research that review the technology and the training
of teachers shows that there are two approaches regarding the use of technology: One-
course approach which focuses on the teaching of technology is found to be limited and
too technical that only focuses on technical training (Peters, 2006; Wong & Benson,

4
2006; Desjardins & Peters, 2007; Lambert, Gong, & Cuper, 2008) and the technology
infusion throughout teacher education which focuses on exposing teachers to continuous
use of technology. Desjardins and Peters (2007) examined a single-course approach in
university Montreal to examine whether it would be applicable to train pre-service
teachers for teaching with technology, a 45-hour-long course with basic use of
technology during the last semester of their program was designed, focusing on how well
prepared these teachers felt and behaved when they were able to integrate technology in
the language classroom. The conclusions showed that although a single-course training
aided them develop their technological competencies but it was not enough for them to
feel confident to infuse technology in their future classes.

In several studies (Peters, 2006; Wong & Benson, 2006; Lambert, Gong, & Cuper, 2008)
found similar results that are showing that CALL training in a single course approach or
short in-service training sessions are not sufficient, though it brought positive attitude in
participants’ towards technology. Kressler‟s (2007) web-based survey of 108 TESOL
master’s degree programs graduates showed that although the teachers were confident
about CALL overall, they did not feel comfortable in creating and integrating CALL
materials. The study conducted by (Fisher, 2009) on the perceptions of 5 trainee teachers
over the nine months of their postgraduate training course in England showed that the
teachers were hesitant at the very start due to a lack of confidence; conversely, when they
were trained with good classroom exercise, they implemented methodological approaches
to their own teaching. The need for technology education in the teacher education with
professional development has been stressed out by several studies (Daniel, 2010).
However, when it is obligatory for the students to learn about technology throughout the
teacher training program (Hegelheimer, 2006), it is make sure to have technology-savvy
graduates in English language teaching.

Recognition of the importance of ICT curriculum integration has already occurred, and
most Computer Assisted Language Learning F. Kılıçkaya, G. Seferoğlu 23 teacher
education programs have introduced courses in ICT for future teachers training. Teaching
and learning through integration ICTS within the curriculum enhance teaching about
computer or teaching with computers. In the study conducted by Kessler (2006), 240

5
participants in the TESOL master’s program reported a perceived lack of formal CALL
training. The findings revealed that the participants were not satisfied with the CALL
training and they tried to look for other sources of information to prepare them. They also
participated in formal training outside their classroom and university.

Chapelle (2006) adds that “second-language teachers today need to be able to choose,
use, and in some cases, refuse technology for their students” (p. ix). Teachers also need to
know how technology can constrain as well as enhance their students‟ language use and
know when it is better not to use computers (Kern, 2011). As Egbert (2010) points out,
teachers should also find out the ways to work with technologically rich and poor
environments, focusing on how to assess students‟ needs, interests and abilities. Whether
and how the skills and knowledge that teachers “learn” during their education programs
or professional development in CALL actually transfer to their teaching practice in real
learning contexts requires utmost importance (Hong, 2010; Egbert, Huff & Lee, 2011).
The important question is, then, how learning opportunities for teacher candidates and
teachers can be made so that they learn how to infuse technology into their teaching. In
other words, planning each and every detail of the training, as in each stage of life, is
important (Sergeant, 2000; Mayo & Kajs, 2005; Toledo, 2005; Hockly, 2012). As stated
by Lee (2000) and Warschauer and Healey (1998), CALL technologies can support
learning in a variety of ways, provide feedback, enable pair and group work, promote
exploratory and global learning, enhance student achievement, provide access to
authentic materials, facilitate greater interaction, individualize instruction, create
opportunities to benefit from a variety of sources rather than limiting oneself to a single
source, and motivate learners. Furthermore, technology can provide us with the necessary
tools which enable us to benefit from the opportunities to make language learning more
enjoyable, productive and effective. However, in order to achieve this, we need to have
competent teachers in using technology as the anecdote provided by an Egyptian
university lecturer and cited by Warschauer (2002, p. 472) “we have the hardware, we
have the software, but we lack the humanware” indicates, it is imperative that preand in-
service language teachers learn about computer tools which will support them in their
teaching practices. Therefore, pre- and in-service language teachers should be equipped
with skills and strategies in integrating CALL technologies into their classrooms.
6
Seferoğlu (2007), Seferoğlu, Akbıyık, and Bulut (2008), and Karakaya (2010) state that
teacher candidates did not feel competent in using computers for teaching, in other
words, how to infuse technology to their teaching. Moreover, Göktaş, Yıldırım and
Yıldırım (2008) suggest that ICT courses can help to improve teachers‟ ICT competency;
however, they add that in addition to the ICT courses offered to the students in the
faculties of education, another ICT related course should be included in the curriculum
Journal of Second and Multiple Language Acquisition – JSMULA Vol: 1 Issue: 1 20-38,
2013 24 which will integrate their subject matter such as a foreign language. To the best
knowledge of the author, there is no currently conducted on introducing an ICT related
course that integrates teacher candidates‟ subject matter, which is English language
teaching in the current study. Therefore, the current study concerned with the relationship
of the integration of ICT into English language teaching and their use of computer
technology in the classroom will fill this gap in the literature. Moreover, it will also help
us find out the effect of contextual characteristics on the use of CALL-based materials,
especially the school climate.

researchers have explored the effectiveness of using computers in EFL class and revealed
the differences of gender-based attitudes toward using computer technology at primary
and university levels (e.g., Hussain, 2014; Lodhi et al., 2019). The traditional educational
systems are going to fluctuate day by day and students are appearing to be more active.
Teachers use computer technology for educational purposes in their classrooms
(Edwards-Groves, 2012). The use of mobile phones, tablets, smart-phone technologies,
etc., has brought innovations in receiving and imparting education. In the present time,
the educational technologies have turned more complex but useful than in the past (Levy,
2009). Use of educational technology gives an interesting way to have communication
via online chat and discussion to meet their educational goals (Gill, 2011). Hence,
computer knowledge in every field of life is being increased according to the increasing
needs of teachers as well as students. It is up to teachers and students to choose which
technology that is useful and efficient.

Computer technology has also changed learning atmospheres because the use of mobile
devices outside classroom is possible (Abdollapour & Maleki, 2012). It may be useful in

7
improving four skills of language like speaking, writing, reading and listening for
teachers and students in Pakistani Higher Secondary Schools in Pakistan. Knowledge can
be transferred by using computers and other educational tools in the teaching of English
as a foreign language from online data sources as a lot of online data are available for
religious education.

Learning with the help of computers and educational technology has a lot of advantages
for both teachers and students of Pakistani Higher Secondary Schools in Pakistan. The
Pakistani educational system is not advanced enough to meet the requirements of the
international standard of education because the country is not as developed as other
countries in Europe. In this context, using advanced technology like computers in the
teaching of English is not an easy assignment especially in all educational institutions in
Pakistan. Besides, a lot of issues involved in the way computer-assisted language learning
is conducted in Pakistan. Teachers neglect the use of technology in the classroom because
of personal and environmental reasons. Teaching and learning has been changed by the
integration of computer technology in the classroom (Hoopingarner, 2009).

In Pakistan, most of the educational institutions are not using computer technology
because they have some issues. Most of them have no interest in its use in the classroom.
They are not able to purchase the technology by themselves. It is encouraging that the
Government of Pakistan is taking initiatives for religious schools. Teachers in religious
schools face a lot of barriers related to the use of technology. They have little time and
some financial problems to have an access to technology. There is also a lack of technical
staff in the implementation of the latest development in religious and formal educational
institutions. To date, the critical question is to explore the challenges and barriers related
to its use in the classroom. Studies found the difference and proved that students using
computer-assisted instruction performed better than those who do not use this instruction
(Grgurovic, Chapelle, & Shelley, 2013).

Computerized tests take less time than traditional tests with paper and pencil and are
more reliable (Madsen, 1991). Students can repeat their learning activities in schools and
can improve their learning habits individually. Students can correct their pronunciation,

8
intonation, etc. Learners can expand their access and explore a lot of knowledge by using
online data sources. It is important to note that technology has changed the educational
format especially with the arrival of computer in the teaching of English as a foreign
language (Levy, 2009).

Choi and Lee (2008) conducted a study to know the current trends and issues related to
learning in Asia. The study revealed that students are unable to improve their learning
153 effectively because of issues related to class hours, national curriculum and text
books, English as a medium of instruction, political environment, etc. In this regard, Hani
(2014) conducted a study about the benefits and barriers of computer-assisted learning
and teaching in the Arab world. The study found out problems like an inadequate number
of computers, teachers’ training, time constraints, technological problems and high cost
of computers. The study proved that use of computer in the teaching of English as a
foreign language has enhanced the learning abilities and interests of learners with useful
materials. Besides, Islam also emphasizes to use wisdom to bring out innovations in the
education. Usman (2013) states that one of the unique features of the Islamic society is
the way in which it combines the immutable and the flexible. It is a society that strictly
adheres firmly to its fixed principles, but at the same time encourages its followers adopt
those things which are beneficial to the society.

The Messenger of Allah (SAW) is reported to have said: “Wisdom is the lost property of
the believer, wherever he finds it, he has more right to it.” (Ahmad, 2010). Regarding
religious school education in Pakistan, Bhatti et al. (2014) carried out a study to explore
the trends for CALI among English language teachers at Lodhran District located in the
southern Punjab of Pakistan. His research findings revealed the lack of availability of
educational technologies and load shedding issues in Higher Secondary Schools in
Pakistan. Unavailability of CALI facilities were also revealed as one of the bigger issues.
Another research scholar Haider (2013) and Hassan and Dzakiria (2020) explored
teachers’ perceptions and attitudes towards using CALI in Pakistani Higher Secondary
Schools in Pakistan.

9
The results of this research also revealed that teachers were inclined to use educational
technologies and wanted the implementation of CALI in religious schools. The teachers
mostly agreed that use of CALI would increase their efficiency and help to motivate the
students. Besides, Hassan and Sajid (2013) and Hassan and Dzakiria (2019) also
investigated the effectiveness of use of CALI in teaching and the problems faced by
English language teachers in Punjab province in Pakistan. ecomes a threat to them.
System-related barriers are due to the lack of mutual understanding and trust between
providers and users, such as between administrators and teachers (Hassan & Sajid, 2013).
Wedell (2009) has argued that there is a need to put the teachers in the hub of the
technological process. Likewise, Carless (2011) gives more emphasis on the contextually
based approaches to the academic technology like computers, internet and multimedia.

The extensive field of linguistics requires paying more attention to the importance of
using computer technology that can contribute to language teaching (Waters, 2017).
School-related barriers are mostly due to lack of a supportive culture for change in
societies. There is also a very conservative atmosphere in educational institutions with
dearth of supportive management and inadequate school resources. The progress in EFL
teaching demands administrators to equip EFL teachers with the latest computer
technology in Pakistan (Farooq & Soomro, 2018). In this regard, multimedia and
computers with additional applications of internet may be helpful for English teachers.
Being skilled in using technological equipment, teachers can be a powerful source to
bring changes in the educational system by encouraging and applying these powerful
devices in English language teaching in Pakistan. In the globalized world, sometimes,
government and policy makers are forced to adopt and borrow those technological
innovations that other countries are applying (Rogers, 2015). In Pakistan, government
and policymakers sometimes want to change this scenario, but the instability of political
situations prevents the benefits of this system (Farooq & Soomro, 2018).

In the Pakistani education system, English teachers are divided into two sections: (1)
those who have no tendency to use computers in language teaching and want to continue
using traditional methods of teaching; and (2) those who want to use computers for
innovation in EFL teaching. From primary to secondary levels, all the teachers are

10
provided with periodical training on using computers so that they can upload assessment
or evaluation reports online to the administration.

However, the focus on using computers for instructional purpose is entirely ignored. At a
higher secondary level, EFL teachers do not have such opportunities to attend computer
training organized by the district administration. In all developed countries of Europe,
America and South Asia, computer technology is being used to harmonize the education
system with the latest technological progress (Tai, 2012). Several studies on CALI to
improve students’ oral and writing skills were conducted during the last two decades. For
example, Chow and Ge (2011) in Taiwan, Khadria (2002) and Charmonman (2014) in
Thailand, and Machnaik (2012) in Singapore have investigated gender-based differences
in attitudes and the impact of age and experience on using computers in EFL classrooms.
In Pakistan, some of the

Computer assisted language learning (CALL) is a type of computer-based learning which

has two important features: bidirectional learning and individualized learning. CALL
focuses on learning, and not on teaching. CALL provides the material that is used in
teaching to facilitate the language learning process. Computer based learning is actually
is self-paced learning depend on student-centered learning material. Several other terms
are used in replacement of CALL in the language learning such as technology-enhanced
language learning (TELL), computer assisted language instruction (CALI) and computer-
aided language learning. (Pegrum 2009: p. 27).

CALL is based on the philosophy in which the lessons should allow the learners to learn
on their own by using structured and/or unstructured interactive lessons with available
materials from computer. Structured interactive lessons are the type that had been
systematically arranged formerly and has scaled through the performance measure, while
unstructured interactive lessons is an impromptu lessons that are formulated and are yet
to be subjected to performance measure. A combination of face-to-face teaching and
CALL is usually referred to as blended learning. Blended learning is designed to increase
learning potential and is more commonly found in language learning than pure CALL
(Pegrum 2009: p. 27).

11
 i. In recent years, technology has been prevailed in all parts of our lives from
communication among friends to shopping, from education to media tools. Now
technology made it easier for people to interconnect throughout the world by
means of computers and without doubt the Internet. Furthermore, the
development in the field of technology has not stopped and no doubt it will go on
developing and this makes “the world flattened”. As Friedman (2005) claimed
“The world is being leveled”; and on every minute this leveling process is
continued. It doesn’t matter, where someone is, in Russia, in Pakistan, in
Australia, or elsewhere, s/he has the opportunity to contact with people around the
world without time limit or constraints; computers and the Internet provide
platform and this world wide communication occurs through them. Same as for
the field of education, it is becoming more important to study the integration of
technology or bringing the technology to your education system. However, the
next question arises is whether teachers are ready or trained for integrating
technology into their classrooms. To familiarize the ESL teachers with the
currently used platforms, applications and strategies that can assist in enhancing
and reinforcing the language learning through CALL. The main purpose of this
study is to highlight the challenges and obstacles in implementing Computer
Assisted Language Learning strategies by ESL teachers by examining the
teachers’ professionalism and motivation in the implementation of CALL tools in
ESL classrooms at secondary level to understand and utilize the best methods and
modes to engage and motivate the ESL teachers to use CALL in classrooms at
secondary level.

1.2 Literature Review:

As Hubbard (2009) says,

“As computers have come more a part of our everyday lives- and
permeated other areas of education- the question is no longer whether
to use computers but how. CALL researchers, developers and
practitioners have a critical role in helping the overall field of second
language learning come to grips with this domain (p. 1).”

12
We are getting involved with technology every day and it is getting more advanced and
present in the daily life. Technology has pervaded a great many students’ lives especially
in developing and developed countries’ witch technology such as mobile phones,
interactive videos games and social media plateforms (Moyle, Wijngaards, & Owen,
2012). Although the use of technology is depend upon its access and intensity that varies
place to place and person to person. (Sanchez, Salinas, Contreras, & Meyer, 2011) and its
uses are generally not connected to educational purposes, new generations of (Journal of
Second and Multiple Language Acquisition – JSMULA Vol: 1 Issue: 1 20-38, 2013 22)
students are more comfortable with technology for entertainment purposes though they
use it in their life for a variety of purposes such as for communicating with friends,
gaming and listening to music. So the students’ access to the Internet easily, use it for
several purposes, teachers also must feel comfortable to join their students to benefit from
their being used to with technology to infuse into daily classroom activities (Barsotti, &
Martins, 2011; Gray, Andrews, & Schroeder, 2012) and bring it to individualize learning
processes to realize them what’s the best use of technology more than that in a traditional
classroom (Volman, 2005; Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2011).

The existing literature shows that teachers are keen to integrate technology into their
classrooms and benefit from CALL-based activities; however, what computer courses
they did may not facilitate them using CALL-based activities (Wentworth, 1996; Keirns,
1992; Hargrave & Huse, 2000). The research that review the technology and the training
of teachers shows that there are two approaches regarding the use of technology: One-
course approach which focuses on the teaching of technology is found to be limited and
too technical that only focuses on technical training (Peters, 2006; Wong & Benson,
2006; Desjardins & Peters, 2007; Lambert, Gong, & Cuper, 2008) and the technology
infusion throughout teacher education which focuses on exposing teachers to continuous
use of technology. Desjardins and Peters (2007) examined a single-course approach in
university Montreal to examine whether it would be applicable to train pre-service
teachers for teaching with technology, a 45-hour-long course with basic use of
technology during the last semester of their program was designed, focusing on how well
prepared these teachers felt and behaved when they were able to integrate technology in
the language classroom. The conclusions showed that although a single-course training
13
aided them develop their technological competencies but it was not enough for them to
feel confident to infuse technology in their future classes.

In several studies (Peters, 2006; Wong & Benson, 2006; Lambert, Gong, & Cuper, 2008)
found similar results that are showing that CALL training in a single course approach or
short in-service training sessions are not sufficient, though it brought positive attitude in
participants’ towards technology. Kressler‟s (2007) web-based survey of 108 TESOL
master’s degree programs graduates showed that although the teachers were confident
about CALL overall, they did not feel comfortable in creating and integrating CALL
materials. The study conducted by (Fisher, 2009) on the perceptions of 5 trainee teachers
over the nine months of their postgraduate training course in England showed that the
teachers were hesitant at the very start due to a lack of confidence; conversely, when they
were trained with good classroom exercise, they implemented methodological approaches
to their own teaching. The need for technology education in the teacher education with
professional development has been stressed out by several studies (Daniel, 2010).
However, when it is obligatory for the students to learn about technology throughout the
teacher training program (Hegelheimer, 2006), it is make sure to have technology-savvy
graduates in English language teaching.

Recognition of the importance of ICT curriculum integration has already occurred, and
most Computer Assisted Language Learning F. Kılıçkaya, G. Seferoğlu 23 teacher
education programs have introduced courses in ICT for future teachers training. Teaching
and learning through integration ICTS within the curriculum enhance teaching about
computer or teaching with computers. In the study conducted by Kessler (2006), 240
participants in the TESOL master’s program reported a perceived lack of formal CALL
training. The findings revealed that the participants were not satisfied with the CALL
training and they tried to look for other sources of information to prepare them. They also
participated in formal training outside their classroom and university.

Chapelle (2006) adds that “second-language teachers today need to be able to choose,
use, and in some cases, refuse technology for their students” (p. ix). Teachers also need to
know how technology can constrain as well as enhance their students‟ language use and

14
know when it is better not to use computers (Kern, 2011). As Egbert (2010) points out,
teachers should also find out the ways to work with technologically rich and poor
environments, focusing on how to assess students‟ needs, interests and abilities. Whether
and how the skills and knowledge that teachers “learn” during their education programs
or professional development in CALL actually transfer to their teaching practice in real
learning contexts requires utmost importance (Hong, 2010; Egbert, Huff & Lee, 2011).
The important question is, then, how learning opportunities for teacher candidates and
teachers can be made so that they learn how to infuse technology into their teaching. In
other words, planning each and every detail of the training, as in each stage of life, is
important (Sergeant, 2000; Mayo & Kajs, 2005; Toledo, 2005; Hockly, 2012). As stated
by Lee (2000) and Warschauer and Healey (1998), CALL technologies can support
learning in a variety of ways, provide feedback, enable pair and group work, promote
exploratory and global learning, enhance student achievement, provide access to
authentic materials, facilitate greater interaction, individualize instruction, create
opportunities to benefit from a variety of sources rather than limiting oneself to a single
source, and motivate learners. Furthermore, technology can provide us with the necessary
tools which enable us to benefit from the opportunities to make language learning more
enjoyable, productive and effective. However, in order to achieve this, we need to have
competent teachers in using technology as the anecdote provided by an Egyptian
university lecturer and cited by Warschauer (2002, p. 472) “we have the hardware, we
have the software, but we lack the humanware” indicates, it is imperative that preand in-
service language teachers learn about computer tools which will support them in their
teaching practices. Therefore, pre- and in-service language teachers should be equipped
with skills and strategies in integrating CALL technologies into their classrooms.
Seferoğlu (2007), Seferoğlu, Akbıyık, and Bulut (2008), and Karakaya (2010) state that
teacher candidates did not feel competent in using computers for teaching, in other
words, how to infuse technology to their teaching. Moreover, Göktaş, Yıldırım and
Yıldırım (2008) suggest that ICT courses can help to improve teachers‟ ICT competency;
however, they add that in addition to the ICT courses offered to the students in the
faculties of education, another ICT related course should be included in the curriculum
Journal of Second and Multiple Language Acquisition – JSMULA Vol: 1 Issue: 1 20-38,

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2013 24 which will integrate their subject matter such as a foreign language. To the best
knowledge of the author, there is no currently conducted on introducing an ICT related
course that integrates teacher candidates‟ subject matter, which is English language
teaching in the current study. Therefore, the current study concerned with the relationship
of the integration of ICT into English language teaching and their use of computer
technology in the classroom will fill this gap in the literature. Moreover, it will also help
us find out the effect of contextual characteristics on the use of CALL-based materials,
especially the school climate.

researchers have explored the effectiveness of using computers in EFL class and revealed
the differences of gender-based attitudes toward using computer technology at primary
and university levels (e.g., Hussain, 2014; Lodhi et al., 2019). The traditional educational
systems are going to fluctuate day by day and students are appearing to be more active.
Teachers use computer technology for educational purposes in their classrooms
(Edwards-Groves, 2012). The use of mobile phones, tablets, smart-phone technologies,
etc., has brought innovations in receiving and imparting education. In the present time,
the educational technologies have turned more complex but useful than in the past (Levy,
2009). Use of educational technology gives an interesting way to have communication
via online chat and discussion to meet their educational goals (Gill, 2011). Hence,
computer knowledge in every field of life is being increased according to the increasing
needs of teachers as well as students. It is up to teachers and students to choose which
technology that is useful and efficient.

Computer technology has also changed learning atmospheres because the use of mobile
devices outside classroom is possible (Abdollapour & Maleki, 2012). It may be useful in
improving four skills of language like speaking, writing, reading and listening for
teachers and students in Pakistani Higher Secondary Schools in Pakistan. Knowledge can
be transferred by using computers and other educational tools in the teaching of English
as a foreign language from online data sources as a lot of online data are available for
religious education.

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Learning with the help of computers and educational technology has a lot of advantages
for both teachers and students of Pakistani Higher Secondary Schools in Pakistan. The
Pakistani educational system is not advanced enough to meet the requirements of the
international standard of education because the country is not as developed as other
countries in Europe. In this context, using advanced technology like computers in the
teaching of English is not an easy assignment especially in all educational institutions in
Pakistan. Besides, a lot of issues involved in the way computer-assisted language learning
is conducted in Pakistan. Teachers neglect the use of technology in the classroom because
of personal and environmental reasons. Teaching and learning has been changed by the
integration of computer technology in the classroom (Hoopingarner, 2009).

In Pakistan, most of the educational institutions are not using computer technology
because they have some issues. Most of them have no interest in its use in the classroom.
They are not able to purchase the technology by themselves. It is encouraging that the
Government of Pakistan is taking initiatives for religious schools. Teachers in religious
schools face a lot of barriers related to the use of technology. They have little time and
some financial problems to have an access to technology. There is also a lack of technical
staff in the implementation of the latest development in religious and formal educational
institutions. To date, the critical question is to explore the challenges and barriers related
to its use in the classroom. Studies found the difference and proved that students using
computer-assisted instruction performed better than those who do not use this instruction
(Grgurovic, Chapelle, & Shelley, 2013).

Computerized tests take less time than traditional tests with paper and pencil and are
more reliable (Madsen, 1991). Students can repeat their learning activities in schools and
can improve their learning habits individually. Students can correct their pronunciation,
intonation, etc. Learners can expand their access and explore a lot of knowledge by using
online data sources. It is important to note that technology has changed the educational
format especially with the arrival of computer in the teaching of English as a foreign
language (Levy, 2009).

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Choi and Lee (2008) conducted a study to know the current trends and issues related to
learning in Asia. The study revealed that students are unable to improve their learning
153 effectively because of issues related to class hours, national curriculum and text
books, English as a medium of instruction, political environment, etc. In this regard, Hani
(2014) conducted a study about the benefits and barriers of computer-assisted learning
and teaching in the Arab world. The study found out problems like an inadequate number
of computers, teachers’ training, time constraints, technological problems and high cost
of computers. The study proved that use of computer in the teaching of English as a
foreign language has enhanced the learning abilities and interests of learners with useful
materials. Besides, Islam also emphasizes to use wisdom to bring out innovations in the
education. Usman (2013) states that one of the unique features of the Islamic society is
the way in which it combines the immutable and the flexible. It is a society that strictly
adheres firmly to its fixed principles, but at the same time encourages its followers adopt
those things which are beneficial to the society.

The Messenger of Allah (SAW) is reported to have said: “Wisdom is the lost property of
the believer, wherever he finds it, he has more right to it.” (Ahmad, 2010). Regarding
religious school education in Pakistan, Bhatti et al. (2014) carried out a study to explore
the trends for CALI among English language teachers at Lodhran District located in the
southern Punjab of Pakistan. His research findings revealed the lack of availability of
educational technologies and load shedding issues in Higher Secondary Schools in
Pakistan. Unavailability of CALI facilities were also revealed as one of the bigger issues.
Another research scholar Haider (2013) and Hassan and Dzakiria (2020) explored
teachers’ perceptions and attitudes towards using CALI in Pakistani Higher Secondary
Schools in Pakistan.

The results of this research also revealed that teachers were inclined to use educational
technologies and wanted the implementation of CALI in religious schools. The teachers
mostly agreed that use of CALI would increase their efficiency and help to motivate the
students. Besides, Hassan and Sajid (2013) and Hassan and Dzakiria (2019) also
investigated the effectiveness of use of CALI in teaching and the problems faced by
Secondary English language teachers in Punjab province in Pakistan.

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