Students' Errors in Producing The Non-Finite Clauses

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
STUDENTS’ ERRORS IN PRODUCING THE NON-FINITE CLAUSES
A THESIS
Presented as the Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Gabriel Adi Wartanta
Student Number: 03 1214 016
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2008
STUDENTS’ ERRORS IN PRODUCING THE NON-FINITE CLAUSES
A THESIS
Presented as the Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Student Number: 03 1214 016
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2008
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When you were born,

You were crying and everyone around you was smiling.
Live your life
so that when you die,
you’re smiling and everyone around you is crying.
(Taken from: The Story of Love)
Trust the Past to

The mercy of God…
The Present to
His love,
The future to
His providence
(Augustine)
I dedicate this thesis to

Jesus Christ,
my beloved mother, father, brother, and sisters.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my greatest gratitude to Jesus Christ for everything
that He has given me. Without His everlasting love and wonderful blessing, it is
impossible for me to finish this thesis. I thank Mother Mary for accompanying me
through my hard times.
My deepest appreciation goes to my major sponsor, Made Frida Yulia,
S.Pd., M.Pd., for her willingness to spend her precious time to read and check my
thesis thoroughly. Her advice, criticisms, and suggestions are useful for me in
accomplishing this thesis. I am greatly indebted to my co-sponsor, Christina
Kristiyani, S.Pd., M.Pd., for her kindness to read my thesis continually and give
me beneficial inputs.
I would like to take this opportunity to express my sincere appreciation to
Agustinus Hardi Prasetyo, S.Pd., M.A., Yohana Veniranda, S.Pd., M.Hum.,
and Dr. Retno Muljani, M.Pd., for the permission to administer the test in their
classes. I would like to thank the sixth semester students in classes A, B, and C of
RELT classes of the academic year 2007/2008 for their willingness to be the
respondents of this research.
I owe a great debt to all lecturers of the English Language Education Study
Program of Sanata Dharma University for guiding me during my study. I thank
them all for providing me with knowledge and other valuable things. I also thank
Mbak Dhanniek and Mbak Tari for all their help during my study.
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I would like to express my deepest love and appreciation to my beloved
parents, Robertus Sutardjo and Agnes Sumiyati. I could not have finished this
thesis without all their love, supports, patience, and never ending prayers. My
sincere gratitude goes to all my brother and sisters, for always encouraging me to
finish my study and for their beneficial advice. I would like to express thanks to
my funny niece and nephews for cheering me up in my bad times.
My special thanks go to the English Education Production (EEPRO)
members for giving me the chance to express myself. My sincere appreciation
goes to PBI Play Performance’s Lighting Crew: Deddy Kurniawan, I Gede
Agus, Taufik, Galih Purnomo, Sudartomo, Satrio Nugroho, Eduardus
Erwan, Krisna, Dudy, Antonius Jido, Marshell, and Listiyan for the
unforgettable moments and spirit of working together in facing the exhausting
event we had every semester. I express my gratitude to my friends during
consultation time: Yusta, Mba Ayuk, Anas, Rere, Toni, Lala, Nita, and Ratna.
I thank them for their sharing and laughter.
I deliver my best thanks to Ratri Wahyuningtyas for the time allocated,
help given, and stories shared. I thank her for her assistance, supports, and
prayers.
Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to those whose names I cannot
mention here one by one. May God bless them all.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE ......................................................................................... i
APPROVAL PAGES ............................................................................. ii
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ....................................... v
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ....................... vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................... vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................... ix
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................. xv
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................... xvi
LIST OF APPENDICES ........................................................................ xvii
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................... xviii
ABSTRAK ............................................................................................... xx
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Study........................................................... 1
B. Problem Formulation................................................................. 3
C. Problem Limitation.................................................................... 3
D. Objectives of the Study ............................................................. 4
E. Benefits of the Study ................................................................ 5
F. Definition of Terms .................................................................. 6
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CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
A. Theoretical Description ............................................................ 9
1. Complex Sentences .............................................................. 9
a. Adjective Clauses .............................................................. 10
b. Adverbial Clauses ............................................................. 12
1) Clause of Place ............................................................ 13
2) Clause of Time ............................................................ 13
3) Clause of Manner ........................................................ 13
4) Clause of Degree .......................................................... 13
5) Clause of Cause ........................................................... 14
6) Clause of Condition .................................................... 14
7) Clause of Concession .................................................. 15
8) Clause of Purpose......................................................... 15
9) Clause of Means........................................................... 15
c. Noun Clauses..................................................................... 16
2. The Finite and the Non-Finite Clauses................................. 17
a. The Finite Clauses ............................................................. 18
b. The Non-Finite Clauses .................................................... 18
1) The Non-Finite Adjective Clauses .............................. 20
a) –Ing Participle ....................................................... 21
b) –Ed Participle ........................................................ 22
c) To-infinitive .......................................................... 23
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2) The Non-Finite Noun Clauses ..................................... 23
a) –Ing Form .............................................................. 24
b) To-infinitive .......................................................... 25
3) The Non-Finite Adverbial Clauses .............................. 27
a) –Ing Participle ....................................................... 27
b) –Ed Participle ........................................................ 29
c) To-infinitive .......................................................... 29
3. Errors ................................................................................... 30
a. Definition ....................................................................... 30
b. The Importance of Studying Errors ................................ 31
4. The Mastery of a Language ................................................. 31
a. Definition .......................................................................... 31
b. The Criteria of Mastery..................................................... 32
B. Theoretical Framework ............................................................. 32
CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY
A. Research Method....................................................................... 34
B. Research Participants................................................................. 35
C. Research Instrument ................................................................. 36
1. Validity................................................................................. 37
a. Content Validity ................................................................ 37
b. Construct Validity ............................................................. 39
c. Face Validity ..................................................................... 40
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2. Reliability............................................................................. 40
D. Data Gathering Techniques....................................................... 42
E. Data Analysis Techniques ......................................................... 42
F. Research Procedure.................................................................... 43
CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
A. Data Presentation .................................................................... 46
1. The Students’ Achievement in the Test ............................... 46
a. The Students’ Achievement in Each Part of the Test .... 47
b. The Students’ Achievement in the Whole Part of the Test 48
c. The Students’ Achievement in Each Type of Clauses ... 50
2. The Presentation of the Descriptive Statistics....................... 51
B. Discussion ................................................................................ 52
1. The Errors Committed by the Students ................................ 52
a. The Errors in the Non-finite Adjective Clauses.............. 52
1) The Occurrence of Finite Subordinate Clauses ........ 53
2) Confusion between Defining and Non-defining
Adjective Clauses ..................................................... 56
3) The Occurrence of Verbless Clauses ....................... 57
4) The Adjective Clauses Modifying a Wrong Noun.... 58
5) Wrong Choice of Main Clauses and Subordinate
Clauses ..................................................................... 60
6) Problems between Active and Passive Sentences .... 61
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7) Retaining the Relative Pronoun ............................... 62
8) Transforming into Wrong Types of Subordinate
Clauses ..................................................................... 64
9) Inappropriate Use of being + V-ed ......................... 65
10) Inappropriate Use of to be + V-ed ........................... 66
11) Inappropriate Use of –ed Participle .......................... 66
b. The Errors in the Non-finite Noun Clauses .................... 67
Clauses ..................................................................... 69
3) Problems in Constructing Negative Clauses ............. 70
Clauses ..................................................................... 71
5) Problems between Active and Passive Sentences .... 72
6) Lack of Genitive Case of Pronoun ........................... 73
7) The Occurrence of Verbless Clauses ........................ 74
8) Confusion to Choose Either to-infinitive or Gerund 75
9) Problems with Clauses Derived from Questions ..... 76
10) Incorrect Use of Comma .......................................... 77
11) Problems in Perfect Construction ............................ 77
c. The Errors in the Non-finite Adverbial Clauses ............ 78
2) The Occurrence of Verbless Clauses ....................... 80
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Clauses ..................................................................... 81
Clauses ...................................................................... 82
5) Problems between Active and Passive Sentences..... 83
6) Incorrect Use of Comma .......................................... 84
7) Problems with Pronoun ............................................ 85
8) Problems in Constructing the Non-finite Adverbial
Clauses in Perfective Form ...................................... 86
9) Retaining Subordinator because for Clause of Reason 87
10) The Occurrence of Coordinate Clauses .................... 87
2. The Students’ Mastery on the Non-finite Clauses ................ 88
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
A. Conclusions ................................................................................ 89
B. Suggestions ................................................................................ 92
1. Suggestions for the Lecturers of the English Language Education
Study Program of Sanata Dharma University ...................... 92
2. Suggestions for the Students of the English Language Education
Study Program of Sanata Dharma University ...................... 93
3. Suggestions for Future Researchers ..................................... 93
REFERENCES .................................................................................... 94
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
2.1 The Use of Relative Pronoun ........................................................... 12
3.1 The Content of the Test .................................................................... 38
3.2 The Distribution of Item in the Test.................................................. 39
3.3 The Classification of Reliability Coefficient ................................... 41
3.4 The Rubric......................................................................................... 43
4.1 The Students’ Scores in Part A of the Test ....................................... 47
4.2 The Students’ Scores in Part B of the Test ....................................... 47
4.3 The Students’ Final Scores in the Whole Part of the Test ................ 48
4.4 The Students’ Scores in Relation to the Category ............................ 49
4.5 The Descriptive Statistics.................................................................. 51
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
4.1 The Errors in the Non-finite Adjective Clauses................................ 53
4.2 The Errors in the Non-finite Noun Clauses....................................... 68
4.3 The Errors in the Non-finite Adverbial Clauses ............................... 79
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Page
Appendix A: Surat Permohonan Ijin Penelitian .................................... 97
Appendix B: The Test of the Non-finite Clauses.................................... 98
Appendix C: Key to the Test .................................................................. 101
Appendix D: The Sample of the Students’ Sheets ................................. 102
Appendix E: The Students’ Test Scores.................................................. 108
Appendix F: The Total of Correct and Incorrect Answers in Each Item 110
Appendix G: The Students’ Erroneous Answers ................................... 111
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ABSTRACT
Wartanta, Gabriel Adi. 2008. Students’ Errors in Producing the Non-finite

Clauses. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Sanata
Dharma University.
One of the things that should be learned by the English Language Education
Study Program students is grammar. There are so many topics to be mastered by
the students, one of which is the non-finite clauses. The students are expected to
be able to express complex ideas using the non-finite clauses in order to convey
the ideas more effectively. Moreover, based on some informal interviews
conducted with several senior students, half of the respondents stated that the non-
finite clauses were difficult. Knowing that the non-finite clauses are essential and
should be mastered by the students, it is important to measure their ability in using
the non-finite clauses through research.
The research discussed two problems. They were (1) What are the errors the
students commit in producing the non-finite clauses? (2) What is the mastery of
the non-finite clauses of the sixth semester students of the English Language
Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University? In order to answer those
questions, a test was used as the instrument to gather the data. The test was
administered to two classes of the sixth semester students in the academic year
2007/2008. They were chosen because they had learned the non-finite clauses
comprehensively in Structure V.
In order to answer the first question, the errors committed by the students
were classified based on the types of subordinate clauses they belonged to.
Overall, the errors committed by the students in producing the non-finite clauses
were the occurrence of finite subordinate clauses, confusion between defining and
non-defining adjective clauses, the occurrence of verbless clauses, the adjective
clauses modifying wrong noun, wrong choice of main clauses and subordinate
clauses, problems between active and passive sentences, retaining the relative
pronoun, transforming into wrong types of subordinate clauses, inappropriate use
of being + V-ed, inappropriate use of to be + V-ed, inappropriate use of –ed
participle, problems in constructing negative clauses, lack of genitive case of
pronoun, confusion to choose either to-infinitive or gerund, problems with clauses
derived from question, incorrect use of comma, problems in perfect construction,
problems with pronoun, retaining subordinator because for clause of reason, and
the occurrence of coordinate clause. To answer the second question, the mean
score of the test was calculated. The results of the research showed that the
students’ mean score was 43.59 out of 100. This achievement was far below the
minimum standard of mastery, which is 56% of the maximum score as the lower
margin to pass with grade C or ‘sufficient’. Based on the scoring category, this
score was categorized in the level of poor or grade E.
Based on the research results, some suggestions are proposed. First, the
lecturers of Structure V class of the English Language Education Study Program
are recommended to focus on the students’ understanding about the concept of the
finite and non-finite clauses, provide the students with sufficient examples, and
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explain each form of the non-finite verb in details. Second, the students should
pay attention to the lecturers’ explanation, participate actively in class, and study
the non-finite clauses outside the class either in groups or individually. Third,
future researchers could improve the study by applying more than one instrument,
changing the format of the test, or researching about the use of the non-finite
clauses in the students’ writing.
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ABSTRAK
Wartanta, Gabriel Adi. 2008. Students’ Errors in Producing the Non-finite

Clauses. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Sanata
Dharma University.
Salah satu hal yang harus dipelajari oleh mahasiswa Program Studi
Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris adalah kemampuan tata bahasa. Ada banyak topik
mengenai kemampuan tata bahasa yang harus dikuasai oleh mahasiswa, salah
satunya adalah klausa non-finite. Mahasiswa diharapkan untuk dapat
mengutarakan ide yang kompleks dengan menggunakan klausa non-finite agar
mereka dapat menyampaikan idenya secara lebih efektif. Terlebih lagi,
berdasarkan wawancara informal dengan beberapa mahasiswa senior, setengah
dari jumlah responden menyatakan bahwa klausa non-finite sulit dipelajari.
Mengetahui bahwa klausa non-finite mempunyai peran penting dan harus
dikuasai mahasiswa, maka mengukur kemampuan mahasiswa dalam
menggunakan klausa non-finite melalui kegiatan penelitian menjadi sangat
diperlukan.
Penelitian ini membahas dua permasalahan. Permasalahan tersebut adalah
(1) Apa saja kesalahan yang dilakukan oleh mahasiswa dalam membuat klausa
non-finite? (2) Bagaimana kemampuan mahasiswa semester enam Program studi
Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris Universitas Sanata Dharma dalam menggunakan
klausa non-finite? Untuk menjawab kedua pertanyaan tersebut, sebuah tes
digunakan sebagai instrumen untuk mengumpulkan data. Tes tersebut ditujukan
kepada dua kelas dari mahasiswa semester enam tahun akademik 2007/2008.
Mereka dipilih karena telah mempelajari klausa non-finite secara mendalam
melalui mata kuliah Structure V.
Untuk menjawab pertanyaan pertama, kesalahan-kesalahan yang dilakukan
oleh mahasiswa dikelompokkan berdasarkan jenis anak kalimatnya. Secara
keseluruhan, kesalahan yang dilakukan mahasiswa dalam membuat klausa non-
finite adalah anak kalimatnya masih finite, kebingungan antara klausa ajektif yang
defining dan non-definining, kemunculan klausa yang tidak mempunyai kata
kerja, klausa ajektif yang memodifikasi kata benda kata benda yang salah,
kesalahan dalam menentukan anak kalimat dan induk kalimat, kebingungan antara
kalimat aktif dan pasif, pengubahan anak kalimat menjadi ke dalam jenis klausa
yang tidak tepat, penggunaan being + V-ed yang tidak tepat, penggunaan to be +
V-ed yang tidak tepat, penggunaan –ed participle yang tidak tepat, kesulitan
dalam membuat klausa dalam bentuk negatif, kekurangan kata ganti kepemilikan,
kebingungan dalam memilih to-infinitive atau gerund, kesulitan dalam membuat
klausa yang berasal dari kalimat pertanyaan, penggunaan tanda baca koma yang
tidak tepat, kesulitan dalam membuat perfect construction, kesulitan dengan kata
ganti, dipertahankannya kata penghubung because untuk keterangan sebab, dan
kemunculan kalimat majemuk setara. Untuk menjawab pertanyaan kedua, rerata
dari hasil tes harus dihitung terlebih dahulu. Hasil dari penelitian ini menunjukkan
bahwa rerata nilai mahasiswa adalah 43.59 dari nilai total 100. Hasil ini masih
jauh dibawah standar minimal penguasaan materi, bahwa 56% dari nilai
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maksimum adalah batas bawah untuk lulus dengan nilai C atau cukup.
Berdasarkan kategori penilaian, nilai ini termasuk dalam tingkat lemah atau nilai
E.
Berdasarkan hasil penelitian, maka diajukanlah beberapa usulan berikut.
Yang pertama, dosen mata kuliah Structure V Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa
Inggris diharapkan untuk menekankan pada pemahaman mahasiswa terhadap
konsep klausa finite dan non-finite, menyediakan contoh-contoh yang memadai,
dan menjelaskan bentuk-bentuk kata kerja non-finite. Yang kedua, mahasiswa
sebaiknya memperhatikan penjelasan dosen, berpartisipasi secara aktif di dalam
kelas, dan mempelajari klausa non-finite di luar kelas baik dalam kelompok
maupun secara pribadi. Yang ketiga, para peneliti yang akan datang dapat
mengembangkan studi ini dengan menerapkan lebih dari satu bentuk instrumen,
mengubah bentuk soal, atau meneliti tentang penggunaan klausa non-finite dalam
karya tertulis mahasiswa.
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This chapter explains the introduction of the study. It consists of six parts.
The first part is background of the study. This part conveys the reasons for
choosing the non-finite clauses as the subject of the study. The second part is
problem formulation. This part reveals the problems that are discussed in the
study. The third is problem limitation, whose function is elaborating the
boundaries on which the research is conducted. The fourth is objectives of the
study. The fifth is benefits of the study, which conveys the advantages of
conducting the research. The last part is definition of terms, which describes the
terms used in the research.
A. Background of the Study
As candidates of English teachers, the English Language Education Study
Program students are supposed to master all things related to the education system
and also English language as the subject matter. English itself consists of the four
language skills, namely listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Besides, it also
contains the language elements, namely grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary
mastery. The teacher candidates should master all of those mentioned above, so
that later they are able to become good teachers and to help their students to learn
English.
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One of the problems in language learning is the mastery of grammar. There
are so many topics that should be learned by teacher candidates, and one of the
topics is the non-finite clauses. The teacher candidates, especially the senior
students, are expected to be able to express complex ideas by using either the
finite clauses or the non-finite clauses in order to convey the ideas more
effectively instead of using simple sentences. Mastering the finite and non-finite
clauses is important for them, but the non-finite clauses are considered more
difficult than the finite clauses.
Based on the writer’s experience, the non-finite clauses are difficult because
they are complex in relation to their syntactic functions. The non-finite clauses
can function as adverbial clauses, adjective clauses, and nominal or noun clauses.
Besides, there are rules which are restricted in use, which the students still
generalize. Those complexities cause difficulties for the learners. Moreover, tense
markers, modal auxiliaries, and sometimes subject are omitted in the non-finite
clauses (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1985: 311). Those lacks make the non-finite
clauses difficult to be learned and make the students confused in constructing
them.
Furthermore, based on some informal interviews conducted with several
senior students of the English Language Education Study Program on July 2007,
half of the respondents said that the non-finite clauses were difficult. One of them
said that he was confused when to use to-infinitive and when to use gerund. In
addition, based on the interview conducted to two English lecturers who taught
grammar, it was found out that the students often mixed the rules of the non-finite
clauses and of the finite clauses. In addition, the students also had interference
with Indonesian.
Knowing that the non-finite clauses are essential and should be mastered by
students of the English Education Study Program, it is important to measure their
ability of using the non-finite clauses through research. The research results can
show whether the students have the capability to use the non-finite clauses or not.
The research was conducted to the sixth semester students, with the consideration
that they have learned about the non-finite clauses comprehensively in their
Structure V course. Therefore, they are supposed to master and be able to use the
non-finite clause correctly. The research results were used by the researcher to
provide some suggestions especially for the lecturers who teach Structure V, in
which the non-finite clauses are taught.
B. Problem Formulation
The problems of the research are formulated as follows.
1. What are the errors the students commit in producing the non-finite clauses?
2. What is the mastery of the non-finite clauses of the sixth semester students of
the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University?
C. Problem Limitation
The research was conducted to the students of semester six of the 2007/2008
academic year in the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata
Dharma University. They were chosen because they had learned the non-finite
clauses comprehensively in Structure V course without considering whether they
passed the course or not. The research mainly discusses the errors committed by
the students in producing the non-finite clauses. A test was administered as the
instrument to gather the data. The results of the test were analyzed further to show
the errors in producing the non-finite clauses and to determine their mastery.
The non-finite clauses consist of non-finite verbs forms only (Quirk,
Greenbaum, Leech, and Svartvik, 1992: 149). The non-finite verbs include the
verbs in the form of to-infinitive, bare infinitive, -ing participle, and –ed
participle. In the study, the use of bare infinitive to introduce the non-finite
clauses is excluded since it is rarely used in the sentences.
The study puts the emphasis on the use of the non-finite clauses rather than
on the theories of the non-finite clauses. The focus is the ability of the students to
produce the non-finite clauses correctly. Thus, the questions in the instrument do
not check whether the students know the concepts of the non-finite clauses, but
rather on the application or the use.
D. Objectives of the Study
The objectives of the study are:
1. To observe the errors the students commit in producing the non-finite clauses.
2. To find out the mastery of the non-finite clauses of the sixth semester students
of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma
University.
E. Benefits of the Study
It is hoped from the study that the readers, especially the English Language
Education Study Program students who take Structure V, will have better
understanding about the non-finite clauses. It might be useful for them because
not all English grammar books provide adequate information about the non-finite
clauses. This study may provide the readers with a sufficient explanation about
these matters and they can also enrich their knowledge.
The study discusses the errors the students committed in producing the non-
finite clauses. Therefore, it may give beneficial inputs for the Structure V
lecturers. The lecturers can see which parts of the non-finite clauses the students
consider difficult and in which they often make mistakes so that later on the
lecturers can give more attention to the difficult parts.
The study is also beneficial for the students. The research reveals the errors
in constructing complex sentences by using the non-finite clauses. Hence, this can
make students more aware not to make such mistakes as described in the study.
The study may also give opportunity to other researchers to explore the non-
finite clauses more. For example, one may seek out how the students’ mastery of
the non-finite clauses can help them in writing. The relevance of the mastery of
non-finite clauses to the students’ writing product can be conducted through
examining the students’ writing. Future researchers can develop this study by
changing the sampling or the format of the test. Besides, they can also employ
more than one instrument such as test and classroom observation in order to
obtain more accurate data.

F. Definition of Terms
In this part, several terms which are used in the study are explained. It is
necessary to define them since they are the key words of the research. The terms
are as follows.
1. The Non-Finite Clauses
The non-finite clauses are described as clauses with non-finite verb phrases
as the elements of the verbs (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1985: 310). The non-finite
verb phrases themselves are verb phrases that consist of non-finite verbs forms
only (Quirk et al., 1992: 149). The non-finite verbs include the verbs in the form
of to-infinitive, bare infinitive, -ing participle, and –ed participle. In the study, the
use of bare infinitive to introduce the non-finite clauses is excluded since it is
rarely used in the sentences.
According to Quirk et al. (1992: 995), the non-finite verb phrases have no
tense or mood, and it is impossible for them to occur with the subject of a main
clause. It implies that the non-finite clauses cannot occur as the main clauses. In
the study, the non-finite clauses refer to clauses which contain the non-finite verb
forms as the verb element, and are always embedded to their main clauses.
2. Subordinate Clauses
Subordinate clauses are “parts of their superordinate or main clauses”
(Quirk et al., 1992: 991). Feigenbaum (1985: 211) states that “subordinate or
dependent clause can be a noun-equivalent, an adverb-equivalent, or an adjective-
equivalent.” In this study, the functions of subordinate clauses are classified into
three types; those are, noun clauses, adjective clauses, and adverbial clauses.
3. Error
An error is “a noticeable deviation from the adult grammar of a native
speaker, reflecting the interlanguage competence of the learner” (Brown, 1994:
205). In other words, an error is caused by lack of knowledge. According to
Dulay, Burt, and Krashen (1982: 138), errors are parts of one’s saying or writing
which deviate from the rules of language.
People sometimes differentiate between errorrs and mistakes. Brown (1994:
205) defines a mistake as “ a performance error which refers to a failure to utilize
a known sytem correctly.” Further, Brown (1994: 205) explains that mistakes are
the imperfection of speech production such as hesitations and slips of the tongue.
Sometimes, it is difficult to judge whether a deviation is a mistake or an error.
This study does not differentiate between errors and mistakes. In the study, errors
refer to the students’ answers which are inappropriate and deviate from the rule of
the non-finite patterns without considering whether they are really errors or
mistakes.
4. Mastery
Fries (1948: 3) states that “a person has learned a foreign language when he
has thus first, within a limited vocabulary mastered the sound system, that is,
when he can understand the stream of speech and achieve an understandable
production of it and has, second, made the structural devices or the basic
arrangements of the utterances as a matter of automatic habit.” In the study, the
second criteria of mastery, that is making structural devices, is emphasized. It
means that the person know how to construct a correct sentence. Mastery, in this
study, refers to the understanding and ability to use the non-finite clauses correctly
in the sentences.
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter consists of two major parts. The first part is theoretical
description, which elaborates some theories underlying this study. The second part
is theoretical framework. In this part, the writer explains the relevance of the
theories to the study.
A. Theoretical Description
In this theoretical description, there are four theories to be elaborated. They
are the theories of complex sentences, the finite and non-finite clauses, errors, and
the mastery of a language. These theories serve as the bases for the discussion and
the construction of the instrument.
1. Complex Sentences
According to Close (1977: 42), a complex sentence is “a sentence that
consists of two or more clauses, in which one of the clauses is subordinate to a
main clause.” This means that there are two elements of a complex sentence,
namely main or independent clause and subordinate or dependent clause.
Feigenbaum (1985: 209) states that these two clauses cannot be separated into
different sentences since a subordinate clause cannot stand by itself as a sentence
and has to be connected to a main clause.
(1) She walked up to the third floor although she was tired (Feigenbaum,
1985: 210).
9
10
In example (1), although she was tired is the subordinate clause. Therefore, it
cannot stand alone.
Close (1977: 42) states that a subordinate clause must be able to replace a
noun phrase, modify a noun phrase, or replace an adverbial in the main clause.
Meanwhile, Feigenbaum (1985: 211) says that a subordinate or dependent clause
may be an equivalent of a noun, an adverb, or an adjective. In other words,
according to their syntactic functions, subordinate clauses can be classified into
three types, namely adjective clauses, adverbial clauses, and the last is nominal or
usually known as noun clauses.
a. Adjective Clauses
Adjective clauses, which are also known as relative clauses, refer to
subordinate clauses that explain, specify, or provide more information about a
noun (Azar, 1989: 238). It is already clear that adjective clauses are clauses which
are used to describe a noun.
(2) I thanked the woman who helped me (Azar, 1989: 238).
(3) The noise that he made woke everybody up (Thomson and Martinet,
1986: 81).
The clause who helped me is used to specify the noun of the sentence; that is, the
woman. In (3), the adjective clause that he made explains the noise.
In adjective clauses, it is important to put the clauses as close as possible to
their antecedent or the noun to which the clauses refer. Close (1977: 51) states that
it will make the writer’s exact meaning easier to understand. Thus, adjective
11
clauses usually separate the antecedent which functions as the subject of the main
clause with the verb.
Adjective clauses themselves are of two types; those are, defining and non-
defining clauses. An adjective clause is said to be a defining clause when the
clause contains important information and helps to describe the antecedent
(Graver, 1981: 121). Therefore, it is unnecessary to put commas between the
antecedent and the adjective clause.
(4) I don’t like people who lose their tempers easily (Swan, 1988: item
525).
(5) The library didn’t have the book that I wanted (Graver, 1981: 123).
Meanwhile, non-defining adjective clause is an adjective clause which is not
an essential part of the meaning of the noun. Thus, it is separated from the noun
by using commas (Swan, 1988: item 528). The non-defining adjective clause is
used when the noun or the antecedent is definite already. The information
contained in the non-defining adjective clause is additional. The following are the
examples.
(6) Mr. Lee, whom I met yesterday, teaches chemistry (Azar, 1989: 250).
(7) This is Mr. Gallagher, who writes comic poetry (Swan, 1988: item 528).
Adjective clauses are often preceded by a relative pronoun. A relative
pronoun is a new word or phrase that substitutes a word or phrase in the main
clause (Feigenbaum, 1985: 217). In (7), the word who, as the relative pronoun,
replaces Mr. Gallagher.

12
There are three things to be considered in choosing the relative pronoun.
The first is whether the clause is defining or non-defining. The second is the
antecedent, whether it is person or thing. The last is the function of the relative
pronoun. The use of relative pronoun is presented in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: The Use of Relative Pronoun (Close, 1977: 51)
Position of Defining Clause Non-defining Clause

Relative Person Thing Person Thing
Pronoun
Subject who or that which or that who which
Object whom, who, or which or that whom which
that
Object of to whom or to which or to whom or to which or
preposition that…to that…to whom…to which…to
Possessive whose whose or of whose whose or of
which which
From Table 2.1, relative pronoun that can be used in defining clause if it
functions as the subject or object of the clause, both for person or thing. On the
other hand, relative pronoun that cannot be used in non-defining clause. Who and
which are the only pronouns that are applicable in non-defining clause where the
relative pronoun becomes the subject or object of the clause.
b. Adverbial Clauses
According to Curme (1966: 176), “adverbial clauses are divided into classes
which correspond to the adverbial elements; that is, clauses of place, time,
manner, degree, cause, condition, concession, purpose and means.” Those types of
clauses are elaborated as follows.

13
1) Clause of Place
The conjunctions used for adverbial clause of place are where or wherever
(Quirk and Greenbaum, 1985: 323). Where is used when the place is already
specific, and wherever for nonspecific place (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 315).
(8) You may park your car where there is a parking sign (Close, 1977: 56).
(9) They sat down wherever they could find empty seats (Frank, 1972: 240).
2) Clause of Time
Adverbial clause of time can be introduced by when, while, since, before,
after, until, as soon as, as long as, by the time, now that, and once (Frank, 1972:
21). Quirk and Greenbaum (1985: 323) state that time clause usually occurs in
initial position. The following are the examples.
(10) When I last saw you, you lived in Washington (Quirk and Greenbaum,
1985: 322).
(11) Once having made a promise, you should keep it (Greenbaum and
Quirk, 1990: 314).
3) Clause of Manner
Clause of manner is usually located after the verb (Thomson and Martinet,
1986: 52). The conjunctions for clause of manner are as if and as though (Frank,
1972: 22).
(12) He looks as if he is going to be ill (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1985: 328).
4) Clause of Degree
This type of clause is sometimes also called as clause of comparison. As it
can be identified from the name, this type of clause is about comparing two or
14
more persons or things. The formulas as presented by Frank (1972: 22) are:
as ⎫
⎬ + adjective / adverb + as
( not ) so ⎭
− er ⎫
⎬ + adjective / adverb + than
more ⎭
(13) I am as tall as she is (Curme, 1966: 184).
(14) George is quicker than I am (Close, 1977: 63).
5) Clause of Cause
The aim of clause of cause is to give reason for the thing that happens. The
conjunctions that can be used are because, since, as, now that, whereas, inasmuch
as, as long as, on account of the fact that, owing to the fact that, in view of the fact
that, because of the fact that, due to the fact that (Frank, 1972: 21). The following
are the examples.
(15) Since I was in the same class as George, I know him very well (Close,
1977: 63).
(16) He stole the money because he was out of work (Graver, 1981: 305).
6) Clause of Condition
The sentence that contains this type of clause is called conditional sentence.
The basic principle is that one thing will occur or happen when one certain
condition is fulfilled. The subordinate conjunctions for this type of clause are if,
unless, on condition that, provided that, providing that, in case that, in the event
that (Frank, 1972: 21). The examples are:
(17) If I were rich, I would go on a world cruise (Graver, 1981: 307).

15
(18) You may leave the apartment at any time, provided that you give a
month’s notice or pay an additional month’s rent (Greenbaum and
Quirk, 1990: 317).
7) Clause of Concession
In some other books, this type of clause is also called by clause of contrast.
Clause of concession can be introduced by although, though, even if, while,
whereas (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 319).
(19) Although I felt very tired, I tried to finish the work (Frank, 1972: 22).
(20) Even if an icy wind blew from the north, we always slept with our
windows wide open (Close, 1977: 64).
8) Clause of Purpose
Clause of purpose expresses the aim for doing something. The conjunctions
for clause of purpose are so that, in order that, so, that, for the purpose that
(Frank, 1972: 22).
(21) He spent most of his time studying so that he might later get a better
job (Graver, 1981: 306).
(22) We issued this instruction in writing, for fear that a spoken message
might be misunderstood (Close, 1977: 65).
9) Clause of Means
The conjunction for clause of means is by. The example is:
(23) By holding on to the rope firmly, I came safe to the shore (Curme,
1966: 199).
16
c. Noun Clauses
Noun clauses are clauses whose function is the same as a noun. Noun
clauses can be the subject, object, complement, appositive, and prepositional
complement (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 304). Besides, Frank (1972: 283)
classifies noun clauses into four types based on the kinds of sentences they
derived from; that is, statements, questions, requests, and exclamation.
The first type is noun clauses that are derived from statements. The
conjunction for this type of clause is that (Frank, 1972: 286). The example is:
(24) That the driver could not control his car was obvious (Close, 1977: 43).
That complex sentence is derived from two sentences. They are:
(25) The driver could not control his car.
(26) It was obvious.
Sentence (25) is a statement. Therefore, it should be preceded by conjunction that
to be a noun clause functioning as the subject of the main clause. That can be
omitted in clause that functions as the object, especially in informal situation, but
it should remain if the clause functions as the subject (Frank, 1972: 291).
The second type is noun clauses that are derived from questions. This type
of clause is classified into two types based on the form of the question. One is
question introduced by a question word, and the other is yes-no question. If the
question is preceded by a question word, the question word itself that functions as
the connector (Frank, 1972: 293).
(27) Question: What caused the accident?
(28) What caused the accident is a complete mystery (Close, 1977: 48).
17
Meanwhile, if and whether are used for yes-no question (Azar, 1989: 268).
(29) Question: Does he need help?
(30) I wonder whether he needs help (Azar, 1989: 268).
One thing that is very important when changing a question into a noun
clause is the word order. If in a question the subject and verb are inverted, where
the verb precedes the subject, then in noun clause subject-verb inversion is not
needed. Frank (1972: 297) states that the subject and verb are put immediately
after the connector. In addition to that, the words do, does, and did should be
omitted because they are not used in noun clause (Azar, 1989: 264).
The third type is noun clauses that are derived from request. This type of
clause usually functions as the object of the verb, and is introduced by the
connector that (Frank, 1972: 297). The following is the example.
(31) He urged that the matter should go to arbitration (Thomson and
Martinet, 1986: 305).
The fourth is noun clauses that are derived from exclamation. This can be
introduced by what and how (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 309). The example is:
(32) I hadn’t realized what a pretty girl she was (Frank, 1972: 61).
2. The Finite and the Non-finite Clauses
Clauses based on the structure of the verb phrase are distinguished into two
kinds. They are the finite clauses and the non-finite clauses.
18
a. The Finite Clauses
The finite clauses are clauses which contain finite verb phrases as the
elements of the verbs (Quirk et al., 1992: 150). The finite verb phrases are defined
as verb phrases containing a finite verb as the first or only word, and the rest of
the verb phrases are non-finite verbs (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 41). It implies
that a finite verb phrase is always introduced by a finite verb. Furthermore,
Greenbaum and Quirk (1990: 41) explain the characteristics of a finite verb
phrase. They are (1) a finite verb phrase can be the verb phrase of independent
clauses, (2) a finite verb phrase should be able to show tense and mood, and (3)
there is agreement between subject and verb. The examples of the finite verb
phrases are:
(33) He studies English (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1985: 38).
(34) You have been smoking all day (Quirk et al., 1992: 151).
b. The Non-finite Clauses
The non-finite clauses are described as clauses with non-finite verb phrases
as the elements of the verbs (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1985: 310). The non-finite
verb phrases themselves are verb phrases that consisted of non-finite verbs forms
only (Quirk et al., 1992: 149). The non-finite verbs include the verbs in the form
of to-infinitive, bare infinitive, -ing participle, and –ed participle. In the study, the
use of bare infinitive to introduce the non-finite clauses is excluded since it is
rarely used in the sentences.
According to Quirk et al. (1992: 995), the non-finite verb phrases have no
tense or mood, and it is impossible for them to occur with the subject of a main
19
clause. It implies that the non-finite clauses cannot occur as the main clauses. In
other words, they are always embedded to the main clauses. Therefore, the non-
finite clauses are different from the finite clauses because the non-finite clauses
always function as subordinate clauses while the finite clauses can occur both in
main clauses and subordinate clauses. From the statement, it can be inferred that
main clauses are always finite clauses, but subordinate clauses can be either finite
clauses or non-finite clauses. Therefore, the three types of subordinate clauses;
namely adjective clauses, adverbial clauses, and noun clauses can occur either in
finite clauses or non-finite clauses. The following are the examples of the non-
finite clauses.
(35) Since coming to this country, Mary has made many friends (Azar,
1992, 1989: 315).
(36) We could see the distant hills covered with snow (Close, 1977: 89).
From (35) and (36), it is clear that the non-finite clauses are always subordinated
to their main clauses.
The non-finite clauses, which are written in italics, also lack some parts. In
(35), the italicized part does not have a subject and tense. Meanwhile, in (36), the
non-finite clause lacks a subordinate conjunction. Quirk et al. (1992: 995) state
that “since the non-finite clauses lack tense markers and modal auxiliaries and
frequently lack a subject and a subordinating conjunction, they are valuable as a
means of syntactic compression.” To conclude, finite clauses can also be changed
into the non-finite clauses by omitting the subject, tense, and sometimes also the
subordinate conjunction. The omission will make the sentences more condense.
20
The following is the example of changing the finite clause into the non-finite
clauses.
(37) a. Finite: The police hope that they will solve the crime soon.
b. Non-finite: The police hope to solve the crime soon (Graver, 1981:
158).
In (37b), the subordinating conjunction that, the subject they and the tense will are
omitted, to-infinitive is used instead. The non-finite clause in (37b) operates as a
noun clause.
As it is stated before, subordinate clauses are classified into three types
according to their syntactic functions; namely adjective clauses, adverbial clauses,
and noun clauses. Those three types of clauses can occur either in finite clauses or
non-finite clauses. Since the focus of the study is on the non-finite clauses only,
detailed explanation about the three types of non-finite subordinate clauses will be
elaborated as follows.
1) The Non-finite Adjective Clauses
Azar, in her book entitled Understanding and Using English Grammar uses
the term adjective phrases to refer to the non-finite adjective clauses. Azar (1989:
257) states that the term phrase is used because it is actually a group of words that
does not have a subject and a verb. The subject and verb of the adjective clauses
have been omitted in the process of changing the finite adjective clauses to the
non-finite forms. Further, Azar (1989:257) states that adjective clauses can be
changed into the adjective phrases with the same meaning if they are introduced
by subject pronoun who, which, or that. It means that the clauses are able to be
21
reduced into the non-finite forms only when the relative pronoun introducing them
functions as the subject of the subordinate clauses. If the relative pronoun refers to
the object of the clauses, the clauses cannot be changed into the non-finite forms.
The forms of the non-finite verbs that can be used to introduce the non-finite
adjective clauses are –ing participle, -ed participle, and to-infinitive.
a) -Ing Participle
-Ing participle is used in two different conditions. The first is when the
adjective clauses have progressive meaning (Swan, 1988: item 455). It means that
the verbs in the clauses are be + V-ing. The way to change them into the non-finite
forms is by omitting the relative pronoun and the be form of the verb (Azar, 1989:
257).
(38) a. Finite: The man who is driving the bus is my brother.
b. Non-finite: The man driving the bus is my brother (Hewings,
2001: 148).
Another example is presented as follows.
(39) a. Finite: The men who were working on the site were in some danger.
b. Non-finite: The men working on the site were in some danger (Swan,
1988: item 455).
The following is another example of the non-finite clauses using –ing participle.
(40) a. Finite: The boys who are being chosen for the team are under 9.
b. Non-finite: The boys being chosen for the team are under 9
(Hewings, 2001: 146).

22
The non-finite clause in (40b) has passive meaning. Being followed by past
participle can indicate progressive aspect (Quirk et al., 1992: 1265).
The second condition is when the clauses do not have a be form in the verb.
The way to change them into the non-finite form is by deleting the relative
pronoun and change the verb into the -ing form (Azar, 1989: 257).
(41) a. Finite: The thieves took two mail bags that contained registered
letters.
b. Non-finite: The thieves took two mail bags containing registered
letters (Graver, 1981: 199).
The following is another example.
(42) a. Finite: The road that joins the two villages is very narrow.
b. Non-finite: The road joining the two villages is very narrow
(Murphy, 1987: 186).
-Ing participle, which is also called as present participle, can be used when the
verbs in the clauses expresses a habitual or continuous action (Thomson and
Martinet, 1986: 84).
b) –Ed Participle
-Ed participle clauses are usually the reduction of clauses in which the verbs
are in the passive voice (Close, 1977: 94). The adjective clauses in the passive
form are reduced into the non-finite clauses using –ed participle by omitting the
relative pronoun and the be form of the verbs.
(43) a. Finite: The man who was injured in the accident was taken to
hospital.
23
b. Non-finite: The man injured in the accident was taken to hospital
(Murphy, 1987: 186).
c) To-infinitive
The finite adjective clauses can also be transformed into the non-finite
clauses using to-infinitive. The to-infinitive can be used to replace either subject
or object pronoun and verb (Thomson and Martinet, 1986: 222).
(44) a. Finite: The thing that you should do is what everyone else is doing.
b. Non-finite: The thing to do is what everyone else is doing (Close,
1977: 98).
The to-infinitive can also be used to reduce the adjective clauses in the passive
form. The following is the example.
(45) a. Finite: There are still many obstacles that must be overcome.
b. Non-finite: There are still many obstacles to be overcome (Close,
1977: 98).
From sentences (44b) and (45b), it can be inferred that the relative pronoun and
modal are omitted when changing the finite adjective clauses into the non-finite
adjective clauses using to-infinitive.
2) The Non-finite Noun Clauses
In the non-finite noun clauses, -ed participle cannot be used as the first word
of the clauses. Close (1977: 96) states that –ed have to be preceded by –ing.
Therefore, there are only two forms of the non-finite verbs to introduce the non-
finite noun clauses, that is, -ing form and to-infinitive.

24
a) –Ing Form
The -ing form that functions like a noun is called a gerund (Feigenbaum,
1985: 239). One of the characteristics of gerund is that it can be replaced by it.
According to Close (1977: 90), the gerund can function as subject, object,
complement of be, and object of preposition. The non-finite noun clauses using
gerund as the subject of a sentences is common in general statements with be as
the main verb (Frank, 1972: 320).
(46) Sitting here in the sun is very pleasant (Close, 1977: 90).
Meanwhile, gerund can also be the object of the verb. There are some verbs that
should be followed by gerund like admit, avoid, enjoy, and quit. Here is the
example of gerund functioning as the object.
(47) He enjoys playing practical jokes (Quirk et al., 1990: 1063).
Besides, gerund also occurs as the object of a preposition. Swan (1988: item
336) states that gerund is used after all prepositions including to.
(48) I am tired of being treated like a child (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1985:
321).
The last function of gerund is as the complement of be. As it can be inferred from
the name, gerund is used after the be form.
(49) Her first job had been selling computers (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990:
312).
In addition, gerund can occur in passive and perfect forms. The following
are the examples.

25
(50) The soldier was accused of having betrayed his country (Graver, 1981:
147).
(51) No one likes being thought a fool (Graver, 1981: 147).
The possessives like my, your, and George’s can be used with gerund construction
(Swan, 1988: item 333).
(52) My forgetting his name was embarrassing (Greenbaum and Quirk,
1990: 312).
b) To-Infinitive
To-infinitive clauses can occur as subject, object, or complement (Close,
1977: 96). The to-infinitive is used as a subject of the verbs appear, be, seem
(Thomson and Martinet, 1986: 213).
(53) To be neutral in this conflict is out of the question (Quirk et al., 1992:
96).
A subject can be added into an infinitive clause by putting for to precede the
subject (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 311).
(54) For a bridge to collapse like that is unbelievable (Greenbaum and
Quirk, 1990: 320).
The second function of to-infinitive clauses is as the object of the verb. It
implies that there are some verbs that should be followed by the infinitive. The
verbs are classified into two groups. The first group is the verbs that are followed
directly by the to-infinitive such as afford, decide, plan, and want. This means that
the subject of the infinitive is the same as the subject of the main verb (Frank,
1972: 334).
(55) They decided to divide the profits equally (Thomson and Martinet,
1986: 216).
Meanwhile, the second group consists of verbs which should be followed by a
pronoun + an infinitive. The pronoun here functions as the subject of the infinitive
(Frank, 1972: 335). Some verbs that belong to this group are advise, ask,
persuade, and teach.
(56) His wife persuaded him to buy a new car (Frank, 1979: 335).
The last function of to-infinitive is as a complement. Complement here
refers to the complement of subject + be (Close, 1977: 77). The following is the
example.
(57) The best excuse is to say that you have an examination tomorrow
morning (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 311).
Infinitive can also be used to compress noun clauses that are derived from
questions. If the clause is introduced by question word, just add to directly after
the question word. Azar (1989: 265) states that question words can be followed by
to-infinitive.
(58) a. Finite: Tell me how I can start this car.
b. Non-finite: Tell me how to start this car (Close: 1977: 78).
If the clause is originally from yes-no question, the conjunction which can be used
is only whether, if cannot be used in this case. To-infinitive is put after whether.
The example is:
(59) a. Finite: Pam can’t decide whether she should go or stay home.
46
27
b. Non-finite: Pam can’t decide whether to go or stay home (Azar,
1989: 269).
According to Frank (1972: 349), the infinitive replaces modal can/could or
should.
3) The Non-finite Adverbial Clauses
The finite adverbial clauses can also be changed into the non-finite clauses
using -ing participle, -ed participle, and to-infinitive. The non-finite adverbial
clauses usually lack a subject. If the subject of the non-finite adverbial clauses is
not present, it is assumed that the subject of adverbial clauses is the same as the
subject of the main clauses (Quirk et al., 1992: 1121). Further explanation about
the usage of each form is presented below.
a) -Ing Participle
The way of changing the finite adverbial clauses into the non-finite
construction is basically the same as the way of changing the adjective clauses
into adjective phrases. To change the finite adverbial clauses into the non-finite
clauses using –ing participle, the subject and be form of the verb are omitted or
omit the subject and change the verb into –ing form if the clauses do not contain
the be form of the verb (Azar, 1989: 315).
(60) a. Finite: When we arrived at the party, we saw Ruth standing alone.
b. Non-finite: Arriving at the party, we saw Ruth standing alone
(Hewings, 2001: 150).
The following is another example.
(61) a. Finite: Because I felt tired, I went to bed early.

28
b. Non-finite: Feeling tired, I went to bed early (Murphy, 1987: 134).
The adverbial clause in (60b) is a time clause, while in (61b) it expresses clause of
cause. Being can also be used for clauses of time, following the word after,
before, and since (Close, 1977: 92).
(62) a. Finite: Since he was in the army, he has been in much better health.
b. Non-finite: Since being in the army, he has been in much better
health (Close, 1977: 92).
Being is also used to express clauses of cause like in the example below.
(63) Being unable to help in any other way, I gave her some money (Swan,
1988: item 455).
-Ing participle can also occur in perfective form using the word having.
Having + past participle expresses a time which precedes the time used in the
main clause (Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman, 1999: 501). According to
Hewings (2001: 150), it focuses on the completion of an action before the activity
in the main clause starts. The following is the example.
(64) a. Finite: After he had finished all his work, he left his office.
b. Non-finite: Having finished all his work, he left his office (Frank,
1972: 306).
Azar (1989: 317) states that because is omitted in participle clause of cause.
Another important thing is that clauses using participle can be made negative by
putting not before the verbs (Frank, 1972: 305). The example is:
(65) Not wishing to continue my studies, I decided to become a dress
designer (Swan, 1988: item 455).

29
b) –Ed Participle
Like the non-finite clauses, –ed participle is usually used when the clause is
in the passive form (Close, 1977: 94). To transform the finite adverbial clauses
into the non-finite form using –ed participle, the subject and the be form of the
verb are omitted.
(66) a. Finite: If this house is painted white, it looks bigger.
b. Non-finite: Painted white, this house looks bigger (Close, 1977: 95).
In (66b), the subject of the adverbial have been omitted, therefore, the subject of
the main clause should be made very explicit. –Ed participle can be used to
express clauses of time and clauses of condition. Besides, -ed participle is also
used for clauses of concession.
(67) a. Finite: Although I was invited, I didn’t go.
b. Non-finite: Although invited, I didn’t go (Close, 1977: 95).
Being is followed by –ed participle is another possible form to express clauses in
passive. The following is the example.
(68) Being imported, the radios were more expended (Hewings, 2001: 150).
c) To-infinitive
To-infinitive clauses can be used to substitute finite adverbial clauses of
purpose (Close, 1977: 97). It can be made stronger by the use of in order to or so
as to (Frank, 1972: 343).
(69) To speed up the delivery of letters, the Post Office introduced
automatic sorting (Graver, 1981: 306).
To-infinitive also expresses clauses of result.

30
(70) a. Finite: His work was so good, that it made him internationally
famous.
b. Non-finite: His work was so good as to make him internationally
famous (Close, 1977: 97).
3. Errors
This study deals with errors. Therefore, it is important to elaborate what
error is and the importance of studying errors.
a. Definition
Brown (1994: 205) describes error as “a noticeable deviation from the adult
grammar of a native speaker, reflecting the interlanguage competence of the
learners.” In other words, an error is caused by lack of knowledge. According to
Dulay, Burt, and Krashen (1982: 138), errors are parts of one’s saying or writing
which deviate from the rules of language.
People sometimes differentiate between errorrs and mistakes. Brown (1994:
205) defines a mistake as “ a performance error which refers to a failure to utilize
a known sytem correctly.” Further, Brown (1994: 205) explains that mistakes are
the imperfection of speech production such as hesitations and slips of the tongue.
Sometimes, it is difficult to judge whether a deviation is a mistake or an error.
This study does not differentiate between errors and mistakes. In the study, the
term errors refer to the students’ answers which are inappropriate and deviate
from the rule of the non-finite patterns without considering whether they are really
errors or mistakes.
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b. The Importance of Studying Errors
Dulay et al. (1982: 138) state two aims of studying the students’ errors.
First, it can serve as data to infer about the nature of the teaching learning process.
Second, it shows the difficult parts of the language. Studying the students’ errors
is essential for the teachers since that the errors can be used as feedback to
improve the teaching and learning processes.
4. The Mastery of a Language
The definition and the criteria of mastery will be elaborated further since
they serve as bases for conducting the research.
a. Definition
Fries (1948: 3) states that “a person has learned a foreign language when he
has thus first, within a limited vocabulary mastered the sound system, that is,
when he can understand the stream of speech and achieve an understandable
production of it and has, second, made the structural devices or the basic
arrangements of the utterances as a matter of automatic habit.” In the study, the
second criteria of mastery, that is making structural devices, is emphasized. It
means that the person knows how to construct a correct sentence. Dealing with the
study, one is said to have mastered the non-finite clauses if he or she understands
the rules of the non-finite clauses and is able to use the non-finite clauses correctly
in the sentences.
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b. The Criteria of Mastery
As it is written in Peraturan Akademik Universitas Sanata Dharma
Yogyakarta (2002: 14), 56 percent is the minimum standard of mastery, while the
overall grading system is determined by the lecturers. The following is the list of
score category which is used to classify the students’ scores.
Score Category
80-100 very good (A)
70-79 good (B)
56-69 sufficient (C)
50-55 insufficient (D)
≤ 49 poor (E)
Based on the list above, if the students’ scores are below the minimum standard of
mastery, it means that they still have difficulties and they have not mastered the
non-finite clauses.
B. Theoretical Framework
One of the language elements that should be mastered by students of the
English Language Education Study Program is grammar. There are so many
grammar topics to be learned, one of which is the non-finite clauses. The non-
finite clauses are learned by the students when they are in the fifth semester. The
non-finite clauses are important since they can make the sentences more
condense.
The non-finite clauses always function as subordinate clauses. Subordinate
clauses are one of the parts of complex sentences. Subordinate clauses are always
33
embedded to a main clause. In other words, subordinate clauses cannot stand by
themselves. Subordinate clauses can be classified into three types according to
their syntactic functions. They are adverbial clauses, noun clauses, and adjective
clauses. Obviously, the three types of subordinate clauses can occur in the non-
finite forms.
One thing to keep in mind is that the non-finite clauses have no tense, modal
auxiliaries and sometimes also lack a subject and subordinating conjunction. If the
clauses still have tense and modal auxiliaries, it means that they are still finite.
Therefore, the first thing to do to construct the non-finite clauses is omitting the
tense and modal auxiliaries, then change the verb into the non-finite verb forms.
There are three forms of the non-finite verbs to introduce the non-finite clauses,
namely –ing forms, -ed participle, and to-infinitive.
In the study, the students are asked to do a test. The test requires the students
to transform the three types of subordinate clauses in the finite forms into the
corresponding non-finite forms, and also to combine simple sentences into good
complex sentences using the non-finite clauses. The errors commited by the
students are discussed further. The errors show some parts in which the students
still have difficulties. The results of the elaboration of the errors are used as
feedback for both the lecturers and the students to improve the teaching learning
processes. Meanwhile, the results of the test administered to the sixth semester
students of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma
University is used to show their level of mastery in producing the non-finite
clauses.
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
This chapter discusses the research methodology. It consists of six parts.
They are the elaboration on the research method, the research participants, the
research instrument, the data gathering techniques, the data analysis techniques,
and the last is the research procedure.
A. Research Method
The method used in the study was a survey. Survey is “a procedure to gather
and describe the characteristics, attitudes, opinions of the students, teachers, or
any other people who are important to a study” (Brown and Rodgers, 2002: 142).
In the study, the writer would like to find out the mastery of the sixth semester
University on using the non-finite clauses.
The writer constructed a test in order to measure the non-finite clauses
mastery of the sixth semester students. Bachman (1995: 2) says that tests are
commonly applied as a criterion to measure the language capabilities in second
language acquisition research. In other words, they can provide information about
the effectiveness of teaching and learning processes. In addition, Bachman (1995:
3) states that language teachers usually administer tests to diagnose strengths and
weaknesses of the students. Based on those facts, the writer chose a test as the
instrument to gather the data.
34
35
B. Research Participants
The target population of the research was the sixth semester students of the
English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University in the
academic year of 2007/2008. They were chosen because they had learned the non-
finite clauses comprehensively in Structure V course without considering whether
they passed the course or not. The main point was that the students had been
exposed to the rules and the use of the non-finite clauses during the course.
Investigating all the target population was not efficient since there was
writer’s time limit. Therefore, the writer chose a sample from the target
population to represent the entire population. In choosing the sample, the writer
used cluster sampling procedure. As stated by Wiersma (1999: 292), the cluster
sampling is a procedure to choose the sample which involves the random selection
of clusters from the bigger population of clusters. This sampling method was
chosen because of two reasons. The first was that this sampling method was easier
to conduct since the writer did not need to make new clusters. The existing
clusters were used instead of making new clusters. The second reason was that the
sixth semester students of the English Education Study Program were assumed to
share the same level of mastery in using the non-finite clauses because they had
learned about the non-finite clauses in the same semester. Therefore, there would
be no big differences among the achievement in each cluster.
Seeing those two reasons explained above, this sampling method was
believed to be appropriate for the research. The population was divided into four
36
classes. In this study, the writer only involved two classes out of four classes from
the sixth semester students to be the sample of the research.
C. Research Instrument
The instrument, which was used in the study, was a test. The test was
administered to gain the data to be analyzed. The scores would determine the
students’ mastery of the non-finite clauses. Moreover, the test could show the
errors committed by the students. Thus, the test was an essential part of the
research.
The test consisted of thirty items which were divided into two parts. The
first part consisted of fifteen items. In this part, the students were required to
change or transform the finite clauses into the non-finite clauses. In the second
part, consisting of fifteen items, the students were asked to combine two sentences
which contained the finite clauses to become a good complex sentence by using
the non-finite clause for each item. Both types of test required the students to find
the correct non-finite form, and later to use it in the sentences. These forms of test
were considered the most effective way to check the students’ ability in using the
non-finite clauses in the sentences compared to true-false items, multiple choice
items, and filling in the blanks. All the items in the test were taken from the
examples and practices from various resource books. Meanwhile, the distribution
of items for each type of subordinate clause were eleven items for the noun
clauses, nine items for the adjective clauses, and ten items for the adverbial
clauses.
37
Because of its essential role in the research, the test should meet the
requirements of measurement. They are validity and reliability. The following is
the complete explanation of validity and reliability.
1. Validity
Gronlund (1998) as revealed in Brown (2004: 22) describes validity as “the
extent to which inferences made from assessment results are appropriate,
meaningful, and useful in terms of the purpose of the assessment.” Meanwhile,
Hughes (2001: 22) states that a valid test is a test which is able to measure the
things that supposed to be measured accurately. In the research, the test was said
to be valid if it could really measure the ability of the sixth semester students of
Sanata Dharma University in using the non-finite clauses.
There are some types of evidence to prove the validity of the test. Those are
content validity, construct validity, and face validity. The detailed explanation for
each type of validity is elaborated as follows.
a. Content Validity
“A test is said to have content validity or content-related evidence if the test
samples the subject matter about which conclusions are to be drawn” (Brown,
2004: 22). In addition, Hughes (2001: 22) states that content validity can be
proven by comparing the item specification to the content of the test. The item
specification refers to the skill which is measured by the items (Brown, 1996: 76).
The items in the test required the students to produce the non-finite clauses either
as noun clauses, adjective clauses, or adverbial clauses in the sentences correctly.
The details of the content of the test are presented in Table 3.1.
38
Table 3.1: The Content of the Test
Item Kinds of Clause Form of the Non-finite Meaning

Number Verb
1 Noun Clause To Active
2 Adverbial Clause Ed Passive
3 Adjective Clause Ed Passive
4 Adverbial Clause To Active
8 Adjective Clause Ing Active
9 Noun Clause Ing Active
13 Adjective Clause To Passive
17 Adverbial Clause Ing Active
21 Noun Clause Ing Passive
26 Adverbial Clause Ing Passive
Table 3.1 shows the content of each item of the test. It gives a clear description
about the kind of clause, the form of the non-finite verb, and also the meaning
whether the sentence was passive or active. Meanwhile, Table 3.2 presents the
distribution of items in the test.

39
Table 3.2: The Distribution of Item in the Test
No Type of Clauses Test Item Number Total

Number of Items
1. Noun Clauses
To-infinitive 1,5,11,15,16,23 11
Ing 9,18,21,25,28
2. Adjective Clauses
To-infinitive 13,20
9
Ing 8,10,27
Ed 3,6,24.29
3. Adverbial Clauses
To-infinitive 4,12,22
10
Ing 17,19,26,30
Ed 2,7,14
From Table 3.2, it is clear that each type of subordinate clauses was present in the
test. Thus, it could be concluded that the test fulfilled the content validity.
b. Construct Validity
Hughes (2001: 26) says that “a test fulfills construct validity when it
measures the ability which is intended to be measured.” The test, which was used
as the instrument to gather the data, is a direct testing. It emphasized the
production of the non-finite clauses in the sentences rather than recognition of the
finite and the non-finite clauses. In fact, in the test the students were required to
transform the finite clauses into the non-finite clauses and combine two simple
sentences in the finite form to become a good complex sentence using the non-
finite clause for each item. Since the test really measured the students’ ability in
producing the non-finite clauses, it could be concluded that the test fulfilled
construct validity.
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c. Face Validity
“Face validity is fulfilled when the test looks as if it measures what it is
supposed to measure” (Hughes, 2001: 27). In this case, the writer showed the draft
of the test to some lecturers of the English Education Study Program of Sanata
Dharma University, then to ask their comments about the test in relation to the
format and the validity. After receiving some comments or feedback from the
lecturers, the writer revised it in order to make the test better.
2. Reliability
According to Brown (2004: 20), "a test is said to be reliable if it is
consistent and dependable.” It means that the results of the test which was
administered to two different groups should be more or less similar. In order to
obtain the reliability of the test, the writer referred to some aspects to be
considered in constructing tests proposed by Hughes (2001: 36). They are:
a. The sample should be in adequate amount. The test should not be too long or
too short.
b. The instruction should be clear and unambiguous.
c. The condition in which the test was administered should be the same and
conducive.
Besides all of those factors, there is a way to estimate the reliability; that is,
by calculating the reliability coefficient. There are three ways to estimate the
reliability coefficient; that is, through test-retest method, inter-item consistency
method, and parallel-form method. In the research the writer used the Kuder-
Richardson formula 20 (K-R 20), which is included in inter-item consistency

41
method, to measure the reliability coefficient of the test. The writer chose K-R 20
for two reasons. The first reason is for practicality because K-R 20 requires only
single administration of test. The second reason is K-R 20 fits with the test. Ary,
Jacobs, and Razavieh (2002: 258) state that K-R 20 formula can be applied to tests
in which the items are scored either correct or incorrect. In the study, the students’
answers in each item were categorized as correct or incorrect. Thus, it could be
concluded that K-R 20 formula fits with the test. The K-R 20 formula as presented
by Brown (1996: 199) is:
k ⎛⎜ ∑ IV ⎞
⎟
K − R 20 = 1−
k − 1 ⎜⎝ St
2 ⎟
⎠
Where:
K-R20 = Kuder-Richardson formula 20
k = number of items
IV = item variance
St2 = variance for the whole test
Best (1983: 255), in his book entitled Research in Education, classifies the value
of reliability coefficient. The classification is presented in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3: The Classification of Reliability Coefficient
Coefficient (r) Relationship

0.00 to 0.20 Negligible
0.20 to 0.40 Low
0.40 to 0.60 Moderate
0.60 to 0.80 Substantial
0.80 to 1.00 High to very high
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The results of the pilot test, which was administered to one class of the sixth
semester students of the English Language Education Study Program, showed that
the reliability coefficient was 0.79. Based on the classification, this result
indicates that the test had substantial reliability.
D. Data Gathering Techniques
The real test was administered to two classes of the sixth semester students
of 2007/2008 academic year on March 31 and April 9, 2008. Before administering
the test, the writer asked for permission from the lecturers who were teaching the
chosen classes. At the days of test administration, the writer himself functioned as
the supervisor in order to monitor the process of the test administration. The
writer distributed the test to all of the students including the students who were
not from sixth semester. The time allotment to do the test was sixty minutes.
After administering the test, the writer sorted the sixth semester students’
sheets from the non-sixth semester students' sheets because the non-sixth semester
students were not part of the sample. After that, the writer checked the sixth
semester students’ works. The students’ works were analyzed further based on the
key and scoring criteria.
E. Data Analysis Techniques
In analyzing the data, the first thing to do was to score the test to find out
the students’ results and also the errors which the students still often made. To
score the test, the writer used a rubric. The rubric is presented in Table 3.4.
43
Table 3.4: The Rubric
Score Description
0 Incorrect answer or unanswered
1 Correct answer
After scoring the students’ answers, the writer counted the final scores. To
obtain the final score, the total score achieved by each student was divided by the
total number of items, and then the result was multiplied by 100. Then, the scores
for each student were classified using a scoring category.
In order to discuss the errors committed by the students in producing the
non-finite clauses, the writer classified the errors committed by the students in the
test into several categories. From the error classifications, the difficulties faced by
the students in constructing complex sentences containing the non-finite clauses
were identified. Meanwhile, in order to determine the students’ mastery in
producing the non-finite clauses, the mean score of the test was calculated.
F. Research Procedure
There were some steps in conducting the research. Those steps were:
1. Reviewing Literature
In this step, the writer collected some theories on the finite clauses, the non-
finite clauses and subordinate clauses from several grammar books. Besides, the
writer also reviewed some books of language testing and language learning. Those
theories served as the bases in conducting the research.

44
2. Constructing the Test
In this step, the writer constructed the test which consisted of two parts.
Each part consisted of fifteen items. The total number of items was thirty.
3. Finalizing the test
After the test had been constructed, the writer asked for some suggestions
and feedback from some English Language Education lecturers of Sanata Dharma
University. The suggestions and feedback were used to revise the test.
4. Finding the Sampling
The next step was to find the sample of the research. After that, the writer
asked for permission for administering the test from the lecturers teaching the
chosen classes.
5. Conducting the Pilot Test
The writer administered the pilot test to one class which shared
characteristics with the sampling. The pilot test aimed to find out the weaknesses
of the test. Based on the pilot test results, the writer made some adjustment to the
test in order to improve the test.
6. Gathering the Data
In this step, the writer administered the test to the two classes that had been
chosen as the sample within the same situation to ensure the reliability of the test.
Then, the writer separated the sixth semester students' sheets from the non-sixth
semester students’ and scored the sixth semester students' sheets only.
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7. Analyzing the Data
In analyzing the data, the writer classified the students' scores based on the
academic regulation of Sanata Dharma University. Then, the writer discussed the
errors the students committed in the test. The next step was counting the mean
score of the test to know the students’ mastery of the non-finite clauses.
8. Writing up the Results of the Analysis
After finishing the analysis, the next thing to do was to write and report the
results of the analysis of the research that had been conducted. From the results of
the research, the writer could give some suggestions that might be useful for
Structure V courses.
CHAPTER IV
RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter consists of two parts. The first part presents the data obtained
from the administration of the test. The second part is discussion. It deals with
answering the research questions.
A. Data Presentation
The data presentation is divided into two major parts. The first part deals
with the presentation of the students’ achievement in the test. Meanwhile, the
second part is the presentation of the descriptive statistics.
1. The Students’ Achievement in the Test
In the study, a test was used as the instrument to obtain the data to be
analysed. The test was administered to two classes of the sixth semester students
of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University
on March 31 and April 9, 2008. It consisted of two parts. In part A, the students
were required to change the finite clauses into the non-finite clauses. In part B, the
students had to combine two sentences into a complex sentence containing the
non-finite clauses. There were fifteen items for each part. Thus, the total number
of the test was thirty items. The detailed information about the students’
achievement in the test was presented as follows.
46
47
a. The Students’ Achievement in Each Part of the Test
Table 4.1 shows the students’ scores in Part A of the test. The score for each
student was determined by dividing the total correct answers by the total number
of items in Part A, then the result was multiplied by 100.
Table 4.1: The Students’ Scores in Part A of the Test
Range of Scores Number of Students Achieving the Range of Scores

90-100 3
80-89 10
70-79 13
60-69 8
50-59 6
40-49 15
30-39 3
20-29 4
10-19 1
0-9 2
It can be seen in Table 4.1, that there were three students (4.6%) achieving the
highest range of scores. Besides, there were also two students (3%) whose scores
fell on the range 0-9. In addition, there were fifteen students (23.1%) whose
scores ranged from 40-49.
Table 4.2: The Students’ Scores in Part B of the Test

90-100 -
80-89 1
70-79 -
60-69 5
50-59 3
40-49 11
30-39 10
20-29 17
10-19 6
0-9 12
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Table 4.2 shows the students’ scores in Part B of the test. From Table 4.2, it
was clear that none of the students achieved range of scores 90-100. The highest
score, which fell on the range 80-89, was obtained by one student only (1.5%). On
the contrary, there were twelve students (18.5%) whose scores ranged between 0-
9. The fact that there were quite many students with range of scores between 0-9
proved that part B of the test was difficult. This also implied that the students still
had problems in constructing complex sentences containing the non-finite clauses.
b. The Students’ Achievement in the Whole Part of the Test
The final score for each student was obtained by dividing the total correct
answers in both parts of the test by the total number of items, after that the result
was multiplied by 100. In other words, the total correct answers achieved by each
student were divided by thirty. The result was then multiplied by 100. The data of
the final scores achieved by the students are presented in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3: The Students’ Final Scores in the Whole Part of the Test

90-100 -
80-89 1
70-79 7
60-69 4
50-59 16
40-49 12
30-39 11
20-29 10
10-19 2
0-9 2
Table 4.3 shows that there were sixteen students (24.6%) whose scores ranged
between 50-59. There was only one student (1.5%) whose score fell on the range
49
80-89. The lowest score, falling on the range 0-9, was achieved by one student
(1.5%). None of the students achieved range of scores 90-100.
As it is written in Peraturan Akademik Universitas Sanata Dharma
Yogyakarta (2002: 14), 56% of the total score is stated to be the minimum
standard of mastery or to pass with sufficient level. The complete scoring category
is listed as follows.
Score Category
80-101 very good (A)
70-80 good (B)
56-70 sufficient (C)
50-56 insufficient (D)
≤ 49 poor (E)
The scoring category above was applied to classify the students’ achievement in
the test. Table 4.4 shows the students’ scores in relation to the category.
Table 4.4: The Students’ Scores in Relation to the Category
Score Category Number of Students Achieving the

Category
80-100 Very good (A) 1
70-79 Good (B) 7
56-69 Sufficient (C) 7
50-55 Insufficient (D) 17
≤ 49 Poor (E) 33
Referring to Table 4.4, there was only one student (1.5%) out of 65 students
becoming the respondents of the research who entered the category of very good.
There were seven students (10.7%) who fell on the category of good. Other seven
students (10.7%) achieved the category of sufficient. Seventeen students (26.1%)
achieved the category of insufficient. More than half of the respondents entered
50
the category of poor. In addition, there were fifty students (76.9%) out of 65 who
failed in the test because their final scores had not reached the category of
sufficient. In other words, there were only fifteen students (23.1%) who passed the
test.
c. The Students’ Achievement in Each Type of Clauses
As it has been explained before, subordinate clauses are divided into three
types according to their syntactic functions. They are noun clauses, adjective
clauses, and adverbial clauses. The test covered those three types of clauses. It
was also important to check the students’ achievement for each type of clauses to
find out whether they had mastered each of the clauses or not, and to know the
most difficult and the easiest type of clauses.
Based on the results of the test, the percentage of the students’ achievement
in noun clauses was 38.90 %. This number was obtained by dividing the total
correct answers in noun clauses by the total answers in noun clauses. The total
answers in noun clauses were determined by multiplying the total number of
sample students by the number of items of the noun clauses. The same formula
was also used to find out the percentage of the students’ achievement in adjective
clauses and adverbial clauses. The percentage of the students’ achievement in
adjective clauses was 48.72%. Meanwhile, the percentage of the students’
achievement in adverbial clauses was 45.07 %. Those numbers show that the
percentage of correct answers for each clause had not reached the minimum
standard of mastery, which is 56%. This fact revealed that the students’ ability in
using the non-finite clauses in the complex sentences either as noun clauses,
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adjective clauses, or adverbial clauses was still low. Those numbers also implied
that constructing the non-finite adjective clauses was easier for the students
compared to the other two types of clauses. Meanwhile, constructing the non-
finite noun clauses was considered to be the most difficult part.
2. The Presentation of the Descriptive Statistics
It is also important to examine the descriptive statistics of the results of the
test. Brown (1996: 102) describes descriptive statistics as numerical representative
about the students’ achievement on a test. In the test, the number of students who
became the respondents were 65, and the number of items in the test were thirty.
The maximum score was 100. The descriptive statistics of the test, which provide
the scores of the mean, median, mode, range and standard deviation, is presented
in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5: The Descriptive Statistics
No. Variables Value

1. Mean 43.59
2. Median 43.33
3. Mode 40 and 50
4. Range 76.67
5. Standard deviation 18.26
From Table 4.5, it can be seen that the mean score was 43.59. This meant that the
average of total correct answers achieved by each student was 43.59. Later, this
score would be used to determine the students’ mastery in the non-finite clauses.
The modes or the scores that occurred most frequently were 40 and 50. Each score
was achieved by seven students. Meanwhile, the value of the standard deviation
was 18.26.
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B. Discussion
This part deals with answering the research questions. The research
questions are (1) What are the errors the students commit in using the non-finite
clauses? and (2) What is the mastery of the non-finite clauses of the sixth semester
University? The discussion on those two questions is based on the research results
and related theories.
1. The Errors Committed by the Students
Brown (1994: 205) defines errors as “noticeable deviations from the adult
grammar of a native speaker.” In relation to the research, errors refer to the
students’ answers which deviate from the rule of the non-finite patterns. The
errors were classified based on the types of clauses they belonged to. All the
errors that are presented below are sequenced based on the percentage of the
occurrence of the error categories starting from the biggest percentage to the
smallest. Each of the categories is explained further completed with some
examples. Each example is also completed with one of the respondents’ numbers
in which the erroneous answer is found. The respondent’s number is indicated by
R #.
a. The Errors in the Non-finite Adjective Clauses
The errors the students committed in constructing the non-finite adjective
clauses were classified into several categories. Those error categories can be seen
in Figure 4.1.
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Figure 4.1: The Errors in the Non-finite Adjective Clauses
The following is further explanations about each type of errors.
1) The Occurrence of Finite Subordinate Clauses
In the test, the students were required to transform the finite subordinate
clauses and simple finite sentences to the corresponding non-finite clauses. In fact,
the subordinate clauses made by the students were still finite. In other words, the
subordinate clauses still had tense, person, and number.
(71) a. Question: The trees were blown down in last night’s storm. The trees
have been moved off the road.

54
b. Student’s answer: The trees which were blown down in last night’s
storm have been moved off the road (R #: 8).
c. Intended answer: The trees blown down in last night’s storm have
been moved off the road.
Basically, sentence (71b) was grammatically correct. It might reflect that the
students had understood the way to make a good complex sentence. The problem
was that the subordinate clause which were blown down in last night’s storm was
still finite. The word were showed that the clause was still in past tense. The word
were and the relative pronoun which should have been omitted in order to make
the clause non-finite.
(72) a. Question: Ms. Donaldson, who teaches Linguistics at the university,
recently received recognition for her research on the use of gestures in
communication.
b. Student’s answer: Ms. Donaldson teaches Linguistics at the
university, recently received recognition for her research on the use of
gestures in communication (R #: 20).
c. Intended answer: Ms. Donaldson, teaching linguistics at the
gestures in communication.
The subordinate clause in (72b) was still finite. It could be proven by the use
of the word teaches in the sentences. In that case, the students only omitted the
relative pronoun, but they forgot to change the verb into the non-finite verb form.
55
The word teaches should be teaching. Another mistake was that the students did
not put the clause between commas.
(73) a. Question: British trains are equipped with special communication
devices. These communication devices may be operated only in
emergency.
b. Student’s answer: British trains are equipped with special
communication devices which may be operated only in emergency (R
#: 64).
c. Intended answer: British trains are equipped with special
communication devices to be operated only in an emergency.
Sentence (73b) is another example of the occurrence of the finite
subordinate clause. In (73b), the relative pronoun which and the modal auxiliary
may should have been omitted to make the adjective clause non-finite. To-
infinitive was the correct form of non-finite verb to replace the relative pronoun
and modal auxiliaries.
The fact that the subordinate clauses were still finite implied that the
students might have not fully understood the non-finite clauses rules. The non-
finite clauses lack tense markers, modal auxiliaries, and sometimes a subject and a
subordinator (Quirk et al., 1992: 995). That is the basic principle of the non-finite
pattern. Thus, if the students’ answers still contained tense and modal, it could be
concluded that they had not understood the basic principle of the non-finite
clauses.
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2) Confusion between Defining and Non-defining Adjective Clauses
The second type of errors is the confusion between defining and non-
defining adjective clauses. Basically, the non-defining adjective clauses should be
separated from the main clause. In fact, the students were still confused about this.
Some of the students put commas for defining clause. On the other hand, they did
not put commas for the adjective clause that should be non-defining. Sometimes,
they only put one comma for the non-defining clauses. The following are the
examples.
(74) a. Question: Arizona, which was once thought to be a useless dessert,
is today a rapidly growing industrial agricultural state.
b. Student’s answer: Arizona thought to be a useless dessert is today a
rapidly growing industrial agricultural state (R #: 34).
c. Intended answer: Arizona, once thought to be a useless desert, is
today a rapidly growing industrial agricultural state.
From (74b), it was clear that Arizona refers to a definite noun. Therefore,
the adjective clause thought to be a useless dessert should have been written down
between commas. The adjective clause should be written between commas
because it did not specify the noun Arizona as the antecedent. The adjective clause
functioned only as additional information. Another simple mistake from sentence
(74b) was the students omitted the word once which should have been placed
before the word thought.
(75) a. Question: Only a few of the movies that are shown at the Super
Theatre are suitable for children.

57
b. Student’s answer: Only a few of the movies, shown at the Super
Theatre, are suitable for children (R #: 65).
c. Intended answer: Only a few of the movies shown at the Super
In (75b), the sentence was grammatically correct. The problem was the
adjective clause shown at the Super Theatre was put between commas. The
adjective clause should have not been written between commas because it helped
to specify the indefinite noun. The presence of commas made the sentence have
different meaning compared to the original sentence.
3) The Occurrence of Verbless Clauses
The focus of the research was whether the students were able to produce
sentences using the non-finite correctly or not. The results of the test showed that
there were some students who produced verbless clauses. It is called verbless
clauses because they do not possess any verbs. Although the sentences were
grammatically correct, they were considered wrong because in the test the
students were asked to produce the non-finite clauses.
(76) a. Question: Ms. Donaldson, who teaches Linguistics at the university,
recently received recognition for her research on the use of gestures in
communication.
b. Student’s answer: Ms. Donaldson, a teacher at Linguistics at the
gestures in communication (R #: 46).

58
c. Intended answer: Ms. Donaldson, teaching linguistics at the
gestures in communication.
Sentence (76b) showed that the finite adjective clause in the original sentence had
been changed into a verbless clause. It was obvious that the no verb was found in
the clause. In addition, there was one more little mistake. The preposition at in at
Linguistics should have been replaced by preposition of.
(77) a. Question: Arizona, which was once thought to be a useless dessert,
is today a rapidly growing industrial agricultural state.
b. Student’s answer: Arizona, a useless dessert, is today a rapidly
growing industrial agricultural state (R #: 46).
c. Intended answer: Arizona, once thought to be a useless desert, is
today a rapidly growing industrial agricultural state.
From (77b), it was clear that the students omitted the relative pronoun as well as
the verbs. This revealed that the students might be confused about the concept of
the non-finite clauses and verbless clauses. Actually, both sentences (76b) and
(77b) seemed to be acceptable. They were considered as wrong answers since they
were not in line with the purpose of the test.
4) The Adjective Clauses Modifying a Wrong Noun
As it has been explained in theoretical description, adjective clauses should
be located directly after the noun or the antecedent. Otherwise, there is a
possibility that the adjective clause modifies a wrong noun and it will lead to
confusion. This thing also happened in the test. The following are the examples.
59
(78) a. Question: The Independent Television Authority provides a new
commercial television service. It was set up in 1954.
b. Student’s answer: The Independent Television Authority provides a
new commercial television service, set up in 1954 (R #: 28).
c. Intended answer: The Independent Television Authority, set up in
1954, provides a new commercial television service.
The pattern of the non-finite clause in (78b) was correct. This implied that
the students had understood the rules of the non-finite adjective clause. They had
omitted the relative pronoun, modal auxiliary, and changed the finite verb into the
correct non-finite verb. The error was on the position of the adjective clause. It
should be located after The Independent Television Authority. If the adjective
clause was put after the noun service, the sentence was semantically incorrect
because the meaning of the word set up was established.
b. Student’s answer: The trees have been moved off the road blown
down in last night’s storm (R #: 27).
In (79b), the –ed participle blown down should have been placed after the
trees. From the original context, the things that were blown down were the trees,
not the road. Thus, it was clear that the adjective clause should be put directly
60
after the specified noun. Putting the adjective clause after another noun in the
sentence might cause confusion since the meaning would be different.
5) Wrong Choice of Main Clauses and Subordinate Clauses
In the test paper, it had been explicitly stated that the students had to use the
clauses or sentences written in italics to be the subordinate clause. The reality was
that there were students’ answers which used the clause or sentence in italics as
the main clause of the sentence. Hence, it could be inferred that the students might
have not read the instructions carefully. The examples are:
b. Student’s answer: The trees, which have been moved off the road,
were blown down in last nights’ storm (R #: 58).
Basically, sentence (80b) was acceptable and grammatically correct. The
problem was the adjective clause was still in finite form. Another problem was the
answer had violated the instructions. The adjective clause which have been moved
off the road should have been the main clause because in the original sentence the
clause was not italicized.
(81) a. Question: The gales caused widespread damage. They swept across
southern England last night.
b. Student’s answer: Causing widespread damage, the gales swept
across southern England last night (R #: 1).

61
c. Intended answer: The gales sweeping across southern England last
night caused widespread damage.
If sentence (81b) was compared to the original sentence, it was found out
that the clause that should be the main clause was made to be the subordinate
clause, while the clause that should be the subordinate clause was made to be the
main clause. Besides, in (81b), the subordinate clause functioned as an adverbial
clause. The problem was that the relation between the subordinate clause and the
main clause became unclear.
6) Problems between Active and Passive Sentences
In the test, it was found out that the students were still confused of the
difference between active and passive clauses using participle. –Ed participle
clauses automatically have passive meaning because they are the reduced form of
adjective clause in passive form. In other words, the finite adjective clauses in
passive form are transformed into the non-finite clauses by using –ed participle. In
some cases, the students used –ing participle instead of –ed participle to produce
the non-finite adjective clauses with passive meaning. In some other cases, the
students used –ed participle for the non-finite clauses with active meaning. This
fact proved that the students were still confused to produce sentences containing
the non-finite clauses with active or passive meaning. The examples are presented
as follows.
(82) a. Question: The Independent Television Authority provides a new
commercial television service. It was set up in 1954.

62
b. Student’s answer: The Independent Television Authority setting up
in 1954 provides a new commercial television service (R #: 42).
c. Intended answer: The Independent Television Authority, set up in
1954, provides a new commercial television service.
In (82b), the position of the adjective clause was correct. It was considered wrong
because the verb setting had active meaning. In (82a), the sentence that should be
the adjective clause was in passive form, therefore, it should be written using –ed
participle. Besides, the adjective clause should be written between commas
because the antecedent was specific already.
(83) a. Question: Pictures that showed the brutality of war entered the
living rooms of millions of TV watchers on the nightly news.
b. Student’s answer: Pictures showed the brutality of war entered the
living rooms of millions of TV watchers on the nightly news (R #: 33).
c. Intended answer: Pictures showing the brutality of war entered the
living rooms of millions of TV watchers on the nightly news.
From (83b), the verb should have been showing because the original sentence was
in active. The word showed in (83b) could be interpreted as past participle or –ed
participle. The use of –ed participle made the clause had passive meaning. Thus,
the use –ed participle instead of –ing participle was regarded incorrect.
7) Retaining the Relative Pronoun
Changing a finite adjective clause into a non-finite clause requires the
omission of the relative pronoun. The fact was the students still kept or retained
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the relative pronoun when they were asked to produce the non-finite adjective
clauses. For example:
b. Student’s answer: Only a few of the movies that shown at the Super
Theatre are suitable for children (R #: 16).
From (84b), it was obvious that the students only omitted the be form the verb,
but they still retained the relative pronoun. Thus, the sentence was considered
wrong.
(85) a. Question: The gales caused widespread damage. They swept across
southern England last night.
b. Student’s answer: The gales who swept across southern England last
night caused widespread damage (R #: 29).
c. Intended answer: The gales sweeping across southern England last
night caused widespread damage.
In (85b), the adjective clause was still in finite form, and the relative pronoun had
not been omitted. Moreover, the relative pronoun which was used in (85b) was
wrong. The relative pronoun who is used to refer to person. Hence, the use of who
to refer to the gales was incorrect.

64
8) Transforming into Wrong Types of Subordinate Clauses
In Part B of the test, the students were required to combine two simple
sentences into a complex sentence which contained the non-finite clause for each
item by using the italicized sentence as the subordinate clause. This type of test
required the students to infer the relation between the two sentences before
combining them into a correct complex sentence. The students had to think over
the subordinate clause whether it would be a noun clause, an adjective clause, or
an adverbial clause. The results of the test showed that some students might have
misinterpreted the relation of the two sentences, thus, the subordinate clause was
in the wrong type of clauses. The following is the example.
devices. These communication devices may be operated only in an
emergency.
b. Student’s answer: That these communication devices maybe
operated only in an emergency, British trains are equipped with special
communication devices (R #: 1).
In (86b), it could be seen that the subordinate clause was made to be a noun
clause which was introduced by that. Then, the function of the noun clause
whether it became the subject or object of the main clause was not clear. In other
words, the relationship between the main clause and the subordinate clause was
not clear.
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9) Inappropriate Use of being + V-ed
Basically, V-ed, to be + V-ed, and being + V-ed had passive meaning. The
difference was that being + V-ed stressed on the progressive aspect (Quirk et al.,
1992: 1265). The fact was the students might generalize the use of being + V-ed.
The misuse of being + V-ed caused difference in meaning of the sentences. For
example:
emergency.
communication devices being operated only in emergency (R #: 33).
In (87b), the use of being + V-ed was inappropriate because the original sentence
did not put emphasis on the activity in progress.
b. Student’s answer: Being blown down in last night’s storm, the trees
have been moved off the road (R #: 50).

66
The use of being + V-ed in (88b) was also inappropriate. Besides, the position of
the clause was wrong. If the participle clause was located in the beginning of the
sentence then it would be an adverbial clause.
10) Inappropriate Use of to be + V-ed
Clauses of passive modality could be reduced into the non-finite clauses
using to be + V-ed (Quirk et al., 1992: 1267). In fact, some students generalized
this rule. They used to be + V-ed instead of V-ed, or being + V-ed. The following
is the example.
b. Student’s answer: Only a few of the movies to be shown at the
Super Theatre are suitable for children (R #: 63).
Sentence (89b) had no modal auxiliary. Thus, using to be + V-ed instead of –ed
participle was considered wrong.
11) Inappropriate Use of –ed Participle
-Ed participle clauses are basically the reduced form of passive clauses. In
-ed participle clauses, the be form of the verb and the relative pronoun have been
omitted in order to change it into the non-finite clauses. In the test, some of the
students used V–ed for clauses that required to be + V-ed. The following is the
example.
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emergency.
communication devices operated only in an emergency (R #: 11).
In (90b), the use of V-ed was incorrect. From (90a), it was obvious that there was
a modal expression. Thus, the students should have used to be +V-ed instead of
V-ed.
b. The Errors in the Non-finite Noun Clauses
The errors committed by the students in constructing the non-finite noun
clauses were classified into several categories. Those categories are described in
Figure 4.2.
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Figure 4.2: The Errors in the Non-finite Noun Clauses
In the test, the students’ answer revealed that the students had not
understood the concept of the non-finite clauses. This fact was proven by the
occurrence of students’ answers that were still in finite clauses quite frequently,
even in every number. The examples are:
(91) a. Question: Six companies have signed an agreement. The agreement
is that they should share the costs of research and development.
b. Student’s answer: Six companies have signed an agreement that
they share the costs of research and development (R #: 17).

69
c. Intended answer: Six companies have signed an agreement to share
the costs of research and development.
Sentence (91b) proved that the students still produced the finite clauses rather than
the non-finite clauses. The students might have not understood what the non-finite
clause was. If they had understood the concept of the non-finite clauses, they
would not use modals like in (91b) when they were asked to produce sentences
using the non-finite clauses.
(92) a. Question: She had not telephoned us. We were surprised about it.
b. Student’s answer: We were surprised about the fact that she had not
telephoned us (R #: 64).
c. Intended answer: We were surprised about her not having
telephoned us.
Sentence (92b) was another example showing that the students still had problems
in constructing the non-finite noun clauses. In (92b), the students had produced a
grammatically correct sentence containing the noun clauses, but the clause was
still in finite form. The clause still had tense aspect, which was shown by the word
had.
In part B of the test, the subordinate clauses produced by some students
were in the wrong types. In this case, some students changed the sentence that
should be the noun clause into other types of clauses. The following is the
example.
70
(93) a. Question: The students are required to pay an extra fee to use the
laboratory. I am upset about that fact.
b. Student’s answer: I am upset about the students who are required to
pay an extra fee to use the laboratory (R #: 58).
c. Intended answer: I am upset about the students being required to pay
an extra fee to use the laboratory.
From (93b) it was clear that the subordinate clause was in the form of adjective
clause. Sentence (93b) was grammatically correct. The problem was that the
meaning was very different compared to the original context. Besides, the
adjective clause was still in finite form.
(94) a. Question: I opened a checking account. That took about an hour.
b. Student’s answer: Opening a checking account, I took about an hour
(R #: 43).
c. Intended answer: Opening a checking account took about an hour.
Sentence (94b) was grammatically correct. Besides, the clause was in the non-
finite form. The problem was the clause functioned as an adverbial clause. The
student failed to replace the word that with a correct form of non-finite clause.
3) Problem in Constructing Negative Clauses
Some items in the test were in negative form. This was aimed to test the
students’ ability in producing the non-finite clauses in negative. The results
showed that some students were confused to produce clauses in negative. Clauses
using participle could be made negative by putting not before the verbs (Frank,
1972: 305).
71
b. Student’s answer: Having not telephoned us, we were surprised
about it (R #: 30).
telephoned us.
In (95b), the subordinate clause was in the form of adverbial clause, hence, it was
wrong. From (95b), it could be inferred that the student had problem in
constructing the noun finite clause in negative form. The word not should be
placed before the verb having. This fact showed that the students might be
interfered by the rules of negative in finite form. In (95a) the word not was located
after had. Similarly, they just simply put not after having. The students seemed to
have generalized the rules.
The test required the students to change the clauses or sentences written in
italics to be the subordinate clause. In fact, some answers were found to have
violated the requirement. The student used the sentence in italics to be the main
clause of the sentence. For example:
(96) a. Question: How could I fix the leak in the sink? The plumber told me
about it.
b. Student’s answer: How could I fix the leak in the sink which the
plumber told me (R #: 45)?
c. Intended answer: The plumber told me how to fix the leak in the
sink.
72
The students were asked to use the sentence The plumber told me about it to be
the main clause. The fact was it was used as the subordinate clause in (96b).
Besides, the subordinate clause functioned as an adjective clause, not as a noun
clause.
(97) a. Question: Anne arrived an hour late. They considered it very
impolite.
b. Student’s answer: Considering it very impolite, Anne arrived an
hour late (R #: 47).
c. Intended answer: They considered Anne’s arriving an hour late very
impolite.
The same case could be seen in (97b). In (97b), the clause that functioned as the
main clause should be the subordinate clause. On the other hand, the subordinate
clause should be the main clause. In addition, the subordinate clause in (97b)
should be a noun clause, and not as an adverbial clause.
In the test, some students still had problems in producing sentences
containing the non-finite noun clauses in active or passive form. Close (1977: 96)
states that in the non-finite noun clauses, –ed should be preceded by –ing. In
other words, -ed participle, which had passive meaning, could not be used to
introduce the non-finite noun clauses. Thus, being should be used to precede the
clauses. The fact was some students used V-ing instead of being + V-ed to express
passive meaning. V-ing, which had active meaning, was not appropriate to be
used to clauses in passive form.

73
(98) a. Question: The students are required to pay an extra fee to use the
laboratory. I am upset about that fact.
b. Student’s answer: I am upset about requiring the students to pay an
extra fee to use the laboratory (R #: 37).
c. Intended answer: I am upset about the students being required to pay
an extra fee to use the laboratory.
The use of V-ing in (98b) indicated that the clause had active meaning. The
students should have used –ed participle instead. Besides, the pronoun the
students should be placed after the preposition about. It was clear that sentence
(98b) had different meaning if it was compared to the original context. Sentence
(98b) meant that the person who required the students to pay an extra fee was I.
Hence, sentence (98b) was semantically incorrect.
6) Lack of Genitive Case of Pronoun
In constructing a noun clause using gerund, if the gerund clause has a
subject, the item realizing the subject are written in the genitive case (Quirk et al.,
1992: 1063). The genitive form, which is written with apostrophe s, is used to
show possession (Close, 1977: 123). In fact, the students still used the 3rd person
of pronoun, or even omitted the pronoun. This revealed that the student might
have not understood the rules that the pronoun should be written in the genitive
case. The examples are:
(99) a. Question: Anne arrived an hour late. They considered it very
impolite.
74
b. Student’s answer: They considered Anne arriving an hour late very
impolite (R #: 18).
c. Intended answer: They considered Anne’s arriving an hour late very
impolite.
There was one small mistake in (99b). The students should change the pronoun
into the genitive case.
(100) a. Question: No one doubted that he was sincere in his beliefs.
b. Student’s answer: No one doubted he being sincere in his beliefs (R
#: 35).
c. Intended answer: No one doubted his being sincere in his beliefs.
In (100b), it could be seen that the students preferred to the 3rd person instead of
genitive case.
7) The Occurrence of Verbless Clauses
In the test, it could be found some students who produced the verbless
clauses rather than the non-finite clauses.
(101) a. Question: Six companies have signed an agreement. The agreement
is that they should share the costs of research and development.
b. Student’s answer: Six companies have signed an agreement about
the share the costs of research and development (R #: 16).
c. Intended answer: Six companies have signed an agreement to share
the costs of research and development.
It was clear that the subordinate clause in (101b) did not have a verb. Thus, it was
considered as a wrong answer.

75
8) Confusion to Choose Either to-infinitive or Gerund
When the student were asked to write the non-finite noun clauses, it was
obvious that they were confused when to use to-infinitive and when to use gerund.
In fact, there are some verbs that should be followed by to-infinitive, while some
other verbs should be followed by gerund. The following are the example.
(102) a. Question: Teachers have found that the overhead projector is
invaluable as a teaching aid.
b. Student’s answer: Teachers have found the overhead projector being
invaluable as a teaching aid (R #: 15).
c. Intended answer: Teachers have found the overhead projector to be
invaluable as a teaching aid.
To change sentence (102a) into the non-finite form, the conjunction that should be
omitted. Then, the overhead projector became the object of the sentence. The rest
of the sentence functioned as object complement and to be was used to replace the
linking verb. Thus, the correct sentence was Teachers have found the overhead
projector to be invaluable as a teaching aid. In other words, the word being in
(102b) was inappropriate and it should be replaced by to be.
(103) a. Question: The management promised that they would look into the
workers’ grievance.
b. Student’s answer: The management promised looking into the
workers’ grievance (R #: 30).
c. Intended answer: The management promised to look into look into
the workers’ grievance.

76
In (103b), the word promised should be followed by to-infinitive. In fact, the
student used gerund instead of to-infinitive.
9) Problems with Clauses Derived from Questions
The results of the test showed that quite many students still had difficulties
in constructing the non-finite noun clause which was derived from question
introduced by a question word. The finite noun clause, which was derived from
question introduced by a question word, could be changed into the corresponding
non-finite form by putting to-infinitive right after the question word. The fact was
the students still produced the finite form, omitted the question word, and
sometimes they used gerund. The examples are:
(104) a. Question: I don’t know where I should buy the meat for the lamb
stew.
b. Student’s answer: I don’t know to buy the meat for the lamb stew (R
#: 2).
c. Intended answer: I don’t know where to buy the meat for the lamb
stew.
In (104b), the to-infinitive had been used to replace the subject and modal
auxiliary. The problem was that the question word was also omitted.
(105) a. Question: How could I fix the leak in the sink? The plumber told me
about it.
b. Student’s answer: The plumber told me about fixing the leak in the
sink (R #: 52).
77
c. Intended answer: The plumber told me how to fix the leak in the
sink.
From (105b), it was clear that the question word was also omitted, but the
preposition was retained. Moreover, the verb was gerund. Thus, the sentence was
incorrect.
10) Incorrect Use of Comma
In the non-finite clauses, the use of comma is not needed. In fact, some
students put comma when constructing the non-finite noun clauses. It made the
sentence functioned as an adverb, especially when the clause was located in the
beginning of the sentence. Here is the example.
(106) a. Question: I opened a checking account. That took about an hour.
b. Student’s answer: Opening a checking account, took about an hour
(R #: 28).
c. Intended answer: Opening a checking account took about an hour.
In (106b), if the comma was deleted then it was correct. The presence of a comma
in (106b) caused the clause looked like as if it functioned as an adverbial. If it was
an adverbial, the sentence had no subject.
11) Problems in Perfect Construction
Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (1999: 649) state that to express the
completion of an action, the perfect form is used. In the test, it could be seen that
the students had difficulties in constructing the non-finite clause with perfect
form. Some of the students made the finite clauses, and some other students
omitted the perfect form. The following are the examples.

78
b. Student’s answer: Had not telephoned us, we were surprised (R #:
35).
telephoned us.
There were some mistakes made by the students in (107b). The first was that the
clause was still in finite form. The second was the word not, which was used to
express negative meaning, was misplaced. The third was the clause was an
adverbial, not a noun clause.
b. Student’s answer: Her not telephoning surprised us (R #: 15).
telephoned us.
From (108b), it was clear that the perfective aspect found in the question was
omitted. The perfective aspect should be retained, and the form should be in the
non-finite verb form.
c. The Errors in the Non-finite Adverbial Clauses
The following are the errors committed by the students in constructing the
non-finite adverbial clauses. The errors were classified into several categories.
They are described in Figure 4.3.

79
Figure 4.3: The Errors in the Non-finite Adverbial Clauses
The fact that the students still produced finite clauses was also occurred in
adverbial clauses. This meant that this type of mistake could be found in each type
of subordinate clauses. This fact showed that the students had not understood
about the non-finite clause. These are the examples.
(109) a. Question: I shall be satisfied if I can get my money back out of this
business deal.
b. Student’s answer: I shall be satisfied if I could have gotten my
money back out this business deal (R #: 45).
c. Intended answer: I shall be satisfied to get my money back out of this
business deal.
80
In (109b), the students changed the tenses. The fact was sentence (109b) was still
finite. It was obvious that the clause still had modal auxiliary. Thus, the students
might have not understood what the non-finite clause was.
(110) a. Question: If it is used economically, one tin will last for at least six
weeks.
b. Student’s answer: If it used economically, one tin will last for at
least six weeks (R #: 51).
c. Intended answer: Used economically, one tin will last for at least six
weeks.
In (110b), the subordinate clause was in the past tense. In order to transform the
clause into the non-finite clause, the pronoun it should be deleted.
(111) a. Question: The taxi driver misunderstood my directions to the hotel.
Therefore, he took me to the wrong place.
b. Student’s answer: The taxi driver took me to the wrong place
because he misunderstood my direction to the hotel (R #: 40).
c. Intended answer: Misunderstanding my directions to the hotel, the
taxi driver took me to the wrong place.
In (111b), the student had combined the two sentences in the correct way. The
problem was that the sentence was still in the finite form. The student had not
changed the finite verb into the non-finite verb form.
2) The Occurrence of Verbless Clause
When the students were asked to produce sentences containing the non-
finite clause, there was a student who made a verbless clause. The student omitted
81
the verb and it made the sentence become a verbless clause.
(112) a. Question: She is a foreigner. So she needs a visa to stay in this
country.
b. Student’s answer: As a foreigner, she needs a visa to stay in this
country (R #: 7).
c. Intended answer: As a foreigner, she needs a visa to stay in this
country.
In (112b) the verb was also deleted. The student should have changed the verb
into the non-finite form.
In the test, some students were wrong to choose the clause to be the main
clause and clause to be the subordinate clause. In the instruction of Part B on the
test paper, it had been clearly stated that the sentence which was italicized should
be the subordinate clause. In fact, the students used it as the main clause. The
following are the example.
(113) a. Question: Rachel wanted to watch the news. She turned on the TV.
b. Student’s answer: Turning on the TV, Rachel wanted to watch the
news (R #: 55).
c. Intended answer: Rachel turned on the TV to watch the news.
In (113a), the students were asked to use the sentence She turned on the TV to be
the main clause. The fact was it was used as the subordinate clause in (113b).
Basically, sentence (113b) was grammatically correct. The problem was the
82
sentence was semantically incorrect. The relationship between the main and
subordinate clauses was not clear.
(114) a. Question: Larry didn’t want to disturb his sleeping wife. He tiptoed
out of the room.
b. Student’s answer: Tiptoed out of the room Larry didn’t want to
disturb his sleeping wife (R #: 42).
c. Intended answer: Not wanting to disturb his sleeping wife, Larry
tiptoed out of the room.
If sentence (114b) was compared to the original sentence, it was found out that the
clause that should be the main clause was made to be the subordinate clause,
while the clause that should be the subordinate clause was made to be the main
clause. Besides, in (114b), the subordinate clause was placed in the beginning of
the sentence. Thus, it should be separated from the main clause by using comma.
In the test, there were some students who produced wrong types of
subordinate clauses. The subordinate clause should be an adverbial. In fact, some
students made the clause into a noun clause or an adjective clause. For example:
b. Student’s answer: The fact that Rachel wanted to watch the news
she turned on the TV (R #: 64).
In (115b), the students might have misinterpreted the relationship between the two
sentences in (115a) that made them constructed wrong type of clauses. The first
83
sentence in (115a) could be an adverb of reason and adverb of purpose. The fact
was that the student constructed a noun clause. In addition, the noun clause in
(115b) was also grammatically incorrect because the subject of the main clause
was unclear.
(116) a. Question: The taxi driver misunderstood my directions to the hotel.
Therefore, he took me to the wrong place.
b. Student’s answer: The taxi driver who misunderstood my directions
to the hotel took me to the wrong (R #: 58).
c. Intended answer: Misunderstanding my directions to the hotel, the
taxi driver took me to the wrong place.
Grammatically, sentence (116b) was correct. The problem was that the
subordinate clause was still finite. Another mistake was the subordinate clause
functioned as an adjective clause to explain the taxi driver. It was considered
wrong because the sentences in (116a) had a cause and effect relation. The second
sentence in (116a) was the result or effect of an action which happened in the first
sentence.
Problems between active and passive sentence also occurred in the other
two types of subordinate clause. Some students used passive form for clauses that
had active meaning. On the contrary, they used active form of verb to refer to
passive voice. For example:
(117) a. Question: Because they were impressed by the young man’s
qualifications, they offered him a good job with their firm.

84
b. Student’s answer: Impressing by the young man’s qualifications,
they offered him a good job with their firm (R #: 24).
c. Intended answer: Being impressed by Jo’s work, the manager
extended her contract for a year.
In (117b), the students used active verb to refer to passive form. Therefore, it was
incorrect. The word impressing should be replaced by the word impressed. In
other words, the subordinating conjunction because, the subject of the subordinate
clause, and the be form of the verb should be deleted.
out of the room.
b. Student’s answer: Not wanted to disturb his sleeping wife, he
tiptoed out of the room (R #: 32).
From (118b), it was obvious that the student used –ed participle, which had
passive meaning, to refer to an active meaning. The fact that the student used –ed
participle instead of –ing participle might reveal that the student did not
understand the difference between –ed participle and –ing participle.
6) Incorrect Use of Comma
Frank (1972: 234) states that the adverbial clause can be placed in initial
position, and it is usually separated from the main clause by using a comma. In
the test, some students forgot to put a comma after the subordinate clause. The
examples are:
85
b. Student’s answer: Wanting to watch the news she turned on the TV
(R #: 31).
c. Intended answer: Wanting to watch the news, Rachel turned on the
TV.
The adverbial clause in (119b) was placed in the initial position. Thus, a comma
should be located after the word news.
7) Problems with Pronoun
In the non-finite adverbial clause, the subject had been omitted. Therefore,
the subject of the main clause should be stated. In fact, the students used the 3rd
person pronoun. The following are the examples.
out of the room.
b. Student’s answer: Not wanting to disturb his sleeping wife he
tiptoed out of the room (R #: 59).
Sentence (120b) required a comma, which should be put after the word wife.
Besides, the 3rd person pronoun he in (120b) was unclear. Since the subject in the
subordinate clause had been omitted, then in the main clause the subject should be
mentioned explicitly. Thus, the pronoun should be Larry.
(121) a. Question: She is a foreigner. So she needs a visa to stay in this
country.
86
b. Student’s answer: His being foreigner make her need a visa to stay
in this country (R #: 59).
c. Intended answer: Being a foreigner, she needs a visa to stay in this
country.
The subordinate clause in (121b) was actually a noun clause. Besides, it was clear
that the student did not use the genitive pronoun consistently. In the beginning of
the sentence, the student used his, but later he used possessive pronoun her. The
use of possessive pronoun his was incorrect because it referred to a woman.
8) Problems in Constructing the Non-finite Adverbial Clauses in Perfective
Form
The results of the test showed that the students still had problems in
constructing the non-finite adverbial clause in perfective form. Having + past
participle indicates that an action in the subordinate clause is completed (Celce-
Murcia and Larsen-Freeman, 1999: 501). The fact was some students omitted the
perfective form. Below is the example.
(122) a. Question: The room had been painted in dark colours. The room
needed some bright lights.
b. Student’s answer: Painted in dark colours, the room needed some
bright lights (R #: 13).
c. Intended answer: Having been painted in dark colours, the room
needed some bright lights.
Sentence (122b) was grammatically correct. The problem was the students
omitted the perfective form. If sentence (122b) was compared to the original
87
sentences, it was obvious that it should use the perfective form, which was used to
indicate the completion of an action, had been omitted. Thus, it was considered as
a wrong answer although grammatically the sentence was correct.
9) Retaining Subordinator because for Clause of Reason
Azar (1989: 317) states that the subordinator because is omitted in participle
clause of cause. In the test, some students still retained the subordinator because.
The following is the example.
out of the room.
b. Student’s answer: Because not wanting to disturb his sleeping wife
he tiptoed out of the room (R #: 17).
It was obvious that the student put the subordinator because for clause of reason.
It should be omitted. In addition, sentence (123b) needed a comma, and the
subject of the main clause should be specified.
10) The Occurrence of Coordinate Clauses
The results of the test showed that there was a student who produced
coordinate clause instead of subordinate clause. This revealed that the student
might have not understood the difference between coordinate clause and
subordinate clause.
88
b. Student’s answer: Rachel turned on the TV and watch the news (R
#: 29).
From (124b), it was clear that the verb did not show parallelism. Another problem
was the clause was a coordinate clause, not a subordinate clause.
2. The Students’ Mastery on the Non-finite Clauses
The students’ mastery on the non-finite clauses was determined by the value
of the mean. The mean of the test scores was 43.59 out of 100. In other words, the
average of the final score achieved by each student was 43.59. It was obvious that
the score was still below the minimum standard of mastery, which is 56% from
the maximum score. The score was categorized as poor (E). In conclusion, the
students had not mastered the non-finite clauses and their mastery fell on the
category of poor (E). This fact means that the students still had problems in
constructing sentences using the non-finite clauses correctly.

CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
This chapter consists of two parts. The first part deals with the conclusions
drawn from the research result and data analysis. The second part presents some
suggestions to the lecturers, the students, and future researchers.
A. Conclusions
The research was aimed to find out the mastery of the non-finite clauses of
the sixth semester students of the English Language Education Study Program of
Sanata Dharma University. There were two problems that were discussed in the
research. They were (1) What are the errors the students commit in using the non-
finite clauses? and (2) What is the mastery of the non-finite clauses of the sixth
semester students of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata
Dharma University? In order to answer the two research questions, a test was used
as the instrument of the research. The test was divided into two parts, each part
consisted of fifteen items. The errors committed by the students in the test were
classified and discussed further. Besides, the results of the test were used to
determine the students’ mastery in using the non-finite clauses.
The errors the students’ committed in each type of subordinate clauses were
classified into several categories. The errors committed by the students in
producing the non-finite adjective clauses were (1) the occurrence of finite
subordinate clauses, (2) confusion between defining and non-defining adjective
89
90
clauses, (3) the occurrence of verbless clauses, (4) the adjective clauses modifying
a wrong noun, (5) wrong choice of main clause and subordinate clause, (6)
problems between active and passive sentence, (7) retaining the relative pronoun,
(8) transforming into wrong types of subordinate clause, (9) inappropriate use of
being + V-ed, (10) inappropriate use of to be + V-ed, and (11) inappropriate use
of –ed participle. Meanwhile, the errors the students committed in producing the
non-finite noun clauses were (1) the occurrence of finite subordinate clauses, (2)
transforming into wrong types of subordinate clause, (3) problems in constructing
negative clauses, (4) wrong choice of main clause and subordinate clause, (5)
problems between active and passive sentence, (6) lack of genitive case of
pronoun, (7) the occurrence of verbless clauses, (8) confusion to choose either to-
infinitive or gerund, (9) problems with clauses derived from question, (10)
incorrect use of comma, and (11) problems in perfective construction. The errors
in producing the non-finite adverbial clauses were (1) the occurrence of finite
subordinate clauses, (2) the occurrence of verbless clauses, (3) wrong choice of
main clause and subordinate clause, (4) transforming into wrong types of
subordinate clause, (5) problems between active and passive sentence, (6)
incorrect use of comma, (7) problems with pronoun, (8) problems in constructing
the non-finite adverbial clause in perfective form, (9) retaining subordinator
because for clause of reason, and (10) the occurrence of coordinate clause.
From all types of errors committed by the students in constructing the non-
finite clauses, it could be seen that there were some error categories that occurred
in each type of subordinate clauses. They were the occurrence of finite

91
subordinate clauses, problems with active and passive construction, transforming
into wrong types of subordinate clauses, the occurrence of verbless clause, and
wrong choice of main clause and subordinate clause. In other words, these were
the common errors committed by the students in producing the non-finite clauses.
Meanwhile, based on the results of the test, the mean score was 43.59. This
score had not reached 56% of the maximum score, which was stated to be the
minimum standard of mastery. In other words, the students had not mastered the
non-finite clauses. According to the scoring category, this score belongs to the
category of poor.
In addition to that, the results of the test also showed the students’ mastery
in each type of subordinate clauses. The students’ mastery of noun clauses was
38.90 %. The students’ mastery of adjective clauses was 48.72%, while the
students’ mastery of adverbial clauses was 45.07 %. Those numbers revealed that
the noun clauses seemed to be the most difficult type of subordinate clauses and
the adjective clauses to be the easiest type of clause to be learned.
To conclude, although the students had learned about the non-finite clauses
in semester five, the results of the test showed that the students’ mastery was still
low. The students often made fatal errors; one of them was producing finite
clauses. This implied that the students had not had enough knowledge of the non-
finite clauses. The errors mainly occurred in Part B of the test, where the students
were required to change two simple sentences in each item to be a good complex
sentence containing a non-finite clause.

92
B. Suggestions
The following are the suggestions which are proposed based on the results
of the research. The suggestions are addressed especially to the lecturers and
University. Besides, there are also some suggestions provided for future
researchers.
1. Suggestions for the Lecturers of the English Language Education Study
Program of Sanata Dharma University
Considering the fact that the students still used the finite clauses when they
were asked to produce the non-finite clauses, the English lecturers, specifically the
lecturers of Structure V, should emphasize the concept of the finite and the non-
finite clauses. It is essential that the lecturers ensure that the students really
understand the difference between the finite and the non-finite clauses.
The lecturers should also provide the students with sufficient examples of
the finite and the non-finite clauses. It is hoped that the examples given by the
lecturers will make the students easier to learn about the finite and the non-finite
clauses. In addition, the lecturers need to provide the students with adequate
practices or exercises so that the students have the opportunity to apply their
knowledge. It is much better if the lecturers also discuss the students’ answers and
give the correct answers.
Further, the lecturers should give a clear explanation about each form of the
non-finite verb. This will make the students understand more about active and
93
passive constructions, and the specific use for each form of verb. The difference in
meaning among each form of the non-finite verb should be explained in detail.
2. Suggestions for the Students of the English Language Education Study
Program of Sanata Dharma University
The students should pay attention to the lecturers’ explanation and
participate actively during the teaching and learning process. Because of the
students’ limited time to study about the non-finite clauses in the classroom, they
should also spend some of their time to study out of the classroom activity. They
can make a study club so that they can share, or discuss problems they encounter
in constructing the non-finite clauses. Besides, it would be better for them to
explore this topic more by searching other reference books to enrich their
knowledge.
3. Suggestions for Future Researchers
Future researchers especially those who are interested in conducting
research on the non-finite clauses can explore more, or modify this research.
Future researchers could develop instruments to gather the data, for example by
conducting interviews or class observation, in order to obtain more accurate data.
They may also modify the instrument by specifying or writing down the type of
clause to be the subordinate clause, or even changing the types of test into other
types such as multiple choice or filling in the blanks. Further, they can also seek
out how the non-finite clauses are used in the students’ writing. The use of the
non-finite clauses in the students’ writing can be conducted through examining the
students’ writing products.

REFERENCES
Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., and Razavieh, A. 2002. Introduction to Research in

Education. Sixth Edition. Belmont: Wadsworth Thomson Learning.
Azar, B. S. 1989. Understanding and Using English Grammar. Second Edition.

New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Bachman, L. F. 1995. Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing. Oxford:

Oxford University Press.
Best, J. W. 1983. Research in Education. Fourth Edition. Englewood Cliffs:

Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Brown, H. D. 2004. Language Assessment: Principles and Classroom Practices.

New York: Pearson Education, Inc.
Brown, H. D. 1994. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. Third

Edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc.
Brown, J. D. and Rodgers, T. S. 2004. Doing Secondary Language Research.

Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Brown, J. D. 1996. Testing in Language Programs. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall,

Inc.
Celce-Murcia, M. and Larsen-Freeman, D. 1999. The Grammar Book. Second

Edition. Boston: Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
Curme, G. O. 1966. English Grammar. New York: Barnes and Noble, Inc.
Close, R. A. 1977. A Reference Grammar for Students of English. London:

Longman Group Ltd.
Dulay, H., Burt, M., and Krashen, S. 1982. Language Two. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Feigenbaum, I. 1985. The Grammar Handbook. New York: Oxford University

Press.
Frank, M. 1972. Modern English Exercises for Non-native Speakers Part II:
Sentences and Complex Structures. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc.
Frank, M. 1972. Modern English a Practical Reference Guide. New Jersey:

Prentice Hall, Inc.
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Fries, C. F. 1948. Teaching and Learning English as a Foreign Language.

Michigan: Ann Arbor.
Graver, B. D. 1981. Advanced English Practice. Second Edition. Hongkong:

Greenbaum, S. and Quirk, R. A Student’s Grammar of the English Language.

London: Pearson Education Ltd.
Hewings, M. 2001. Advanced Grammar in Use. Jakarta: Erlangga.
Hughes, Arthur. 2001. Testing for Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.
Murphy, R. 1987. English Grammar in Use. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.
Quirk, R. and Greenbaum, S. 1985. A University Grammar of English. London:

Longman Group Ltd.
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., and Svartvik, J. 1992. A Comprehensive
Grammar of the English Language. New York: Longman, Inc.
Swan, M. 1988. Practical English Usage. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Thomson A. J. and Martinet, A. V. 1986. A Practical English Grammar. Oxford:

Universitas Sanata Dharma. 2002. Peraturan Akademik Universitas Sanata

Dharma. Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Wiersma, W. 1999. Research Methods in Education: an Introduction.

Massachusetts: Simon and Schuster Company.
APPENDICES
96
97
Appendix A: Surat Permohonan Ijin Penelitian

98
Appendix B: The Test of the Non-finite Clauses
Non-finite clauses
Student number : ______________________

Class : ______________________
Replace the finite clauses in italics by non-finite clauses, and make any other necessary
changes.
1. I don’t know where I should buy the meat for the lamb stew.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
2. If it is used economically, one tin will last for at least six weeks.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
3. Only a few of the movies that are shown at the Super Theatre are suitable for
children.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
4. I shall be satisfied if I can get my money back out of this business deal.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
5. His lawyer advised him that he should drop the case since it was unlikely to
succeed.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
6. Arizona, which was once thought to be a useless desert, is today a rapidly
growing industrial agricultural state.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
7. If he is given time, he’ll make a first-class tennis player.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
8. Ms. Donaldson, who teaches linguistics at the university, recently received
recognition for her research on the use of gestures in communication.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
9. No one doubted that he was sincere in his beliefs.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
99
10. Pictures that showed the brutality of war entered the living rooms of millions of
TV watchers on the nightly news.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
11. The management promised that they would look into the workers’ grievance.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
12. We call a travel agent so that we can get expert advice on our trip.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
13. The sales manager dictated some letters which had to be typed right away.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
14. Because they were impressed by the young man’s qualifications, they offered him
a good job with their firm.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
15.Teachers have found that the overhead projector is invaluable as a teaching aid.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Combine the two sentences in each item to make a good complex

sentence by using non-finite clause as the subordinate clause. Use
the sentences in italics as the subordinate clauses. Write down
the complete sentences.
16. Six companies have signed an agreement. The agreement is that they should
share the costs of research and development.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
17.The taxi driver misunderstood my directions to the hotel. Therefore, he took me
to the wrong place.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
18. She had not telephoned us. We were surprised about it.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
19. She is a foreigner. So she needs a visa to stay in this country.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
100
20.British trains are equipped with special communication devices. These

communication devices may be operated only in an emergency.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
21.The students are required to pay an extra fee to use the laboratory. I am upset
about that fact.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
22.Rachel wanted to watch the news. She turned on the TV.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
23.How could I fix the leak in the sink? The plumber told me about it.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
24.The trees were blown down in last night’s storm. The trees have been moved off
the road.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
25. Anne arrived an hour late. They considered it very impolite.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
26. The room had been painted in dark colours. The room needed some bright lights.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
27. The gales caused widespread damage. They swept across southern England last
night.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
28. I opened a checking account. That took about an hour.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
29. The Independent Television Authority provides a new commercial television
service. It was set up in 1954.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
30. Larry didn’t want to disturb his sleeping wife. He tiptoed out of the room.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
GOOD LUCK!!!
101
Appendix C: Key to the Test
PART A
1. I don’t know where to buy the meat for the lamb stew.
2. Used economically, one tin will last for at least six weeks.
If used economically, one tin will last for at least six weeks.
3. Only a few of the movies shown at the Super Theatre are suitable for children.
4. I shall be satisfied to get my money back out of this business deal.
5. His lawyer advised him to drop the case since it was unlikely to succeed.
His lawyer advised his dropping the case since it was unlikely to succeed.
6. Arizona, once thought to be a useless desert, is today a rapidly growing industrial
agricultural state.
7. Given time, he’ll make a first-class tennis player.
8. Ms. Donaldson, teaching linguistics at the university, recently received recognition
for her research on the use of gestures in communication.
9. No one doubted his being sincere in his beliefs.
10. Pictures showing the brutality of war entered the living rooms of millions of TV
watchers on the nightly news.
11. The management promised to look into look into the workers’ grievance.
12. We call a travel agent to get expert advice on our trip.
We call a travel agent in order to get expert advice on our trip.
We call a travel agent so as to get expert advice on our trip.
13. The sales manager dictated some letters to be typed right away.
14. Being impressed by the young man’s qualifications, they offered him a good job
with their firm.
15. Teachers have found the overhead projector to be invaluable as a teaching aid.
PART B
16. Six companies have signed an agreement to share the costs of research and
development.
17. Misunderstanding my directions to the hotel, the taxi driver took me to the wrong
place.
18. We were surprised about her not having telephoned us.
19. Being a foreigner, she needs a visa to stay in this country.
20. British trains are equipped with special communication devices to be operated only in
an emergency.
21. I am upset about the students being required to pay an extra fee to use the laboratory.
22. Rachel turned on the TV to watch the news.
Wanting to watch the news, Rachel turned on the TV.
23. The plumber told me how to fix the leak in the sink.
24. The trees blown down in last night’s storm have been moved off the road.
25. They considered Anne’s arriving an hour late very impolite.
26. Having been painted in dark colour, the room needed some bright lights
27. The gales sweeping across southern England last night caused widespread damage.
28. My opening a checking account took about an hour.
For me to open a checking account took about an hour.
29. The Independent Television Authority, set up in 1954, provides a new commercial
television service.
30. Not wanting to disturb his sleeping wife, Larry tiptoed out of the room.
102
Appendix D: The Sample of the Students’ Sheets

103
104
105
106
107
108
Appendix E: The Students’ Test Scores

109
110
Appendix F: The Total of Correct and Incorrect Answers in Each Number

ITEM Correct Incorrect Total
1. I don’t know where I should buy the meat for the lamb stew. 47 18 65
2. If it is used economically, one tin will last for at least six weeks. 39 26 65
3. Only a few of the movies that are shown at the Super Theatre are suitable
46 19 65
for children.
4. I shall be satisfied if I can get my money back out of this business deal. 32 33 65
5. His lawyer advised him that he should drop the case since it was unlikely
52 13 65
to succeed.
6. Arizona, which was once thought to be a useless desert, is today a rapidly
43 22 65
growing industrial agricultural state.
7. If he is given time, he’ll make a first-class tennis player. 31 34 65
8. Ms. Donaldson, who teaches linguistics at the university, recently received
38 27 65
recognition for her research on the use of gestures in communication.
9. No one doubted that he was sincere in his beliefs. 16 49 65
10. Pictures that showed the brutality of war entered the living rooms of
35 30 65
millions of TV watchers on the nightly news.
11. The management promised that they would look into the workers’
52 13 65
grievance.
12. We call a travel agent so that we can get expert advice on our trip. 55 10 65
13. The sales manager dictated some letters which had to be typed right away. 51 14 65
14. Because they were impressed by the young man’s qualifications, they
27 38 65
offered him a good job with their firm.
15. Teachers have found that the overhead projector is invaluable as a teaching
6 59 65
aid.
16. Six companies have signed an agreement. The agreement is that they
41 24 65
should share the costs of research and development.
17. The taxi driver misunderstood my directions to the hotel. Therefore, he took
11 54 65
me to the wrong place.
18. She had not telephoned us. We were surprised about it. 0 65 65
19. She is a foreigner. So she needs a visa to stay in this country. 30 35 65
20. British trains are equipped with special communication devices. These
20 45 65
communication devices may be operated only in an emergency.
21. The students are required to pay an extra fee to use the laboratory. I am
2 63 65
upset about that fact.
22. Rachel wanted to watch the news. She turned on the TV. 36 29 65
23. How could I fix the leak in the sink? The plumber told me about it. 17 48 65
24. The trees were blown down in last night’s storm. The trees have been
22 43 65
moved off the road.
25. Anne arrived an hour late. They considered it very impolite. 14 51 65
26. The room had been painted in dark colours. The room needed some bright
7 58 65
lights.
27. The gales caused widespread damage. They swept across southern
19 46 65
England last night.
28. I opened a checking account. That took about an hour. 30 35 65
29. The Independent Television Authority provides a new commercial
11 54 65
television service. It was set up in 1954.
30. Larry didn’t want to disturb his sleeping wife. He tiptoed out of the room. 25 40 65
111
Appendix G: The Students’ Erroneous Answers
Item 1: I don’t know where I should buy the meat for the lamb stew.
The Students’ Answers Frequency
Blank 3
the place where I should buy the meat 1
to by the meat for the lamb stew. 1
to buy the meat for the lamb stew. 7
where I should have to buy the meat for the lamb stew. 1
buying the meat for the lamb stew 1
I should buy the meat for the lamb stew is 1
on which buying the meat for the lamb stew. 1
where I buy the meat for the lamb stew 1
know buy the meat for the lamb stew 1
Item 2: If it is used economically, one tin will last for at least six weeks.
Being economically, 1
Being used economically, 8
To be used economically one tin 1
To be economically, 1
If it used economically, 3
One tin that is used economically will 1
Had been economical, 1
If it was used economically, 1
Using one tin economically will 2
To be used economically, one 1
It is using economically, 1
blank 3
If being economically used 1
If it is to use economically, 1
Item 3: Only a few of the movies that are shown at the Super Theatre are suitable for children.
the movies showed the meat for the lamb stew 2
the movies, shown … , are .. 1
the movies to be shown the meat for the lamb stew 3
112
Blank 1
which one being showed the meat for the lamb stew 1
the movies showing the meat for the lamb stew 4
the movies that shown the meat for the lamb stew 2
the movies being shown the meat for the lamb stew 3
the movies being showed the meat for the lamb stew 1
the movies, that show… , are 1
Item 4: I shall be satisfied if I can get my money back out of this business deal.
if I getting my money back out of this business deal 1
getting my money back out of this business deal 23
If I can get my money back out of this business deal 1
If getting my money back out of this business deal 1
If I could have gotten my money back out of this business deal 1
blank 2
Getting my… , I 1
get my money back out of this business deal 1
got my money back out of this business deal 1
I can get my money back out of this business deal 1
Item 5: His lawyer advised him that he should drop the case since it was unlikely to succeed.
advised him dropping the case 8
blank 1
him drop the case 2
advising to drop the case 1
advised he should drop the case 1
Item 6: Arizona, which was once thought to be a useless desert, is today a rapidly growing
industrial agricultural state.
blank 4
, was once thought to be a useless desert , 3
one thought to be a useless desert, 1
thought to be to be a useless desert 5
being thought to be to be a useless desert , 1
113
was once thought to be a useless desert , 1

once thought to be to be a useless desert 1
,a useless desert , 1
Was once thought to be a useless desert , Arizona is 1
, being thought to be a useless desert 1
Thought to be to be a useless desert, is 1
, being thought to be a useless desert, 1
which was to be a useless desert 1
Item 7: If he is given time, he’ll make a first-class tennis player.

His given time will.. 1
He gave time, 1
To be given time, 6
blank 6
Being given time 2
Giving time 1
Being given time, 8
Giving time, 3
Be given time, 1
If he giving time 1
Had been given time, 1
Is given time, 1
If he given time, 1
He will make … . 1
Item 8: Ms. Donaldson, who teaches linguistics at the university, recently received recognition for
her research on the use of gestures in communication.
Ms. Donaldson teaching linguistics at the university 3
Teaches linguistics at the university , Ms. Donaldson 2
teaches linguistics at the university 3
Ms. Donaldson, who teaches linguistics at the university 1
blank 4
, teaches linguistics at the university , 3
Ms. Donaldson theaching linguistics at the university 1
Ms. Donaldson teaching linguistics at the university, 2
114
Ms. Donaldson, a teacher at linguistics at the university , 1

, taught linguistics at the university, 2
Ms. Donaldson, teaching… recenly 1
, to teach linguistics at the university, 1
teaches linguistics at the university , 1
Ms. Donaldson who taught linguistics at the university, 1
Ms. Donaldson, who is teaching linguistics at the university , 1
Item 9: No one doubted that he was sincere in his beliefs.

being sincere in his beliefs 3
his sincering in his beliefs 1
hin siciry in his beliefs 1
Can’t be changed 2
his sincere in his beliefs 3
sincere in his beliefs 4
he was sincere in his beliefs 10
to sincere in his beliefs 2
his sincere in his beliefs 1
, he was sincere in his beliefs 2
Blank 6
to be sincere in his beliefs 2
he’s sincere in his beliefs 1
he sincere in his beliefs 1
him being sincere in his beliefs 1
that he sincering in his beliefs 1
he being sincere in his beliefs 3
to his sincere in his beliefs 1
the fact that he was sincere 1
to his beliefs 1
on what he was sincere in his beliefs 1
doubting he was sincere in his beliefs 1
Item 10: Pictures that showed the brutality of war entered the living rooms of millions of TV
watchers on the nightly news.
showed the brutality of war 21
115
show the brutality of war 2

Blank 1
,showed the brutality of war , 2
,showed the brutality of war 1
entered…showed the brutality of war 1
that show the brutality of war 1
shown the brutality of war 1
Item 11: The management promised that they would look into the workers’ grievance.
promised that they would look into the workers’ grievance 1
promised they would look into the workers’ grievance 4
promising to look into the workers’ grievance 1
Blank 1
promised the fact that they would look into the workers’ grievance 1
promised that to look into the workers’ grievance 1
promised look into the workers’ grievance 1
promised looking into the workers’ grievance 1
promised if they would look into the workers’ grievance 1
Item 12: We call a travel agent so that we can get expert advice on our trip.
Blank 1
agent so that to get expert advice on our trip 2
agent so that we can get expert advice on our trip 1
agent by the purpose of we can get expert advice on our trip 1
agent getting expert advice on our trip 2
agent so get expert advice on our trip 1
agent so we can get expert advice on our trip 1
agent that he can get expert advice on our trip 1
Item 13: The sales manager dictated some letters which had to be typed right away.
letters typed right away 6
blank 5
116
dictating some letters to be typed right away 1

which had typed right away 1
being typed right away 1
Item 14: Because they were impressed by the young man’s qualifications, they offered him a good
job with their firm.
Because they impressed by the young man’s qualifications, 1
Blank 4
Because impressing by the young man’s qualifications, 1
Being impressed by the young man’s qualifications, 18
Because they impressea by the young man’s qualifications, 1
They impressing by the young man’s qualifications, 1
They… firm by impressed by his qualification. 1
To be impressed the young man’s qualifications, 2
Impresse by the young man’s qualifications, 1
Bein impressed by the young man’s qualifications, 1
Having been impressed the young man’s qualifications, 1
Because impressed the young man’s qualifications, 1
Impressing by the young man’s qualifications, 3
Impressing the young man’s qualifications, 1
Since imprsed by the young man’s qualifications, 1
Item 15: Teachers have found that the overhead projector is invaluable as a teaching aid.
the OHP is invaluable as a teaching aid 23
its being invaluable as a teaching aid 1
the invaluable as a teaching aid 1
the OHP invaluable as a teaching aid 5
the OHP being invaluable as a teaching aid 3
Blank 13
the fact that the OHP is invaluable as a teaching aid 1
the OHP as a… is invaluable. 1
the OHP invaluability as a teaching aid 1
the OHP as invaluable as a teaching aid 1
found invaluable as a teaching aid 1
117
the invaluable OHP as a teaching aid 1

the OHP’s being invaluable as a teaching aid 1
Item 16: Six companies have signed an agreement. The agreement is that they should share the
costs of research and development.
an agreement that they should share the costs of research and development 5
an agreement in which they should share the costs of research and development 3
an agreement which they should share the costs of research and development 1
an agreement about the share the costs of research and development 1
blank 1
and agreement should share the costs of research and development 1
an agreement that share the costs of research and development 1
Shared the… , six comp…. 1
signed that they shoud share the costs of research and development 1
an agreement was that they should share the costs of research and development 1
an agreement they should share the costs of research and development 1
an agreement, which is they should share the costs of research and development 1
an agreement sharing the costs of research and development 2
an agreement which is they should share the costs of research and development 1
an agreement whose cost… they shold share. 1
an agreement that they should be shared the costs of research and development 1
an agreement which is to share the costs of research and development 1
Item 17: The taxi driver misunderstood my directions to the hotel. Therefore, he took me to the
wrong place.
Misunderstood my directions to the hotel, the taxi driver took…. 9
The taxi driver misunderstood my directions to the hotel that he took… 2
Misunderstood my directions to the hotel, the taxi drive took…. 1
Misunderstood my directions to the hotel, he took…. 1
blank 3
Misunderstood my directions to the hotel therefore he took…. 1
The taxi driver misunderstanding my directions to the hotel therefore… 1
Misunderstanding my directions to the hotel, therefore, he took 1
The fact that the taxi driver misunderstood my directions to the hotel, he took.. 1
That the taxi driver misunderstood my directions to the hotel took… 1
Being misunderstood my directions to the hotel , the taxi driver took … 3
118
The taxi driver who took me to the wrong place misunderstood… 1

Since the taxi driver misunderstood my directions to the hotel, he took… 1
Being misunderstood of my directions to the hotel, the taxi driver took … 1
Therefore the taxi driver who misunderstood my directions to the hotel took… 1
Because the taxi driver misunderstood my directions to the hotel, he took… 2
The taxi driver misunderstanding my directions 1
Misunderstood my directions to the hotel, the taxi driver tooks…. 1
The taxi driver misunderstood my directions to the hotel and he took… 1
The taxi driver, misunderstanding my directions to the hotel, took… 1
Misunderstood my directions to the hotel, therefore, the taxi driver took… 1
Misunderstood by my directions to the hotel, the taxi driver took…. 1
Misunderstood with my directions to the hotel the drivers took…. 1
The taxi driver took me… because he misunderstood… 1
The taxi driver, misunderstood my directions to the hotel, took… 2
The taxi driver took me… , he misunderstood my directions to the hotel 1
The taxi driver took me… because misunderstanding my directions to the hotel 1
The taxi driver misunderstood my directions to the hotel, he took… 1
Therefore, misunderstood my directions to the hotel the taxi driver took… 1
Being misunderstood about my directions to the hotel , the taxi driver took … 1
The taxi driver took… misunderstood my directions to the hotel 1
The taxi driver took me… because he misunderstood my directions to the hotel 1
The taxi driver who misunderstood my directions to the hotel took… 1
The taxi driver misunderstood my directions to the hotel that he took… 1
The taxi drive misunderstanding my directions to the hotel, he took… 1
The taxi driver misunderstood my directions to the hotel thus, he took… 1
He took… that misunderstood my directions to the hotel 1
Misunderstanding my directions to the hotel the taxi driver took… 1
The fact that the taxi driver misunderstood my directions to the hotel took.. 1
Item 18: She had not telephoned us. We were surprised about it.
Not having telephoned, we were surprised 2
We were surprised about his not telephoning us 1
We were surprised that she 1
We were surprised about her not telephoning 1
We were surprised she had not telephoned us 4
119
We were surprised that she had not telephoned us 6

Had not telephoned us, we were surprised about it 1
We were surprised to know she had not telephoned us 1
We were surprised not having telephoned us 1
Not telephoning us, we were surprised 1
Had not telephoned surprising us 1
Had not telephoned us, we were surprised 1
We were surprised about the fact that she had not telephoned 1
We were surprise she had not telephoned us 1
She had not telephoned us by which we were surprised 1
We were surprised because she had not telephoned us 4
She had not telephoned us which we were surprised about it 1
We were surprise that she had not telephoned us 3
We were surprised about she had not telephoned us 2
Not having telephoned us, we were surprised 1
We were surprised had not been telephoned 1
She had not telephoned were surprised us 1
She had not telephoned was surprised us 1
We were surprised her not having telephoned us 1
Not telephoning us, she made us very surprised 1
We were surprised about she had not 1
We were surprised about it because she had not telephoned us 1
We were surprised about 1
We were surprised about not telephoning us 1
Cannot be changed 5
She had not telephoned us that we were surprised about it 1
We were surprised not to be phoned by her 1
Her not telephoning surprised us 1
We were surprised about the fact that she had not telephoned us 1
We were surprised why she had not telephoned us 1
Blank 2
The fact that she had not telephoned us, she surprised us 1
Having not telephoned us, we were surprised about it 1
Hadn’t been telephoned, we were surprised about it 1
Had not telephoned, she made us surprised about 1
We were surprised about her not telephoned us 3
120
We were surprised about her having not telephoned us 1

Her not having telephoning us surprised us 1
Item 19: She is a foreigner. So she needs a visa to stay in this country.
Being a foreigner needs… 1
She needs…. to be a foreigner 1
The fact that she needs…because she is a foreigner 1
That she is a foreigner, she needs…. 1
She needs… for a foreigner 1
She as a foreigner needs….in this coutry. 1
Because she is a foreigner, she needs… 2
She is a foreigner that she needs… 1
Because of she is a a foreigner, she needs… 1
She is a foreigner who needs… 2
She needs…because she is a foreigner 3
She is a foreigner so as to need… 1
She needs…because she is a foreigner to stay… 1
She needs… visa to stay because she is a foreigner 3
She is a foreigner so needs… 1
A foreigner needs…to stay in this country 2
She is a foreigner needing a… 1
Since she is a foreigner, she needs…. 2
His being foreigner make her need… 1
To be a foreigner she needs.. 1
As a foreigner, she needs… 2
She, who is a foreigner, needs… 1
She is a foreigner so that she needs… 1
blank 3
Item 20: British trains are equipped with special communication devices. These communication
devices may be operated only in an emergency.
British trains are equipped with special communication devices operated only in emergency. 15
British trains are equipped with special communication devices to operate only in
1
emergency.
British trains are equipped with special communication devices which may be operated only
11
in emergency.
Even British trains are equipped with special communication devices, it may be operated 1
121
only in emergency.
British trains are equipped with special communication devices which may be operated only
1
in emergence.
British trains are equipped with special communication devices may operated only in
1
emergency.
blank 2
British trains are equipped with special communication devices that may be operated only in
3
emergency.
British trains are equipped with special communication devices being operated only in
3
emergency.
British trains are equipped with special communication devices, which may be operated only
2
in emergency.
That these communication devices maybe operated only in an emergency, British trains are
1
equipped with special communication devices.
Operated only in an emergency, special communication devices are equipped in British
1
trains.
British trains are equipped with special communication devices which are operated only in
1
emergency.
British trains are equipped with special communication devices, which is maybe operated
1
only in emergency.
British trains are equipped with special communication so that it devices may operated only
1
in emergency.
Item 21: The students are required to pay an extra fee to use the laboratory. I am upset about that
fact.
I am upset that the students are required to pay an extra fee to use the laboratory. 5
The fact that the students are required to pay an extra fee to use the laboratory makes me
2
upset
I am upset about the fact that the students are required to pay an extra fee to use the
12
laboratory.
I am upset about the students’ requiring to pay an extra fee to use the laboratory. 2
I am upset about the fact that students required to pay an extra fee to use the laboratory. 1
blank 3
I am upset about the fact that the students are required to pay an extra fee the laboratory. 2
The fact about the students required to pay an extra fee to use the laboratory upset me. 1
Being required to pay an extra fee to use the laboratory, I am upset about that fact. 1
I am upset about this fact to pay an extra fee to use the laboratory. 1
Required to pay an extra fee to use the laboratory, I am upset about that fact. 1
I am upset about that fact the students to pay an extra fee to use the laboratory. 2
Cannot be changed 5
I am upset about the fact being required to pay an extra fee to use the laboratory. 1
I am upset about the fact to be required to pay an extra fee to use the laboratory. 1
I am upset about that fact of students requirement to pay an extra fee to use the laboratory. 1
I am upset about the fact requiring the students to pay an extra fee to use the laboratory. 1
Upset about the fact requiring to pay an extra fee to use the laboratory. 1
122
I am upset about the students required to pay an extra fee to use the laboratory. 1
I am upset about requiring students to pay an extra fee to use the laboratory. 1
I am upset paying an extra fee to use the laboratory. 1
I am upset about the students requiring to pay an extra fee to use the laboratory. 1
The students are required to pay an extra fee to use the lab which upset me. 1
I am upset because students are required to pay an extra fee to use the laboratory. 1
I am upset about the students who are required to pay an extra fee to use the laboratory. 1
I am upset about requirement paying an extra fee to use the laboratory. 1
Knowing the fact that the students are required to pay an extra fee to use the laboratory, I
1
am upset.
I am upset that students are required to pay an extra fee to use the laboratory. 3
I am upset about the students are required to pay an extra fee to use the laboratory. 2
I am upset about paying an extra fee to use the laboratory. 1
Required to pay an extra fee to use the lab, I am upset. 1
Blank 1
I am upset about requiring thestudents to pay an extra fee to use the laboratory. 1
Being required to pay an extra fee to use the laboratory, I am upset. 1
I am upset about the fact requiring students to pay an extra fee to use the laboratory. 1
Item 22: Rachel wanted to watch the news. She turned on the TV.
Rachel wanted to watch the news so she turned on the TV. 1
She turned on the TV, because Rachel wanted to watch the news. 1
Because wanting to watch the news She turned on …. 1
Rachel wanted to watch the news that she turned on the TV. 1
Wanted to watch the news, Rachel turned on the TV. 9
Wanting to watch the news she turned on the TV. 2
Wanted to watch the news, she turned on the TV. 2
The fact that Rachel wanted to watch the news she turned on TV. 1
Blank 1
Rachel turned on the TV and watch the news. 1
Rachel wanted to watch the news so that she turned on the TV. 1
She turned on the TV because wanted to watch the news. 1
Rachel who turned on the TV wanted to watch the news. 1
Rachel turned on the TV bec she wanted to watch the news. 1
Because wanted to watch the news, Rachel turned on the TV. 1
Rachel turned on the TV because she wanted to watch the news. 1
123
Because Rachel wanted to watch the news, she turned on the TV. 1
Turned on the TV Rachel watching the news. 1
Turning on the TV, Rachel wanted to watch the news. 1
Item 23: How could I fix the leak in the sink? The plumber told me about it.
The plumber told me about fixing the leak in the sink. 10
The plumber told me how could he fix the leak in the sink. 1
Cannot be changed 2
The plumber told me how I could fix the leak in the sink. 3
Blank 4
The plumber told me about to fix the leak in the sink. 2
The plumber told me on how could I fix the leak in the sink. 1
The plumber told me how could I fix the leak in the sink. 3
The plumber told me how fix the leak ….? 1
The plumber told me about how to fix the leak in the sink. 4
The plumber told me he couldn’t fix the leak in the sink. 2
The plumber told me to fix the leak in the sink. 4
The plumber told me the way how I could fix the leak in the sink. 1
The plumber told me that I fix the leak in the sink. 1
The plumber told how to fix the leak in the sink. 1
The plumber told how fixing the leak in the sink. 1
The plumber told me how I fix the leak in the sink. 2
The plumber told me about how I could fix the leak in the sink. 2
How could I fix the leak in the sink which the plimber told me? 1
The plumber told me if I could fix the leak in the sink. 1
The plumber told me about the way he fix it. 1
Item 24: The trees were blown down in last night’s storm. The trees have been moved off the road.
Blank 6
The trees have been moved off the road blown down in the last night’s storm. 1
The trees which were blown down in the last night’s storm have been moved off the road. 6
Being blown down in the last night’s storm, the trees have been moved off the road. 10
Blowing down in the last night’s storm, the trees have been moved off the road. 2
The trees being blowed down in the last night’s storm have been moved off the road. 1
124
The trees, which were blown down in the last night’s storm, have been …. 1
The trees were blown down in the last night’s storm have been moved off the road. 2
The trees have been moved off the road since the trees were blown down in the last night’s
1
storm.
The trees which blown down in the last night’s storm have been moved off the road. 1
The trees blown down in the last night’s storm moved off the road. 1
Being moved off the road, the trees were blown down in the last night’s storm. 1
The trees that were blown down in the last night’s storm have been moved off the road. 3
After blowing down in the last night’s storm, the trees have been moved off the road. 1
The trees were blown down in the last night’s storm moved off the road. 1
The trees have been moved off the road which were blown down in the last night’s storm. 1
The trees were blown down in the last night’s storm which have been moved off the road. 1
The trees that blown down in the last night’s storm, moved off the road. 1
The trees, which have been moved off the road, were blown down in the last night’s storm. 1
The trees have been moved off the road blowing down in the last night’s storm. 1
Item 25: Anne arrived an hour late. They considered it very impolite.
They considered arriving an hour late very impolite. 3
They considered why Anne arrived an hour late very impolite. 1
Cannot be changed. 5
Arrived an hour late, they considered it very impolite. 1
Blank 4
They considered 1
They considered it very impolite. 1
Arrived an hour late, Anne was being considered by they very impolite. 1
Arriving an hour late, they considered very impolite. 1
They considered to arrive an hour late very impolite. 1
They considered that Anne arrived an hour late very impolite. 2
They considered Anne arriving an hour late very impolite. 4
Arriving an hour late, they considered it very impolite. 2
Since Anne arrived an hour late, they considered it very impolite. 1
Anne arrived an hour late that they considered it very impolite 1
Being arrived an hour late, They consider it impolite 1
Arriving an hour late, they considered her very impolite. 1
They considered Anne late arrival very impolite. 1
They considered that Anne arrived an hour late is very impolite. 1
125
That Anne arrived an hour late considered very impolite. 1

Anne arrived an hour late which considered that very impolite by them. 1
The fact that Anne arrived an hour late considered very impolite. 1
They considered Anne to arrive an hour late very impolite. 1
Considering it vey impolite, Anne arrived an hour late. 1
Considered Anne arrived an hour late is very impolite. 1
They considered than Anne arrived an hour late very impolite. 1
They considered that Anne arrived an hour late as very impolite. 1
The considered, Anne arrived an hour late is impolite. 1
Arrived an hour late, they considered Anne’s being late very impolite. 1
They considered it very impolite because Anne arrived an hour late. 1
They considered Anne arriving late as very impolite. 1
Anne arrived an hour late to be considered very late. 1
Arrived an hour late, Anne was considered very impolite. 1
They considered Anne arrived an hour late very impolite. 1
They considered Anne arrived an hour late was very impolite. 1
Arriving an hour late, the considered it very impolite. 1
Arrived an hour late, the considered it impolite. 1
Item 26: The room had been painted in dark colours. The room needed some bright lights.
Painted in the dark colours, the room needed some bright lights. 10
Had been painted in the dark colours, the room …. 1
The room which had been painted in dark colours needed …. 1
The room painted in the dark colours needed …. 1
Being painted in dark colours, the room needed some bright lights. 8
The room which had been painted in dark colours needed some bright lights. 4
The room being painted in dark colours needed some bright lights. 2
Painting in the dark colours, the room needed some bright lights. 2
The room that had been painted in dark colours needed some bright lights. 2
The room needed some bright lights to be painted in dark colours. 2
The room painted in dark colours needed some bright lights. 6
The room, painting in dark colours, needed some bright lights. 1
Had been painted in the dark colours, the room needed some bright lights. 2
The room had been painted in dark colours needed some bright lights. 2
The room, having being painted in dark colours, needed some bright lights. 1
126
The room that had been painted in dark colours needed some bright light. 1
The room, which had been painted in dark col, needed …. 1
The room needed some bright lights because painted in dark colours. 1
The room painting in dark colours needed some bright lights. 1
The room needed some bright lights because had been painted in dark colours. 1
The room had been painted in dark colours need some bright lights. 1
The room, which had been painted in dark colours, needed some bright lights. 2
That the room had been painted in dark colours, it needed some bright lights. 1
The room had been painted in dark colours so it needed some bright lights. 1
The room needed some bright lights because it had been painted in dark colours. 1
Blank 1
The room had been painted in dark colours so that it needed some bright lights. 1
Item 27: The gales caused widespread damage. They swept across southern England last night.
The gales that swept across southern England last night caused widespread damage. 5
The gales caused widespread damage to swept across southern England last night. 1
The gales caused widespread damage across southern England last night. 1
The gales, swept across southern England last night, caused widespread damage. 3
Blank 7
The gales caused widespread damage sweeping across southern England last night. 1
The gales who swept across southern England last night caused widespread damage. 1
They swept across southern England last night because the gales caused widespread
1
damage.
The gales caused widespread damage that the swept it. 1
Causing widespread damage, the gales …. 1
Cannot be changed 2
The gales swept across southern England last night caused widespread damage. 8
The gales sweeping across southern England last night caused widespread damage. 1
The gales which swept across southern England last night caused widespread damage. 5
The gales, which they swept across southern England last night, caused widespread
1
damage.
The gales caused widespread damage that they swept across southern England last night. 3
The gales caused widespread damage that swept across southern England last night. 1
Sweeping acrros southern England last night, the gales caused widespread damage 1
The gales caused widespread damage sweeping across southern England last night. 2
127
Item 28: I opened a checking account. That took about an hour.

Opened a checking account, I took about an hour. 1
blank 5
Opening a checking account, if took about an hour. 1
I opened a checking account which took about an hour. 1
It took about an hour when I opened a checking account. 2
That the way I opened a checking account took about an hour. 1
Opened a checking account took about an hour. 3
I opened a checking account taking about an hour. 2
The fact that I opened a checking account took me about an hour. 1
Opening a checkin account, took about an hour. 1
Opening a checking account, took about an hour. 1
My account checking took about an hour. 1
I opened a checking account that took about an hour. 2
That took about an hour to check my account. 1
Tooking about an honour to check account. 1
Opened a checking account took me about an hour. 1
That I opened a checking account took about an hour. 1
It took about an hour to opened a checking account. 1
Opened a checking account, took about an hour. 1
The fact that I opened a checking account took about an hour. 1
I opened a checking account which took about an hour. 2
Opening a checking account, I took about an hour. 1
Item 29: The Independent Television Authority provides a new commercial television service. It was
set up in 1954..
The ITA, which was set up in 1954, provides a new commercial television service. 4
The ITA set up in 1954 provides a new commercial television service. 11
The ITA provides a new commercial television service set up in 1954. 12
The ITA provides a new commercial television service which set up in 1954. 1
blank 3
The ITA provides a new commercial television service, set up in 1954. 1
Setting up in 1954, the ITA provides a new commercial television service. 3
The ITA which was set up in 1954 provides a new commercial television service. 4
128
The ITA being set up in 1954 provides a new commercial television service 1
The ITA provides a new commercial television service was set up in 1954. 1
The ITA provides a new commercial television service that was set up in 1954. 1
The ITA setting up in 1954 provides a new commercial television service. 2
The ITA provides a new commercial television service being set up in 1954. 1
The ITA provides a new commercial television service setting up in 1954. 1
The ITA, which was set up in 1954 provides a new commercial television service. 1
The ITA prrovides a new commercial 1
The ITA that was set up in 1954 provides a new commercial telivision service. 1
The ITA provides a new commercial television service which was set up in 1954. 1
The ITA provides a new commercial television service when was set up in 1954. 1
The ITA that was set up in 1954 provides a new commercial television service. 2
The ITA provides a new commercial television service which was set up in 1954. 1
Item 30: Larry didn’t want to disturb his sleeping wife. He tiptoed out of the room.
Didn’t want to disturb his sleeping wife, he …. 1
Didn’t want to disturb his sleeping wife, Larry tiptoed out of the room. 3
Larry tiptoed out of the room because he didn’t want to disturb his sleeping wife. 1
Not wanted to disturb his sleeping wife, he tiptoed out of the room. 1
Larry tiptoed out of the room to not to disturb his sleeping wife. 1
He tiptoed out of the room that Larry want to …. 1
Larry didn’t want to disturb his sleeping wife that he tiptoed out of the room. 1
The fact that Larry didn’t want to disturb his sleeping wife, Larry tiptoed out of the room. 1
He tiptoed out of the room because he didn’t want to disturb his sleeping wife 1
Larry, who didn’t want to disturb his sleeping wife, tiptoed out of the room. 1
The fact that Larry didn’t want to disturb his sleeping wife, he tiptoed out of the room. 1
Larry tiptoed out of the room. 1
Because not wanting to disturb his sleeping wife He …. 1
Didn’t want to disturb his sleeping wife, he tiptoed out of the room. 1
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Students' Errors in Producing The Non-Finite Clauses

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Students' Errors in Producing The Non-Finite Clauses

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PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

STUDENTS’ ERRORS IN PRODUCING THE NON-FINITE CLAUSES

Presented as the Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

STUDENTS’ ERRORS IN PRODUCING THE NON-FINITE CLAUSES

Presented as the Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

When you were born,

Trust the Past to

I dedicate this thesis to

I would like to express my greatest gratitude to Jesus Christ for everything

through my hard times.

My deepest appreciation goes to my major sponsor, Made Frida Yulia,

accomplishing this thesis. I am greatly indebted to my co-sponsor, Christina

I would like to take this opportunity to express my sincere appreciation to

Agustinus Hardi Prasetyo, S.Pd., M.A., Yohana Veniranda, S.Pd., M.Hum.,

respondents of this research.

Program of Sanata Dharma University for guiding me during my study. I thank

I would like to express my deepest love and appreciation to my beloved

my funny niece and nephews for cheering me up in my bad times.

My special thanks go to the English Education Production (EEPRO)

members for giving me the chance to express myself. My sincere appreciation

goes to PBI Play Performance’s Lighting Crew: Deddy Kurniawan, I Gede

Agus, Taufik, Galih Purnomo, Sudartomo, Satrio Nugroho, Eduardus

unforgettable moments and spirit of working together in facing the exhausting

event we had every semester. I express my gratitude to my friends during

I thank them for their sharing and laughter.

I deliver my best thanks to Ratri Wahyuningtyas for the time allocated,

Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to those whose names I cannot

mention here one by one. May God bless them all.

Gabriel Adi Wartanta

TITLE PAGE ......................................................................................... i

APPROVAL PAGES ............................................................................. ii

STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ....................................... v

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ....................... vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................... vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................... ix

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................. xv

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................... xvi

LIST OF APPENDICES ........................................................................ xvii

ABSTRACT ........................................................................................... xviii

A. Background of the Study........................................................... 1

D. Objectives of the Study ............................................................. 4

E. Benefits of the Study ................................................................ 5

F. Definition of Terms .................................................................. 6

CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A. Theoretical Description ............................................................ 9

1. Complex Sentences .............................................................. 9

a. Adjective Clauses .............................................................. 10

b. Adverbial Clauses ............................................................. 12

1) Clause of Place ............................................................ 13

2) Clause of Time ............................................................ 13

3) Clause of Manner ........................................................ 13

4) Clause of Degree .......................................................... 13

5) Clause of Cause ........................................................... 14

6) Clause of Condition .................................................... 14

7) Clause of Concession .................................................. 15

2. The Finite and the Non-Finite Clauses................................. 17

a. The Finite Clauses ............................................................. 18

b. The Non-Finite Clauses .................................................... 18

1) The Non-Finite Adjective Clauses .............................. 20

a) –Ing Participle ....................................................... 21

b) –Ed Participle ........................................................ 22