BUILDING PATHOLOGY &

INSPECTION Unit 5
Common Building Defects
5.2 Introduction

This unit will be introduced to a wide range of common defects which

affect the following building elements:

Foundations and under-buildings.

Walls.

Pitched roofs.

Flat roofs.

Floors.

Finishes, and

Components.

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5.3 Foundations and under-buildings

Subsidence/settlement- the gradual caving in or sinking of the supporting
ground below a building, due to the imposed loading, can result in
differential movement and stressing of building elements.

The reasons for the movement may be due to poor ground conditions or to
failure of the foundations. Unit 9 examine Movement and cracking problems.

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5.3 Foundations and under-buildings

Heave- the upward movement of soil, typically clays which is caused by the
expansion resulting from moisture absorption. E.g. change in moisture
content of ground and also frost expansion or from localized displacement.

Damage-Heave damage results in severe cracking to walls and hogging or

uplifting of solid ground bearing floors.

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5.3 Foundations and under-buildings

Erosion- the gradual removal of load bearing strata due to the effects of moving
subterranean water. Occur when historical land drains are disturbed due to
localised building works and the route of water courses are modified. Rise in
water table is also another factor due to rain fall or flooding. Once ground water
subside, soil can be remove.
Damage- localised cracking to those walls which have been affected by under
mining.

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5.3 Foundations and under-buildings

Sulphate attack- soil containing high concentrations of sulphate, either from

natural or contamination sources can adversely react with the concrete within
the foundation. Result in structural failure of the foundation and settlement of the
affected wall. High salts also affect ground bearing floors.
Damage- moisture from ground carries the sulphate into the concrete floor
resulting in a chemical reaction with the cement and expansion of the floor
structure. In old buildings lacking of an effective DPC, ground sulphate can
migrate up masonry walling resulting in efflorescence at low level.

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5.3 Foundations and under-buildings

Ground water- carry contaminants into the building structure

Damage- result in disruptive expansion of clay soils and can cause

dampness within the under building structure.

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5.3 Foundations and under-buildings

Tree roots- can be highly disruptive beneath and close to buildings. Trees
can alter, quite substantially,

Damage- the moisture content of the sub-soil resulting in expansion and

shrinkage with consequent movement within the building structure. In
addition tree roots can be tenaciously intrusive and can cause disruption to
walling, floors and services (drains) below ground.

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5.3 Foundations and under-buildings

Lack of ventilation- poor ventilation arising from blocked ventilators below

suspended floors can arise from a number of reasons: ground levels
externally raised over time; deliberate covering of openings to reduce
draughts; trees roots or rubbish blocking openings.

Damage- poorly ventilated result in reduced drying and increased moisture

causing mould growth and decay in timber structural members (joists).

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5.4 Walls

Cracking-the type of cracking must be
established to determine any remedial
action. The following key factors should be
considered when assessing cracking:
 Does the crack follow joints or does it
pass through the masonry unit?
 How wide is the crack?
 Does it appear new or old?
 Is the crack of consistent width or does
it widen?
 Are the cracks vertical or horizontal?

Crack movement can be monitored over a

period of time whether this movement
varies with change in temperature,
moisture content or variation in loading.
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5.4 Walls

Bowing/leaning- bowing, leaning or bulging walls
are serious building defects and can be caused by
a number of factors:
Failure of a structural tie or restraint.
Overloading.
Vibration from traffic or enclosed machinery.
Chemical (sulphate) attack within masonry joints.

Surveyor need to consider the specific causes:

The thickness: height ratio of the wall
Method of structural tying or restraint.
The extent that the wall is bulging or out of plumb.
The extent, size and location of cracking.
The number, size and position of openings in the wall.

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5.4 Walls

Wall-tie failure- galvanised wall ties produced
prior to 1981 may have insufficient protection
when used with mortars where calcium chloride
additives or where black ash mortars have been
used. Poorly protected wall ties can rust when
exposed to moist; aggressive environment
resulting in separate independent movement of a
2 leafs cavity wall.

The typical indication of wall tie failure include:

 Horizontal cracking approx. 5-12mm wide
 Rust formation and staining on the external face
at tie locations. This rusting will expand the
affected mortar joints.
 Bulging of the outer leaf.

Confirmation of wall tie failure can only be done

by intrusive inspection of the cavity either by
brick removal or use of a fibre optic probe.
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5.4 Walls

Staining and soiling- staining and soiling can arise
for a number of reason including:

Chemical (sulphate) attack.

Rising or penetrating moisture.
Defective or contamination masonry units or
mortar materials.
External contamination (atmospheric soot or
dirt).
Internal contamination (from internal processes).
Condensation.
Mould, algae or fungus.

Staining and soiling affect a buildings’ aesthetics

and may be an indicator of a more serious,
underlying defect and care will be needed to
identify the causes.
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5.4 Walls

Joint failure- failures of mortar joints
typically arise due to chemical
reactions; overloading or structural
movement. The effectiveness of a wall
depends upon these mortar joints,
therefore any defect or failure has
serious implications for structural
integrity of the wall.

Dampness & thermal bridging-

moisture can affect a wall either as
penetrating rain or as condensation at
thermal bridges. Defective cavity walls
can cause condensation at thermal
bridges. Penetrating moisture and
condensation occurs as damp patches
on the external wall and remedial
works often requires extensive and
intrusive re-construction of large areas
of the external wall. 15

Dampness & thermal bridging.

A thermal bridge is created when materials that are poor insulators come in contact,
allowing heat to flow through the path created.

Insulation around a bridge is of little help in preventing heat loss or gain due to thermal
bridging; the bridging has to be eliminated, rebuilt with a reduced cross-section or with
materials that have better insulating properties, or with an additional insulating
component (call a thermal break).
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5.4 Walls

Spalling/crumbing of bricks-
spalling and crumbling of
brickworks arises due to wetting
and subsequent frost attack or
due to chemical reaction
(moisture driven) within the
brick resulting in expansion and
spalling.

Remedial actions require the
removal and replacement of the
defective bricks or the
application of a render or a rain-
screen cladding to protect the
brickwork and mask the
physical damage. It will be a
serious structural issue when a
large proportion of the
brickwork has eroded most of
the way through its thickness.
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5.5 Pitched roofs

Roof spread- occurs following failure of the principal tensional roof member, e.g.
ceiling joist or tie. Due to :
Failure of the joist itself or as a result of insufficient mass or load bearing capacity
of the walling forming the eaves.
This can also occur when an older roof covering is replaced by a heavier tie. The
down ward acting roof load pushes the supporting walls outwards resulting in
bowing, bulging and cracking. Distortion of wall may also be accompanied by
sagging of the ridge and distortion of the gable wall.
Remedy involving considerable stripping of existing roof coverings and
reinstating the structural roof sections.

Split ridge board causing rafter instability and subsequent applied

horizontal thrust to the wall plates. 18
5.5 Pitched roofs

Rainwater penetration- typically occurs following failure of the waterproof covering.

Due to :
Dislodged or damaged slates or tiles or damaged flashings around penetrating
service pipes will allow moisture to penetrate the roof structure.
Blocked enclosed eaves gutters can also allow rain water to back up into the roof
structure.
Remedy is by reinstating waterproofing.

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5.5 Pitched roofs

Nail sickness- normally occurs in older roofs
where mild steel or poorly galvanised fixings
have been utilized to fix the roof covering
(slates and tiles) to the roof timbers. Due to :
 The inherently moist atmosphere below
the roof covering can result in rusting and
deterioration of these fixings. The sign is
slipped or dislodged tiles/slates. The
slipped units will have a rusted nail
embedded in the nail hole and may be
delaminating due to expansion stresses
this has caused.
 Remedy will require complete stripping of
existing roof covering and replacement
with new slates or tiles fixed with non-
ferrous nails.
 Caution limit to close inspection at eaves
or ridge but not on the roof slipping units
as it is unsafe.
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5.5 Pitched roofs

Delamination of slates/tiles- occurs due to affect of nail sickness. Due
to:
 wetting and frost attack or the use of poor quality materials.
Slates and tiles typically have a service life of 100 to 40 years
respectively. Therefore, natural weathering, e.g. wetting , freezing
and thawing will result in delamination. If it occurs much before
this time frame, it is most probably an inferior slate or tile was
specified/installed initially.
 Remedy will require complete stripping of the existing roof
covering and replacement with new slates or tiles.

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5.5 Pitched roofs

Low pitches- pitched roofs work by ensuring that rainfall landing onto the
roof surface is effectively shed off the steep roof surface and directed
towards gutters. As the roof pitch reduces the roofs ability to shed water also
reduces. Therefore due to :
 Low pitches roof <25° , there is a risk of water being driven up below the
roof covering and entering the building. This occurs during stormy
weather when there is wind driven rain. It might also occur at one of the
most exposed elevation.
 Remedy will involve removal of the existing roof covering and
replacement with a roof covering with increased cover or lap.

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5.5 Pitched roofs

Chocked/faulty gutters etc.- this is principally a maintenance issue,
which if left unattended can have serious implications for the service
life of the roof. Gutters should be cleaned twice a year before and
after winter. More so in spring and autumn where the roof is close to
or overhung by trees. The gutter should and down pipes should be
clear and free flowing.
 Tennis balls and decomposing pigeons can become stuck at
bends or traps and can cause water back up.

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5.5 Pitched roofs

Fungal/insect attack- typically affects timber structures which are

damp, poorly ventilated and can vary from minor fungal growths.

 Remedy is by cleaning with a mild bleach solution to major

structural impaired as a result of insect infestation.

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5.5 Pitched roofs

Storm damage- occurs during high winds and normally results in
damage to or removal of the roof covering. The structural members
are normally unaffected; the open , frame nature of these nature of
these structures usually ensures they remain unscatched.
 The extent of damage following a store may be greater than the
storm itself.
 Remedy may be by removing and replacing additional sarking,
purlins and bracing in order to repair the roof.

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5.5 Pitched roofs

Bowing or leaning chimney stacks-

occurs as a result of :
 sulphates arising from products of
combustion condensing and reacting
on the cold surfaces inside the
chimney. This is more exaggerated
on the colder north side (the south
seeing more of the warm , drying
influence of the sun), leading to a
distinctive leaning of the chimney
stack.
 Remedy is by demolishing and
rebuilding in extreme cases.

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5.6 Flat roofs
Flat roof can be waterproofing with a range of materials including
built-up bituminous membranes; mastic asphalt; metals (lead, copper,
aluminium, coated steel) and liquid applied coating. When
investigating failures, research will be required into specific material
or system.

Rainwater penetration- occurs when there is a failure of the
waterproof covering or the detailing at upstands or at flashing at roof
penetrations. Due to :
 The low slope, standing water can penetrate at open joints in the
waterproofing or at lapped or standing seam joints by capillary action.
 Diagnosis requires close inspection of the roof detailing to ensure
that the water is not the result of condensation.
 Remedy is to repair damaged waterproofing; resealing of defective
joints and upstand detailing and reinstatement of water bars or
sealant at lapped joints. Complete renewal of the roof covering may
not be necessary.
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5.6 Flat roofs

Ponding- occurs due to ineffective

falls on flat or low pitch roofs.
Mainly clients perceive ponding as
a defect, however, if the waterproof
covering is intact, there is no risks
for water penetration. Modern
waterproofing materials especially
reinforced bituminous membranes
will remain unaffected by standing
water.

Remedy is by creating a fall on the

existing roof surface, e.g. by
installing a cut to falls or tappered
insulation system.
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5.6 Flat roofs

Blistering/cracking of felts- blistering
indicates that there may be entrapped
moisture (or air) below the outer
waterproofing layers. This is the due to the
result of :
 Water penetration or condensation.
Cracking tend to indicate that the felt is
ageing. i.e. elastic properties of the felt
have deteriorated and it is now unable
to accommodate temperature induced
movement.

 Remedy blisters can be split, drained

and resealed, however the source of
moisture will need to be eliminated.
Cracking felt is approaching the end of
its service life and should be replaced
or overlaid. 30
5.6 Flat roofs

Degradation of surface finish- can be
the result of solar/UV degradation;
abrasion due to :
 wind action on mineral or gravel
finish; abrasion due to traffic
(maintenance or service personnel
walking and dragging equipment
across a flat roof can degrade the
waterproof covering). Solvents,
surfactants or oil based
contaminants used in maintaining
roof equipment can have a abrasive
effect.

 Remedy would be localised repairs,

improved surface protection (granite
chippings), the application of a
liquid applied coating or the
provision of designated walk-ways.
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5.6 Flat roofs

Chocked rainwater outlets- a routine
maintenance problem.
 A blocked or chocked outlet can result
in gutters backing up and flooding into
the building. For large flat roof,
considerable water can be stored in
the gutter and on the roof leading to
overloading of the roof structure.
 Remedy is regular gutter and outlet
cleaning, introduction of over-flow
pipes for discharge to ground
especially for close proximity of trees.

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5.6 Flat roofs

Interstitial condensation
Excess of humidity and resulting moisture on the
surface of building elements is a problem. However,
the situation can become a lot worse when
condensation occurs at interstitial level, within the
building elements, and in materials that are not too
dense, like insulation. If condensation occurs this
would irremediably compromise the thermal
performance of the envelope, as well as reduce the
lifespan of the material and the integrity of the Water from condensation
structure. of vapour diffusion
Conventionally, one of the most recurrent ways to deal through the wall, clogged
with this issue was to specify an impermeable layer within the insulation
within the wall, to control any vapour diffusion
through it. But this brought a new set of problems: if
some water on either side of the barrier manages to
condensate on the structure, and the building
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element is impermeable, how will it dry out?
5.6 Flat roofs

Interstitial condensation- all flat roof
coverings provide an effective vapor barrier
to moist air and given that they are on the
cold side of the construction there is a high
risk of condensation forming either on the
underside of the roof covering or within the
fabric of the roof build-up.

The condensation reduces the thermal

performance of the roof and can reduce the
service life of the roof components.

Remedy may include complete

refurbishment of the defective roof
construction. Or ensure that there is an
effective vapour barrier on the warm side of
the construction should reduce the risk of
such defect.
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5.7 Floors
Defects associated with floor develop from ground
moisture and movement.

Cracking- occurs in solid ground bearing floors as

result of thermal. Moisture or ground induced
movement and may be related to sagging, arching or
uneven surfaces.

Sagging- occurs in solid ground bearing floors where

the underlying ground compacts or is eroded by
ground water resulting in reduced support to the
overlying floor.
 In suspended timber floor, sagging can occur due to
overloading of the floor or when the span of the joists
exceeds the recommended effective load bearing
span for the timber section.
 Remedy treatment requires extensive refurbishment
of the structural aspects of the floor.
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5.7 Floors

Arching/bowing- in solid ground bearing
floors this occurs following water or chemical
induced expansion of the underlying ground.
 This happens in old buildings which have
been constructed using green timbers which
have dried or seasoned in a ‘hog’ shape.
 Remedy is by removing the ground bearing
floors.

Uneven/sloping surface- occurs in both solid

ground bearing and suspended floors
 where there is some differential settlement or
subsidence over the building area resulting in
modified floor levels.
 Remedy requires extensive reconstruction
and ground stabilisation.

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5.7 Floors

Cracking of coverings/screeds- occurs
typically due to drying out of the screed
causing detachment, curling and cracking.

Erosion- surface erosion occurs due to

trafficking of the floor abrading the applied
finish.

Dampness/sweating- moisture entrapped

within the sub-floor or screed tends to dry
towards the warmer internal environment
and can result in moisture forming behind
impervious floor coverings.
 Remedy is by introducing a vapour
impermeable membrane or DPC to reduce
the risk of moisture migration.
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5.8 Finishes

Bossing- wet applied renders or
plasters and adhesive fixed tiles can
become boss where there are areas
of detachment or void adhesion.
Boss area produce a hollow sound.

Spalling- areas of detachment of

clay, gypsum or cement based
materials as the result of wetting and
frost action causing in partial
delamination. Spalled materials will
be obvious by localized areas of
detachment, typically crudely circular
in shape.

Staining- can arise due to a raft of

reasons and results in discolouration
of the surface finish.

Lifting- delamination or detachment

due to moisture or rapid drying
action. 38
5.8 Finishes

Peeling-curling of surface finish due to shrinkage (typically
ageing) and delamination from substance.

Crazing/cracking- surface effect resulting from drying

shrinkage movement. Can also be the result of chemical
reaction.

Blistering- localised surface detachment or distortion as the

result of permeating moisture becoming trapped behind
impervious finish. Blistering often terminates in splitting,
curling and peeling.

Mould growth- bacterial staining on finishes as the result of

moist conditions. A food source, e.g. wall paper paste,
adhesive.

Pattern staining- differential surface staining resulting from

dirt deposition as a result of variation in moisture content or
temperature across a surface. Occurrence on masonry walls
where the mortar joints are highlighted. 39
5.9 Components

Decay- deterioration or rot resulting from
the action of bacteria or fungi. Affects
organic materials, e.g. timber and stone,
and usually arises due to increased
moisture content.

Corrosion- the breakdown of, typically,

metal components, by chemical action with
the presence of oxygen and water, however
salts or acidic compounds in solution can
accelerate the process. Rusting, pitting and
cracking can occur.

Inadequate fit- this can result from poor

initial workmanship or can arise during the
service life of a component due to
expansion or contraction of the component
or the surrounding structure.
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5.9 Components

Lack of weathering- this can arise due to lack of applied protection, e.g.
painting or staining; ineffective water proofing, e.g. drips, water bars or
seals; can arise due to poor architectural protection e.g. ineffective
overhangs at eaves or narrow cavities.

Insufficient fire resistance- building regulations require some building

elements and components to attain a recommended fire resistance. This
will require specialist advise or detailed specification information. Fire
escape routes should meet the fire rating requirements.

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5.9 Components

Inadequate security- poorly fitting doors and windows; ineffective
ironmongery and poor workmanship can lead to deficient security.
Unoccupied buildings under refurbishment should also be free form
theft and losses.

Inadequate safety- the components utilised within a building need to

be fit for purpose and safe to use. The building user should not be at
risk from unsafe products or systems.

Squeaking stairs/floors- timber components , e.g. joists, bearers, floor

boards, dry and shrink resulting in small gaps and clearance between
the individual components. The squeaking occurs as the components
rub against each other and the nail fixings. Remedy is by packing
below the joists to reduce gaps and by re-fixing the floor boards to
accommodate the re-sized components.

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5.10 Issues with materials

Incompatibility- arises when materials react aggressively with each
other leading to deterioration or rotting.

Deleterious materials-
 Definition: materials or components which can cause harm or
damage to health or may cause deteriorate affecting
performance.
 Problems: many traditional building materials have subsequently
been identified as being hazardous to health.
 Assessment- any works to building requires to have a detailed
risk assessment of the perceived risks and a method statement
which identifies a safe procedure for undertaking these works.
 Main types- asbestos; glass fibre insulation; high alumina cement;
urea formaldehyde foam; lead; galvanised steel.

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5.11 Conclusion
 To identify the main defects; discusses their possible causes and
proposes remedial actions.

 In practice defects and issues identified on site will not be as quite as

easy as the text book. There may be a number of causes and it is
only with experience that a surveyor can prioritize and diagnose
effectively.

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