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Introduction to
Geotechnical Engineering

1.1 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Geotechnical engineering, as the name implies, concerns the application of civil

engineering technology to some aspect of the earth. Usually, the geotechnical engineer is
concerned only with the natural materials found at or near the surface of the earth. Civil
engineers call these earthen materials soil and rock. Soil, in an engineering sense, is the
relatively loose agglomerate of mineral and organic materials and sediments found above the
bedrock. Soils can be relatively easily broken down into their constituent mineral or organic
particles. Rocks, on the other hand, have very strong internal cohesive and molecular forces
which hold the constituent mineral grains together. This is true whether the rock is massive
bedrock or a piece of gravel found in a clay soil. The dividing line between soil and rock is
arbitrary, and many natural materials encountered in engineering practice cannot be easily
classified. They may be either a “very soft rock” or a “very hard soil.” Other scientific
disciplines have different meanings for the terms soil and rock. In geology, for example,
rock. means all the materials found in the earth's crust, independently of how much the
mineral particles are bound together. Soils to a geologist are just decomposed and
disintegrated rocks generally found in the very thin upper part of the crust and capable of
supporting plant life. Similarly, pedology (soil science) and agronomy are concerned with
only the very uppermost layers of soil, that is, those materials relating to agriculture and
forestry. Geotechnical engineers can learn much from both geology and pedology. Both
sciences, especially engineering geology, are important adjuncts to geotechnical engineering
and there is considerable overlap between these fields. But differences in terminology,
approach, and objectives may cause some confusion, especially for the beginner.
 Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering

Geotechnical engineering has several different aspects or emphases. Soil mechanics is

the branch of geotechnical engineering concerned with the engineering mechanics and
properties of soil, whereas rock mechanics is concerned with the engineering mechanics and
properties of rock, usually but not necessarily the bedrock. Soil mechanics applies the basic
principles of mechanics including kinematics, dynamics, fluid mechanics, and the mechanics
of materials to soils. In other words, soil rather than water or steel or concrete, for example,
now becomes the engineering material whose properties and behavior we must understand in
order to build with it or upon it. A similar comment could also be made for rock mechanics.
It should be noted, however, that there are significant differences between the behavior of soil
masses and rock masses, and in principle there is not much overlap between the two
disciplines
Foundation engineering applies geology, soil mechanics, rock mechanics, and structural
engineering to the design and construction of foundations for civil engineering and other
structures. The foundation engineer must be able to predict the performance or response of
the foundation soil or rock to the loads imposed by the structure. Some examples of the kinds
of problems faced by the foundation engineer include foundations for industrial, commercial,
and residential buildings, and other types of support structures for radar towers, as well as
foundations for oil and other kinds of tanks and offshore structures. Even ships must have a
dry dock during construction or repairs, and the dry dock must have a foundation. The
support of rockets and appurtenant structures during construction and launch have led to very
interesting and challenging foundation engineering problems. Related geotechnical
engineering problems facing the foundation engineer are the stability of natural and excavated
slopes, the stability of permanent and temporary earth-retaining structures, problems of
construction, controlling water movement and pressures, and even the maintenance and
rehabilitation of old buildings. Not only must the foundation safely support the static
structural and construction loads, but it must also adequately resist dynamic loads due to
blasting, earthquakes, etc. If you think about it, it is impossible to design or construct any
civil engineering structure without ultimately considering the foundation soils and rocks to
some extent, and this is true whether the structure is built on the earth or is extraterrestrial.
The performance, economy, and safety of any civil engineering structure ultimately is
affected or may even be controlled by its foundation.

Earth materials are often used as a construction material because they are the cheapest
possible building material. However, its engineering properties such as strength and
1.2 The Unique Nature of Soil and Rock Materials

compressibility are often naturally poor, and measure must be taken to densify, strengthen, or
otherwise stabilize and reinforce soils so that they will perform satisfactorily in service.

Highway and railway embankments, airfields, earth and rock dams, levees, and aqueducts are
example of earth structures, and the geotechnical engineer is responsible for their design and
construction. Dam safety and rehabilitation of old dams are important aspects of this phase of
geotechnical engineering. Also related, especially of highway and airfield engineers, is the
design of the final surface layer on the earth structure, the pavement. Here the overlap
between the transportation and geotechnical disciplines is apparent.

1.2 THE UNIQUE NATURE OF SOIL AND ROCK MATERIALS

Geotechnical engineering is highly empirical and is perhaps much more of an "art" than
the other disciplines within civil engineering because of the basic nature of soil and rock
materials. They are often highly variable, even within a distance of a few millimetres.
Another way of saying this is that soils are heterogeneous rather than homogeneous materials.
That is, their material or engineering properties may vary widely from point to point within a
soil mass. Furthermore, soils in general are nonlinear materials; their stress-strain curves are
not straight lines. To further complicate things (as well as to make them interesting!) soils are
nonconservative materials; that is, they have a fantastic memory-they remember almost
everything that ever happened to them, and this fact strongly affects their engineering
behavior. Instead of being isotropic, soils are typically anisotropic, which means that their
material or engineering properties are not the same in all directions. Most of the theories we
have for the mechanical behavior of engineering materials assume that the materials are
homogeneous and isotropic, and that they obey linear stress strain laws. Common engineering
materials such as steel and concrete do not deviate too significantly from these ideals, and
consequently we can use, with discretion, simple linear theories to predict their response
under engineering loads. With soil and rock, we are not so fortunate. As you shall see in your
study of geotechnical engineering, we may assume a linear stress-strain response, but then we
must apply large empirical correction or “safety” factors to our designs to account for the real
material behavior. Furthermore, the behavior of soil and rock materials in situ is often
governed or controlled by joints, fractures weak layers and zones, and other “defects” in the
material; yet our laboratory tests and simplified methods of analysis often do not take into
account such real characteristics of the soil and rock. That is why geotechnical engineering is
 Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering

really an “art” rather than an engineering science. Successful geotechnical engineering

depends on the good judgment and practical experience of the designer, constructor, or
consultant. Put another way, the successful geotechnical engineer must develop a “feel” for
soil and rock behavior before a safe and economic foundation design can be made or an
engineering structure can be safely built.

1.3 SUGGESTED APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF GEOTECHNICAL

ENGINEERING

Because of the nature of soil and rock materials, both laboratory and field testing are very
important in geotechnical engineering. One way that student engineers can begin to develop a
feel for soil and rock behavior is to get some experience in the laboratory by performing the
standard tests for classification and engineering properties on many different types of soils
and rocks. In this way the notice begins building up a “metal data bank” of how certain soil
and rocks actually look, how they might behave should, for example, the amount of water
present change, how they might behave under different kind of engineering loads, and what
the range of probable numerical values is for different tests. This is sort of a self-calibration
process, so that when you are faced with a new soil deposit or rock type, you will in advance
have some idea as to the engineering problems you will encounter at that site. You can also
begin to judge, at least qualitatively, the validity of laboratory and field test result for the
materials at that site. So laboratory as well as field experience is important for you to help
develop a “feel” for soil and rock behavior. Of course, just as with any other subject, this
exposure in the laboratory to soil and rock properties and behavior must be complemented by
a diligent study of the theoretical, empirical, and design component of geotechnical
engineering practice.

1.4 SCOPE OF THIS BOOK

Rather than attempt an all-inclusive approach to geotechnical engineering, the primary

emphasis in this text will be on the engineering behavior of soil materials. Soil mechanics
and the analysis and design of foundations and earth structures is generally a fairly
straightforward, but creative, application of mechanics, strength of materials, and elementary
structural engineering. Often the key in the successful practice and application of
geotechnical engineering, the primary emphasis in this text will be on the engineering
1.2 The Unique Nature of Soil and Rock Materials

behavior of soil materials. Soil mechanics and the analysis and design of foundations and
earth structures is generally a fairly
straightforward, but creative, application of mechanics, strength of materials, and elementary
structural engineering. Often the key in the successful practice and application of
geotechnical engineering lies in a sound knowledge and understanding of the engineering
properties and behavior of soils in situ, when they are subjected to their engineering loads and
environmental conditions. Therefore we feel that the beginning student must first develop an
appreciation for the engineering properties off soils and distinct from other common civil
engineering materials before proceeding to instruction in the analysis and design phases f
foundation and earthwork engineering.

This is an elementary text, and the approach we have tried to follow is to emphasize
the fundamentals, with eye toward the practical applications that you as a practicing civil
engineering are likely to encounter in your engineering practice. Finally, we hope you will
know enough about soils and soil deposits to avoid serious mistakes or blunders in those
aspects of your professional career that involve soil and soil materials.

In the first part of the book, we introduce some of the basic definitions and index
properties of soil that are used throughout the book. Then some common soil classification
schemes are presented. Classification of soils is important because it is the "language"
engineers use to com municate certain general knowledge about the engineering behavior of
the soils at a particular site. The rest of the book is concerned with the engineering properties
of soil, properties that are necessary for the design of foundations and earth structures. Topics
covered include how water affects soil behavior, their shrinkage and swelling characteristics,
and their permeability (how water flows through soils). Then we get into the compressibility
of soil, which is the important engineering property one needs to predict the settlement of
engineering structures constructed on soil masses. Finally, we describe some of the
elementary strength characteristics of both granular and cohesive soils. Soil strength is
important, for example, for the design of foundations, retaining walls, and slopes.

Much of the practice of geotechnical engineering depends on topics that include

geology and the nature of landforms and soil deposits. You are strongly encouraged to take a
physical-geology or an engineering geology course in connection with your studies of
geotechnical engineer ing.

It is hoped that with the background of this text, you will be prepared for a follow-up
course in foundation and earthwork engineering; you should know how to obtain the soil
1.2 The Unique Nature of Soil and Rock Materials

properties required for most designs, for a given property if you know the general
classification of the soil. Finally, you should have a fairly good idea of what look for at a site,
how to avoid costly and dangerous mistakes, and be aware of your own limitations and
knowledge of soils as an engineering material.

1.5 SOIL FORMATION THE NATURE OF SOIL CONSTITUENTS

We mentioned earlier that soil from a civil engineering point of view is the relatively
loose agglomeration of mineral and organic materials found above the bedrock. In a broader
sense, of course, even shallow bedrock is of interest to geotechnical engineering and some of
these applications have already been mentioned.

You may remember from your basic science courses that the earth has a crust of
granitic and basaltic rocks 10 to 40 km thick. Overlying this more or less solid rock is a
relatively thin layer of variable thickness of what geologists call unconsolidated materials.
These materials can vary in size from sub-microscopic mineral particles to huge boulders.
Weathering and other geologic processes act on the rocks at or near the earth’s surface to
from these unconsolidated materials, or soil. Weathering, which usually result from
atmospheric processes, alter the composition and structure of these rocks by chemical and
physical means. Physical or mechanical weathering causes disintegration of the rock into
smaller particle sizes. Physical weathering agents include freezing and thawing, temperature
changes, erosion, and the activity of plants and animals including man. Chemical weathering
decomposes the minerals in the rocks by oxidation, reduction, carbonation, and other
chemical processes. Generally, chemical weathering is much more important than physical
weathering in soil formation. In short then, soils are products of the weathering of rocks.
Soils at a particular site can be residual (that is, weathered in place) or transported (moved
by water, wind, glaciers, etc.). and the geologic history of a particular deposit significantly
affects its engineering behavior.

The nature of soil constituents is discussed in greater detail throughout this text. For now, we
want to make a few points just to set the stage for what we are about to study. You already
have a layman’s idea about soil. At least you know in a general what sand and gravel are, and
perhaps you even have a general idea about fine-grained soils such as silts and clays. These
terms have quite precise engineering definitions, as we shall later see, but for now the general
 Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering

concept that soils are particles will suffice. Particles of what? Well, usually particles of
mineral.
1.6 Historical Development of Geotechnical Engineering

matter or more simply, broken up pieces of rock that result from the weathering processes we
spoke of previously. If we just talk for now about the size of the particles, gravels are small
pieces of rock that typically contain several minerals, whereas sands are even smaller and
each grain usually contains only a single mineral. If you cannot see each grain of a soil, then
the soil is either a silt or a clay or a mixture of each. In fact, natural soils generally are a
mixture of several different particle sizes and may even contain organic matter. Some soils
such as peat may be almost entirely organic. Furthermore, because soils are a particulate
material, they have voids, and the voids are usually filled with water and air. It is the physical
and chemical interaction of the water and air in the voids with the particles of soil, as well as
the interaction of the particles themselves, that makes soil behavior so complicated and leads
to the nonlinear, nonconservative, and anisotropic mechanical behavior we mentioned
previously. Now, if you add the variability and heterogeneity of natural soil deposits due to
the capriciousness of nature, you probably can begin to see that soils are indeed complex
engineering and construction materials. Helping you put some order into this potentially
chaotic situation is our primary objective in this book.

1.6 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

As long as people have been building things, they have used soils as a foundation or
construction material. The ancient Egyptians, Babylonians Chinese, and Indians knew about
constructing dikes and levees out of the oils found in river flood plains. Ancient temples and
monuments built all around the world involved soil and rock in some way. The Aztecs
constructed temples and cities on the very poor soils in the Valley of Mexico long before the
Spaniards arrived in the New World. European architects and builders during the Middle
Ages learned about the problems of settlements of cathedrals and large buildings. The most
noteworthy example is, of course, the Leaning Tower of Pisa. Scandinavians used timber
piles to support houses and wharf structures on their soft clays. The "design" of foundations
and other constructions involving soil and rock was by rule of thumb, and very little theory as
such was developed until the mid-1700's.

Coulomb id the most famous name that era. he was interested in the problems of earth
pressure againt retaining walls, and some of his calculation procedures are still in use today.
The most common theory for the shear strength of soils is named after him. During the next
century, the French engineers Collin and Darcy (D'Arcy) and the Scotsman Rankine made
 Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering

important discoveries. Collin was the first engineer to be concerned with failures in clay
slopes

as well as the measurement of the shear strength of clays. Darcy established his law for the
flow of water through sands. Rankine developed a method for estimating the earth pressure
against retaining walls. In England, Gregory utilized horizontal subdrains and compacted
earth-fill buttresses to stabilize railroad cut slopes.

By the turn of the century, important developments in the field took place in
Scandinavia, primarily in Sweden. Atterberg defined the consistency limits for clays that are
still in use today. During the period 1914-1922, in connection with investigations of some
important failures in harbors and railroads, the Geotechnical Commission of the Swedish
State Railways developed many important concepts and apparatuses in geotechnical
engineering. Methods for calculating the stability of slopes were developed. They developed
subsurface investigation techniques such as weight sounding and piston and other types of
samplers. They understood important concepts such as sensitivity of clays and consolidation,
which is the squeezing of water out of the pores of the clay. At that time, clays were thought
to be absolutely impervious, but the Swedes made field measurements to show that they
weren't. The Commission was the first to use the word geotechnical (Swedish: geotekniska)
in the sense that we know it today: the combination of geology and civil engineering
technology.

Even with these early developments in Sweden, the father of soil mechanics is really
an Austrian, Prof. Karl Terzaghi. He published in 1925 the first modern textbook on soil
mechanics, and in fact the name "soil mechanics" is a direct translation of the German word
erdbaumechanik, which was part of the title of that book. Terzaghi was an outstanding and
very creative engineer. He wrote several important books and over 250 technical papers and
articles, and his name will appear many times in this book. He was a professor at Robert
College in Istanbul, Technische Hochschule in Vienna, M. I. T., and at Harvard University
from 1938 until his retirement in 1956. He continued to be active as a consultant until his
death in 1963 at the age of 80.

Another important contributor to the advancement of modern soil mechanics is Prof.

Arthur Casagrande, who was at Harvard University from 1932 until 1969. You will see his
name often in this book because he made many important contributions to the art and science
1.7 Notes on Symbols and Units

of soil mechanics and foundation engineering. Other important contributors to the field
include Taylor, Peck, Tschebotarioff, Skempton, and Bjerrum. Since the 1950's the field has
grown substantially and the names of those responsible for its rapid advancement are too
numerous to mention.

Both Terzaghi and Casagrande began the teaching of soil mechanics and engineering
geology in the United States. Before the Second World War, the subject was offered only as a
graduate course in very few universities. After the war, it became common for at least one
course in the subject to be required in most schools of civil engineering. In recent years
graduate programs in all phases of geotechnical engineering have been implemented at many
universities, and there has been a real information explosion in the number of conferences,
technical journals, and textbooks published during the past two decades.

Important recent developments you should know about include developments in

earthquake engineering and soil dynamics, the use of digital computers for the solution of
complex engineering problems and the introduction of probability and statistics into
geotechnical engineering analysis and design.

1.7 NOTES ON SYMBOLS AND UNITS

At the beginning of each chapter, we list the pertinent symbols introduced in this
chapter. As with most disciplines, a standard notation is not universal in geotechnical
engineering, so we have tried to adopt the symbols most commonly used. For example, the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM, 1979) has a list of Standard Definitions
of Terms and Symbols Relating to Soil and Rock Machanics, Designation D653, which was
prepared jointly some years ago with the American Society of Civil Engineering (ASCE) and
the International Society of Rock Mechanics (ISRM). Recently the International Society for
Soil-Mechanics and Foundation Engineering (ISSMFE, 1977) published an extensive list of
symbols, Although there are some deviations from this list because four personal preferences,
we generally tried to follow these recommendations.

Units used in geotechnical engineering can be politely called a mess and, less politely,
several worse things. There has developed In practice a jumbled mixture of cgs-metric,
Imperial or British Engineering, and European hybrid metric units. With the introduction of
the universal and consistent system of units, "Le Systeme International d'Unites" (SI) in the
United States and Canada, we believe that it is important that you learn to use those units in
 Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering

geotechnical Engineering practice. However since British Engineering units are still
commonly used, it is important that you become familiar with the typical values of both sets
units. To assist you with unit conversion where necessary, we have included a brief
explanation of SI units as applied to geotechnical engineering in Appendix A.
1.7 Notes on Symbols and Units