0263–8762/03/$23.50+0.

00
# Institution of Chemical Engineers
www.ingentaselect.com=titles=02638762.htm Trans IChemE, Vol 81, Part A, March 2003

HALITE SCALE FORMATION IN GAS-PRODUCING WELLS

W. KLEINITZ, G. DIETZSCH and M. KÖHLER
Preussag Energie GmbH, Lingen, Germany

I
n Northern German gas reservoirs, the precipitation of salt from the reservoir water is
observed to an increasing extent as recovery progresses. The resulting halite scale causes a
signiŽ cant decrease in production rate, all the way to complete blockage of the  ow paths
and ultimately the abandonment of wells. In order to remove salt deposits as well as prevent the
precipitation of salt in the zone immediately surrounding the well, fresh water treatments are
performed at regular intervals during production operations. This paper addresses the entrain-
ment of reservoir water from gas reservoirs, even in reservoirs without active edge-water drive,
and the halite precipitation in depleted gas wells on the basis of theoretical considerations. The
discussion includes a description of chemical parameters determined from analysis of reservoir
water for the early detection of salt precipitates in the reservoir rock. Besides the implementa-
tion of the fresh water treatment in practice, special attention is paid to the dissolution
behaviour of halite scale. The ionic distribution in the back-produced treatment  uid is
evaluated with reference to the prevailing reservoir conditions. During the past 17 years, a
large number of fresh water stimulations have been conducted in Northern German gas
reservoirs. The results of these operations are explained in detail. The success of the
stimulation based on the change in productivity index is evaluated and interpreted for
parameters such as treatment volume and shut-in time.

Keywords: halite-scale; early prediction; dissolution of halite scale; simulation; tailend

production.

INTRODUCTION of their occurrence in the near wellbore area, fresh water

treatments are performed during production operations, in
During the production of gas from reservoirs in Northern addition to the mechanical removal of halite scale from
Germany, the precipitation of salt from the reservoir water the tubing and perforation zone with the use of scrapers. The
is observed to an increasing extent as recovery progresses. objective of all such measures is to maintain or restore the
In a similar manner, this phenomenon is also encountered original permeability conditions.
during the injection of dry gas into porous aquifers for In the present publication, precipitation of dissolved salts
storage. Salt deposits are formed in the production string as from the entrained water, chemical parameters for early
well as in the perforation zone. It must be assumed that the detection of salt precipitation in the reservoir, dissolution
formation in the near well bore area is also affected by salt
precipitation. Halite precipitates have also been detected
during well testing operations (Kleinitz and Tölcke, 1982);
the precipitation was caused by pressure drop with saturated
brine.
To illustrate the halite scale formation in the porous
medium, an SEM picture (Kleinitz and Tölcke, 1982) of a
formation rock with salt deposits in a pore channel is shown
in Figure 1. The presence of halite scale on the internal
surface of the pore and the associated constriction of the
cross-sectional area, with the resulting impairment in perme-
ability, is clearly evident. For a pore diameter of about
30 mm, the thickness of the halite deposit is between 3 and
4.5 mm. The growth of a halite crystal into the pore channel
is visible in the middle of the Ž gure.
In the course of production, the precipitated salts cause a
signiŽ cant decrease in productivity, all the way to complete
blockage to  ow and ultimately the abandonment of wells.
For the elimination of salt precipitates, as well as prevention Figure 1. SEM-picture of halite crystal in a rock matrix.

352
 HALITE SCALE FORMATION
behaviour of halite scale and evaluation of the stimulations
performed in a selected gas Ž eld are discussed.
LITERATURE SURVEY
The occurrence of salt deposits in the reservoir rock, in
the borehole, or both, whether in gas wells or in HTHP wells
(Jasinski and Sablerolle, 1996), has been published only
sporadically. In general, a distinction is made between salt
precipitates which occur in gas wells with decreased reser-
voir pressure (Dietzsch, 2000) and those which are formed
during injection of dry gas into porous media for storage
(Kleinitz, 1978; Mill et al., 1997). In the publications, the
causes are analysed, the effects of the halite scale on the
production behaviour are evaluated (Kleinitz and Tölcke,
1982), and stimulation measures are proposed (Wagner,
1995; Kleinitz et al., 2001).
Charé (1976) and Couture et al. (1996) have considered
the basic theoretical principles of salt precipitation in porous
media, whereas Jasinski (Jasinski and Sablerolle, 1996;
Jasinski and Frigo, 1996), Weiss et al. (1999), and Franke
and Gösele (1999) have discussed aspects of mathematical
modelling. Dietzel et al. (1998) have considered the trans-
port of water from the reservoir to the well as a result of a
decrease in pressure and mobilization of connate water.
Dietzel et al. (1993) has described problems (forming of
water blocks) occurred in stimulation due to decreasing
 owing pressure as a result of reservoir depletion.
HALITE PRECIPITATION IN GAS WELLS
The cause of halite precipitation in depleted gas wells is
explained with the aid of Figure 2. In this Ž gure, the
maximal water content in methane is plotted as a function
of the pressure and water salinity. The recovery factor for a
gas Ž eld in Northern Germany is also included in the
Figure 2. The decrease in reservoir pressure can be derived
from the p=Z behaviour. As is well known, the reservoir
pressure decreases as recovery progresses. On the other
hand, the solubility of water in the gas increases with
decreasing reservoir pressure. The water content in methane
increases decidedly beyond 200 bar for the reservoir consi-
dered here. The salinity does not change the curve’s general
form, but alters the absolute values quite signiŽ cantly.
Figure 2. Water content in methane and recovery factor as a function of
pressure and water salinity (Tres ˆ 145¯ C).
Trans IChemE, Vol 81, Part A, March 2003
353
As production progresses and the pressure decreases as a
result, the salt concentration in the remaining reservoir water
increases until halite scale is formed.
The evaporation of water and consequently the crystal-
lization of salt from the present residual water as a result of
pressure decline do not lead to a blockage, because an
increase in salt volume as a result of crystallization can
deŽ nitely be excluded. The salt blockage occurs in a
dynamic system, a continuous  ow of water to the well
which evaporates in the near-wellbore and causes progres-
sive build-up. Dietzel et al. (1998) described the occurrence
of free water when there is no apparent  ow of edge water,
schematically drawn in Figure 3. The pressure drop result-
ing from production leads to an expansion of the pore water
and consequently to an increase in water saturation beyond
the point of irreducible water saturation. This leads to a
greater proportion of free saline reservoir water being
transported with the gas  ow to the production well. As it
results from decreasing reservoir pressure, the increase in
pore water evaporation is particularly pronounced in zones
subject to substantial pressure decrease, that is, in the
proximity of the well. Here the concentration of the original
as well as the entrained reservoir water rises beyond the
solubility limit to precipitate salt. The transport of salt
through the zone of strong evaporation leads to additional
salt precipitation, thus giving rise to observed impairment
of  ow.
The importance of salt precipitation investigations for
Northern Germany gas wells is shown in Figure 3. Beyond a
recovery factor of 60–70%, as explained in Figure 2, the
absorption of water into the gas can increase decidedly for a
number of gas reservoirs; thus the associated increase in salt
concentration in the water of the pores may also be favoured.
Furthermore, highly mineralized formation water (TDS
150–330 g l¡1) is present in many gas reservoirs of Northern
Germany. In some cases, a slight loss of water is quite
sufŽ cient for initiating the precipitation of halite from this
formation water. In Figure 4 the present recovery factor for
51 gas Ž elds in Northern Germany is given. As indicated the
recovery factor for 43% of the Ž elds is situated within the
critical range between 60 and 100%. In these gas Ž elds,
fresh water treatments are performed by Preussag Energie at
regular intervals in some of the wells by dissolving the salt
in the perforated and in the skin zone for years.
INDICATIONS OF HALITE PRECIPITATION
In production operations, early detection of salt precipita-
tion on the basis of simple criteria is a prerequisite for the
implementation of stimulation measures in due time. As
shown by experience in practice, a consideration of the
productivity index in gas wells is not sufŽ cient for the
detection of initial plugging by salt precipitates. Subsequent
initiation of stimulation measures has often proved to be too
late for restoring the original  ow conditions. In other words,
plugging of the pores by halite scale has already progressed
to such an extent that the salt can no longer be redissolved
with the use of salt-free water (fresh water), or can be
dissolved only after very long shut-in times at the well.
A possible approach for the early detection of halite
precipitation may be the interpretation of the ionic distribu-
tion in the entrained reservoir water during production. As a
result of sea water evaporation during the formation of
354 KLEINITZ et al.

Figure 3. Occurrence of mobile water.

conditions until crystallization of the dissolved salts. During

Figure 4. Recorded factors of Northern German gas Ž elds.
Zechstein saliniferous successions, the concentration of
dissolved ions in the brines varied during the successive
precipitation sequences; this effect has been known for
many years (Carpenter, 1978). The reservoir water produced
from a selected gas well was evaporated under controlled
the evaporation, water samples were taken and analysed for
their chemical composition. The ionic concentration and the
density of the respective brine were thus recorded. In
combination with the visual inspection of the corresponding
salt precipitates, this procedure may indicate the presence of
inorganic scale in the reservoir and in the well. For taking
into account the condensation of water in the tubing during
production, quotients were calculated for the various cations
and anions. These analyses were performed at temperature
of 23¯ C and standard pressure in the laboratory.
Special emphasis has been placed on the variation of
these quotients as a function of the brine density as well as
visual observation of the occurrence of salt precipitates. The
purpose of these quotients is to detect and utilize a signiŽ -
cant change in their values as an indication when salt
precipitation occurs. For this purpose, it is assumed that
the quotients remain constant at the moment of total
dissolution, regardless of the density, but change clearly at
the moment of initial precipitation.
For the reservoir water considered, salt precipitation
(Table 1) was observed at a brine density of 1.235 g cm¡3.

Table 1. Ionic quotients before and after NaCl precipitation.

Salt precipitation
Reservoir water Critical density
Quotient rbrine ˆ 1.10 rbrine ˆ 1.235 rbrine ˆ 1.25 rbrine ˆ 1.30
Na=Li 480 460 400 100
Na=K 17 16.5 14 2
Na=Mg 45 42 40 10
Na=Ca 1.3 1.25 1.2 0.2
Na=Cl 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.1
K=Mg 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.8
K=Cl 0.022 0.024 0.025 0.035
Mg=Cl 0.0065 0.007 0.008 0.012
Ca=Mg 34 34 34 33
Ca=Cl 0.23 0.23 0.25 0.4
Na=(Ca ‡ Cl) 0.24 0.25 0.25 0.07
(Na ‡ K)=Cl 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.13
(Ca ‡ Mg)=Cl 0.25 0.23 0.25 0.4

Trans IChemE, Vol 81, Part A, March 2003

 HALITE SCALE FORMATION
Up to this point, the concentrations of all ions increased
linearly with the density. In Table 1, the sensitivity of
various quotients is compared for the ranges before salt
precipitation (r 1.100 and 1.235 g cm¡3) and after salt preci-
pitation (r 1.25 and 1.30 g cm¡3). For the well considered,
the following quotients may provide as indicators, on an
mg l¡1 basis, for the recognition of salt precipitation: Na=Li,
Na=K and Na=(Ca ‡ Cl).
Potassium salts are known to precipitate at the end of the
deposition sequence during the evaporation of sea water;
consequently, potassium as well as lithium and bromide
remain in solution in the course of the initial saliniferous
successions. The experimental results clearly indicate that
the sodium concentration decreases after salt crystallization.
Since KCl is employed for the protection of clays during
fresh water stimulation, the quotient Na=Li is applied,
among others. Hence, the quotient (Figure 5) for sodium
and lithium was employed as an indicator for early detection
of salt precipitation. The quotient Na=Li has a value of about
460 before salt crystallization and values deŽ nitely less than
400 in the case of salt precipitation. The use of this quotient
for monitoring production wells can therefore be recom-
mended.
DISSOLUTION BEHAVIOUR OF HALITE
The dissolution of deposited halite scale in the porous
medium is slow, since the process is essentially controlled
by the diffusion rate in the crystal-surface=solution system.
For this reason, the conditions involved in the course of
stimulation must be distinguished: free convection and  ow,
on the one hand, and the salt concentration in the treatment
medium, on the other hand. These parameters are decisive
for the success of fresh water stimulation and are considered
in the following.
Dissolution Rate for Halite
As indicated by Hentschel and Kleinitz (1976), the
average dissolution rate for halite is 1.28 £ 10¡4 cm3
(cm2 s)¡1 at 20¯ C under conditions of free convection.
Since the process is diffusion-controlled, this value decre-
ases signiŽ cantly with increasing salt concentration in the
bulk liquid. At a brine concentration of 100 g NaCl l¡1, the
dissolution rate has a value of 1.2 £ 10¡4 cm3 (cm2 s)¡1; at
250 g NaCl l¡1, however, the value is only 0.3 £ 10¡4 cm3
(cm2 s)¡1.
Figure 5. Na=Li-quotient vs brine density.
Trans IChemE, Vol 81, Part A, March 2003
355
The process of halite dissolution in water is controlled by
the exchange of liquid on the crystal which is dissolving.
Under convective conditions in the free aqueous phase, a
halite particle with a diameter of 1 mm dissolves in about
2900 s (Schlünder, 1996). Under  owing conditions, the
dissolution time is only 85 s for equal dimensions. If these
considerations in the bulk  uid water are applied to the
porous medium, the dissolution rate for salt is signiŽ cantly
lower. Furthermore, this value decreases with decreasing
porosity of the rock material. On the basis of published data
(Kretzschmar et al., 1986), the reduction factor for the
dissolution rate (free convection) is about 100 under the
reservoir conditions considered. Thus, a rough estimate
indicates that a halite grain with a diameter of 1 mm
would require about 3 days to dissolve completely in the
porous medium.
The soak times employed in practice are gained from
experiences, because the dissolution of halite in situ is
dominated by diffusion. Large sections of the porous
matrix are completely blocked off and convective conditions
cannot be assumed. In the absence of forced movement,
signiŽ cant diffusion is required to get sufŽ cient quantities of
low-salinity water in the vicinity of halite scale.
Dissolution of Natural Halite Scale
For many years (Kleinitz, 1978; Wagner, 1995), fresh
water treatments have been performed by dissolving halite
in the vicinity of the well and in the tubing. In order to take
the effect of reservoir depletion into account for the well
considered, about 3% butyl glycol (EGMBE) is added to the
water, on the basis of a study by Dietzel et al. (1993). The
resulting decrease in interfacial tension in the water–gas
system facilitates the back- ow of the treatment slug.
In laboratory tests, the dissolution rate was compared for
a deŽ ned cubic sample of natural downhole halite scale in
pure water and in a 2% KCl solution with 3% butyl glycol.
The following values were obtained at 23¯ C: water,
1.8 £ 10¡4 cm3 (cm2 s)¡1; water ‡ 2% KCl ‡ 3% butyl
glycol, 1.6 £ 10¡4 cm3 (cm2 s)¡1. In the latter case, the
somewhat lower dissolution rate is due to the KCl contained
in the water; in practical operations, the addition of KCl is
necessary for protecting the clays in the reservoir. For
application to reservoir conditions, the fact that the diffusion
rate is lower in the porous medium must be considered in
this case too. In effect, therefore, the interfacially active
component of the butyl glycol does not accelerate the
dissolution process.
STIMULATION
Fresh water treatments are performed in order to avoid or
remove scale deposits and thus maintain the productivity of
gas wells. The evaluation of pressure build-up and PLT
measurements at individual wells provides information on
the variation of the skin effect and thus allows conclusions
on permeability reduction in the zone immediately
surrounding the well. By increasing the bottom-hole pres-
sure, for instance, with a decrease in rate, additional
perforation or stimulation measures, pressure conditions
which cause supersaturation of the formation water can at
356 KLEINITZ et al.
Table 2. Treatment of Well 2.

Productivity index (from production data) Treatment  uid composition

Before After Improvement Shut-in time Volume EGMBE KCl LiCl Citric
Date m3(Vn) (h bar2)¡1 (%) Ranking (h) (m3) (%) (%) (%) acid (%)
February 93 0.5 2.1 320 1 504 47.0 3 2 0 0
October 93 1.1 2.6 136 1 456 45.0 3 2 0 0
March 94 1.6 1.5 ¡6 6 336 24.6 3 2 0 0
December 94 0.6 1.3 117 1 120 19.0 3 2 0 0
March 95 0.8 1.3 63 2 552 20.0 3 2 0 0
November 95 1.8 1.8 0 6 312 40.0 3 2 0 0
October 96 1.0 1.6 60 2 624 41.4 3 2 24.4 0
October 97 1.5 2.0 33 3 384 44.0 3 2 0 0
December 98 2.2 2.2 0 6 216 40.0 3 2 0 0
October 99 2.0 3.0 50 2 336 42.0 3 2 0 5
April 00 3.0 3.0 0 6 552 38.0 3 2 0 5
March 01 2.5 3.0 20 4 384 40.0 3 2 0 5

Evaluation of Halite Treatments

Figure 6. Treatment evaluation, PI before and after stimulation.
least be delayed. A prolonged shut-in period at the well
(Dietzel et al., 1998) can also provide a temporary improve-
ment in productivity index as a result of the recondensation
of water vapour associated with the pressure build-up.
In a Northern Germany gas Ž eld (formation: Bunter
reservoir) operated by Preussag Energie with gas production
from three wells (named Well 1, Well 2 and Well 3) fresh
water treatments are applied for avoiding or removing salt
precipitates. For the formation with a permeability of about
7 mD and an average porosity of 12%, the calculated value
of the hydraulic equivalent diameter is 1.4 mm. A halite
crystal of this size is sufŽ cient for plugging the pore channel
for the gas  ow. The TDS content of the original reservoir
water is 308 g l¡1, and the reservoir temperature is 110¯ C.
The results of several years’ stimulation are discussed for
Well 2 in detail. After Well 2 came on production in 1979, in
1985 production  uctuations due to halite precipitation were
reported and the Ž rst fresh water treatment was launched.
The recovery factor for the Ž eld was only 10%. In this case,
a slight loss of water led to salt crystallization. Twenty-seven
cubic metres of fresh water were bull-headed and the well
was shut-in for 1 h. The density of the back  ow was
monitored continuously. After chemical water analysis, the

Figure 7. Water cut in course of production of Well 2.

Trans IChemE, Vol 81, Part A, March 2003

 HALITE SCALE FORMATION
Figure 8. Back  ow behaviour of different treatments.
Figure 9. Treatment success in course of gas production.
produced water contained approximately 1000 kg of salt
(halite equivalent). Fresh water stimulations have been
performed in Well 2 once or twice a year. The value of
the quotient Na=K was 24.8 § 1.3 before and 9.7 § 3.1 after
salt precipitation. At present, the recovery factor for the Ž eld
is about 50%. The composition of the treatment  uid and the
results of stimulation are summarized for the past 12 years
for Well 2 in Table 2. The speciŽ c treatment volume varies
between 1 and 2 m3 m¡1 as referred to the net thickness.
This value corresponds to a theoretical average penetration
depth of 1.1–1.7 m in the zone surrounding the well. The
Figure 10. Fresh water treatment—bull heading.
Trans IChemE, Vol 81, Part A, March 2003
357
shut-in time required for redissolution of precipitated halite
ranges between 5 and 26 days.
The implementation and evaluation of the treatments was
done on the basis of productivity index, as shown in
Figure 6. The plot presents the productivity index during
production. The early detection method, as described above
section, cannot be applied so far. Figure 7 illustrates the
produced water cut and the theoretical water cut due to
condensation in the production tubing for the Well 2. The
theoretical water and the produced water cut are similar.
Thus no reservoir water is produced, as needed for early
halite scale detection. Owing to the produced condensate
water, the density of the produced water is around
1.0 g cm¡3, as can be derived from Figure 8 for volume
indices greater than 0.8.
The results of stimulation have been appraised on the
basis of the change in productivity index [m3(Vn) (h bar2)¡1]
before and after the fresh water treatment (Figure 6). On an
appraisal scale, the success of stimulation has been ranked
in correspondence with the improvement in productivity
index: DPI µ0% ! 6; DPI 0–10% ! 5; DPI 10–25% ! 4;
DPI 25–50% ! 3; DPI 50–100% ! 2; DPI >100% ! 1.
The results of 12 treatments performed on Well 2 during the
period from 1993 to 2001 are compiled in Table 2. The
results of stimulation have been ranked corresponding to the
success achieved. The grades  uctuate between 1 and 6,
with an average value of 3.3 for all treatments. Thus, the
achieved PI improvement is not constant during the time
period evaluated.
From a consideration of the shut-in time and the improve-
ment in productivity index, it is evident that a maximum is
attained in a few wells after 300 h (12.5 d ). For these wells,
the increase in productivity index is about 240% at optimal
efŽ ciency. A conspicuous feature is a frequent ranking
pattern for repeated stimulations. The observed improve-
ments correspond to the ranking sequence 6–1–6. These
cycles are independent of the treatment volume, shut-in
time, total dissolved salts and recovery factor. A provable
interpretation of this behaviour with due consideration of all
factors and an extension to the remaining wells in the Ž eld is
not yet feasible.
A total of 27 fresh water stimulations have been evaluated
for the gas Ž eld concerned. In Figure 9, the resulting
improvement in production index is plotted as a function
358 KLEINITZ et al.
of the cumulative gas production per well (Wells 1–3). The
plot clariŽ es the importance of early detection of halite
precipitation in the wellbore for high stimulation success. As
can be seen from Figure 9, the efŽ ciency of the fresh water
treatments decreases with cumulative gas production.
Furthermore, the treatment must be optimized, in order to
permanently dissolve halite scale in the near-wellbore area.
The most crucial point for fresh water treatments in those
reservoirs is reached when the reservoir pressure, on the one
hand, is responsible for high halite scale potential in the
wellbore area, and on the other hand is not able to back- ow
the necessary amount of stimulation  uid.
Well SpeciŽ c Evaluation
During the back- ow phase of the injected fresh water
slug, the density of the entrained water was determined,
among other data. For Well 2, this value is plotted as
a function of the speciŽ c back- ow volume (V=Vo,
Vo ˆ injection volume) over the period from 1988 to 1997
(Figure 8). From this plot, it is evident that the density
maximum is shifted toward low V=Vo values from 1988 to
1991. This effect can be interpreted by assuming that the salt
deposits have been displaced from the reservoir toward the
perforation over the years. The data for 1993 exhibit a
maximum at the beginning of back- ow and between 0.3
and 0.5 V=Vo. In 1997, on the other hand, the highest density
occurred at the beginning and then decreased continuously
during subsequent back- ow. This observation is explained
by the displacement of salt precipitation from the zone
surrounding the well through the perforation all the way to
the lower tubing section.
An explanation of the observed shift in the density of the
back- ow brine is given in Figure 10 for the time period
from 1988 to 1997. The reservoir pressure in the Ž eld under
consideration decreased from 300 to 160 bar during this
period. This led to the following production behaviour. The
water for treatment is bull-headed via the tubing. The
treatment volume is then slowly injected into the reservoir
by percolation of gas through the water column. It must be
assumed that the treatment volume has penetrated deeply
into the formation at high reservoir pressure (1988). As the
pressure declines during the years, stimulation  uid remains
in the lower tubing zone and dissolves the halite scale inside
the tubing (1997).
CONCLUSIONS
The production of entrained water from gas reservoirs can
result in the deposition of halite scale as the wellhead
pressure decreases. This phenomenon is associated with
the increase in the solubility of water in methane with
declining pressure. As a result of this process, the produc-
tivity is severely impaired, and wells may even have to be
abandoned.
For the early detection of halite scale deposits from
entrained reservoir water, the use of certain quotients
[Na=Li; Na=K; Na=(Ca ‡ Cl)] as indicators is proposed.
In the case of halite precipitation downhole, these quotients
vary signiŽ cantly.
For the evaluation of 27 fresh water treatments performed
in a gas Ž eld, an appraisal scale has been deŽ ned; this
ranking system is based on the change in productivity index
before and after stimulation. The frequently observed
succession of highly successful and totally ineffective
stimulation treatments cannot be interpreted in an unambig-
uous manner. No relationship can be detected between the
amount of dissolved salt and the improvement in producti-
vity index for the gas Ž eld considered.
An analysis of the back- owing  uid after fresh water
stimulation in a Bunter reservoir well has indicated that the
major portion of the halite scale is deposited in the lower
tubing and perforation zone. There is also evidence of its
occurrence in the formation, at least in the near-wellbore area.
REFERENCES
Carpenter, A. B., 1978, Origin and chemical evolution of brines in
sedimentary basins. SPE 7504.
Charé, I., 1976, Trocknung von Agglomeraten bei Anwesenheit
auskristallisierender Stoffe. Festigkeit und Struktur der durch die
auskristallisierten Stoffe verfestigten Granulate. Dissertation, Karlsruhe.
Couture, F., Jomaa, W. and Puiggali, J.-R., 1996, Relative permeability
relations: a key factor for a drying model. Transp Porous Media, 23.
Dietzel, H.-J., Kleinitz, W. and Littmann, W., 1993, Wiederherstellung der
Zu ußbedingungen nach Aufwältigungs- und Komplettierungsarbeiten in
Gasbohrungen, Erdöl Erdgas Kohle, 11.
Dietzel, H.-J., Kleinitz, W. and Köhler, M., 1998, The occurrence of water in
gas wells, Nat Resourc Dev, 48.
Dietzsch, G., 2000, Ein uss der Salzbildung auf das Produktionsverhalten
von Gasbohrungen bei abgesenktem Fließdruck. TU BA Freiberg,
Diplomarbeit.
Franke, D. and Gösele, W., 1999, Hydrodynamischer Ansatz zur
Modellierung von Fällungen, Chem Ing Techn, 11.
Hentschel, J. and Kleinitz, W., 1976, Aufbau der Salzgesteine des
Salzstockes Etzel, abgeleitet aus Kernuntersuchungen und
Loginterpretation, Kali Steinsalz, 7.
Jasinski, R. and Frigo, D., 1996, The modelling and prediction of halite
scale, Solving OilŽ eld Scaling Conference, January.
Jasinski, R. and Sablerolle, W., 1996, Computer modelling HTHP salt and
scale formation, Expl Prod Newsl, July.
Kleinitz, W., 1978, Speicherprojekt Kalle der VEW, Auftreten und
Verhindern von Salzausfällungen im Speichergestein, interner Bericht
Preussag AG.
Kleinitz, W. and Tölcke, W., 1982, Bildungsbedingungenvon Ablagerungen
in Gasbohrungen und deren Beseitigung, Erdöl-Erdgas-Zeitschr, 4.
Kleinitz, W., Dietzsch, G. and Köhler, M., 2001, The precipitation of salt in
gas producing wells; SPE 68953, Formation Damage Conference.
Kretzschmar, H.-J., Czolbe, P. and Bauer, K., 1986, Diffusionsmessungen an
Speicher-gesteinen mit unterschiedlichen Gasen und Messapparaturen,
Erdöl Kohle-Erdgas, March.
Mill, D., Beckmann, H. and Beinlich, W., 1997, Maßnahmen zur
Injektivitätssteigerung=Verbesserung der Zu ußbedingungen von
Gasspeichersonden durch Salzau ösung, DGMK-Tagungsband 9701.
Peter, S.,1965, Über das Vorkommen des Strontium, Lithium und Bor in
Salzlösungen aus dem deutschen Zechstein, Interner Bericht BEB.
Schlünder, E.-U., 1996, Einführung in die Stoffübertragung, Vieweg.
Wagner, L., 1995, Stimulation von Gasbohrungen bei Salzausfällungen.
Diplomarbeit TU BA, Freiberg.
Weiss, G., Henning, T., Kümmel, R. and Tschernhaew, J., 1999,
Modellierung von Stofftransport und Kristallisation in dispersen
Systemen, Chem Ing Techn, 11.
ADDRESS
Correspondence concerning this paper should be addressed to
Dr. W. Kleinitz, Preussag Energie GmbH, D-49808 Lingen, Waldstr. 39,
Germany.
E-mail: w.kleintz@preussagenergie.com
The paper was presented at the 13th International OilŽ eld Chemistry
Symposium, held in Geilo, Norway, 17–20 March 2002. The manuscript
was received 29 May 2002 and accepted for publication after revision 17
January 2003.
Trans IChemE, Vol 81, Part A, March 2003