1

Last year a record number of new manufacturing jobs were created. Will this year bring another
record? Well, any new manufacturing job is created either within an existing company or by the
start-up of a new company. Within existing firms, new jobs have been created this year
at well below last year's record pace. At the same time, there is considerable evidence that
the number of new companies starting up will be no higher this year than it was last year
and there is no reason to think that the new companies starting up this year will
create more jobs per company than did last year's start-ups. So clearly, the number of
new jobs created this year will fall short of last year's record.
 
In the argument given, the two portions in boldface play which of the following roles?
 
(A) The first is a claim that the argument challenges; the second is an explicit assumption on
which that challenge is based.
 
(B) The first is a claim that the argument challenges; the second is a judgment advanced in
support of the main conclusion of the argument.
 
(C) The first provides evidence in support of the main conclusion of the argument; the second is
an objection that has been raised against that main conclusion.
 
(D) The first provides evidence in support of the main conclusion of the argument; the second is
a judgment advanced in support of that main conclusion.
 
(E) The first and the second are each claims that have been advanced in support of a position
that the argument opposes.
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A prominent investor who holds a large stake in the Burton Tool Company has recently claimed
that the company is mismanaged, citing as evidence the company's failure to slow down
production in response to a recent rise in its inventory of finished products. It is doubtful
whether an investor's sniping at management can ever be anything other than
counterproductive, but in this case, it is clearly not justified. It is true that an increased
inventory of finished products often indicates that production is outstripping
demand, but in Burton's case it indicates no such thing. Rather, the increase in inventory is
entirely attributable to products that have already been assigned to orders received
from customers.
 
In the argument given, the two boldfaced portions play which of the following roles?
 
(A) The first states a generalization that underlies the position that the argument as a whole
opposes; the second provides evidence to show that the generalization does not apply in the
case at issue.
 
(B) The first states a generalization that underlies the position that the argument as a whole
opposes; the second clarifies the meaning of a specific phrase as it is used in that generalization.
 
(C) The first provides evidence to support the conclusion of the argument as a whole; the
second is evidence that has been used to support the position that the argument as a whole
opposes.
 
(D) The first provides evidence to support the conclusion of the argument as a whole; the
second states that conclusion.
 
(E) The first and the second each provide evidence against the position that the argument as a
whole opposes.
 3
A product that represents a clear technological advance over competing products can generally
command a high price. Because technological advances tend to be quickly surpassed and
companies want to make large profits while they still can, many companies charge the greatest
price the market will bear when they have such a product. But large profits on the new
product will give competitors a strong incentive to quickly match the new product's
capabilities. Consequently, the strategy to maximize overall profit from a new product is to
charge less than the greatest possible price.
 
In the argument above, the two portions in boldface play which of the following roles?
 
(A) The first is an assumption that forms the basis for a course of action that the argument
criticizes; the second presents the course of action endorsed by the argument.
 
(B) The first is a consideration raised to explain the appeal of a certain strategy; the second is a
consideration raised to call into question the wisdom of adopting that strategy.
 
(C) The first is an assumption that has been used to justify a certain strategy; the second is a
consideration that is used to cast doubt on that assumption.
 
(D) The first is a consideration raised in support of a strategy the argument endorses; the
second presents grounds in support of that consideration.
 
(E) The first is a consideration raised to show that adopting a certain strategy is unlikely to
achieve the intended effect; the second is presented to explain the appeal of that strategy.
 4
Museums that house Renaissance oil paintings typically store them in environments that are
carefully kept within narrow margins of temperature and humidity to inhibit any deterioration.
Laboratory tests have shown that the kind of oil paint used in these paintings actually adjusts to
climatic changes quite well. If, as some museum directors believe, paint is the most sensitive
substance in these works, then by relaxing the standards for temperature and humidity
control, museums can reduce energy costs without risking damage to these paintings.
Museums would be rash to relax those standards, however, since results of preliminary tests
indicate that gesso, a compound routinely used by Renaissance artists to help paint adhere to
the canvas, is unable to withstand significant variations in humidity.
 
In the argument above, the two portions in boldface play which of the following roles?
  
(A) The first is an objection that has been raised against the position taken by the argument; the
second is the position taken by the argument.
 
(B) The first is the position taken by the argument; the second is the position that the argument
calls into question.
 
(C) The first is a judgment that has been offered in support of the position that the argument
calls into question; the second is a circumstance on which that judgment is, in part, based.
 
(D) The first is a judgment that has been offered in support of the position that the argument
calls into question; the second is that position.
 
(E) The first is a claim that the argument calls into question; the second is the position taken by
the argument.
 5
Although the earliest surviving Greek inscriptions written in an alphabet date from the eighth
century B.C., the fact that the text of these Greek inscriptions sometimes runs from
right to left and sometimes from left to right indicates that the Greeks adopted alphabetic
writing at least two centuries before these inscriptions were produced. After all, the Greeks
learned alphabetic writing from the Phoenicians, and presumably, along with the alphabet, they
also adopted the then-current Phoenician practice with respect to the direction of text. And
although Phoenician writing was originally inconsistent in direction, by the eighth
century B.C. Phoenician was consistently written from right to left and had been for
about two centuries.

In the argument given, the two portions in boldface play which of the following roles?

(A) The first and the second each describe evidence that has been used to challenge the position
that the argument seeks to establish.

(B) The first is evidence that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument
seeks to establish; the second is that position.

(C) The first is evidence that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument
seeks to establish; the second is a consideration that is introduced to counter the force of that
evidence.

(D) The first and the second each provide evidence in support of the position that the argument
seeks to establish.

(E) The first provides evidence in support of the position that the argument seeks to establish;
the second is that position.
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One of the limiting factors in human physical performance is the amount of oxygen that is
absorbed by the muscles from the bloodstream. Accordingly, entrepreneurs have begun selling
at gymnasiums and health clubs bottles of drinking water, labeled "SuperOXY," that has extra
oxygen dissolved in the water. Such water would be useless in improving physical performance,
however, since the amount of oxygen in the blood of people who are exercising is
already more than the muscle can absorb.

Which of the following, if true, would serve the same function in the argument as the statement
in boldface?

(A) world-class athletes turn in record performance without such water

(B) frequent physical exercise increases the body’s ability to take in and use oxygen

(C) the only way to get oxygen into the bloodstream so that it can be absorbed by the muscles is
through the lungs

(D) lack of oxygen is not the only factor limiting human physical performance

(E) the water lost in exercising can be replaced with ordinary tap water
 7
Farmer: Worldwide, just three grain crops—rice, wheat, and corn—account for most human
caloric intake. To maintain this level of caloric intake and also keep pace with global population
growth, yields per acre from each of these crops will have to increase at least 1.5 percent every
year, given that the supply of cultivated land is diminishing. Therefore, the government should
increase funding for research into new ways to improve yields.
 
Which of the following is an assumption on which the farmer's argument depends?
 
(A) It is solely the government's responsibility to ensure that the amount of rice, wheat, and
corn produced worldwide keeps pace with global population growth.
 
(B) Increasing government funding for research into new ways to improve the yields per acre of
rice, wheat, and corn crops would help to increase total worldwide annual production of food
from these crops.
 
(C) Increasing the yields per acre of rice, wheat, and corn is more important than increasing the
yields per acre of other crops.
 
(D) Current levels of funding for research into ways of improving grain crop yields per acre have
enabled grain crop yields per acre to increase by more than 1.5 percent per year worldwide.
 
(E) In coming decades, rice, wheat, and corn will become a minor part of human caloric intake,
unless there is government-funded research to increase their yields per acre.
 8
Researchers hope to find clues about the A'mk peoples who lived in the Kaumpta region about
one thousand years ago but who left few obvious traces. The researchers plan to hire the few
remaining shamans of the modern-day indigenous people in Kaumpta, who are believed to be
descended from the A'mk, to lead them to ancestral sites that may be the remains of A'mk
buildings or ceremonial spaces. The shamans were taught the location of such sites as part of
their traditional training as youths, and their knowledge of traditional Kaumpta customs may help
determine the nature of any sites the researchers find.
 
Which of the following is an assumption on which the success of the plan depends?
 
(A) The researchers have reliable evidence that the A'mk of one thousand years ago built
important ceremonial spaces.
 
(B) The shamans have a reasonably accurate memory of A'mk sites they learned about as
youths.
 
(C) Kaumpta shamans are generally held in high esteem for their traditional knowledge.
 
(D) Modern technologies available to the researchers are likely to be able to find some A'mk sites
easily.
 
(E) Most or all A'mk sites are likely to be found within the Kaumpta region.
 9
Many people suffer an allergic reaction to certain sulfites, including those that are commonly
added to wine as preservatives. However, since there are several winemakers who add sulfites
to none of the wines they produce, people who would like to drink wine but are allergic to
sulfites can drink wines produced by these winemakers without risking an allergic reaction to
sulfites.
 
Which of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends?
 
(A) These winemakers have been able to duplicate the preservative effect produced by adding
sulfites by means that do not involve adding any potentially allergenic substances to their wine.
 
(B) Not all forms of sulfite are equally likely to produce the allergic reaction.
 
(C) Wine is the only beverage to which sulfites are commonly added.
 
(D) Apart from sulfites, there are no substances commonly present in wine that give rise to an
allergic reaction.
 
(E) Sulfites are not naturally present in the wines produced by these winemakers in amounts
large enough to produce an allergic reaction in someone who drinks these wines.
 10
A famous singer recently won a lawsuit against an advertising firm for using another singer in a
commercial to evoke the famous singer's well-known rendition of a certain song. As a result of
the lawsuit, advertising firms will stop using imitators in commercials. Therefore, advertising
costs will rise, since famous singers' services cost more than those of their imitators.
 
The conclusion above is based on which of the following assumptions?
 
(A) Most people are unable to distinguish a famous singer rendition of a song from a good
imitator's rendition of the same song.
 
(B) Commercials using famous singers are usually more effective than commercials using
imitators of famous singers.
 
(C) The original versions of some well-known songs are unavailable for use in commercials.
 
(D) Advertising firms will continue to use imitators to mimic the physical mannerisms of famous
singers.
 
(E) The advertising industry will use well-known renditions of songs in commercials.
 11
Jay: Of course there are many good reasons to support the expansion of preventive medical
care, but arguments claiming that it will lead to greater societal economic gains are misguided.
Some of the greatest societal expenses arise from frequent urgent-care needs for people who
have attained a long life due to preventive care.
 
Sunil: Your argument fails because you neglect economic gains outside the health care system:
society suffers an economic loss when any of its productive members suffer from preventable
illness.
 
Sunil's response to Jay makes which of the following assumptions?
 
(A) Those who receive preventive care are not more likely to need urgent care than are those
who do not receive preventive care
 
(B) Jay intends the phrase "economic gains" to refer only to gains accruing to institutions within
the health care system.
 
(C) Productive members of society are more likely than others to suffer preventable illnesses.
 
(D) The economic contributions of those who receive preventive medical care may outweigh the
economic losses caused by preventive care.
 
(E) Jay is incorrect in stating that patients who receive preventive medical care are long-lived.
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A researcher discovered that people who have low levels of immune-system activity tend to
score much lower on tests of mental health than do people with normal or high immune-system
activity. The researcher concluded from this experiment that the immune system protects
against mental illness as well as against physical disease.
 
The researcher’s conclusion depends on which of the following assumptions?
 
(A) High immune-system activity protects against mental illness better than normal immune-
system activity does.
 
(B) Mental illness is similar to physical disease in its effects on body systems.
 
(C) People with high immune-system activity cannot develop mental illness.
 
(D) Mental illness does not cause people’s immune-system activity to decrease.
 
(E) Psychological treatment of mental illness is not as effective as is medical treatment.
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Although the school would receive financial benefits if it had soft drink vending machines in the
cafeteria, we should not allow them. Allowing soft drink machines there would not be in our
students' interest. If our students start drinking more soft drinks, they will be less healthy.
 
The argument depends on which of the following?
 
(A) If the soft drink vending machines were placed in the cafeteria, students would consume
more soft drinks as a result.
 
(B) The amount of soft drinks that most students at the school currently drink is not detrimental
to their health.
 
(C) Students are apt to be healthier if they do not drink soft drinks at all than if they just drink
small amounts occasionally.
 
(D) Students will not simply bring soft drinks from home if the soft drink vending machines are
not placed in the cafeteria.
 
(E) The school's primary concern should be to promote good health among its students.
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Ramirez: The film industry claims that pirated DVDs, which are usually cheaper than legitimate
DVDs and become available well before a film's official DVD release date, adversely affect its
bottom line. But the industry should note what the spread of piracy indicates: consumers want
lower prices and faster DVD releases. Lowering prices of DVDs and releasing them sooner would
mitigate piracy's negative effect on film industry profits.
 
The argument above relies on which of the following assumptions?
 
(A) Releasing legitimate DVDs earlier would not cause any reduction in the revenue the film
industry receives from the films' theatrical release.
 
(B) Some people who would otherwise purchase pirated DVDs would be willing to purchase
legitimate DVDs if they were less expensive and released earlier than they are now.
 
(C) The film industry will in the future be able to produce DVDs more cheaply than is currently
the case.
 
(D) Some current sellers of pirated DVDs would likely discontinue their businesses if legitimate
DVDs were released faster and priced lower.
 
(E) Current purchasers of pirated DVDs are aware that those DVDs are not authorized by the film
industry.
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A proposed change to federal income tax laws would eliminate deductions from taxable income
for donations a taxpayer has made to charitable and educational institutions. If this change were
adopted, wealthy individuals would no longer be permitted such deductions. Therefore, many
charitable and educational institutions would have to reduce services, and some would have to
close their doors.
 
The argument above assumes which of the following?
 
(A) Without incentives offered by federal income tax laws, at least some wealthy individuals
would not donate as much money to charitable and educational institutions as they otherwise
would have.
 
(B) Money contributed by individuals who make their donations because of provisions in the
federal tax laws provides the only source of funding for many charitable and educational
institutions.
 
(C) The primary reason for not adopting the proposed change in the federal income tax laws
cited above is to protect wealthy individuals from having to pay higher taxes.
 
(D) Wealthy individuals who donate money to charitable and educational institutions are the only
individuals who donate money to such institutions.
 
(E) Income tax laws should be changed to make donations to charitable and educational
institutions the only permissible deductions from taxable income.
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Last year all refuse collected by Shelbyville city services was incinerated. This incineration
generated a large quantity of residual ash. In order to reduce the amount of residual ash
Shelbyville generates this year to half of last year's total, the city has revamped its collection
program. This year city services will separate for recycling enough refuse to reduce the number
of truckloads of refuse to be incinerated to half of last year's number.
 
Which of the following is required for the revamped collection program to achieve its aim?
 
(A) This year, no materials that city services could separate for recycling will be incinerated.
 
(B) Separating recyclable materials from materials to be incinerated will cost Shelbyville less than
half what it cost last year to dispose of the residual ash.
 
(C) Refuse collected by city services will contain a larger proportion of recyclable materials this
year than it did last year.
 
(D) The refuse incinerated this year will generate no more residual ash per truckload incinerated
than did the refuse incinerated last year.
 
(E) The total quantity of refuse collected by Shelbyville city service's this year will be no greater
than that collected last year.
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In order to finance road repairs, the highway commission of a certain state is considering a 50
percent increase in the 10-cents-per-mile toll for vehicles using its toll highway. The highway
commissioner claims that the toll increase will increase the annual revenue generated by the toll
highway by at least 50 percent per year.
 
Which of the following is an assumption on which the highway commissioner's claim depends?
 
(A) The amount of money required annually for road repairs will not increase from its current
level.
 
(B) The total number of trips made on the toll highway per year will not decrease from its
current level.
 
(C) The average length of a trip made on the toll highway will not decrease from its current
level.
 
(D) The number of drivers who consistently avoid the highway tolls by using secondary roads will
not increase from its current level.
 
(E) The total distance traveled by vehicles on the toll highway per year will not decrease from its
current level.
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Delta Products Inc. has recently switched at least partly from older technologies
using fossil fuels to new technologies powered by electricity. The question has been
raised whether it can be concluded that for a given level of output Delta's operation now
causes less fossil fuel to be consumed than it did formerly. The answer, clearly, is yes,
since the amount of fossil fuel used to generate the electricity needed to power the new
technologies is less than the amount needed to power the older technologies, provided level of
output is held constant

In the argument given, the two boldfaced portions play which of the following roles?

(A) The first identifies the content of the conclusion of the argument; the second provides
support for that conclusion.

(B) The first provides support for the conclusion of the argument; the second identifies the
content of that conclusion.

(C) The first states the conclusion of the argument; the second calls that conclusion into
question.

(D) The first provides support for the conclusion of the argument; the second calls that
conclusion into question.

(E) Each provides support for the conclusion of the argument.

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In an experiment, each volunteer was allowed to choose between an easy task and a hard task
and was told that another volunteer would do the other task. Each volunteer could also choose
to have a computer assign the two tasks randomly. Most volunteers chose the easy task for
themselves and under questioning later said they had acted fairly. But when the scenario was
described to another group of volunteers, almost all said choosing the easy task would be unfair.
This shows that most people apply weaker moral standards to themselves than to others.

Which of the following is an assumption required by this argument?

(A) At least some volunteers who said they had acted fairly in choosing the easy task would have
said that it was unfair for someone else to do so.

(B) The most moral choice for the volunteers would have been to have the computer assign the
two tasks randomly.

(C) There were at least some volunteers who were assigned to do the hard task and felt that the
assignment was unfair.

(D) On average, the volunteers to whom the scenario was described were more accurate in their
moral judgments than the other volunteers were.

(E) At least some volunteers given the choice between assigning the tasks themselves and
having the computer assign them felt that they had made the only fair choice available to them.
 20
Linguist: In English, the past is described as “behind” and the future “ahead,” whereas in
Aymara the past is “ahead” and the future “behind.” Research indicates that English speakers
sway backward when discussing the past and forward when discussing the future. Conversely,
Aymara speakers gesture forward with their hands when discussing the past and backward when
discussing the future. These bodily movements, therefore, suggest that the language one speaks
affects how one mentally visualizes time.

The linguist's reasoning depends on assuming which of the following?

(A) At least some Aymara speakers sway forward when discussing the past and backward when
discussing the future.

(B) Most people mentally visualize time as running either forward or backward.

(C) Not all English and Aymara speakers tend to sway or gesture forward or backward when
discussing the present.

(D) How people move when discussing the future correlates to some extent with how they
mentally visualize time.

(E) The researchers also examined the movements of at least some speakers of languages other
than English and Aymara discussing the past and the future.