Journal of Cleaner Production 83 (2014) 294e304

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

The effect of compaction on the leaching and pollutant emission time

of recycled aggregates from construction and demolition waste
Adela P. Galvín a, *, Jesús Ayuso a, Isabel García b, Jose

Ramo

n Jime

nez a,

rrez c
Francisco Gutie
a
Construction Engineering, University of Cordoba, UCO-Ed. Leonardo Da Vinci, Campus of Rabanales, 14071 Cordoba, Spain
b
rdoba, Campus of Rabanales, 14071 Cordoba, Spain
SCAI, Central Support Service to Research of University of Co
c
LAB. TCAL e Testing and Calibration, Construction Department, Lucena 14900, Co
rdoba, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Urban solid waste from demolition and construction engineering sites has been demonstrated to be
Received 12 December 2013 mechanically suitable for reuse in civil infrastructures. However, the application of recycled materials as a
Received in revised form replacement for natural aggregates demands an assessment of the pollution potential of the material in
29 May 2014
its second life cycle.
Accepted 26 July 2014
Available online 7 August 2014
Actually, plant managers of construction wastes assess the materials according to concise leaching
tests that do not consider the compaction stage of the materials when they are applied in civil in-
frastructures. For that reason, the aim of the present study is to evaluate the effect of compaction on the
Keywords:
Environmental management
leaching behaviour of concrete and mixed recycled aggregates.
Demolition waste A percolation test for materials under compaction conditions was designed. The release levels
Compaction measured in the water percolated through the compacted aggregates were compared with a conven-
Pollutant potential tional percolation leaching test. Besides, the compliance test allowed identifying the most conflictive
Leaching behaviour elements according to the measured concentrations in the leachate: chromium and sulphate. The results
revealed that under compaction, the highest levels of release were obtained for the concrete material. It
was due to its high susceptibility to compaction which increased the content of fine particles affecting to
the leaching behaviour. The study also includes the formulation of an equation to determine the emission
release time of pollutants. Calculations were developed for two common applications as granular ma-
terial: embankments and structural road layers.
© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction In Spain, several construction companies have implemented

The reuse of recycled aggregates (RAs) from construction and
demolition waste (C&DW) and their application in civil engineering
is possible because of the mechanical behaviour of RAs. Thus,
previous works undertaken by various authors have demonstrated
that recycled materials possess suitable geotechnical properties for
use in the construction of embankments and as granular sub-bases
in road pavements (Poon and Chan, 2006; Park, 2003; Jime
nez
et al., 2012). It has also been shown that the coarse fraction of
RAs can partially replace natural aggregates to prepare concrete
(Medina et al., 2014; Andre
et al., 2014) or restore degraded areas
(Rahman et al., 2014).
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: apgalvin@uco.es, apgalvinuco@gmail.com (A.P. Galvín).
environmental management systems in accordance with ISO
Standard 14001, which suggests controlling main environmental
aspects associated with their activities, such as the generation of
waste (Rodrıguez et al., 2007).
These alternative materials are predominately composed of inert
components based on their origin (aggregates, concrete, wood, etc.).
However, hazardous components, such as adhesives, paints, seal-
ants, and equipment with PCBs, may be in contact with the material
before it is separated from the aggregates in the treatment plant.
Thus, after the material is recycled and reused in on-site applica-
tions, it is exposed to rain water, which causes leaching and the
release of pollutants. Notably, the environmental impact of reusing
these materials is not determined by the total content of contami-
nants in the product but by the amount each pollutant can be dis-
solved and leached into the medium. Therefore, leaching tests are an
essential characterisation tool that estimates the effect of materials

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.07.074
0959-6526/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 A.P. Galvín et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 83 (2014) 294e304 295

on the environment which has been proved by recent studies Therefore, the main goal of the present research is the
(Medina et al., 1 (2014; Disfani et al., 2012; Galvín et al., 2014). improvement of the environmental assessment of RAs used in civil
Spain is one of the Member States of the European Union with a infrastructures considering their compaction stage and testing
strict policy for C&DW management. Thus, the Royal Decree 105/ them at the density, moisture and grain size which presents on the
2008 (Royal Decree 105/2008 for, 2008) specifies that the total real situation.
leachability and pollutant content of the waste and the ecotoxicity
of the leachate must be controlled to prevent risks to the quality of 2. Materials
surface water or groundwater. Plant managers operating in the
Autonomous Community of Andalusia use the Territorial Manage- Because of their specific origin, most alternative materials do not
ment Plan of Non-Hazardous Waste of Andalusia as reference for possess the mechanical properties required for use as conventional
the period 2010e2019 (Decree 397/2010, 2010e2019). The man- road materials. For that reason, the use of recycled materials as civil
agement of C&DW leachates in landfills and the authorised treat- structure components requires the assessment of a particular group
ment operations are included within the waste management of properties that are indicative of material field behaviour. Table 1
framework developed by the Waste Catalogue of Andalusia, ac- shows the main physical properties and compositions (according to
cording to Decree 73/2012 (Decree 73/2012 and for approval the UNE EN 933-11: 2009) of seven RAs from C&DW (three concrete RAs
Wste Regulation of Andalusia, 2012). and four mixed RAs). In addition, plasticity (according to standards
Thus, according to these regulations, the daily operation of UNE 103103: 1994 and UNE 103104:1993), L.A. coefficient (UNE-EN
C&DW plants includes the environmental evaluation of materials. 1097: 1999), total sulphur (UNE-EN 1744-1: 1999), water absorption
Plant managers predominately use procedures that are easy to and Saturated Surface Dry Density (SSD-Density) (UNE-EN 1097-6:
perform and yield results that are comparable with the actual legal 2001) were determined for all samples.
limits. However, despite being quick and easy to perform, these In the present research, materials from different origins (various
tests are not representative of construction material conditions. municipal districts in the Autonomous Community of Andalusia) in
When a recycled material is used for civil engineering in- southern Spain were characterised to provide a representative
frastructures, its physical and mechanical properties are altered to sampling.
increase the bearing capacity of the material during its second cycle Because concrete, mortar and natural aggregates are the domi-
life (Jime
nez et al., 2012; François and Jullien, 2009). nant components (representing more than 90%), materials C-1, C-2
Laboratory-field leaching results have previously been verified and C-3 were designated as recycled concrete aggregates. M-1, M-2,
by several authors (Van der SlootHeasman and Quevauviller, 1997; M-3 and M-4 are composed of concrete, mortar and natural ag-
Quevauviller et al., 1996; Imyim et al., 2000). Because results of gregates (over 60%) with more than 10% of ceramic particles being
laboratory tests cannot directly translate to field conditions, mixed RAs.
member states of the European Union, such as the Netherlands (in The pollutant behaviour of all the materials was analysed ac-
the Guidance of the Building Material Decree) have developed cording to the compliance test previously mentioned and classified
translation factors between the lab and field conditions to extrap- according to the legal limits imposed by the European Landfill
olate the data to longer time scales (Schreurs et al., 2000, 2000). Directive (Council Decision DC, 2003/33/EC of 19, D cember 2002).
Thus, the following question has been posed: Does compliance Two materials that represented each type of RA, M-4 and C-2, were
tests accurately consider the on-site conditions of materials? If real chosen to develop a percolation test designed under compaction
conditions are considered, do leaching results vary? To answer conditions.
these questions, a laboratory test was designed to analyse the
environmental behaviour of recycled materials under compaction 3. Experimental methods
by simulating the physical stage of the material when it is used in
civil infrastructures, such as in embankments or as a capping layer 3.1. Leaching assessment procedures
material.
The present work includes the leaching assessment of four Leaching is the process by which soluble components are
mixed recycled materials and three recycled concrete aggregates. transferred from a solid matrix material to an aqueous medium
Materials were analysed using one of the most commonly used
compliance tests in Spain, the standard UNE EN 12457-3: 2003. By
comparing the obtained concentrations with the legal limits indi- Table 1
Mechanical properties of the recycled materials.
cated by the European Landfill Directive (Council Decision DC,
2003/33/EC of 19, December 2002), all tested materials were clas- Composition (% in weight) Recycled aggregates
sified according to their pollutant potential, and the most limiting M-1 M-2 M-3 M-4 C-1 C-2 C-3
elements were detected.
Bitumen 4 9.2 0 3.4 0 0.5 0
To study the effect of compaction on leaching behaviour, two Ceramic 28.7 21 22.5 27 3.4 0 0.6
representative materials of each RA type were used to design a Concrete crushed and mortar 28.9 15.2 38.1 36.2 76 99.5 69.8
percolation test. The designed test applied a volume of water that is Natural aggregates 37.5 52.7 39.3 33.1 20.3 0 29.6
equivalent to an intense period of rain. The percolated water was Gypsum 0.5 1.5 0.1 0.1 0.3 0 0
Others 0.4 0.4 0 0.2 0 0 0
later analysed, and the water balance on the material allowed Mechanical properties
calculating the following parameters: evaporated and percolated Plasticity n.p. n.p. n.p. n.p. n.p. n.p. n.p.
water volume, retained water by aggregates, percolation time and L.A. coefficient 36 31 35.2 43 34 38.1 40.3
infiltration velocity. Using these physical parameters, an equation for Total sulphur (%SO3) 1 2.3 1.2 0.9 0.6 0.7 0.5
Water absorption (%)
the emission time of pollutants was obtained. The equation calcu-
0.063/4 mm 8.5 8.9 9.9 6.5 8.8 7.4 7.1
lates the period of time required for the pollutant levels to reach a 4/31.5 mm 8.3 7.9 9.4 7.7 6.7 5.1 6.0
specified concentration as a function of the material conditions for Density-SSD (g/cm3)
civil engineering applications. Finally, pollutant concentrations in 0.063/4 mm 2.15 2.18 2.34 2.48 2.14 2.40 2.32
percolated water were compared to data obtained by a conventional 4/31.5 mm 2.12 2.15 2.28 2.30 2.24 2.41 1.67

percolation procedure (column test by NEN 7345: 1994). Footnote: n.p. non-plastic material.
296 A.P. Galvín et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 83 (2014) 294e304
(Fig. 1). Because the exact reproduction of real scenarios is
extremely expensive, laboratory tests were performed in condi-
tions that closely mimicked the actual situation.
Numerous leaching tests are available to assess the release from
these materials under a variety of conditions. In general, the most
commonly used methods are percolation tests for granular mate-
rials and diffusion tests for monolithic products (as cement-treated
materials) (Van der Sloot and Dijkstra, 2004).
Apart from the mentioned tests, more concise protocols that
facilitate the daily operation of waste management plants are
necessary. One of the most usual compliance tests performed by
Spanish managers of C&DW is UNE EN 12457-3: 2003. This brief
and simple procedure uses two liquid to solid concentrations (2 and
10 L/kg, and a particle size of less than 4 mm) and the release data
are comparable to the regulatory limits imposed by the Landfill
Directive.
However, despite the advantages of concise protocols for man-
agers and producers of recycled products, test parameters obtained
during laboratory procedures and field conditions are generally not
comparable. Engelsen et al. (2012) determined that RAs are affected
by parameters in the field that are not reproducible in the labora-
tory, such as the amount of precipitation, degree of saturation,
temperature and the embedded material. This is especially true for
RAs that are used as components in engineering infrastructures
that experience external loads by heavy traffic. Therefore, the
density, porosity, and moisture of these materials are altered to
increase bearing capacity.
3.2. Field material conditions of RAs for civil engineering
applications
The Spanish General Technical Specification for Road Con-
struction (designated as PG-3) allows the use of RAs as granular
materials for embankment filler (type A) and structural road layers
(types B and C) (Ministerial Order of and February 6, 1976; Order/
FOM/891 of Amendments of specific articles of the Gneral
Technical Specifications in Road Construction). The technical
behaviour and physical and mechanical characterisation of RAs
from Spanish C&DW have been studied by other authors, including
Perez et al. (2013), Martin Morales et al. (2011) and Sanchez and
Alaejos (2009).
Fig. 2 illustrates the most common applications of RAs in civil
engineering. Kumar and Reddy (Kumar and Reddy, 2008) applied
Fig. 1. Schematic flow of contaminants in the field and extrapolation to a laboratory test.
demolition waste in the construction of reinforced embankments
(as type C of Fig. 2), and the use of mixed and concrete RAs in the
construction of unpaved roads (as type B of Fig. 2) was developed
and discussed in detail by Jimenez et al. (Jime
nez et al., 2012;
Jimenez et al., 2012). Finally, Agrela et al. (2012) evaluated the
use of mixed RAs as a base for paved roads (as type C in Fig. 2)
following the recommendations for roads with limited traffic as
indicated by the Spanish Road Instruction 6.1-IC (Order/FOM/3460
by adopting the standard 6.1-ICfor Pavement Sections of the Road
Instruction).
According to PG-3 (Ministerial Order of and February 6, 1976),
materials used in type A applications, such as in the top layer of
embankments, must be compacted to 100% density of the Proctor
Modified Test (DPMT) according to the standard UNE 103501: 1994.
For both B and C applications, the RAs used as base course must
possess a maximum dry density. Thus, from an environmental
point of view, this compaction stage implies vary the density and
porosity of RAs, and therefore, the contact between aqueous and
solid phases. Thus, the leaching of chemical species is affected.
3.3. Estimation of infiltration through the aggregate under
compaction
One of the priorities of the Andalusia regional government is to
authorise the use of RAs for road construction after determining the
level of pollutants in the surface water, aquifers and areas near
water wells. For that reason, it is necessary to estimate the portion
of rain water that percolates through the road layers and the time it
takes before the measured pollutant concentration reaches a
certain level, which is estimated by a leaching test.
To analyse these parameters, a simulation of intense precipita-
tion was applied to a mixed RA and a recycled concrete material
that were compacted to the maximum DPMT (material conditions
as type A: top layer of embankments and Type B: base course of
unpaved road).
The test was performed by introducing the samples to modified
Proctor moulds, hermetic cylinders that were 152.5 mm diameter
and 179.8 mm height. All the samples were compacted to five
layers. A tamping foot of 4.53 kg and a drop distance 457 mm was
used to apply 60 blows per layer. After compaction, the final
thickness of specimen was 129.8 mm. Fig. 3 shows a conceptual
diagram of the procedure. During the percolation test, the samples
were stored in a chamber with controlled atmosphere (65 ± 5% of
 A.P. Galvín et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 83 (2014) 294e304
Fig. 2. Most common applications of RAs in civil engineering.
humidity and 23 ± 2
C of temperature, annual median values in
Cordoba). The volume of evaporated water, retained water, and
percolation water were calculated, and the percolation and evap-
oration velocities were determined under these conditions. Based
on these parameters an equation of pollutant emission time was
obtained.
The system was based on the water volume balance expressed
by Equation (1):
Ra ¼ Ru þ Ev þ I
where Ra is the rainfall episode, Ru is the runoff fraction, Ev is the
evaporation during testing, I is the infiltration volume of the water
calculated by I ¼ Re þ Pe, where Pe is the volume of water perco-
lated through the material and Re is the portion of water retained
by the aggregate.
Ra corresponds to the maximum precipitation over 24 h with a
return period of 100 years for the area of Cordoba, Andalusia region.
Logically, a portion of the rain volume is removed from the system
that did not circulate through the material. This fraction contains
the evaporated water (Ev) and the runoff fraction (Ru).
Despite the difficulty of measuring the runoff ratio, previous
authors have published indicative values as a function of real ma-
terial conditions (type of drainage area, paved or unpaved surface,
area with different slopes, impervious or pervious soils, etc.). Thus,
for civil applications, the runoff ratio depends on the typology of the
road (paved or unpaved). As specified by ASCE (American Society of
Civil Engineers (ASCE), 1992), materials with water balance values
ranging from 0.70 to 0.95 are considered useable in “asphalt and
concrete pavements” (type C). Logically, the presence of a bitumi-
nous layer indicates a low infiltration scenario and that runoff
Fig. 3. Conceptual diagram of the designed percolation test for RAs under compaction.
297
dominates infiltration. The opposite reasoning must be formulated
for unpaved roads (type B), which is characterised by higher infil-
tration. In this particular case, Ritter and Paquette (Ritter and
Paquette, 1951) established a range of 0.4e0.7 for “granular and
macadam surfaces”. Finally, for type A applications, the coefficient is
a function of the embankment conditions (covered or uncovered).
Thus, a value of 0.7 was assumed for the present analysis ac-
cording to previous works (Izquierdo et al., 2008; Dewitt City
Council, 2003; Town of Sandwich, 2004). This coefficient has
been previously applied to tests that were performed on road
(1)
works covered by granular recycled concrete materials on site

ttir et al., 2006).
(Izquierdo et al., 2008; Birgisdo
Re is affected by RA composition and physical factors, including
granulometry, porosity, density and absorption. For example,
Mixed RAs with a high content of ceramic particles usually present
higher water absorption than concrete RAs (Agrela et al., 2011).
Thus, Re was calculated according to the following equation (Eq.
(2)):
 
Mf  Mi Wd
Re ¼ (2)
100
where Mi is the initial compaction moisture (expressed in %), Mf is
the moisture at the end of the test after applying the simulated rain
volume in the laboratory (expressed in %) and Wd is the dry weight
of the RAs (expressed in g).
Regarding the Ev factor, it can be calculated by taking the
mathematical difference according to Eq. (1). Finally, a significant
portion of rain water, Ra, can seep and circulate into the road
structure. From an environmental point of view, this is the most
important component because this fraction determines pollutant
leachability (François and Jullien, 2009; Hill and Dawson, 2001).
The present study includes a chemical analysis that estimates the
concentration of pollutants in this water fraction. Because this
liquid volume is stored in a watertight tank, Pe can be easily
calculated (see Fig. 3). After the test, the weight was obtained using
a precise balance with a readability of 0.001 g.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Emission of pollutants by RAs according to compliance testing
Leaching behaviour was evaluated according to the standard
UNE EN 12457-3: 2003 for four mixed RAs and three concrete RAs.
Table 2 shows the metals and anions analysed according to the
Landfill Directive as well as conductivity (C; expressed in mS/cm),
pH and temperature (T; expressed in
C).
Metals were measured by an inductively coupled plasma mass
spectrometry (ICP-MS) using a Perkin Elmer ELAN DRC-e spec-
trometer, whereas the anion content was obtained by ion
298 A.P. Galvín et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 83 (2014) 294e304

Fig. 4. Comparison of leaching data from compliance tests with limits imposed by the DC/2033/33/EC.

Table 2
Leachate concentrations (mg/kg) obtained by the compliance test UNE EN 12457-3. Value limit exceeded are given in bold.

Measured concentrations in the leachate (mg/kg)

M-1 M-2 M-3 M-4 C-1 C-2 C-3

L/S 2 L/S 10 L/S 2 L/S 10 L/S 2 L/S 10 L/S 2 L/S 10 L/S 2 L/S 10 L/S 2 L/S 10 L/S 2 L/S 10

C 2620 1280 3740 2240 1945 806 1138 475 1499 482 1075 925 585 340
pH 7.59 7.42 7.39 7.26 7.86 8.07 11.53 11.55 7.81 7.74 12.10 11.94 8.24 10.69
T 24.7 24.7 24.7 24.7 24.9 24.9 24.7 24.7 24.7 24.7 25.1 25.1 24.9 24.9
Cr 0.012 0.034 0.040 0.079 0.563 0.663 0.860 1.102 0.586 0.583 0.272 0.601 0.094 0.048
Ni 0.017 0.020 0.018 0.091 0.018 0.040 0.010 0.051 0.009 0.007 0.010 0.030 0.005 0.007
Cu 0.050 0.060 0.023 0.049 0.053 0.078 0.031 0.112 0.025 0.023 0.072 0.121 0.029 0.045
Zn 0 0 0.007 0.203 0.007 0.021 0.020 0.171 0 0 0.020 0.050 0.002 0.010
As 0.008 0.017 0.005 0.016 0.002 0.002 0 0.010 0.008 0.018 0 0 0.002 0.001
Se 0.014 0.033 0.007 0.017 0.010 0.042 0.066 0.1 0.018 0.010 0.061 0.101 0.001 0.002
Mo 0.040 0.062 0.047 0.072 0.069 0.086 0.062 0.081 0.043 0.045 0.051 0.160 0.020 0.027
Cd 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sb 0.008 0.025 0.010 0.034 0 0.008 0 0.011 0.014 0.038 0 0.012 0.007 0.023
Ba 0.112 0.394 0.099 0.390 0.105 0.384 0.080 0.292 0.091 0.184 0.471 1.410 0.047 0.219
Hg 0.001 0 0 0.001 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Pb 0 0 0 0.002 0 0 0 0.021 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cl- 242 630 694 650 18 10 130 122.6 126 110 123.7 170.5 56 45
F- 2 10 2 10 2 10 2 10 2 10 2 10 2 10
SO4  2771 6800 2818 14,095 2840 7150 1942 2270 1360 1610 58.6 270.5 225 520

chromatography ISO 10304-1: 2007. Data were measured in con-
centration units (mg of leached element per litre of leachate, mg/L).
To compare the results to the standards required by European
regulation, these values were converted to release units (mg of
leached element per kg of material, mg/kg) according to the
following expression (Eq. (3)) (Galvín et al., 2012):
Ca;x ¼ Cs;x $LS
where Ca,x is the concentration of constituent X expressed in mg X/
kg aggregate, Cs,x is the concentration of constituent X expressed in
mg X/L extracting solution and LS is the liquid to solid concentra-
tion expressed in L extracting solution/kg of dry matter (DM).
From a management point of view, the first step in evaluating
the possibility of reusing materials in civil engineering in-
frastructures is to classify them according to their potential envi-
ronmental damage. For that purpose, Fig. 4 illustrates the European
environmental criteria compared to the measured concentrations
(3) of the seven RAs tested. Materials that exceeded the limit of inert
wastes are indicated in both graphs.
According to the results, chromium and sulphate are the most
conflictive elements. Sulphates originate from ceramic particles
 A.P. Galvín et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 83 (2014) 294e304 299

and gypsum, which are both present in mixed RAs at high con-
centrations (Barbudo et al., 2012). Mortar also elevates sulphate
content because sulphate species originate during the addition of
gypsum to the clinker (Sa
nchez and Alaejos, 2009). Previous works
(Dosho, 2007) determined that hexavalent-chromium, Cr (VI) is
present in concrete wastes due to it originates from cement. Hills
and Johansen (2007) explained the sources of Cr in construction
products: 1) raw materials or fuel, 2) magnesia-chrome kiln re-
fractory bricks, 3) wear-resistant metals from raw mill grinding
processes and 4) additions such as gypsum, pozzolans, and ground
granulated blast furnace slag, mineral components and cement kiln
dust. Besides, Clark and Hunter (2013) detected high amounts of
total Cr in recycled concrete aggregates, which is consistent with
results from this study. This is also consistent with the study per-
formed by the Dutch Environment, Land Use and Planning Agency,
which detected the leaching of Cr in recycled concrete samples
(Dutch Environment, 2005).
According to the results, all mixed materials tested surpassed
the inert limit for sulphate content and were classified as non-
hazardous materials. Of the concrete aggregates, only C-1
possessed a high amount of sulphate, which is most likely attrib-
uted to the higher content of ceramic particles (3.4%) and gypsum
(0.3%). Regarding Cr, the limit established for inert waste was
exceeded in two concrete RAs (C-1 and C-2) and two mixed sam-
ples (M-3 and M-4). According to previous studies, the high level of
Cr in both materials could be attributed to a higher content of
crushed concrete and mortar (38.1% and 36.2%, respectively, see
Table 1). An excessive level of chloride level was detected for the
mixed material M-2. Therefore, according to the leaching data, the
remaining RAs were classified as non-hazardous materials because
of their high Cr and sulphate levels, with the exception of the inert
material C-3.
4.2. Estimation of percolation volume and hydric balance under
compaction conditions
The mixed aggregate M-4 and the concrete material C-2 were
used to analyse the water balance of RAs under compaction.
Because both materials contained levels of pollutant elements that
exceeded the allowed quantity, the concentration of pollutants in
the percolated water was measured. These values were compared
with the data obtained from a conventional percolation leaching
test.
Table 3 lists the input and output data from the designed
percolation test. The implemented precipitation (Ra ¼ 142 L/m2)
represents the maximum daily rainfall in Cordoba considering a
return period/recurrence interval of 100 years (Maximum Daily
Rainfall, 1999). The estimated runoff fraction, Ru, was calculated
to be 99.4 L/m2 (runoff factor of 0.7 according to previously
mentioned references). From Eq. (1) it can be deduced that Ra  Ru
(42.6 L/m2) represents the volume of water to be applied on
specimen. When the real values (expressed in L/m2) are referred to
the test piece surface (18,265.4 mm2), a value of 778.1 cm3 is ob-
tained. Then, this volume was added to specimens which were
covered with water by ponding method (as it is illustrated in Fig. 3).
The dry density and moisture content was determined using
Proctor modified conditions (PMC). Table 3 shows the data ob-
tained for M-4 and C-2 materials (three repetitions for each
sample).
The percolation factor, Fp (the portion of total water volume that
filters through the material) was determined (Table 4). Fp is
essential to evaluate the pollutant release due to this water fraction
directly interacts with the RAs. Data derived from the designed
percolation test are summarised in Table 4.
Velocities were calculated to determine whether the data were
homogeneous between sample repetitions. Percolation and evap-
oration velocities were calculated according to the following
equation (Eq. (4)).
  
vp;e ¼ ½ðPe or Ev SÞ Tp$10 mm cm (4)
where vp, e is the velocity of the water flow (expressed in mm/h), Pe
or Ev is the volume of percolation or evaporation water (cm3), Tp is
the percolation time (h) and S is the surface area (cm2) of the tested
sample.
According to the obtained results, the mixed material M-4
retained a higher volume of water. This is because the material
contained an elevated percentage of ceramic particles (27% for the
mixed material M-4, whereas the concrete RA C-2 contained 0%)
that increased its adsorptive capacity. More than 3% of the volume
of water was retained in M4, whereas the concrete material only
retained between 1.18 and 2.43% of the applied water. More water
evaporated from material C-2 because the duration of the test was
longer for C-2 than M-4.
The amount of percolated water was comparable for all tested
samples. However, the mixed material possessed a slightly higher
percentage of percolated water. This could be attributed to the final
density of the mixed material, 1.8 g/cm3, which was slightly lower
than the density of the C-2 samples (approximately 2 g/cm3).
The mean values for the percolation factor, Fp, were 0.25 for the
mixed aggregate and 0.23 for the concrete material. Additionally,
the lower density of the mixed material most likely contributed to
the formation of internal air channels and pores. This could explain
the lower percolation time of the mixed samples. Thus, only 10% of
the mean value was produced by the formation of preferential in-
ternal channels in sample M-4 (i) causing the duration of the test
was short.

Table 3
Input and output data obtained from percolation test on compacted materials.

Recycled aggregates

M-4 (i) M-4 (ii) M-4 (iii) C-2 (i) C-2 (ii) C-2 (iii)

Initial conditions of the aggregates

Initial weight (g) 4665 4739 4881 5189 5106 5165
Initial compaction moisture, Mi at PMC (%) 12.53 12.53 13.21 11.57 11.57 11.57
Dry density, Dd at PMC (g/cm3) 1.79 1.82 1.86 2.00 1.97 2.00
Dry weight, Wd (g) 4145.56 4211.32 4311.45 4650.89 4576.49 4629.38

Conditions after percolation

Final moisture, Mf (%) 14.58 14.85 15.20 12.93 12.81 12.23
Percolation water, Pe (cm3) 673.35 635.39 651.15 612.49 600.18 611.78
Percolation time, Tp (h) 3.10 32.18 31.05 58.16 58.11 47.40

Footnote: PMC: Proctor Modified Conditions.

300 A.P. Galvín et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 83 (2014) 294e304

Table 4
Water balance data obtained from percolation test on compacted materials. LS$m LS$V$Dd
Qw;Te ¼ ¼ ¼ LS$ta$Dd (6)
Recycled aggregates S S
M-4 (i) M-4 (ii) M-4 (iii) C-2 (i) C-2 (ii) C-2 (iii)
where LS is the liquid to solid concentration expressed in L/kg DM,
3
Pe (cm ) 673.35 635.39 651.15 612.49 600.18 611.78 m is the dry mass of the material (kg DM), S is the surface of the
Re (cm3) 84.98 97.70 85.80 63.25 56.74 30.55 material (m2), V is the volume of the material (m3), Dd is the dry
3
Ev (cm ) 19.77 44.98 41.15 102.49 121.16 135.83
Percolation water (%) 25.96% 24.50% 25.10% 23.62% 23.14% 23.59%
density of the aggregate indicated in Table 3 (kg/m3) and ta is the
Retained water (%) 3.28% 3.77% 3.31% 2.43% 2.19% 1.18% thickness of the material (m).
Evaporated water (%) 0.76% 1.73% 1.59% 3.95% 4.67% 5.24% The parameter Qw,a can be calculated as follows:
Runoff factor 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70
Percolation velocity, 11.89 1.08 1.15 0.58 0.57 0.71 Qw;a ¼ Pa $Fp (7)
ve (mm/h)
Evaporation velocity, 0.35 0.08 0.07 0.10 0.11 0.16
vp (mm/h) where Pa is the annual precipitation (in L/m2 year) and Fp is the
percolation factor (dimensionless unit).
Therefore, the emission time can be calculated according to the
following equation (Eq. (8)):
4.3. Calculation of emission time under field material conditions
LS$Ta$Dd
After the percolation factor was obtained according to the Te ¼ (8)
Pa$Fp
designed test, a calculation to determine emission time (Te,
expressed in years) was developed. The calculation procedure was A similar equation was formulated by Heljmar et al. (1986). The
developed as follows: main difference is the use of a dimensionless parameter (percola-
tion factor of the aggregate) instead of the infiltration of water
Qw;Te through the material. In the present study, Eq. (8) will be used to
Te ¼ (5)
Qw;a convert the L/S scale to a time scale, as it is illustrated in the triple
scale of Fig. 5.
where Qw,Te (expressed in l/m2) is the percolated water per surface For the calculations, an annual precipitation (Pa) of 536 L/m2 was
during a period of time Te. Qw,a (expressed in l/m2 year) is the assumed for Cordoba (Meteorological National Agency). As previ-
annual percolated water per surface and per year. ously explained, the compaction conditions imposed (maximum
In order to estimate Qw,Te the following calculations were DPMT) simulate the stage at which RAs are used in superior grade
performed: embankments and unpaved roads (applications A and B in Fig. 2). A

Fig. 5. Comparison of leaching procedures: percolation test on compacted materials and the Dutch column test.
 A.P. Galvín et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 83 (2014) 294e304 301

thickness of 25 cm was chosen for type B (road layer), according to
the Spanish Road Instruction (Order/FOM/3460 by adopting the
standard 6.1-ICfor Pavement Sections of the Road Instruction),
and an approximate thickness of 2 m was selected for type A
(embankments). However, the laboratory simulation of application
C (base course in paved roads) was rejected because only minimal
infiltration would be achieved, as previously mentioned.
Table 5 lists the results obtained by substituting numeric values
in Eq. (8).
For the reuse of RAs as a component in unpaved roads or em-
bankments, the material must be compacted to the maximum
DPMT. Additionally, because of a higher density and lower Fp, a
longer time elapsed before pollutant release levels reached
compliance LS ratios for concrete compared to mixed RAs. Logically,
the material thickness influences the emission time obtained.
According to the data (Table 5), in all cases the highest levels
were observed for the recycled concrete material C-2.
Regarding the comparison of data from both application types
(A and B), a superior emission time was observed for embankments
because of the greater thickness of the material. Thus, for type A the
concentration of pollutant measured at the first step of the
compliance test will be attained in 53 years (average value) for the
mixed material and in 62 years for the concrete material. Logically,
emission time increases drastically for a LS concentration of 10 L/
kg: 265 years for the mixed material and in 311 years for the con-
crete material.
4.4. Comparison of release levels of compacted samples using the
Dutch column test
0.131 and 0.132. As shown in the graph, mean values of 0.16 L/kg
and 0.13 L/kg were assumed for the superimposed data. Fig. 5
presents for both materials (M-4 and C-2) the following informa-
tion: release data obtained by the Dutch column test, release data
on the percolated water through the compacted samples (at LSt),
and release data at the compliance points.
Additionally, Fig. 5 illustrates a triple-scale which includes both
types of applications. The conversion of LS concentration to a time
emission scale is performed by applying the Eq. (8). Accordingly, it
is possible to evaluate the time at which different cumulative
release values will be reached.
According to the triple scale, the emission time was longer in the
concrete material than the mixed material for the same LS ratio.
This is attributed to a higher density and lower percolation factor
measured by the designed test for the concrete material.
A comparison of the leaching data obtained by the conventional
percolation test and the release levels detected in the percolated
water after compaction revealed different results for both studied
materials. The level of Cr and sulphate decreased with the
compaction of mixed RAs, whereas the level increased with the
compaction of concrete RAs. The data are not represented in Fig. 5,
but similar behaviour was observed for the other regulated metals
and anions.
Because of differences observed in leaching after compaction,
both samples were analysed from a physical point of view to
determine the cause of the higher cumulative release of metals
and anions from the concrete compacted RA (C-2) compared to
the lower values obtained from the mixed compacted aggregate
(M-4).

In order to evaluate whether compaction affects the release of

elements, the concentration of pollutant elements in the percolated
water through the compacted aggregates was measured. Later,
these values were compared to the data obtained by applying a
conventional leaching test for granular materials: the Dutch col-
umn test (NEN 7343: 1994).
This leaching procedure was performed at seven different liquid
to solid concentrations: 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5 and 10 L/kg. Thus, before
proceeding with the analysis, the LS concentration of the designed
percolation test for compacted samples (LSt) must be determined.
This value can be calculated according to the following equation
(Eq. (9)):
Pe
LSt ¼
Wd
where: Pe is the volume of percolated water (expressed in cm3) and
Wd is the dry weight of the tested sample (expressed in g), as
indicated in Table 3.
The LSt ratios obtained for the mixed RAs were 0.162, 0.151 and
0.151, whereas the LSt ratios obtained for concrete RAs were 0.132,
4.5. Analysis of susceptibility to compaction and the effect on the
fine fraction
Table 6 lists the results on the susceptibility to compaction for
both materials. The Los Angeles (LA) abrasion test which de-
termines aggregate toughness and abrasion characteristics was
performed according to the standard UNE-EN 1097-2: 2010. The
equivalent sand test which detects the presence of undesirable
adverse clay-like materials was performed according to the stan-
dard UNE-EN 933-8: 2012. The percentage of fine particles passing
through a 0.063 mm sieve before and after compaction was esti-
mated due to the amount of fine particles obtained is directly
indicative of the susceptibility to compaction of RAs. The goal of the
(9) present analysis is to confirm that a higher content of fine particles
(as a consequence of high compaction susceptibility) increased the
release of elements.
According to the data showed in Table 6, a significant difference
between the content of fine particles before and after compaction
was observed for both materials. Thus, the mixed material M-4
(with a higher LA coefficient than the concrete aggregate C-2)

Table 5
Emission release time of pollutants under field conditions.

Recycled aggregates

M-4 (i) M-4 (ii) M-4 (iii) C-2 (i) C-2 (ii) C-2 (iii)

Calculation parameters
Fp, percolation factor (dimensionless) 0.260 0.245 0.251 0.236 0.231 0.236
Dd, dry density of aggregate (kg DM/m3) 1790 1820 1860 2000 1970 2000

Emission time (years)

Road layer (Type B, ta ¼ 0.25 m) LSc ¼ 2 6.30 6.80 6.79 7.76 7.81 7.76
LSc ¼ 10 31.52 34.01 33.93 38.80 39.05 38.80
Embankments LSc ¼ 2 50.44 54.42 54.29 62.08 62.48 62.08
(Type A, ta ¼ 2 m) LSc ¼ 10 252.18 272.11 271.44 310.42 312.39 310.42

LSc. LS concentration of compliance test expressed in L/kg DM (UNE EN 12457-3).

302 A.P. Galvín et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 83 (2014) 294e304
Table 6
Result of the analysis of susceptibility to compaction.
L.A. Equivalent
coefficient sand
Mixed RA, M-4 Before compaction 43 61
After compaction 39.2 58
Concrete RA, C-2 Before compaction 38.1 62
After compaction 34.7 46
showed a lower variation margin in the content of fine particles
after compaction. The ratio between percentage of fine particles
after and before compaction was of 2 (7.5/3.6) for M-4 and 5 (8.5/
1.7) for C-2. This fact proved that the concrete RAs was more sus-
ceptible to compaction than the mixed aggregate.
The distribution curves which represent the grain size varia-
tion before and after compaction are shown in Fig. 6. In the
concrete material, Fig. 6 chart (a), the sharp increase of the con-
tent of fine particles after compaction caused a significant
decrease in the value of Equivalent sand. As a consequence of the
high content of fine particles, a higher release of elements as Cr
and sulphate was observed after compaction. It is proved by the
leaching results illustrated in charts (c) and (d) of Fig. 5. In both
charts the levels of Cr and sulphate obtained at LSt (under
compaction) were greater to the levels obtained by the column
test (without compaction).
On the other hand, it must be remarked that the high amount of
fine particles after compaction of the concrete material was caused
by disintegration of the mortar. This amount is dependent on the
type and strength of the mortar, but generally it can be stated that
compounds such as cement paste and mortars are easily dis-
aggregated into fine particles (Sa
nchez and Alaejos, 2009). Prob-
ably, mortar particles smaller than 10 mm were the most affected
by the compaction of the concrete aggregate which increased the
portion of fine particles.
Fig. 6. Granulometric curves of M-4 and C-2 before and after compaction.
Regarding the mixed material, Fig. 6, chart (b), the granulo-
metric curve after compaction was displaced in parallel due to
Fine particles compaction caused a uniform reduction in the grain size distribu-
(%) tion. The low susceptibility to compaction of the mixed material
3.6 and the lower portion of fine fraction produced after compaction is
7.5 proved by the leaching data observed in charts (a) and (b) of Fig. 5.
1.7 The levels of Cr and sulphate obtained at LSt (under compaction)
8.5
were lower to the levels obtained by the column test (without
compaction).
In the chart (c) of Fig. 6 the difference in grain size after
compaction is clearly observed when the granulometric curves of
both materials are superimposed. It should be noted that the high
susceptibility to compaction of C-2 is affected by the intrinsic
characteristics of the source of this aggregate: the original C&DW
was predominately composed by concrete crushed with low
strength (non-structural concrete) which is influencing its
response.
Therefore, it is confirmed that differences in the grain size
distribution is affecting to the leaching behaviour of the tested
aggregates. This phenomenon has been previously studied by
other authors. Thus, previous researchers (Peters, 1999; Townsend
et al., 2003) have stated that pollutant release is more efficient in
materials with finer aggregates than materials with a higher
fraction of coarse aggregates. Van der Sloot and Dijkstra (2004)
support the hypothesis that particle size determines the distance
over which a contaminant must travel from the particle centre to
the aqueous phase. Thus, smaller particles exhibit faster transport,
which was observed for the concrete material C-2 after
compaction.
5. Conclusions
According to the compliance test the elements released in
highest levels were sulphate and Cr. All mixed RAs and the concrete
RAs (C-1 and C-2) were classified as non-hazardous materials. Only
 A.P. Galvín et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 83 (2014) 294e304
the concrete material C-3 was considered inert. A higher amount of
sulphate was detected in all mixed materials and in the concrete
aggregate with the highest amount of gypsum and ceramic parti-
cles (C-1). A higher concentration of Cr was measured in concrete
materials (C-1 and C-2) and in mixed samples containing a greater
amount of crushed concrete and mortar (M-3 and M-4). Hence, the
results revealed the possible origin of Cr and sulphate in RA com-
pounds from C&DW.
The lowest percolation factor (Fp) was obtained for concrete
sample C-2 due to its high density. Assuming an annual precipita-
tion of 536 L/m2 for the study area, the emission time was calcu-
lated by applying the tested RAs as either base course in unpaved
roads or a filling material for embankments. The highest values
were obtained for concrete RAs used in embankments because the
thickness and the lower Fp. The data corroborate that the pollutant
potential of RAs from C&DW is directly proportional to the density
of the material (influenced by the compaction stage), LS ratio, and
thickness of the material as used in the civil application and is
inversely proportional to the Fp of the material.
Comparing the release data obtained by the designed procedure
with a conventional leaching test, the levels of Cr and sulphate
decreased in compacted mixed materials but increased in concrete
aggregates. As a consequence, an analysis on the susceptibility to
compaction was developed. It allowed detecting a more marked
size reduction for the compacted concrete material, being the
mixed RA less susceptible to compaction. Therefore, the sharp
reduction of grain size after compaction of C-2 caused an increased
of finer fraction which increased the release of pollutant elements,
mainly Cr and sulphate.
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