Basic parts of the cell

PROKARYOTE
-unicellular organism
simplest type of cell
-no well-defined structures
-mostly bacteria.

EUKARYOTE
-multicellular / unicellular
-has organelles
-more genetic material
-animals, plants, fungi and protists.

SIMILARITIES OF THIS TWO CELLS

ALL CELLS HAVE THINGS THAT ARE COMMON.
1. THEY ALL HAVE CELL MEMBRANE
2. THEY HAVE CYTOPLASM
3. ALL HAVE GENETIC MATERIAL OR HAVE DNA
4. THEY ALL HAVE RIBOSOMES

PLASMA MEMBRANE
-separates material inside the cell from outside
- two layer of phospholipids
- contain protein channels

CYTOPLASM
aka plasma, fluid inside the cell that holds organelles

PLASMA MEMBRANE TRANSPORT

 ACTIVE TRANSPORT
-requires that a price be paid for a ticket to enter or leave the cell
-the cost of the ticket is energy

 PASSIVE TRANSPORT
- doesn't require a ticket.

Transport methods:
✓ diffusion
✓ osmosis
✓ Filtration

NUCLEOLUS
-Found inside the nucleus. The role is to make the ribosomes.

NUCLEUS
-nucleus contains a mass of material called chromatin, If the cell is entering a stage leading to reproducing
itself through cell division, the chromatin separates into chromosomes.
NUCLEUS AND NUCLEOLUS
-cell's control center and are the root from which all future generations originate. Also, nucleus contains a mass
of material called chromatin, If the cell is entering a stage leading to reproducing itself through cell division,
the chromatin separates into chromosomes.
SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
- is the main part of the cell factory. Also, no ribosomes attached.
-FUNCTION- TOXIFICATION- Removal of toxins.

ROUGH ENDOPLASIC RETICULUM

- endoplasmic reticulum is the main part of the cell factory
-contains ribosomes
-through the ribosomes, is the factory's assembly line.

HOW IT FUNCTIONS?

 After ribosomes are being created inside the Nucleolus and leave the nucleus it will now be transported
to rough endoplasmic reticulum. Its function is to welcome and transport the ribosomes. Then when
inside the rough endoplasmic reticulum, the ribosomes are now doing their job or function which is to
make proteins. So now they are going to create proteins in the rough endoplasmic reticulum, but the
proteins that has been created are not completely protein. That's why the proteins are immerged from
endoplasmic reticulum in a small vesicle and receive by the Golgi bodies.
GOLGI APPARATUS
- cell's postal system
- looks like a maze, and within it, materials produced by the cell are packaged in vesicles - small, membrane-
enclosed sacs.
-vesicles are then mailed to other organelles or to the cell membrane for export.

FUNCTION/ BRIEF EXPLANATION:

 Modifies the proteins, sort it and packages the proteins in order for the cell to use it. So in
modification of proteins they can add lipids or carbohydrates to protein. Depending on the need of
the cell. Once the golgi apparatus has done its job, the vesicles now serve as a mail man, they will now
mail this protein to other organelle or to the cell membrane for export.
CENTRIOLES
-behave as the cell's "train conductors"
-organize structural components of the cell like microtubules, which help move the cell's parts during cell
division.
-Microtubules function is they are the one who maintain the shape of the cell. Centrioles are more on
organizing the structures of microtubules.

LYSOSOME
-cell's landfills
-contain digestive enzymes that break down substances that may harm the cell
-products of this digestion may then safely move out of the lysosomes and back into the cell.
-Lysosomes also digest "dead" organelles –auto digestion.
- The cell’s landfills, or called “The garbage collector”
MITOCHONDRION
- power house of the cell
- “THE BATTERY OF THE CELL”
-use food, primarily the carbohydrate glucose, to produce energy, which comes mainly from breaking down
adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
FUNCTION: It's job is to create ATP or energy molecule. If need more energy, then there would be increase
in number of Mitochondria inside the cell. It also use food, primarily the carbohydrate glucose, to produce
energy, which comes mainly from breaking down adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
RIBOSOMES
-contain protein and ribonucleic acid subunits
-amino acids are assembled into proteins

VACUOLE
-serve a variety of functions, including storage and transport of materials.
-The stored materials may be for later use or may be waste material that the cell no longer needs.

PLANT CELL
- contains same components as animal cells plus a cell wall, a large vacuole and chloroplasts (for green plants)
-the difference is that plant cell has CELL WALL (extra protection of the cell/outermost layer of the cell/
additional support of the growth of the cell) CHLOROPLAST (PHOTOSYNTHESIS) COLOR GREEN (IT
CONTAINS CHLOROPHYLL) VACUOLES (LARGER THAN THE ANIMAL CELL)
Additional:
 The cell wall is composed of cellulose. Cellulose, like starch, is a polymer of glucose. The cell wall
provides structure and rigidity.
 The large vacuole serves as a warehouse for large starch molecules.
 Chloroplasts, present in green plants, are specialized chemical Factories. These are the sites of
photosynthesis, in which chlorophyll absorbs sunlight and uses this energy to combine carbon dioxide
and water to produce glucose and release oxygen gas.
 The green color of many plant leaves is due to the magnesium containing compound chlorophyll.

QUESTIONS AND FACTS

Why did the nucleus colored blue to purple and the cytoplasm pink to red when
stained with Giemsa stain?

ANSWER: We need to stain the samples in order for us to visualize it better under the microscope. If there is
no stain in a tissue or cell it would be difficult for the medical technologist and pathologist to check if they are
any malignancy or if there are any problems on the sample of the patient. It needed to stain to differentiate it
and to visualize it better. Also, better identification of the cell.

Why did the nucleus colored blue to purple and the cytoplasm pink to red when stained
with Giemsa stain?
-Giemsa stain is a gold standard staining technique that is used for both thin and thick smears to
examine blood
-Composed of both the Acidic and Basic dyes, in relation to affinities of acidity and basicity for blood
cells.
-Azure and methylene blue, a basic dye binds to the acid nucleus producing blue-purple color.
-Eosin is an acidic dye that is attracted to the cytoplasm and cytoplasmic granules which are alkaline-
producing red coloration.
 Cellular Membrane/Plasma Membrane/Cytoplasmic Membrane
1. All cells have a cell membrane
2.Functions:
a. Controls what enters and exits the cell to maintain an internal balance called homeostasis
b. Provides protection and support for the cell

About Cell Membranes (continued)…

1.Structure of cell membrane

*Lipid Bilayer -2 layers of phospholipids

a. Phosphate head is polar (water loving hydrophilic)
b. Fatty acid tails non-polar (water fearing hydrophobic)
c. Proteins embedded in membrane

Glycoprotein
-protein with carbohydrate attached

Glycolipid
-lipid with carbohydrate attached

About Cell Membranes (continued)

4. Cell membranes have pores (holes) in it

a. Selectively permeable: Allows some molecules in and keeps other molecules out
b. The structure helps it be selective!

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
1. Lipids
-four major classes of lipids are commonly present in the plasma membrane: phospholipids, sphingolipids,
glycolipids and sterols.

2. Proteins
-plasma membrane contains about 50% protein. Plasma membranes contains structural proteins, transport
proteins and enzymes. Some of them acts as receptors.

3. Carbohydrates
- Attached to proteins or lipids on the extracellular side of the membrane (forming glycoproteins and
glycolipids)
Cell Transport
Cells need to:
- Take in things they need
- Get rid of the things they don't need
- Communicate with one another"

Two main types:

- Passive Transport
- Active Transport
 Passive Transport
-The movement of materials across the cell membrane without using energy
-Caused by concentration gradient
-Works in both directions

Three types:
- Diffusion
- Facilitated diffusion
-Osmosis

1. Diffusion
 The process by which molecules spread from areas of high concentration, to areas of low concentration
(Moving across the concentration gradient)
 No energy is required
 When the molecules are even throughout a space - it is called EQUILIBRIUM

Diffusion Across a Membrane

*Permeable - membrane through which molecules can pass
*Move from high concentrations to low until equilibrium is reached
*Small, uncharged particles (oxygen, carbon dioxide, most lipids, water)
*No energy required

2. Facilitated Diffusion
*Molecules that cannot directly diffuse across the membrane pass through special protein channels
*NO ADDITIONAL ENERGY NEEDED

Facilitated Diffusion
-ions & large molecules (Ct and glucose)
-Protein channels ("carriers")
-Specific for each ion/molecule

3. Osmosis
-Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane down its concentration gradient
-From an area of high water concentration to an area of lower water concentration high water concentration low
water concentration

Osmotic Solutions:
Isotonic- concentrations of solute and solvent are equal
*stay the same
Hypertonic- higher concentration of solutes
*shrink
Hypotonic- lower concentration of solutes
*swell

Osmotic Pressure
-The pressure required to prevent the passage of water through a semi permeable membrane from a region of
low concentration of solutes to one of higher concentration, by osmosis. Cell walls create this pressure this
prevents plant cells from breaking
 Osmolality vs. Osmolarity
The term Osmolality refers to the number of particles of solute per liter of solution; milliosmoles osmotic pull
per kilogram of water (mOsm/kg)

Osmolarity refers to the number of particles of solute per kilogram of solvent. Osmolarity is the osmotic pull
per liter of solution (mOsm/L).

III. Osmosis & osmotic pressure

✓When two solutions of different concentrations are separated by a semi permeable membrane (impermeable
to solute and permeable to water) water mols. diffuse from solution having less conc. To the sol. having higher
concentration
Active Transport
-Movement against a concentration gradient
-Requires Energy (ATP)
-Allows for stockpiling
-One direction

Types:
- Primary Active Transport
-Secondary Active Transport
1. Primary Active Transport
*They use the energy directly from the hydrolysis of ATP
- Sodium Potassium Pump
- Calcium Pump
- Hydrogen Potassium Pump
- Hydrogen/Proton Pump

Sodium-Potassium Pump
-Present in all eukaryotic cells
-Functions:
1. Maintains sodium potassium concentration difference across the cell membrane
2. Maintains the volume of the cell
3. Causes negative electrical charge inside the cell- electrogenic pump
4. Essential for oxygen utilization by the kidneys
-3 sodium is to 2 potassium
Calcium pump
-found in the membrane of the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
-Calcium pay a crucial role in proper cell signaling by keeping the intracellular calcium concentration roughly
10,000 times lower than the extracellular concentration. Failure to do so is one cause of muscle cramps.

✓ The release of a large amount of free Ca²+ can

-trigger a fertilized egg to develop, skeletal muscle cells to contract

Hydrogen Potassium Pump

*Hydrogen Potassium Adenosine Triphosphates (H+-K+ATPase)

-are gastric proton pumps that function to maintain an acidic environment within the stomach.
- enzyme primarily responsible for the acidification of the A stomach contents and the activation of the
digestive enzyme pepsin

PROTON PUMP
*Hydrogen Adenotriphosphatase (H+ATPase)
- Present in lysosome and endoplasmic Reticulum
- Pumps proton from cytosol into these organelles

Proton Pump
• The most important active transporter in the plasma membrane
- It hydrolyzes ATO and uses the released energy to pump hydrogen ions (H+) out of the cell
- Creates a membrane potential or voltage because the proton pump moves positive charge (H+) outside the
cells, making the inside of the cell negative in charge relative to the outside

2. Secondary Active Transport

*Energy is utilized in the transport of one substance helps in the movement of other substance
*Co-transport/Symport
*Counter transport/Aniport
1. Co-Transport/Symport
-The transport of Na+ via its concentration gradient is coupled to the transport of other substances in the same
direction.
-Make use of carrier protein.

E.g. Sodium glucose Co-transport

2. Counter Transport/ Antiport

• The transport of Na+ via its concentration gradient is coupled to the transport of other substances in the
opposite direction.
• Sodium-Hydrogen counter transport in the proximal tubule of the kidneys.
• Sodium-Calcium exchanger in the cardiac cells.

a. Uniport- means one

b. Antiport
c. Uniport copied with symport

Peculiarities of active transport

1 Carrier mediated transport
2) Rapid rate of transport
-Transport takes place against electrochemical gradient
-Expenditure of energy by transport protein which incorporates ATPase activity
-Carrier protein shows specificity, saturation competitive inhibition, blocking
-Substances transported - Na, K, H, CI, I, Glucose, Amino acids

Vesicular Transport
• is the predominant mechanism for exchange of proteins and lipids between membrane-bound organelles in
eukaryotic cells.
- Endocytosis - enter
Pinocytosis –all cells
Phagocytosis- specialized cells
- Exocytosis- go out

Phagocytosis
-Means "cell eating"
-An extension of cytoplasm surrounds a particle and package it into a food vacuole requires an
enormous amount of energy
- SOLID MATERIALS

Pinocytosis
-Means" cell drinking"
-Tiny pockets form along the cell membrane fill with liquid and form vacuoles within the 4 cell
-Requires enormous amounts of energy
- LIQUID

Receptor mediated endocytosis

- highly selective process to import imp. specific large molecules. Requires energy & Ca++.
e.g., endocytosis of low-density lipoproteins
EXOCYTOSIS
-The process where cells release large amount of materials
-Vacuole surrounding material fuses with the cell membrane, forcing the contents out of the cell
-Also requires energy

-A cellular process where cells eject waste products or chemical transmitters (such as hormones) from the
interior of the cell.
-Exocytosis is similar in function to Endocytosis but works in the opposite direction.

Passive transport
-No expenditure of energy molecules
-Takes place along conc., electrical, & pressure gradient
-Carrier may or may not be required
-Rate is proportional to conc. Difference

Active transport
-Expenditure of energy mol. (ATP)
-Can take place against conc. Gradient
-Carrier is always required
-Rate is proportional to availability of carrier & energy. ( ACTIVE TRANSPORT without lipids are composed of
Packages and releases protein from the cell Vmax)

Osmosis in the Body

-Gargling with Saltwater Provide Relief from Sore Throat
-Digested Food Absorbed in Small and Large Intestines
-Pathogenic Bacteria Interfere with Intestinal Cells