CONNECTIVE TISSUES

1. Collagen fibers
 resemble microscopic ropes
 flexible; resists stretching
2. Reticular fibers
 very fine short fibers that branch to form a supporting network

3. Elastic fibers
 have the ability to recoil to their original shape

Embryonic connective tissue

*Mesenchyme - Gives rise to all other connective tissues

*Mucous connective tissue-

Classification of Mature Connective Tissues:
A. Loose Connective Tissue
1. Areolar CT
*Most widely distributed in the body
*Contains several types of cells and all three fibers (collagen fiber, elastic fiber, reticular fiber)
Structure: A fine network of fibers (mostly collagen fibers with a few elastic fibers) with spaces between the
fibers. Fibroblasts, macrophages, and lymphocytes are located in the spaces.
Function: Loose packing, support, and nourishment for the structures with which it is associated.
Location: Widely distributed throughout the body; substance on which epithelial basement membranes rest;
packing between glands, muscles, and nerves. Attaches the skin to underlying tissues.

2. Adipose CT
Structure: Little extracellular matrix surrounding cells. The adipocytes, or fat cells, are so full of lipid that
the cytoplasm is pushed to the periphery of the cell.
Function: Packing material, thermal insulator, energy storage, and protection of organs against injury from
being bumped or jarred.
Location: Predominantly in subcutaneous areas, mesenteries, renal pelves, around kidneys, attached to the
surface of the colon, mammary glands, and in loose connective tissue that penetrates into spaces and
crevices.

3. Reticular CT
*Fine interlacing reticular fibers and cells
*Forms the stroma of liver, spleen, and lymph nodes

B. Dense Connective Tissue

*Contains numerous, thicker, and denser fibers
*Packed closely with fewer cells than loose connective tissue
 1. Dense regular/collagenous connective tissue
*Bundles of collagen fibers are regularly arranged in parallel patterns for

2. Dense Irregular Connective Tissue

*Collagen fibers are usually irregularly arranged
*Found where pulling forces are exerted in many directions
*Dermis of skin and heart
3. Elastic Connective Tissue
*Contain branching elastic fibers
*Strong and can recoil to original shape after stretching
*Lung tissue and arteries
4. Cartilage
*Cartilage is a dense network of collagen fibers and elastic fibers firmly embedded in chondroitin sulfate

Chrondrocytes
*Cartilage cells found in the spaces called lacunae

Perichondrium
*Covering of dense irregular connective tissue that surrounds the cartilage

Two layers: outer fibrous layer and inner cellular layer

No blood vessels or nerves, except perichondrium

A. Hyaline cartilage
*Most abundant cartilage in the body
*Surrounding by perichondrium (some exceptions like articular cartilage)
*Provide flexibility and support. Reduces friction

Structure: Collagen fibers are small and evenly dispersed in the matrix, making the matrix appear transparent.
The cartilage cells, or chondrocytes, are found in spaces, or lacunae, within the firm but flexible matrix.

Function: Allows growth of long bones. Provides rigidity with some flexibility in the trachea, bronchi, ribs, and
nose. Forms rugged, smooth, yet somewhat flexible articulating surfaces. Forms the embryonic skeleton.

Location: Growing long bones, cartilage rings of the respiratory system, costal cartilage of ribs, nasal
cartilages, articulating surface of bones, and the embryonic skeleton.

B. Fibrocartilage
*Chondrocytes are scattered among bundles of collagen fibers within the extracellular matrix
*Lack a perichondrium
*Strongest type of cartilage
*Found in intervertebral disc (between vertebrae)

Structure: Collagenous fibers similar to those in hyaline cartilage. The fibers are more numerous than in other
cartilages and are arranged in thick bundles.

Function: Somewhat flexible and capable of withstanding considerable pressure. Connects structures subjected
to great pressure.
Location: Intervertebral disks, symphysis pubis, articular disks (e.g., knees and temporomandibular [jaw]
joints).

C. Elastic Cartilage
*Chrondrocytes are located within a threadlike network of elastic fibers
*Perichondrium is present
*Provides strength and elasticity

Structure: Similar to hyaline cartilage but matrix also contains elastin fibers.

Function: Provides rigidity with even more flexibility than hyaline cartilage because elastic fibers return to
their original shape after being stretched.

Location: External ears, epiglottis, and auditory tubes.

Bone tissue
*Bones are organs composed of several different connective tissues: bone (osseous) tissue, periosteum, and
endosteum.
*Compact or spongy
*Osteon or haversian system
* Spongy bone lacks osteons. They have columns called trabeculae

Structure: Hard, bony matrix predominates. Many osteocytes (not seen in this bone preparation) are located
within lacunae; the matrix is organized into layers called lamellae.

Function: Provides great strength and support and protects internal organs such as the brain. Bone also
provides attachment sites for muscles and ligaments. The joints of bones allow movements.

Location: All bones of the body.

Connective Tissue: Blood

Structure: Blood cells and a fluid matrix.

Function: Transports oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, nutrients, waste products, and other substances.
Protects the body from infections and is involved in temperature regulation.

Location: Within the blood vessels. White blood cells frequently leave the blood vessels and enter the
interstitial spaces.

Muscular Tissue
*Consists of elongated cells called muscle fibers or myocytes
*Cells use ATP to generate force
*Several functions of muscle tissue
*Classified into 3 types: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscular tissue

A. Skeletal Muscle
Structure: Skeletal muscle cells or fibers appear striated (banded). Cells are large, long, and cylindrical, with
many nuclei located at the periphery.

Function: Movement of the body; under voluntary control.

Location: Attaches to bone or other connective tissue.

 B. Cardiac Muscle
Structure: Cardiac muscle cells are cylindrical and striated and have a single, centrally located nucleus. They
are branched and connected to one another by intercalated disks, which contain gap junctions.

Function: Pumps the blood; under involuntary control.

Location: Cardiac muscle is in the heart.

C. Smooth Muscle
Structure: Smooth muscle cells are tapered at each end, are not striated, and have a single nucleus

Function: Regulates the size of organs, forces fluid through tubes, controls the amount of light entering the eye,
and produces "goose flesh" in the skin; under involuntary control.

Location: Smooth muscle is in hollow organs such as the stomach and intestine

Nervous Tissue
*Consists of two principle types of cells
a. Neurons or nerve cells
b. Neuroglia (Support cells)

Description: Consists of neurons (nerve cells) and neuroglia.

Neurons consist of a cell body and processes extending from the cell body (multiple dendrites and a single
axon). Neuroglia do not generate or conduct nerve impulses but have other important supporting functions.

Location: Nervous system.

Function: Exhibits sensitivity to various types of stimuli, converts stimuli into nerve impulses (action
potentials), and conducts nerve impulses to other neurons, muscle fibers, or glands.

Parts of a Neuron
1. Soma (Cell body)
2. Processes:
a. Dendrite – conducts impulses towards the cell body
b. Axon – conducts impulses away from the cell body

Multipolar Neuron
Structure: The neuron consists of dendrites, a cell body, and a long axon. Neuroglia, or support cells, surround
the neurons.

Function: Neurons transmit information in the form of action potentials, store "information," and in some way
integrate and evaluate data. Neuroglia support, protect, and form specialized sheaths around axons.

Location: Neurons are located in the brain, spinal cord, and ganglia.

Mucous membranes
*Lines a body cavity that opens directly to the exterior
*Epithelial layer is important for the body’s defense against pathogens
*Connective tissue layer is areolar connective tissue and is called lamina propria
 The INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
1. Blood vessel dilation results in increased blood flow toward the surface of the skin. Blood vessel dilates
(vasodilation)
2. Increased blood flow beneath the epidermis results in increased heat loss (gold arrows). Heat loss across the
epidermis increases
3. Blood vessel constriction results in decreased blood flow toward the surface of the skin. Blood vessel.
constricts (vasoconstriction)
4. Decreased blood flow beneath the epidermis results in decreased heat loss. Heat loss across the epidermis
decreases

The SKELETAL SYSTEM

Stages of Intramembranous Ossification:
1. An ossification center appears in the fibrous connective tissue membrane.
 Selected centrally located mesenchymal cells cluster and differentiate into osteoblasts, forming an
ossification center.
 Mesenchymal cell
 Collagen fiber
 Ossification center
 Osteoid
 Osteoblast

2. Bone matrix (osteoid) is secreted within the fibrous membrane.

 Osteoblasts begin to secrete osteoid, which is mineralized within a few days.
 Trapped osteoblasts become osteocytes.
 Osteoid
 Osteocyte
 Osteoblast
 Newly calcified bone matrix

3. Woven bone and periosteum form.

 Accumulating osteoid is laid down between embryonic blood vessels, which form a random network.
The result is a network (instead of lamellae) of trabeculae.
 Vascularized mesenchyme condenses on the external face of the woven bone and becomes the
periosteum.
 Mesenchyme condensing to form the periosteum
 Trabecula of woven bone
 Blood vessel

4. Bone collar of compact bone forms and red marrow appears.

 Trabeculae just deep to the periosteum thicken, forming a woven bone collar that is later replaced with
mature lamellar bone.
 Spongy bone (diploé), consisting of distinct trabeculae, persists internally and its vascular tissue
becomes red marrow.
 Fibrous periosteum
 Osteoblast
 Plate of compact bone
 Diploë (spongy bone) cavities contain red marrow
Endochondral Ossification:
1. A cartilage model, with the general shape of the mature bone, is produced by chondrocytes. A perichondrium
surrounds most of the cartilage model.
2. A bone collar is produced and the perichondrium of the diaphysis becomes the periosteum. The chondrocytes
hypertrophy, and cartilage is calcified.
3. A primary ossification center forms as blood vessels and osteoblasts invade the calcified cartilage. The
osteoblasts lay down bone matrix, forming trabeculae.
4. Secondary ossification centers form in the epiphyses of long bones.

Hormones regulating Calcium:

1. Osteoclasts break down bone and release Ca²+ into the blood, and osteoblasts remove Ca2+ from the blood to
make bone (blue arrows represent the movement of Ca²+). Parathyroid hormone (PTH) regulates blood Ca²+
levels by indirectly stimulating osteoclast activity, resulting in increased Ca²+ release into the blood. Calcitonin
plays a minor role in Ca²+ maintenance by inhibiting osteoclast activity.
2. In the kidneys, PTH increases Ca2+ reabsorption from the urine.
3. In the kidneys, PTH also promotes the formation of active vitamin D (green arrows), which increases Ca2+
absorption from the small intestine.

CLOT FORMATION
1. When a bone is broken, a clot forms in the damaged area.
CALLUS FORMATION
2. Blood vessels and cells invade the clot and produce a fibrous network and cartilage between the broken
bones, called a callus.
CALLUS OSSIFICATION
3. Osteoblasts enter the callus and form cancellous bone
BONE REMODELING
4. The cancellous bone is slowly remodeled to form compact bone and the repair is complete.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE PELVIC GIRDLES

General
 Female pelvis somewhat lighter in weight and wider laterally, but shorter superiorly to inferiorly and
less funnel-shaped; less obvious muscle attachment points in female than in male
Sacrum
 Broader in female, with the inferior portion directed more posteriorly; the sacral promontory projects
less anteriorly in female
Pelvic inlet
 Heart-shaped in male; oval in female
Pelvic outlet
 Broader and more shallow in female.
Subpubic angle
 Less than 90 degrees in male; 90 degrees or more in female.
Ilium
 More shallow and flared laterally in female
Ischial spines
 Farther apart in female
Ischial tuberosities
 Turned laterally in female and medially in male (not shown in figure 6.31)
 The MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Components of the Sarcomere:
Z discs
 Narrow, plate-shaped regions of dense material that separate one sarcomere from the next.
A band
 The dark, middle part of the sarcomere that extends the entire length of the thick filaments and also
includes those parts of the thin filaments that overlap with the thick filaments.
I band
 The lighter, less dense area of the sarcomere that contain the rest of the thin filaments but no thick
filaments. A passes through the center of each I band.
H zone
 A narrow region in the center of each A band that contains thick filaments but no thin filaments.
M line
 A region in the center of the H zone that contains proteins that hold the thick filaments together at the
center of the sarcomere.

*Actin Myofilaments (thin)

*Myosin Myofilaments (thick)

SKELETAL MUSCLE:
Location: Attached to bone
Appearance

Cell shape: Long, cylindrical

Nucleus: Multiple, peripheral
Special features:
Striations: Yes
Autorhythmic: No
Control: Voluntary
Function: Move the whole body

CARDIAC MUSCLE:
Location: Heart
Appearance:

Cell shape: Branched

Nucleus: Usually single, central
Special features: Intercalated disks
Striations: Yes
Autorhythmic: Yes
Control: Involuntary
Function: Heart contraction to propel blood though the body.

SMOOTH MUSCLE:
Location: Wall of hollow organs, blood vessels, and glands
Appearance:

Cell shape: Spindle-shape

Nucleus: Single, central
Special features: cell-cell attachments
Striations: No
Autorhythmic: Yes
Control: Involuntary
Function: Compression of organs, ducts, tubes, etc.

CONTROL OF MUSCLE TENSIO:

(a) Concentric contraction while picking up a book
(b) Eccentric contraction while lowering a book
(c) Isometric contraction while holding a book steady (No movement)
1. An action potential arrives at neuromuscular junction
2. ACh is released, binds to receptors, and opens sodium ion channels, leading to an action potential in
sarcolemma
3. Action potential travels along the T-tubules
4. Thick and thin filament interaction leads to muscle contraction
5. Muscle shortens and produces tension

PHYSIOLOGICAL OF SKELETAL MUSCLE CONTRACTION:

 Once an action potential (AP) is generated at the motor end plate it will spread like an electrical current
along the sarcolemma of the muscle fiber
 The AP will also spread into the T-tubules, exciting the terminal cisternae of the sarcoplasmic reticula
 This will cause Calcium (Ca+2) gates in the SR to open, allowing Cat2 to diffuse into the sarcoplasm
 Calcium will bind to troponin (on the thin myofilament), causing it to change its shape. This then pulls
tropomyosin away from the active sites of actin n moleculesdows
 The exposure of the active sites allow the sliding of the filaments

 If there are no longer APs generated on the motor neuron, no more Ach will be released
 AchE will remove Ach from the motor end plate, and AP transmission on the muscle fiber will end
 Ca+2 gates in the SR will close & Ca+2 will be actively transported back into the SR
 With Ca+2 removed from the sarcoplasm (& from troponin), tropomyosin will re-cover the active sites
of actin
 No more cross-bridge interactions can form
 Thin myofilaments slide back to resting state

1. ACh released, binding to receptors

2. Sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca2+
3. Active-site exposure, cross-bridge formation
4. Contraction begins
5. ACh removed by AChE
6. Sarcoplasmic reticulum recaptures Ca2+
7. Active sites covered, no cross-bridge interaction
8. Contraction ends
9. Relaxation occurs, passive return to resting length
The CELL
Nucleus
 Often near center of the cell
 Contains genetic material of cell (DNA) and nucleoli; site of ribosome and messenger RNA synthesis

Nucleolus
 In the nucleus
 Site of ribosomal RNA synthesis and ribosomal subunit assembly

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER)

 In cytoplasm
 Many ribosomes attached to rough ER; site of protein synthesis

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (smooth ER)

 In cytoplasm
 Site of lipid synthesis; detoxification

Golgi apparatus
 In cytoplasm
 Modifies protein structure and packages proteins in secretory vesicles Contains materials produced in
the cell; formed by the Golgi apparatus; secreted by exocytosis

Secretory vesicle
 In cytoplasm
 Contains materials produced in the cell; formed by the Golgi apparatus; secreted by exocytosis

Lysosome
 In cytoplasm
 Contains enzymes that digest material taken into the cell

Mitochondrion
 In cytoplasm
 Site of aerobic respiration and the major site of ATP synthesis

Microtubule
 In cytoplasm
 Supports cytoplasm; assists in cell division and forms components of cilia and flagella

Cilia
 On cell surface with many on each cell
 Cilia move substances over surfaces of certain cells

Flagella
 On sperm cell surface with one per cell
 Propels sperm cells

Microvilli
 Extensions of cell surface with many on each cell
 Increase surface area of certain cells

TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF MOVEMENT ACROSS MEMBRANE:

Diffusion
 With the concentration gradient through the lipid portion of the cell membrane or through membrane
channels
 Example: Oxygen, carbon dioxide, chloride ions, and urea
 No ATP

Osmosis
 With the concentration gradient (for water) through the lipid portion of the cell membrane or through
membrane channels
 Example: water
 No ATP

Filtration
 Movement of liquid and substances by pressure through a partition containing holes
 Example: In the kidneys, filtration of everything in blood smaller than proteins and blood cells
 No ATP

Facilitated diffusion
 With the concentration gradient by carrier molecules Against the concentration gradient" by carrier
molecules
 Example: Glucose in most cells
 No ATP

Active transport
 Against the concentration gradient by carrier molecules; the energy for secondary active transport of one
substance comes from the concentration gradient of another
 Example: Na, K, Ca, and H*; amino acids
 Yes, to ATP

Secondary active transport

 Against the concentration gradient by carrier molecules; the energy for secondary active transport of one
substance comes from the concentration gradient of another
 Example: Glucose, amino acids
 Yes, to ATP

Endocytosis
 Movement into cells by vesicles
 Example: Ingestion of particles by phagocytosis or receptor-mediated endocytosis and liquids by
pinocytosis
 Yes, to ATP

Exocytosis
 Movement out of cells by vesicles
 Example: Secretion of proteins
 Yes, to ATP
Because the tube contains salt ions (green and red spheres) as well as water molecules (blue spheres), the tube
has proportionately less water than is in the beaker, which contains only water. The water molecules diffuse
with their concentration gradient into the tube (blue arrows). Because the salt ions cannot leave the tube, the
total fluid volume inside the tube increases, and fluid moves up the glass tube (black arrow) as a result of
osmosis.
1. The end of a tube containing a 3% salt solution (green) is closed at one end with a selectively permeable
membrane, which allows water molecules to pass through it but retains the salt ions within the tube.
2. The tube is immersed in distilled water. Water moves into the tube by osmosis (see inset above"). The
concentration of salt in the tube decreases as water rises in the tube (lighter green color).
3. Water moves by osmosis into the tube until the weight of the column of water in the tube (hydrostatic
pressure) prevents further movement of water into the tube. The hydrostatic pressure that prevents net
movement of water into the tube is equal to the osmotic pressure of the solution in the tube.

1. The carrier molecule binds with a molecule, such as glucose, on the outside of the cell membrane.
2. The carrier molecule changes shape and releases the moleculectivate Windows on the inside of the cell
membrane.

EXTRACELLULAR FLUID (OUTSIDE):

1. A sodium-potassium (Na+-K*) pump maintains a concentration of Na* that is higher outside the cell than
inside.
2. Nat move back into the cell by a carrier molecule that also moves glucose. The concentration gradient for
Na+ provides the energy required to move glucose against its concentration gradient.

1. Receptor molecules on the cell surface bind to molecules to be taken into the cell.
2. The receptors and the bound molecules are taken into the cell as a vesicle is formed.
3. The vesicle membrane fuses and the vesicle separates from the cell. membrane.

1. A secretory vesicle moves toward the cell membrane.

2. The secretory vesicle membrane fuses with the cell membrane.
3. The secretory vesicle's contents are released into the extracellular

1. A vesicle forms around material outside the cell.

2. The vesicle is pinched off from the cell membrane and becomes a separate vesicle inside the cell.
3. A lysosome is pinched off the Golgi apparatus.
4. The lysosome fuses with the vesicle.
5. The enzymes from the lysosome mix with the material in the vesicle, and the enzymes digest the material.

MITOTIC PHASE:

1. Interphase is the time between cell divisions. DNA is found as thin threads of chromatin in the nucleus. DNA
replication occurs during interphase.

2. In prophase, the chromatin condenses into chromosomes. Each chromosome consists of two chromatids
joined at the centromere. The centrioles move to the opposite ends of the cell, and the nucleolus and the nuclear
envelope disappear.

3. In metaphase, the chromosomes align in the center of the cell in association with the spindle fibers. S Office
4. In anaphase, the chromatids separate to form two sets of identical chromosomes. The chromosomes, assisted
by the spindle fibers, move toward the centrioles at each end of the cell.

5. In telophase, the chromosomes disperse, the nuclear envelopes and the nucleoli form, and the cytoplasm
begins to divide to form two cells. Office

6. Mitosis is complete, and a new interphase begins. The chromosomes have unraveled to become chromatin.
Cell division has produced two daughter cells, each with DNA that is identical to the DNA of the parent cell.

EPITHELIAL TISSUES
SIMPLE EPITHELIUM

(a) Simple Squamous Epithelium

Structure: Single layer of flat, often hexagonal cells. The nuclei appear as bumps when viewed as a cross
section because the cells are so flat.
Function: Diffusion, nitration, some secretion, and some protection against friction.
Location: Lining of blood vessels and the heart, lymphatic vessels, alveoli of the lung the lungs, portions of the
kidney tubules, lining of serious membranes of body cavities (pleural pericardial, peritoneal.

(b) Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

Structure: Single layer of cube shaped cells; some cells have microvilli (kidney tubules) or cilia terminal
bronchioles of the lungs).
Function: Active transport and facilitated diffusion result in secretion and absorption by cells of the kidney
tubules: secretion by cells of glands and choroid plexuses: movement of particles embedded in mucus out of the
terminal bronchioles by ciliated cells.
Location: Kidney tubules, glands and their ducts, choroid plexuses of the brain, lining of terminal bronchioles
of the lungs, and surfaces of the ovaries.

(c) Simple Columnar Epithelium

Structure: Single layer of tall, narrow cells. Some cells have cilia (bronchioles of lungs, auditory tubes, uterine
tubes, and uterus) or microvilli (intestines).
Function: Movement of particles out of the bronchioles of the lungs by ciliated cells; partially responsible for
the movement of the oocytes through the uterine tubes by ciliated cells. Secretion by cells of the glands, the
stomach, and the intestine. Absorption by cells of the intestine.
Location: Glands and some ducts, bronchioles of lungs, auditory tubes, uterus, uterine tubes, stomach,
intestines, gallbladder, bile ducts, and ventricles of the brain.

STRATIFIED EPITHELIUM
(a) Stratified Squamous Epithelium
Structure: Several layers of cells that are cuboidal in the basal layer and progressively flattened toward the
surface. The epithelium can be nonkeratinized (moist) or keratinized. In nonkeratinized stratified squamous
epithelium, the surface cells retain a nucleus and cytoplasm. In keratinized stratified epithelium, the cytoplasm
of cells at the surface is replaced by a protein called keratin, and the cells are dead.
Function: Protection against abrasion, barrier against infection, and reduces loss of water from the body.
Location: Keratinized-outer layer of the skin. Nonkeratinized-mouth, throat, larynx, esophagus, anus, vagina,
inferior urethra, and corneas.

B. Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

– Fairly rare type of epithelium
– Apical layers are cuboidal
– Functions in protection
Location: Esophagus

C. Stratified columnar epithelium

– Also very uncommon
– Columnar cells in apical layer only
– Basal layers has shortened, irregular shaped cells
Functions: protection and secretion
Location: Esophagus (glands)

D. Transitional Epithelium
– Found only in the urinary system
– Variable appearance
– In relaxed state, cells appear cuboidal
– Upon stretching, cells become flattened and appear squamous
– Ideal for hollow structure subjected to expansion
Structure: Stratified cells that appear cuboidal when the organ or tube is not stretched and squamous when the
organ or tube is stretched by fluid.
Function: Accommodates
Location: Lining of urinary bladder, ureters, and superior urethra.

Epithelial Tissue: GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM

A. Endocrine glands
Description: Secretory products (hormones) diffuse into blood after passing through interstitial fluid.
Location: Examples include pituitary gland at base of brain, pineal gland in brain, thyroid and parathyroid
glands near larynx (voice box), adrenal glands superior to kidneys, pancreas near stomach, ovaries in pelvic
cavity, testes in scrotum, and thymus in thoracic cavity.
Function: Produce hormones that regulate various body activities.

B. Exocrine glands
Description: Secretory products released into ducts.
Location: Sweat, oil, and earwax glands of the skin; digestive glands such as salivary glands, which secrete into
mouth cavity, and pancreas, which secretes into the small intestine.
Function: Produce substances such as sweat, oil, earwax, saliva, or digestive enzymes.