NLFE Modeling of Bond Between NSM CFRP Strips and Heat-Damaged Concrete

Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology
ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tast20
NLFE modeling of bond between NSM CFRP strips

and heat-damaged concrete
Rami Haddad & Imad Al-Rabadi
To cite this article: Rami Haddad & Imad Al-Rabadi (2021): NLFE modeling of bond between
NSM CFRP strips and heat-damaged concrete, Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology, DOI:
10.1080/01694243.2021.2000107
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/01694243.2021.2000107
Published online: 08 Nov 2021.
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JOURNAL OF ADHESION SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
https://doi.org/10.1080/01694243.2021.2000107
NLFE modeling of bond between NSM CFRP strips and

heat-damaged concrete
Rami Haddad and Imad Al-Rabadi
Civil Engineering Department, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan
ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

A nonlinear finite element (NLFE) model was developed to Received 8 July 2021
describe bond behavior between heat-damaged concrete and Revised 23 October 2021
near-surface mounted (NSM) fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) strips. Accepted 25 October 2021
The different components of near-end pullout specimens were
KEYWORDS
represented using proper elements in ABAQUS software with the NLFE; Bond behavior;
cohesive element adopted to consider bond behavior. The model Concrete; FRP; Concrete
is calibrated using data from two published experimental works, strength; Elevated
before its predictions were extrapolated to consider the effect of temperatures; Bond failure
temperatures (23–550 C), along with the effects of concrete
strength (25–55 MPa), bond length (100–350 mm), spacing
(50–200 mm) and fiber type of NSM CFRP strips. Elevated temper-
atures, in excess of 300 C, caused a reduction in residual pullout
force, yet an increase in bond ductility. The degradation in bond
was more pronounced for specimens with higher-grade concrete
and lower spacing between strips. Exposing concrete blocks to
450 C and above undermined the contribution of NSM CFRP
strips (100–350 mm) to bond strength. The type of composite had
a minor (if any) impact upon bond behavior between heat-dam-
aged concrete and FRP strips for temperatures higher than
300 C. The NLFE cracking patterns indicated that bond failure
mode in the pullout specimens is dictated by the spacing
between strips with minimal impact of exposure temperature or
bond length.
1. Introduction
The exposure of concrete structures to accidental fires results in severe damage of their
major elements. Consequently, the structural capacity, stiffness and toughness of these
elements are partly or fully lost. Unless repaired, their structural integrity, serviceability
and safety would be lost [1]. During the past 30 years, fiber-reinforced composites
(FRPs) have been used on a large scale for repair purposes. Externally bonded FRP
(EB-FRP) composites were used in the forms of sheets and plates for the repair of flex-
ural and compression members with a tangible efficiency. However, the tendency of
these composites to detach from the underlying concrete substrates represents serious
CONTACT Rami Haddad rhaddad@just.edu.jo Civil Engineering Department, Jordan University of Science and
Technology, Irbid, Jordan
ß 2021 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 R. HADDAD AND I. AL-RABADI
disadvantages. FRP-concrete bond failure occurs in different forms; concrete cover sep-
aration, intermediate and/or end interfacial detachment, triggered by the formation of
flexural or flexural-shear cracks [1–4].
To overcome the problem of early detachment of EB-FRP composites, a new
method of applying the FRP composites emerged. FRP strips of limited width were
inserted within man-made grooves created in the concrete cover of flexural members,
known technically as near-surface mounted (NSM) FRP strips [5–8]. These are imple-
mented in concrete according to the following sequence. The grooves are created on
the surface of the element to be strengthened, then cleaned using compressed air or
water pressure and dried without using bond-inhibiting substances. After that, the cor-
rect adhesive is filled into the grooves and the FRP strips, at the proper development
length, are pressed into the grooves before the squeezed out adhesive is used to cover
the exterior edge of the strips. Previous extensive research works revealed that the
NSM FRP strips have several key advantages over EB FRP composites [1–4,9–19].
First, their application requires the removal of degraded surface or treatment of the
surface for irregularity. Second, the strips proved to be more efficient than EB FRP
because of their limited tendency to detach from concrete. Third, NSM FRP strips can
be easily anchored at their termination points by being extended to the adjacent ele-
ments. Fourth, they are encapsulated within the concrete to be protected from aggres-
sive agents or acts of vandalism. Lastly, their implementation introduces limited
changes to the original view of the structural elements. Nevertheless, the failure of
NSM FRP-strengthened/repaired flexural elements is usually dominated by concrete
cover separation before the composite reaches its ultimate strain capacity, which under-
mines the intended benefit of repair. This occurs more repeatedly in flexural elements
that underwent tangible levels of damage caused by physical, chemical or thermal
attacks. As stipulated earlier, exposure of concrete elements to heating from a fire
source results in their degradation and loss of their load capacity [1]. The limited size
of the experimental data available so far about the NSM CFRP strips bond behavior
with concrete, especially for cases where concrete is considered degraded, makes it dif-
ficult to establish solid guidelines for repair design with such composites.
Since two decades ago, research attempts were carried out to investigate the key fac-
tors or durability aspects that influence NSM CFRP strips’ bond to concrete [9–19].
Early attempts to study bond behavior relied upon a C-shaped concrete block with a
square groove encapsulating NSM FRP rods of different diameters and surface charac-
teristics or using push-pull test specimens for the development of an empirical formula
[9,10]. Seracino et al. proved the superiority of using NSM FRP strips over EB-FRP
composites to bond performance [11,12]. Later, Seo et al. [13] supported the experi-
mental findings by Seracino et al. [11,12] to stipulate that the bond strength between
concrete and NSM CFRP strips is 1.5 times of that with EB FRP composites. In another
work, the benefit of roughening the texture of the NSM CFRP strips upon bond behav-
ior was substantiated [14]. Most recently, the experimental and numerical works by
Zhang and others show that expanding groove pacing and concrete edge distance have
a positive impact on enhancing bond force per strip [15,16]. Cruz et al. illustrated that
stiff adhesives impart higher pullout forces to the single-lap shear test specimens,
whereas flexible ones contribute to a better bond ductility [17].
JOURNAL OF ADHESION SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 3
The second track of this line of research focuses on the impact of special forms of
attack on the bond behavior between NSM CFRP strips. Exposure of concrete to wetting
and drying cycles over long-term periods led to a noticeable degradation in bond that was
shaped by the groove geometric characteristics [18]. Cruz et al. have recently investigated
the combined effect of exposure to temperature, relative humidity (RH) and sustained
load (for about 1000 h) upon the bond behavior [19]. Exposing single-lap shear test speci-
mens to a sustained load of 50% of the ultimate load capacity leads to an increase in the
slippage under normal conditions, yet a sudden bond failure under 40 C and 90%
RH [19].
A third research track was directed towards studying the impact of heating/fire
upon the bond between NSM CFRP strips and concrete [20–23]. The residual bond
behavior for post-heated bond test specimens is noticeably reduced when the exposure
temperature exceeds that of the glass transition (Tg) of either the composite or the
adhesive used [20,21]. Supporting the latter finding, the study by Fernandes et al.
revealed that increasing the heating period from 1.5 to 3 h while raising the exposure
temperature to as high as 240 C degrades the bond mechanical properties substantially
[22]. Bond endurance tests of beams, reinforced with NSM CFRP strips or externally
bond CFRP, suggest that both composites are susceptible to elevated temperature
higher than Tg of the matrix/adhesive polymers [23].
Studying the behavior of concrete elements, strengthened with NSM CFRP
strips or rods, considering major key parameters, requires long time and sufficient
financial support. Modeling of such elements using nonlinear finite element
(NLFE) method, that is calibrated using limited experiments with credible results,
may be the solution. During the past decade, several NLFE modeling (in 2D and
3D) attempts were made to generate sufficient data to better understand the struc-
tural behavior of FRP-strengthened elements [22–33]. For example, the flexural
performance for concrete beams with single and double spans and strengthened
for flexure, shear and torsion using EB FRP composites was predicted using NLFE
which was calibrated based on few experimental data points [22–26]. Concrete
beams, strengthened with pre-stressed EB FRP laminates, were also modeled with
high success using NLFE [27]. The performance of concrete flexural members,
strengthened with NSM FRP rods, side-laminates or short-length CFRP plates, was
successfully investigated utilizing NLFE with emphasis upon the impact of key
parameters on repair/strengthening efficiency [23,28–30]. Abu-Obaida et al. simu-
lated crack formation in double-sided concrete corbels, with internal GFRP bars’
reinforcement, using NLFE to evaluate their performance and failure mechanism
[31]. Others employed NLFE to study the contribution of U-wrapped CFRP sheets
as an anchorage system of CFRP composites, which are bonded at the soffits of
the strengthened concrete beams [32]. The potential of recovering shear and flex-
ural performance of post-heated beams strengthened using NSM CFRP strips or
EB-FRP was investigated using NLFE modeling [33–36]. Shear-deficient, sulfate-
damaged and FRP-strengthened beams were successfully modeled using NLFE
method with prediction expanded beyond the experimental findings [37]. In the
different NLFE models, the bond between the FRP composites and concrete was
assumed either perfect or imperfect [25,27,28].
Figure 1. Figure heating protocol adopted in the experimental work [41].
Few numerical studies were undertaken to study the bond behaviour between NSM
CFRP strips and concrete. In 2016, single-lap shear specimens, prepared with a single
180-mm-long NSM CFRP strip (rough and smooth texture) of two dimensions
((1.4 10 mm) and (1.4 20 mm)), were tested for bond behaviour, then modelled
using ATENA 3D finite element software [38]. The calibrated NLFE model was capable
of accurately predicting bond loads, strain distributions and failure modes along the
NSM CFRP strip [38]. One year later, the same bond test specimens
(75 75 250 mm) and setup were employed by Jadooe et al. [39] to investigate
experimentally the bond behaviour between heat-damaged concrete (at 200–600 C for
1 and 2 h) and a single 175-mm-long NSM CFRP strip (20 1.4 mm). The results indi-
cated significant reductions in bond strength by 51% and 59% for specimens, post-
heated at 600 C for 1 and 2 h, respectively. The authors simulated the bond behaviour
of their specimens using the software ATENA-GiD. The model was calibrated using
the temperature history in the concrete blocks to characterize actual performance
under testing. The numerical results were in agreement with the pull-out load versus
slip, obtained experimentally, as well as the observed cracking sequence and fail-
ure modes.
2. Problem statement, objectives and scope

Limited experimental or numerical works were devoted to investigating the bond
behavior between NSM FRP strips and heat-damaged concrete [20–23]. The present
study is a further contribution to understand this behavior using nonlinear finite elem-
ent (NLFE) method, while considering varying levels of heat-damage in conjunction
with the impact of different key factors. In the first fold of the study, the bond behavior
between NSM FRP strips and intact concrete was numerically established, considering
the impact of the different key factors [40]. The experimental data obtained from test-
ing pullout specimens using the test-setup of Figure 1 was employed in calibrating the
proposed model. The specimens were assembled by inserting two NSM FRP strips at a
bond length of 150 mm into a man-made groove, created in intact and post-heated
concrete blocks [41]. The NLFE model predictions of bond strength and slippage were
expanded to consider the impact of elevated temperatures (23–550 C) while
Table 1. Proportions of different ingredients of concrete mixtures.

Material (kg/m3) (kg/m3)
Cement 370 529
Coarse aggregate-Grade A 603 603
Coarse aggregate-Grade B 402 402
Fine aggregate 667 574
Water 231 216
Super plasticizer 2% 3%
0
fc 36.1 MPa 53.8 MPa
considering the effect of key factors, such as concrete strength grade (25–55 MPa),
embedment length (100–350 mm), spacing (50–200 mm) and elastic modulus of the
NSM CFRP strips. The coupling impact of temperature and certain key parameters is
discussed in depth to highlight the factors which help alleviate the negative impact of
heat-damage upon the behavior of flexural elements repaired with NSM FRP strips.
3. Experimental work: an overview

The developed NLFE model was calibrated using the experimental data from the pre-
sent second coauthor’s thesis, published in 2019 [41] before being further validated
using the work by Jadooe et al. [39]. In the thesis work, plain concrete blocks
(150 200 200 mm) were prepared using normal and high-strength limestone con-
crete mixtures of strength grades (37–56) MPa before being water-cured for 28 days.
Later, the concrete blocks were subjected to elevated temperatures in the range of
300–550 C for three hours according to the heating protocol of Figure 1, before being
attached to the NSM CFRP strips to assemble different pull-out specimens. Table 1 lists
the mix proportions for the normal and high-strength concretes used in this work.
Man-made grooves were created within the concrete blocks at different spacing values
and lengths. After cleaning and drying, the grooves were filled with SIKA epoxy before
the CFRP strips (2.5 15 mm) were pressed into these grooves at variable bond lengths
(50–150 mm) with the squeezed out epoxy used to cover the exterior edges of the
strips. The adhesive thickness averaged about 1.75 mm on either side of the strips and
5 mm on their interior and exterior edges. The pull-out specimens were subjected to
pull-out force using the testing setup of Figure 2 (mounted on a universal testing
machine) at a constant displacement rate of 0.06 mm/sec. The readings for end slippage
of the strips and pull-out force were acquired using a data acquisition system before
being analyzed to obtain the bond stress-slip relationship for intact and heat-dam-
aged specimens.
4. Nlfe modeling
Properties for the different components of the pull-out specimens were experimentally
obtained or used as provided by the manufacturer. Proper finite elements (FEs) avail-
able in ABAQUS software [42] were chosen to represent steel reinforcement, concrete,
adhesive and NSM FRP strips. Boundary conditions were expressed in terms of dis-
placements in x, y and z directions. As shown in Figure 2, the steel fixtures used in the
Figure 2. Detailing of pull-off specimens affixed to the specially designed steel setup [41] ðLf :
Bond length; Sf : Grooves’ spacing)
test-setup suppress displacements at the entire bottom surface, yet allow axial displace-
ment (z-direction) of the concrete in the vicinity of the NSM CFRP strips. The bound-
ary conditions imposed in this test simulate the state of deformation that persists on
FRP composites, attached at the tension side of concrete beams. Displacement control
modeling was imposed on a 10-mm constant-size mesh.
4.1. Modeling of materials

4.1.1. Concrete
The behavior of concrete in tension under normal and elevated temperatures was
simulated using a plastic damage model which assumes that the main failure mechan-
ism is tensile cracking. Therefore, tensile behavior is described by two different meth-
ods; the first assumes concrete to behave linearly and elastically versus induced strain
up to the ultimate tensile strengthðfct Þ, as shown in the ascending branch of the curves
depicted in Figure 3. The second method considers the softening behavior in terms of
tensile strength versus concrete crack opening as represented by the exponential branch
of the curves depicted in Figure 3.
Tensile strength is defined in Equation (1) in terms of the compressive strength at
any temperature (h) (computed according to the FIB formula [44]). The softening
Figure 3. Tensile stress behavior of concrete at room and elevated temperatures versus strain and
crack opening width [43].
exponential behavior is defined by Equation (2) [43,45]; considering the effect of ele-
vated temperature on tensile strength (Equation (1)) and the residual fracture energy
(cFE ), computed according to Equations (3 and 4) [43,46].
qffiffiffiffiffiffi
0
fct, h ¼ 0:42 fc, h (1)
fct , h w
ft, hw ¼ fct, h e Gft, h (2)
0 0:7
f
Gft, h ¼ cFE ½0:0469D 0:50D þ 26 c
2
(3)
10
8
< :0025h þ 1:05723o C h 100o C
cFE ¼ 3x105 h þ 0:0171h0:7556100o C<h 360o C (4)
:
0:0062h þ 3:9435360o C<h
where,
fct, h : the ultimate tensile strength of concrete at temperature h;

ft, hw : the tensile strength corresponding to temperature h and crack opening w;
Gft, h : the fracture energy of concrete at temperature h;
Gft : the fracture energy of intact concrete;
D (mm): the maximum aggregate size;
0
fc (MPa): the cylinder compressive strength of concrete;
W : concrete cracking opening (mm).
cFE : residual fracture energy [46].
Compressive cracking is characterized by the compressive stress-strain curve for

concrete, proposed by Eurocode 2 [47]. Hence, the compressive stress trend behaviors
of concrete at room and elevated temperatures are computed according to Equation
(5). The typical peak strains (c1 ) for ordinary and high-strength concretes at room
temperature are assumed at 0.0025 and 0.002, respectively. However, at elevated
Table 2. Ratios between biaxial and uniaxial compressive strengths of concrete at elevated tem-
peratures [50].
Temp. (oC) 0 150 300 450 550
k 1.16 1.08 1.00 0.78 0.63
0
temperatures, the compressive strength (fc, h ) and corresponding strain (c1, h ) are com-
puted according to Equations 6 and 7, developed by Chang et al. [48].
0
c fc, h
fc, h ¼ 3x 3 (5)
c1, h 2 þ c
c1, h
where,
fc, h : stress on concrete at temperature h;

c : strain corresponding to f ðhÞ;
0
fc, h : peak stress (ultimate strength);
c1, h : strain corresponding to the peak stress.
8 o
c1, h < 1 20<h 200 C
¼ 0 e:01h5:8 (6)
c1 : 7:7 0:1fc :0219 þ 1 200<h 800o C
1 þ e:01h5:8
0
fc, h 1:01:00055h 20<h 200o C
¼ (7)
fc0 1:15:00125h 200<h 800o C
The elastic modulus of concrete (Ec, h ) and poisson’s ratio (th ) at elevated tempera-
tures were evaluated according to Equations 8 and 9 [49]. Furthermore, the ratios
between the biaxial and uniaxial compressive strengths of concrete (k) at room and ele-
vated temperatures were extracted from a pioneer work by Ehm and Schneider, pub-
lished in 1985 [50]. Corresponding results are listed in Table 2.
Ec, h ð
¼ 1:080e:002h Þ (8)
Ec
th ¼ 0:204eð0:002hÞ (9)
4.1.2. NSM CFRP strips and adhesive

An elastic trend behavior until failure was assumed for NSM CFRP strips, whereas an
elastoplastic behavior was assumed for all adhesives considered in this work. The basic
manufacturing mechanical characteristics for both materials were used in the modeling
process. For example, the elastic modulus (E), tensile strength and Poisson0 s ratio (t)
for the NSM CFRP strips and their prescribed adhesive, as provided by SIKA, were
(165 and 10 GPa), (3.1 GPa and 18 MPa) and (0.3 and 0.2), respectively.
4.1.3. Interaction between different components

Tie interaction was assumed between the NSM CFRP strips (slave surface) and the
adhesive layer (master surface) as already defined in the ABAQUS software [42]. In
contrast, the interaction between the concrete and the adhesive was simulated as sur-
face-to-surface contact (standard). The damage of this interaction by tensile stresses is
quantified by the area underneath the descending branch of the curve depicted in
Figure 3, with its parameters defined by Equations (2–3), [43,45]. The damage by shear
is evaluated using the ultimate shearing stress (smax ) and the shear fracture energy (Gf )
provided in Equations 10 and 11, respectively, as developed by Zhang et al. [51]. The
variation in shearing stress in terms of effective opening displacement was the basis for
the development of Equations 10 and 11 [52]. Finally, the interface shearing stiffness
coefficients (Kss and Ktt ), as developed by Lu et al. [53] in Equation (12), are used to
define the interaction cohesive behavior. The normal stiffness coefficient (Knn ) was
incorporated in the present model as twice as much as the shear coefficient, following
the recommendation of ABAQUS software manual [42].
0
smax, h ¼ 1:15c0:138 fc, h 0:613 (10)
0
Gf , h ¼ 0:45c0:422 fc, h 0:619 (11)
0
where, c is the groove height-to-width ratio and fc, h is the concrete compressive
strength in MPa at room or elevated temperatures as computed using Equation (8).
1
Ktt ¼ Kss ¼ hi
; Knn ¼ 2Ktt (12)
Gi þ Ghcc, h
where hi is the adhesive thickness and hc is the concrete thickness, whereas Gi and Gc, h
are the shear modulus of adhesive and concrete, respectively. The value of Gc, h is the
only parameter affected by temperature and is estimated according to Equation (13)
[49].
Gc, h
¼ 1:115eð0:002hÞ (13)
Gc
where, Gc and Gc, h are the moduli of rigidity of concrete at room and elevated temper-
atures, respectively.
4.1.4. NLFE mesh configuration

The various components of the pull-out specimens were simulated using different ele-
ments. Concrete was considered as a homogenous solid; hence, its behavior was simu-
lated using 3D stress element. The NSM FRP strips and their prescribed adhesives were
assumed as solid homogenous elements with 3D stress elements used to simulate their
behaviors. A constant-mesh element of 10-mm size was used for the concrete material,
while 2.5 mm mesh size was used for the NSM FRP strips and their adhesives, as shown
Figure 4. Mesh configuration and boundary conditions for the present pull-out specimen.
in Figure 4, the boundary conditions of which are shown in front, back and bottom
projections.
5. Calibration of the NLFE model

The present NLFE model was calibrated using the data from the experimental work by
Al-Rabadi [41] before being further validated by the data from Jadooe et al. [39]. In the
first work, the data was collected from tests on pull-out specimens, assembled using
intact and heat-damaged plain concrete blocks and tested using the special setup of
Figure 2. Pull-out forces and cracking initiation and propagation up till failure were
the basis for the calibration process. Table 3 shows that the prediction error for pull-
out force for intact and heat-damaged (at 400 and 500 C before being cooled to room
temperature) was in the range of 2.3–22.1 (at an average of 7.5%) when actual com-
pressive strengths were employed in the NLFE model. In contrast, the error in predic-
tion ranged from 3.3% to 18.5% (at an average of 9.6%) when the post-heating
compressive strength was estimated using Equation 7. The prediction error percentage
can be categorized as relatively high at a single calibration point only; the remaining
Table 3. Experimental versus predicted pull-out force.

0
Ref. TC fC (MPa) Lf (mm) FN EPOF (kN) FPOF (kN) Error (%) FPOF(CSP) (kN) Error (%)
[41] 23 36.1 150 2 25.8 26.8 3.9 N. A. N. A.
300 31.5 150 2 23.0 22.2 3.6 21.7 5.6
400 25.1 150 2 20.5 19.3 6.1 18.2 11.4
550 18.7 150 2 16.0 14.2 11.5 13.1 18.5
23 53.0 150 2 31.5 32.5 3.1 N. A. N. A.
400 38.8 150 2 19.1 24.1 22.1 20.9 9.3
550 20.0 150 2 18.2 17.8 2.3 18.6 3.3
[39] 23 41.42 175 1 47.7 N. A. N. A. 47.5 0.4
200 31.45 175 1 44.2 N. A. N. A. 44.5 0.8
400 25.09 175 1 36.7 N. A. N. A. 37.0 0.8
600 18.73 175 1 25.3 N. A. N. A. 24.0 5.0
0
T: treated temperature; fC : Concrete strength; Lf : Length of FRP strip EPOF: Experimental pull-out force from; FPOF:
Finite element Pull-out force. FN : Number of FRP strip. SN : Number of steel stirrups along the bond length; SS :
Spacing between steel stirrups along the bond length; Ct : Concrete cover thickness; CSP, based on compressive
strength prediction using Equation 8.
ranged from about 2% to 11%. The main error sources may be associated with estima-
tion errors related to the fracture energy and tensile strength of concrete and its ten-
sion-softening behavior before and after exposure to elevated
temperatures [42,43,45,46].
NLFE cracking initiation and propagation were generated using the present model
based on the test setup by Al-Rabadi [41]. The cracking status at 50% of ultimate bond
load and at failure point can be seen in Figure 5 (right). The NLFE cracks are initiated
at the top surface and through the concrete cover of the specimens in the vicinity of
the pulled-out end of the NSM CFRP strip, then extending horizontally at the level of
concrete cover along the bond length until the termination ends of the strip to finally
intersect with the tensile vertical cracks created across the cover as the load approached
its ultimate. Therefore, bond failure occurred mainly by concrete separation at or
slightly above the cover. This scenario is compatible with that observed during actual
laboratory testing of the present pull-out test specimens. As shown in the photos of
Figure 5 (left), major cracking can be recognized at the termination point of the strip
and along the bond length at about the level of the concrete cover.
For further validation of the present NLFE model, its predictions were compared to
the experimental data from the work by Jadooe et al. [39]. Concrete prisms (75 mm
75 mm 250 mm) were cast using ordinary-strength concrete and exposed to elevated
temperatures in the range of 23–600 C, then attached to single NSM CFRP strips
(20 1.4 mm) from BASF to assemble pull-out specimens for the determination of
ultimate bond force and load-end slippage under single-lap shear testing conditions. A
constant bond length of 175 mm was maintained for all specimens. The average com-
pressive strength, modulus of elasticity and splitting tensile strength of the intact con-
crete were determined at testing time and found to be 41.43 MPa, 29.5 GPa and
4.3 MPa, respectively. The test setup used allowed no displacement at the prisms’ front
-and rare- end faces. Splitting strength was estimated whenever necessary to represent
the tensile strength for the cases considered. The geometric and mechanical properties,
as provided in the paper, were used to predict the POF using the present model [39]:
predicted (FPOF) versus experimental (EPOF) can be found in Table 3. As can be
deduced, the error in prediction for the cases considered remained below 5%, which
indicates that our NLFE model is capable of providing very precise predictions for
Figure 5. Cracking propagation and failure mode as obtained experimentally and using NLFE.
bond strength between heat-damaged concrete and NSM CFRP strips. This supports
the previous conclusion regarding the validity of the present NLFE.
6. Results and discussion

Being validated using two different sets of experimental data, the NLFE model was
employed to predict the pull-out force and slippage relationship for pull-out specimens
considering a temperature spectrum from 23 to 550 C along with the key parameters
Figure 6. POF-slip for pull-out concrete specimens exposed to different tempera-

0
tures [Lf ¼ 150 mm; Ns ¼ 2; fc ¼ 35 MPa:
stipulated to have a significant impact upon bond characteristics and failure mechan-
ism between concrete and NSM CFRP strips. These include compressive strength,
NSM CFRP strips0 number, bond length and modulus of elasticity. Hence, the post-
heating bond behavior as affected by the different key parameters is discussed in the
sub-sections to follow.
6.1. Bond load versus slip

Unless otherwise defined, the pull-out force (POF) represents the sum of all forces act-
ing on 2–4 strips inserted within the concrete blocks, whereas the slippage is measured
at the termination end of the median strips. Figure 6 depicts the POF versus slip for
pull-out specimens assembled by inserting 2 NSM CFRP strips at a bond length of
150 mm in concrete blocks, before and after being exposed to elevated temperatures
from 150 to 550 C. As can be noticed, the POF is slightly (if any) and mildly affected
by exposure to temperatures in the ranges of (23–150 C) and (150–300 C), respect-
ively. As temperature is raised to 450 C and above, the degradation in bond strength
becomes severe. The extent of reduction in POF is dependent upon the percentage deg-
radation in tensile strength of concrete after exposure to elevated temperatures [43]. In
contrast, the bond ductility, expressed in terms of slippage at failure, was enhanced as
concrete was exposed to heating proportional to the trend behavior of fracture energy
for concrete, adopted in this work [46]. It is also clear that bond stiffness was slightly
affected by temperature up till 300 C, yet with noticeable reduction as temperature
approached 450 C and above.
The typical curves of Figure 6 reflect the general behavior of bond between NSM
CFRP strips and concrete, being damaged by elevated temperatures, regardless of the
parameters considered. To investigate the impact of the different key parameters men-
tioned earlier, separate figures are generated for POF and slippage at failure versus ele-
vated temperature, as presented in sub-sections 6.2 through 6.5.
6.2. Compressive Strength

The bond characteristics between NSM CFRP strips and concrete blocks were investi-
gated considering varying strength grades in the range of (25–55 MPa). The blocks
Figure 7. Bond characteristics versus exposure temperature for pull-out specimens, prepared with
concrete blocks of varying strength grades [Lf ¼ 150 mm, Ns ¼ 2]. (A) Pull-out force. (B) Slip
at failure.
were supposedly adhered to 2 NSM CFRP strips of 150 mm embedment length. The
curves of Figure 7(A) show that the POF was noticeably decreased with temperature.
Yet, the rate of degradation in the POF was affected by strength grade of the concrete
blocks. For example, the pull-out specimens with concrete blocks at a strength grade of
55 attained much higher POF at room temperature as compared with those prepared
with blocks at strength grades of 25 and 35 MPa, yet showed much higher degradation
in POF upon exposure of their blocks to 550 C by as high as 65% as compared with
about 44% and 48% for the pull-out specimens with lower-strength blocks, respectively.
The higher degradation in POF for the blocks with a designated strength of 55 MPa is
related to the higher loss in compressive and tensile strengths, as supported experimen-
tally by various researchers, including the present authors [41]. Table 3 indicates that
the percentage loss in compressive strength upon exposure to elevated temperatures
for the concrete blocks with intact strengths 53 MPa and 36 MPa was about 60% and
50%, respectively.
The slip curves presented in Figure 7(B) indicate an enhancement in bond ductility
upon exposure of the blocks in the pull-out specimens to elevated temperatures; espe-
cially for those assembled with concrete blocks at the lowest strength spectrum. The
increase in ductility is related to the improvement in the fracture energy of concrete
with exposure temperature, as depicted in Equation (5), established upon the work by
Zhang and Bicanic [46]. This resulted in reducing the decay rate in the tensile strength
versus crack opening and hence increased the area underneath the corresponding
0
NSM CFRP strips at varying spacing [fc ¼ 35 MPa; ðCFRPÞArea ¼ 1015 mm2 ; Lf ¼ 100 mm]. (A)
Pull-out force. (B) Slip at failure.
softening curve [43,45]. Of course, the decay rate is expected to be less when the ori-
ginal strength is relatively low [43]. This explains why the pull-out
specimens, assembled at 25 MPa, showed the highest enhancement in ductility with
temperature.
6.3. Effect of groove spacing

The effect of groove spacing on post-heating bond characteristics between the NSM
CFRP strips and concrete blocks of 35 MPa strength grade was studied for embedment
lengths in the range of (100–200 mm) and a constant cross-sectional area of CFRP
reinforcement at (10 15 mm). The POF was calculated per strip to emphasize the
impact of strip number (groove spacing) before being depicted versus exposure tem-
perature in the curves of Figures 8–10 (A). As expected, a higher number of strips con-
tributed to more interactions of tensile or shearing stresses from different strips. This
resulted in imposing more stresses on the concrete planes located below that strips,
increasing their cracking, as supported by the NLFE failure modes discussed later. This
explains why the use of 4 strips (50-mm groove spacing) resulted in the lowest POF
(per strip), followed, in sequence, by 2 strips and 1 strip (100-and 200-mm groove
spacing), respectively. Further analysis of the results obtained shows that the reduction
in bond force per strip with exposure temperature is influenced by the spacing value.
0
NSM CFRP strips at varying spacing [fc ¼ 35 MPa; ðCFRPÞArea ¼ 1015 mm2 ; Lf ¼ 150 mm]. (A)
Pull-out force. (B) Slip at failure.
For the specimens prepared at a bond length of 100 mm, the approximate reduction
percentages in POF upon reducing the spacing from 200 to 100 and 50 mm are 19%
and 38% at 23 C as compared with 24% and 46% at 550 C, respectively. Increasing
embedment length beyond 150 mm contributes to a significant, yet steady, loss in POF
for the specimens regardless of exposure temperature. The arguments suggest that the
negative impact of the strip-strip interaction is more dominant in concrete blocks sub-
jected to significant damage by heating, lowering their resistance to bond failure by
concrete cover separation [13].
The slip at failure showed a contradictory trend behavior versus spacing as
compared with that of POF. As can be noticed from Figures 8–10 (B), using
fewer number of strips (higher FRP stiffness per concrete) imparted higher slip at
failure for the strips inserted within the concrete blocks, before and after being
exposed to elevated temperatures in the range of 150–550 C. Of course, exposure
of concrete blocks to elevated temperatures altered their fracture energy and ten-
sion softening ductility, hence their slippage at failure. In general, the magnitude
of this enhancement in bond ductility with temperature, noticed for most speci-
mens, is affected by the spacing between strips as well as their embedment length.
These affect the extent of strip-strip interaction on weakening concrete resistance,
allowing less slippage prior to bond failure.
0
NSM CFRP strips at varying spacing [fc ¼ 35MPa; ðCFRPÞArea ¼ 1015mm2 ; Lf ¼ 200mm]. (A) Pull-
out force. (B) Slip at failure.
6.4. Effect of bond length

A wide range of bond lengths for the NSM CFRP strips (100–350 mm) was considered
in studying the present bond characteristics (bond strength and slip at failure). For
this, pull-out specimens were modeled with an extended concrete block length of
400 mm (instead of 200 mm); the cross-sectional dimensions were kept constant. The
boundary conditions, types of NLFE elements of different components and mesh size
were also kept unchanged. The outcome of the NLFE analysis was presented in bond
strength (not force) versus slip to understand the exact behavior under the effect of
embedment length. The curves of Figure 11 show that the bond strength increased
until a certain critical bond length (effective) before it decreased for all pull-out speci-
mens, except for those assembled with concrete blocks that were post-heated to 550 C.
For the latter case, the curves show a plateaued trend behavior with bond length, sug-
gesting that the extensive heat-damage induced in the relevant blocks had degraded the
benefit from any further extension of the strips. For pull-out specimens assembled with
concrete blocks that were post-heated to 150, 300 and 450 C, the critical (effective)
bond lengths can be estimated at 200, 200 and 250 mm, respectively. These results sup-
port the validity of the present model in that a higher effective length would be
required when concrete is exposed to more damage. They also indicate the fact that the
Figure 11. Bond 0strength versus bond length for pull-out specimens, assembled with post-heated
concrete blocks [f c ¼ 35MPa; Ns ¼ 2].
effective length for the NSM CFRP strips is not altered as long as the concrete blocks
are not subjected to temperatures higher than 300 C.
The impact of bond length upon slip at failure for pullout specimens, assembled
with concrete blocks, being exposed to varying heat-damage levels can be understood
by referring to the curves of Figure 12. The results indicate that the slip at failure shows
a steady behavior compatible with the fracture energy trend behavior for the cases of
100 and 150 mm embedment length [46]. In contrast, exposing the concrete blocks in
the pull-out specimens (with embedment lengths of 200 mm and more) to tempera-
tures in excess of 300 C resulted in a clear enhancement in bond ductility with the

highest increase rate of approximately 7.56 104 mm/ C noticed for the specimens at
a length of 200 mm. This suggests that the slip at failure for pull-out specimens
assembled with NSM CFRP strips of extensions close to the effective length is the most
susceptible to elevated temperatures.
6.5. Effect of FRP composite type

The effect of the NSM FRP composite type and its designated adhesive upon bond
behavior is investigated in this part. For this, typical properties for CFRP and basalt
FRP (BFRP) strips with typical dimensions of (2.5 150 mm) were incorporated. The
elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio for both composites were (0.26 and 0.30) and
(89 GPa and 165 GPa), respectively. Their prescribed adhesives have elasticities and
rigidity modulus ratios of (10 and 4167 GPa) and (2.63 and 980 GPa) and Poisson’s
ratios of (0.30 and 0.26), respectively.
The load-slip curves pertaining to control and heated pull-out specimens, assembled
using concrete blocks (35 MPa strength grade) and the two types of NSM FRP strips
with 150 mm embedment length, are presented in Figure 13. Specimens with NSM
CFRP strips showed slightly higher POF values than those of specimens with NSM
BFRP strips for exposure temperatures of less than 400 C, beyond which the difference
becomes statistically insignificant. In contrast, the slips at failure were significantly
higher for the specimens with NSM BFRP strips for the entire temperature spectrum.
The limited degradation in the mechanical properties of concrete at temperatures of
300 C and less explained the higher POF for the specimens with CFRP composite
Figure 12. Slippage versus exposure temperature for pull-out specimens, prepared with NSM CFRP
0
strips at varying embedment lengths [fc ¼ 35 MPa; Ns ¼ 2].
two different types of NSM FRP strips at a spacing of 100 mm
0
[fc ¼ 35 MPa; ðCFRPÞArea ¼ 10x15 mm2 ; Lf ¼ 150 mm]. (A) Pull-out force. (B) Slip at failure.
(higher mechanical properties). The relatively lower elastic and rigidity moduli of the
adhesive, prescribed for NSM BFRP strips, allowed higher joint deformability regard-
less of concrete physical status [19]. The insignificant differences in POF at tempera-
tures greater than 400 C suggest that the behavior was dictated by the properties of
degraded concrete rather than the mechanical properties of the composites and
their adhesives.
Figure 14. Cracking sequence up to failure in pullout specimens, assembled with concrete blocks
of 35 MPa with NSM CFRP strips implemented at an embedment length of 100 mm and a spacing
of 50 mm.
6.6. Effect of elevated temperatures on failure modes

The present NLFE model was used to investigate the effect of elevated temperatures on
cracking sequence up to bond failure between concrete and NSM FRP strips. This
effect was investigated in conjunction with the impact of the geometric parameters of
the strips, embedment length and groove spacing. For this, stress trajectories for the
different pull-out specimens, assembled using concrete blocks of 35 MPa strength and
of 50 mm.
different combinations of (bond length and groove spacing) for the NSM CFRP strips
at (100 and 50 mm), (200 and 50 mm), (100 and 100 mm) and (200 and 100 mm), were
obtained at 50% POF and failure, as depicted in Figures 14–17, respectively.
As can be deduced form Figures 14–17, both the damage level by heating and the
geometric layout of the strips shaped the cracking and failure mode. For strips of 50-
mm groove spacing, concrete cover separation was the dominant mode, regardless of
the embedment length or exposure temperature. Of course, pre-existence of extensive
of 100 mm.
cracking at 550 C undermined concrete resistance to separation as compared to the

case with the reference specimens, as can be judged from in-depth analysis of stress tra-
jectories of Figures 14 and 15. As the groove spacing was raised to 100 mm, different
bond failure modes were recognized between heat-damaged concrete blocks and NSM
CFRP strips with an embedment length of 100 mm, as deduced from the stress trajecto-
ries of Figure 16. Here, the concrete tended to detach from the vicinity of the strips
with little evidence of concrete cover separation. As a result, pullout bond failure was
of 100 mm.
dominant. A different cracking and failure mode can be recognized for the case with
an embedment length of 200 mm (groove spacing of 100 mm), regardless of exposure
temperature, as shown in Figure 17. It appears that using a higher embedment length
had resulted in creating more interactive stresses at the regions between the strips,
leading to concrete cover separation type of failure [13].
7. Conclusions
In this work, a NLFE model is developed for the prediction of bond behavior between
concrete and NSM FRP strips, then validated using experimental data from two differ-
ent sources. The model was then employed to investigate the effect of elevated temper-
atures (23–550 C) upon bond characteristics and failure modes for pull-out
specimens, assembled using concrete blocks of compressive strengths of up to 55 MPa
and NSM FRP strips of different types, bond lengths and spacing values. In-depth ana-
lysis of results revealed that:
1. Exposing concrete blocks of 55 strength grade to elevated temperatures before

being attached to NSM FRP strips resulted in a significant degradation in the ori-
ginal pull-out force; reaching as high as 65%, compared with 44% and 48% for
pull-out specimens with concrete blocks at lower strengths of 25 and 35 MPa.
2. Beyond an exposure temperature of 300 C, the softening in bond behavior is
higher for pull-out specimens assembled using concrete blocks at the lower
strength spectrum.
3. Exposing concrete blocks to higher temperatures caused further reduction in
pull-out force, yet enhanced bond ductility for the pull-out specimens, especially
those assembled at a higher spacing between the NSM FRP strips.
4. The bond length had a negligible effect upon the pull-out force of bond speci-
mens, assembled using concrete blocks subjected to temperatures higher than
450 C prior to their attachment to the NSM FRP strips.
5. Promoting bond ductility of pull-out specimens requires extending the bond
length of the NSM FRP strips beyond 200 mm, especially for those assembled
with heat-damaged concrete blocks.
6. The fiber type of the NSM strips had little impact on their bond behavior with
concrete blocks being subjected to temperatures in excess of 300 C.
7. The mode of failure between concrete and NSM FRP strips is influenced mainly
by the spacing factor and embedment length rather than exposure temperature.
Acknowledgement
The authors acknowledge the financial support by the Deanship of Research at Jordan
University of Science and Technology (Irbid-Jordan) under project number 228/2020.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
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NLFE Modeling of Bond Between NSM CFRP Strips and Heat-Damaged Concrete

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NLFE modeling of bond between NSM CFRP strips

Rami Haddad & Imad Al-Rabadi

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/01694243.2021.2000107

Published online: 08 Nov 2021.

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NLFE modeling of bond between NSM CFRP strips and

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Figure 1. Figure heating protocol adopted in the experimental work [41].

2. Problem statement, objectives and scope

Table 1. Proportions of different ingredients of concrete mixtures.

3. Experimental work: an overview

4.1. Modeling of materials

ft, hw ¼ fct, h e Gft, h (2)

 fct, h : the ultimate tensile strength of concrete at temperature h;

Compressive cracking is characterized by the compressive stress-strain curve for

 fc, h : stress on concrete at temperature h;

4.1.2. NSM CFRP strips and adhesive

4.1.3. Interaction between different components

4.1.4. NLFE mesh configuration

5. Calibration of the NLFE model

Table 3. Experimental versus predicted pull-out force.

6. Results and discussion

Figure 6. POF-slip for pull-out concrete specimens exposed to different tempera-

6.1. Bond load versus slip

6.2. Compressive Strength

6.3. Effect of groove spacing

6.4. Effect of bond length

6.5. Effect of FRP composite type

6.6. Effect of elevated temperatures on failure modes

cracking at 550 C undermined concrete resistance to separation as compared to the

1. Exposing concrete blocks of 55 strength grade to elevated temperatures before

[46] Zhang B, Bicanic N. Fracture energy of high-performance concrete at high temperatures

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fct, h : the ultimate tensile strength of concrete at temperature h;

fc, h : stress on concrete at temperature h;