Natural Gas Processing

Technology
Dear Trainee,

C ongratulations on choosing OGS. Our staff is honoured to have YOU for the training
course period as a member of our large family. Start the engines and
enjoy a distinguished journey of a high quality service..

U nlike other training centers, We take pride in our efficient instructors chosen carefully from
the petroleum sector. Instructors enjoying practical experience offer you endless help. What makes us
special is that OGS certificates are acknowledged inside and
outside the sector. We are determined to remain ahead of our counterparts by upgrading the
training courses to offer you the highest potentials and largest opportunities possible..

B y training at OGS, you have earned yourself a seat in the front rows of distinguishment.
Our goal is your satisfaction. Our policy is perfection. Our hope is that you come back and tell others about
us. We promise you a memorable training experience
that makes your study convenient and prosperous. Feel free to dream of a better future for now
dreams are possible.

Grab the Chance … The Sky Is Your Limit

Feel Proud … YOU ARE PART OF OGS

Dr. Eng. Hossam Hafez

Alex Center Manager

 Mission & Vision
Mission:
The basic mission of OGS is to provide world class educational and vocational training
programs to allow human resources and organizations access the input needed to stay
on top in today’s energy world. To achieve this mission, OGS is driven by an adamant
determination to grow and progress through keeping itself at the cutting edge of
technology and to maintain the best quality standards to help in creating energy leaders
of today and tomorrow.

Vision:
To be the leading company in the region in the field of providing professional and
technical services for the human development of the petroleum sector workers in line
with international quality standards.
 Oil & Gas Skills (OGS)
Alex Branch
Training Plan 2012/2013
(By Subject)

Contact us:

Cell: +01007715381

Telefax: +203-2020345
 Courses Days
1st Date 2nd Date 3rd Date 4th Date
Electrical Engineering & Maintenance
Advanced Electrical Protection Relays and Systems 5 13- ١٤ - ‫ﻟﯿﺮﺑﺄ‬ 13- ٠١ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬ 13-٠١- ‫رﺑﻤﺴﯿﺪ‬

Plant Electrical Equipment; Designing and Sizing 5 13- ٢٧ - ‫رﯾﺎﻧﻲ‬ 13- ١٢- ‫وﯾﺎم‬

ESP (Electrical Submersible Pumps); Installation and Maintenance 5 13-٢٤- ‫ﺳﺮام‬ 13- ٢٩ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬

Applying Standard Electrical Documentations and Drawings 5 13-٠٩- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬ 13-١٣- ‫رﺑﻮﺗﻜﺄ‬

Electrical Motors; Protection, Testing and Maintenance 5 13- ١٣ - ‫رﯾﺎﻧﻲ‬ 13-٢٠- ‫رﺑﻮﺗﻜﺄ‬

Electrical Installation in Hazardous Areas 5 13-١٧- ‫ﺳﺮام‬ 13-١٥- ‫رﺑﻤﺴﯿﺪ‬

Power Cables; Selection, Testing and Fault Locations 5 13-١٧- ‫رﯾﺎرﺑﻒ‬ 13-١٧- ‫رﺑﻤﻔﻮن‬

Electrical Power Transformers, Testing and Maintenance 5 13-٠٣- ‫رﯾﺎرﺑﻒ‬ 13- ٢٦- ‫وﯾﺎم‬

UPS Systems and Batteries Maintenance 5 13- ١٩- ‫وﯾﺎم‬ 13-١٨- ‫ﺳﻄﺴﻐﺄ‬

Motor Control through PLC 5 13-٠٢- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬ 13-٠٨- ‫رﺑﻤﺴﯿﺪ‬

Variable Speed Drivers for Industrial Control 5 13- ٠٥- ‫وﯾﺎم‬ 12-٢٢- ‫رﺑﻤﺴﯿﺪ‬

AC & DC Motors 5 13-١٠- ‫ﺳﺮام‬ 13- ٢٢ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬

Power generation system and distribution 5 13-٠٣- ‫ﺳﺮام‬ 13-٢٥- ‫ﺳﻄﺴﻐﺄ‬ 13-١٠- ‫رﺑﻤﻔﻮن‬

GE power turbines 5 13-٢٤- ‫رﯾﺎرﺑﻒ‬ 13-٢٤- ‫رﺑﻤﻔﻮن‬

Power management system 5 13-١٦- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬ 13- ١٥ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬

Lighting system at oil and gas fields 5 13-١٠- ‫رﯾﺎرﺑﻒ‬ 13-٢٧- ‫رﺑﻮﺗﻜﺄ‬

Earthing & lightening electrical safety system 5 13-٢٣- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬ 13- ٠١ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬

Cathodic protection 5 13- ١٣ - ‫رﯾﺎﻧﻲ‬ 13-٣٠- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬ 13-١٣- ‫رﺑﻮﺗﻜﺄ‬

Gas and diesel generator 5 13- ٢٧ - ‫رﯾﺎﻧﻲ‬ 13- ٠٨ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬

Oil & Gas Production and Processing For Maintenance Team (New) 5 13- ٢١ - ‫ﻟﯿﺮﺑﺄ‬ 13-٢٩- ‫رﺑﻤﺴﯿﺪ‬

Mechanical Engineering & Maintenance

Pumps Installation, Troubleshooting & Maintenance 5 13- ١٩- ‫وﯾﺎم‬ 13-١٨- ‫ﺳﻄﺴﻐﺄ‬

Gas Turbine Operation, Maintenance & Troubleshooting 5 13- ٠٣- ‫رﯾﺎرﺑﻒ‬ 13-٣٠- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬

Lube Oil System (New) 5 13-٢٤- ‫ﺳﺮام‬ 13- ٢٩ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬

Compressors and Blowers Selection, Operation and Maintenance 5 13-٢٧- ‫رﯾﺎﻧﻲ‬ 13-١٠- ‫رﺑﻤﻔﻮن‬

Mechanical Seals and Coupling 5 13-١٣- ‫رﯾﺎﻧﻲ‬ 13-١٦- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬

Vibration Protection Systems for Turbo-machinery 5 13- ٢٦- ‫وﯾﺎم‬ 13-٢٥- ‫ﺳﻄﺴﻐﺄ‬

Tower Maintenance 5 13-٢٣- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬ 13- ٠١ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬

Pumps And Compressors (Mechanical Movers) 5 13-٣١- ‫ﺳﺮام‬ 13-٠٩- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬ 13- ١٥ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬ 13-٢٢- ‫رﺑﻤﺴﯿﺪ‬

Centrifugal Pumps Theory, Operation & Maintenance 5 13- ٢٤- ‫رﯾﺎرﺑﻒ‬ 13-٢٤- ‫رﺑﻤﻔﻮن‬

Centrifugal Pumps WorkShop (New) 5 13- ٠٥- ‫وﯾﺎم‬ 13-١٧- ‫رﺑﻤﻔﻮن‬

Positive Displacement Pumps (New) 5 13- ٠٣- ‫رﯾﺎرﺑﻒ‬ 13-٠٨- ‫رﺑﻤﺴﯿﺪ‬

Machine Alignment & Balancing 5 13-١٤- ‫ﻟﯿﺮﺑﺄ‬ 13- ٠٨ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬

Mechanical Seals Technology 5 13-٠٢- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬ 13-٢٧- ‫رﺑﻮﺗﻜﺄ‬

 Reciprocating Compressors Construction Operation and
5 13-٣٠- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬ 13- ٢٢ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬
Maintenance
Centrifugal Compressors Theory, Performance, Operation &
5 13-١٧- ‫ﺳﺮام‬ 13-١٥- ‫رﺑﻤﺴﯿﺪ‬
Maintenance

Turbo Expanders (operation & maintenance) 5 13-١٠- ‫ﺳﺮام‬ 13-٠٨- ‫رﺑﻤﺴﯿﺪ‬

Diesel Engines Construction, Operation & Maintenance 5 13- ١٧- ‫رﯾﺎرﺑﻒ‬ 13-١٧- ‫رﺑﻤﻔﻮن‬

Reciprocating Gaseous Fuel Engines 5 13-١٦- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬ 13-٢٥- ‫ﺳﻄﺴﻐﺄ‬

Refrigeration and Air Conditioning 5 13-٠٩- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬ 13- ٢٢ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬

Absorption Chillers 5 13-١٣- ‫رﯾﺎﻧﻲ‬ 13-٢٠- ‫رﺑﻮﺗﻜﺄ‬

Heat Exchange Equipment Operational Performance & Maintenance 5 13-٢٧- ‫رﯾﺎﻧﻲ‬ 13-١٠- ‫رﺑﻤﻔﻮن‬

Bearing & Lubrication Technology 5 13-٠٣- ‫ﺳﺮام‬ 13- ١٥ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬ 13-٠١- ‫رﺑﻤﺴﯿﺪ‬

Rolling Elements Bearings 5 13- ١٠- ‫رﯾﺎرﺑﻒ‬ 13-١٣- ‫رﺑﻮﺗﻜﺄ‬

Machinery Components Maintenance and Repair 5 13-١٤- ‫ﻟﯿﺮﺑﺄ‬ 13-٢٩- ‫رﺑﻤﺴﯿﺪ‬

Manual Valves 5 13- ١٠- ‫رﯾﺎرﺑﻒ‬ 13-٢٧- ‫رﺑﻮﺗﻜﺄ‬

Mechanical Power Transmission 5 13- ١٢- ‫وﯾﺎم‬ 13-١٠- ‫رﺑﻤﻔﻮن‬

Hydraulic Circuits Theory, Components, & Practice 5 13- ١٧- ‫رﯾﺎرﺑﻒ‬ 13-١٣- ‫رﺑﻮﺗﻜﺄ‬

Hydraulic Equipment Operation, Maintenance & Troubleshooting 5 13-٣١- ‫ﺳﺮام‬ 13- ٠١ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬ 13-٢٢- ‫رﺑﻤﺴﯿﺪ‬

‫ﻋﻔﺮﻻ ﺗﺎدﻋﻢ و ﺷﺎﻧﻮﻷا ةﻧﺎﯾﺺ و ﻟﯿﻐﺸﺖ‬ 5 13- ٢٤- ‫رﯾﺎرﺑﻒ‬ 13-٢٣- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬

Steam Generation & Boilers Operation and Maintenance 5 13- ٢٦- ‫وﯾﺎم‬ 13- ٢٩ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬
PIPE WORK, JOINTS, and Piping components (GASKETS - FLANGES
5 13- ١٢- ‫وﯾﺎم‬ 13- ٠٨ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬
- VALVES - …… ETC. )

HAND TOOLS, MEASURING TOOLS, and POWER TOOLS 5 13-٢٧- ‫رﯾﺎﻧﻲ‬ 13-٠٢- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬

Oil & Gas Production and Processing For Maintenance Team (New) 3 13-٢٠- ‫رﯾﺎﻧﻲ‬ 13-١٨- ‫ﺳﻄﺴﻐﺄ‬

Instrumentation Engineering & Maintenance

Industrial Process Measurement 5 13-١٦- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬ 13-١٨- ‫ﺳﻄﺴﻐﺄ‬
Programmable Logic Controller; Architecture and Basic
5 13- ١٩- ‫وﯾﺎم‬ 13- ١٥ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬
Programming PLC
Sizing, Selecting, and Applying Process Control Valve 5 13-٠٩- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬ 13-٢٥- ‫ﺳﻄﺴﻐﺄ‬

Safety Instruments Systems; New Emergency Shutdown Approach 5 13- ٢٤- ‫رﯾﺎرﺑﻒ‬ 13-١٣- ‫رﺑﻮﺗﻜﺄ‬ 13-٢٤- ‫رﺑﻤﻔﻮن‬

New Approaches in DCS & SCADA Systems 5 13-٢٣- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬ 13- ٠٨ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬

Gas Measurement and Flow Metering Station 5 13-١٧- ‫ﺳﺮام‬ 13-٢٠- ‫رﺑﻮﺗﻜﺄ‬ 12-١٥- ‫رﺑﻤﺴﯿﺪ‬
Instrumentation Systems Maintenance and Troubleshooting
5 13-١٤- ‫ﻟﯿﺮﺑﺄ‬ 13-٠٨- ‫رﺑﻤﺴﯿﺪ‬
(Workshop Course)
Valves Types and Technology 5 13- ٠٣- ‫رﯾﺎرﺑﻒ‬ 13- ٢٢ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬

Advanced Turbine Control System 5 13- ١٠- ‫رﯾﺎرﺑﻒ‬ 13- ٢٩ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬

Developing and Applying Standard Instrumentation and Control
5 13- ١٧- ‫رﯾﺎرﺑﻒ‬ 13-٣٠- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬ 13-٢٧- ‫رﺑﻮﺗﻜﺄ‬
Documentation
Applying Instrumentation in Hazardous (Classified) Locations 5 13-٠٣- ‫ﺳﺮام‬ 13-٠٢- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬ 13-٠١- ‫رﺑﻤﺴﯿﺪ‬

Advanced Process Control; Loops, Analysis and Troubleshooting 5 13-١٤- ‫ﻟﯿﺮﺑﺄ‬ 13-١٧- ‫رﺑﻤﻔﻮن‬
 Field Bus System; Driving Total Productivity Management 5 13-١٠- ‫ﺳﺮام‬ 13-٠٨- ‫رﺑﻤﺴﯿﺪ‬
Fire & Gas System; Detectors and Guard Safety Controller 5 13- ١٢- ‫وﯾﺎم‬ 13-١٨- ‫ﺳﻄﺴﻐﺄ‬ 13-١٣- ‫رﺑﻮﺗﻜﺄ‬
Safety Relief Devices 5 13- ١٩- ‫وﯾﺎم‬ 13- ٠١ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬

Programmable Logic Controller; Advanced Programming' 5 13- ٢٦- ‫وﯾﺎم‬ 13-١٠- ‫رﺑﻤﻔﻮن‬

Automatic Tank Gauging 5 13-٣١- ‫ﺳﺮام‬ 13-٢٢- ‫رﺑﻤﺴﯿﺪ‬

Pneumatic System and Logic Circuits 5 13- ٢٩ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬

Applying Motor Controls and Drives 5 13-١٣- ‫رﯾﺎﻧﻲ‬ 13-٢٠- ‫رﺑﻮﺗﻜﺄ‬

Introduction to Boiler Control Systems: Meeting NFPA Standards 5 13- ٠٥- ‫وﯾﺎم‬

Industrial Electronics 5 13-١٧- ‫ﺳﺮام‬ 13-١٥- ‫رﺑﻤﺴﯿﺪ‬

Installing, Calibrating, and Maintaining Electronic Instruments 5 13-٠٩- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬

Introduction to the Management of Alarm Systems 5 13- ١٢- ‫وﯾﺎم‬

Overview of Grounding and Noise Reduction for Control Equipment 5 13- ٢٤- ‫رﯾﺎرﺑﻒ‬ 13-٢٤- ‫رﺑﻤﻔﻮن‬

Overview of Measurement and Control Fundamentals 5 13- ١٠- ‫رﯾﺎرﺑﻒ‬ 13-٢٥- ‫ﺳﻄﺴﻐﺄ‬

Process and Laboratory Analytical Technologies Overview 5 13-٠٢- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬

Project Management for Automation and Control 5 13-٣٠- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬

Oil & Gas Production and Processing For Maintenance Team (New) 3 13-٢٤- ‫ﺳﺮام‬ 13- ١٥ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬

Process Technologies & Operations

Natural Gas Processing Technology 5 13- ١٩- ‫وﯾﺎم‬ 13-٢٠- ‫رﺑﻮﺗﻜﺄ‬

Oil Refining Technology 5 13- ٠٣- ‫رﯾﺎرﺑﻒ‬ 13-٠٩- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬

LPG Technology 5 13- ١٠- ‫رﯾﺎرﺑﻒ‬ 13- ١٥ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬ 13-٢٧- ‫رﺑﻮﺗﻜﺄ‬

Process safety and Hazard Analysis (PHA &HAZOP) 5 13- ١٧- ‫رﯾﺎرﺑﻒ‬ 13- ١٢- ‫وﯾﺎم‬ 13-١٣- ‫رﺑﻮﺗﻜﺄ‬

Process Operations for Technicians 5 13-٠٢- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬ 13-١٨- ‫ﺳﻄﺴﻐﺄ‬

water treatment systems 5 13-١٦- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬ 13- ٢٩ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬

Surface Facilities Production Operations. 5 13- ٢٤- ‫رﯾﺎرﺑﻒ‬ 13-٢٤- ‫رﺑﻤﻔﻮن‬

Hydrocarbon Storage, Shipping and Utilization. 5 13-٣١- ‫ﺳﺮام‬ 13-٢٢- ‫رﺑﻤﺴﯿﺪ‬

Plant Operation and Troubleshooting. 5 13-٢٣- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬ 13- ٠٨ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬

Fire Heater & Heat Transfer Equipments. 5 13- ٢٦- ‫وﯾﺎم‬ 13- ٠١ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬

Fundamental Of Process Calculations (New) 5 13-٢٧- ‫رﯾﺎﻧﻲ‬ 13- ٢٢ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬

Process Calculation and Simulation: by HYSYS. 5 13-١٤- ‫ﻟﯿﺮﺑﺄ‬ 13-٢٥- ‫ﺳﻄﺴﻐﺄ‬

Planned Shutdown, Critical Activities and Start-up. 5 13-١٧- ‫ﺳﺮام‬ 13-١٥- ‫رﺑﻤﺴﯿﺪ‬

Static and Rotary Equipment (Process Point of View). 5 13-٠٣- ‫ﺳﺮام‬ 13-٠١- ‫رﺑﻤﺴﯿﺪ‬

Oil & Gas Field Processing. 5 13-٢٧- ‫رﯾﺎﻧﻲ‬ 13-١٠- ‫رﺑﻤﻔﻮن‬

Oily Water Treatment. 5 13- ١٢- ‫وﯾﺎم‬ 13- ٢٢ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬

 Over pressure control and Flare Systems. 5 13-١٠- ‫ﺳﺮام‬ 13-٢٧- ‫رﺑﻮﺗﻜﺄ‬ 13-٠٨- ‫رﺑﻤﺴﯿﺪ‬
Mass and Heat Balance in Petroleum Industry. 5 13- ٠٣- ‫رﯾﺎرﺑﻒ‬ 13-١٧- ‫رﺑﻤﻔﻮن‬
Oil and Gas Separation Equipment. 5 13-٣٠- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬ 13-٢٩- ‫رﺑﻤﺴﯿﺪ‬

Gas Processing, Plant Troubleshooting & Startup. 5 13-٣١- ‫ﺳﺮام‬ 13-١٣- ‫رﺑﻮﺗﻜﺄ‬ 13-٢٢- ‫رﺑﻤﺴﯿﺪ‬

Gas Dehydration Technology. 5 13- ١٢- ‫وﯾﺎم‬ 13-٢٤- ‫رﺑﻤﻔﻮن‬

LPG, NGL & LNG Production and Handling. 5 13-١٣- ‫رﯾﺎﻧﻲ‬ 13-٢٠- ‫رﺑﻮﺗﻜﺄ‬

Crude Oil Processing and Desalting. 5 13-١٤- ‫ﻟﯿﺮﺑﺄ‬ 13-١٠- ‫رﺑﻤﻔﻮن‬

Distillation Processes, Calculations and Multivariable Process
5 13-٢٤- ‫ﺳﺮام‬ 13-٠٢- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬ 13- ١٥ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬
Control.
Oil Production & Field handling Facilities 5 13-٠٩- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬ 13- ٠١ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬

Operations Accidents Investigations (New) 5 13-٢٠- ‫رﯾﺎﻧﻲ‬ 13- ٠٨ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬

Oil & Gas Industry For Administration Team (New) 3 13-٠٦- ‫رﯾﺎﻧﻲ‬ 13-١٧- ‫رﺑﻤﻔﻮن‬

Maintenance Management
Reliability Centered Maintenance 5 13- ١٩- ‫وﯾﺎم‬ 13-٢٥- ‫ﺳﻄﺴﻐﺄ‬
Maintenance Management Skills and Techniques 5 13-٢٣- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬ 13-٢٤- ‫رﺑﻤﻔﻮن‬
Human Resource Management for the Maintenance Manager 5 13- ١٠- ‫رﯾﺎرﺑﻒ‬
Root Cause Failure Analysis 5 13- ٠٣- ‫رﯾﺎرﺑﻒ‬ 13- ٢٦- ‫وﯾﺎم‬ 13-١٧- ‫رﺑﻤﻔﻮن‬
Computerized Maintenance Management System 5 13-٣١- ‫ﺳﺮام‬ 13-٢٢- ‫رﺑﻤﺴﯿﺪ‬
Quality Management 3 13-٢٠- ‫رﯾﺎﻧﻲ‬ 13- ٠١ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬
Global Maintenance 5 13-١٣- ‫رﯾﺎﻧﻲ‬ 13-١٤- ‫ﻟﯿﺮﺑﺄ‬ 13- ٠٨ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬
Predictive Maintenance Techniques 5 13-١٠- ‫ﺳﺮام‬ 13-٠٨- ‫رﺑﻤﺴﯿﺪ‬

Projects, Engineering Studies & Economics

Economics & Feasibility Study 5 13- ١٩- ‫وﯾﺎم‬ 13- ٠١ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬
Primavera P6 Level I - Activities 5 13- ٢٦- ‫وﯾﺎم‬ 13-١٣- ‫رﺑﻮﺗﻜﺄ‬
Project Management Professional 5 13-١٤- ‫ﻟﯿﺮﺑﺄ‬ 13- ٠٨ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬
Risk Management 5 13-١٧- ‫ﺳﺮام‬ 13-١٥- ‫رﺑﻤﺴﯿﺪ‬
Project Economics 5 13- ١٢- ‫وﯾﺎم‬ 13-٢٧- ‫رﺑﻮﺗﻜﺄ‬
Advanced Economics & Feasibility Studies II 5 13-٢٣- ‫وﯾﻠﻮي‬ 13-٠١- ‫رﺑﻤﺴﯿﺪ‬
Microsoft Project 2003 5 13-١٠- ‫ﺳﺮام‬ 13-٠٨- ‫رﺑﻤﺴﯿﺪ‬
Primavera Level II - Resources and Cost Control 5 13-١٦- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬ 13- ٢٢ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬
Inspection Engineering
Piping Design (Specification & Sizing) 5 13- ١٠- ‫رﯾﺎرﺑﻒ‬ 13- ٠١ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬

Pipeline Construction 5 13- ٢٦- ‫وﯾﺎم‬ 13-١٣- ‫رﺑﻮﺗﻜﺄ‬

Corrosion & Corrosion Control Fundamentals in Oil & Gas Field 5 13- ٠٥- ‫وﯾﺎم‬ 13- ١٥ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬

Inspection Qualification & Certification Level I ( RT ) 10 13- ١٧- ‫رﯾﺎرﺑﻒ‬ 13- ٢٤- ‫رﯾﺎرﺑﻒ‬ 13-١٧- ‫رﺑﻤﻔﻮن‬ 13-٢٤- ‫رﺑﻤﻔﻮن‬

Inspection Qualification & Certification Level I ( UT ) 10 13-١٧- ‫ﺳﺮام‬ 13-٢٤- ‫ﺳﺮام‬ 13-١٥- ‫رﺑﻤﺴﯿﺪ‬ 13-٢٢- ‫رﺑﻤﺴﯿﺪ‬

Inspection Qualification & Certification Level I ( MT ) 10 13- ١٢- ‫وﯾﺎم‬ 13- ١٩- ‫وﯾﺎم‬

Inspection Qualification & Certification Level I (PT) 10 13-١٦- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬ 13-٢٣- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬

Advanced Valve Technology: Design, Selection, Installation,

5 13-١٤- ‫ﻟﯿﺮﺑﺄ‬ 13- ٢٢ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬
Applications, Sizing, Inspection, Maintenance & Troubleshooting

Heat Exchanger Design, Performance, Inspection Maintenance &

5 13-١٠- ‫ﺳﺮام‬ 13-٠٨- ‫رﺑﻤﺴﯿﺪ‬
Operation

Pipeline, Vessels & Tanks: FAILURE PREVENTION, REPAIR & LIFE

5 13-٠٢- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬
EXTENSION: Lessons Learned Through Case Studies

Safety Relief Valve Inspection, Maintenance, Operation,

5 13-٠٩- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬
Troubleshooting & Repair (PRV & POPRV/PORV)

ASME B31.3 Piping & Pipeline Design, Construction, Inspection,

Pigging, Maintenance, Repair & Integrity Assessment (ASME B31.3, 5 13-٣١- ‫ﺳﺮام‬ 13-٢٠- ‫رﺑﻮﺗﻜﺄ‬
API 570 & API 579 Standards)
Design, Fabrication and Testing of ASME VIII Division 1 Pressure
5 13-٠٣- ‫ﺳﺮام‬ 13-٠١- ‫رﺑﻤﺴﯿﺪ‬
Vessels
ASME Post Construction Code (PCC), API 579 & API 571: Inspection,
Planning, Fitness-for-Service , Damage Mechanisms and Repair for 5 13-٢٧- ‫رﯾﺎﻧﻲ‬ 13- ٢٩ - ‫رﺑﻤﺘﺒﺲ‬
Vessels, Tanks, Pipings and Process Equipment
API 510: PRESSURE VESSEL INSPECTION CODE: Maintenance,
Inspection, Rating, Repair, & Alteration (API Exam Preparation 5 13- ١٩- ‫وﯾﺎم‬
Training)
API 653: TANK INSPECTION CODE: Inspection, Repair, Alteration &
Reconstruction of Steel Aboveground Storage Tanks Used in the 5 13-٣٠- ‫وﯾﻨﻮي‬
Petrochemical Industry (API Exam Preparation Training)
API 936: Refractory Inspection Code: Installation, Inspection, Testing
5 13- ٢٤- ‫رﯾﺎرﺑﻒ‬ 13-٢٤- ‫رﺑﻤﻔﻮن‬
& Repair (API Exam Preparation Training)

API 570: PIPING INSPECTION CODE: Inspection, Repair, Alteration &

Rerating of In-Service Piping Systems (API Exam Preparation 5 13- ٠٣- ‫رﯾﺎرﺑﻒ‬ 13-١٠- ‫رﺑﻤﻔﻮن‬
Training)

API-579/580/581: Risk-Based Inspection (RBI), Fitness-for-Service

(FFS) and Repair Practices of Pipeline, Piping Vessels and Tanks in 5 13- ١٠- ‫رﯾﺎرﺑﻒ‬ 13-١٨- ‫ﺳﻄﺴﻐﺄ‬ 13-٢٧- ‫رﺑﻮﺗﻜﺄ‬
Refineries, Gas, Oil and Petrochemical Facilities
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 



1








10


)


)

 2




  3



!!!





" !!!
 "4




20



 5

















!!
 7


)





 8









...





5041300



 9



!!



!!
 
!

10



!!




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







3







1421



 ,




!!
 ‫اﻟﺑﺗرول و اﻟﺑﯾﺋﺔ‬
‫ﺧﻠق ﷲ اﻹﻧﺳﺎن و ﺟﻌﻠﮫ ﺧﻠﯾﻔﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻷرض ‪ ،‬ﻓﻌﺎش اﻹﻧﺳﺎن ﻓﻲ ﻛﻧف اﻟطﺑﯾﻌ ﺔ اﻟﺗ ﻲ ﺷ ﻣﻠت ﻋﻧﺎﺻ ر‬
‫ﺗﻌﻣل ﻓﻲ ﺗوازن دﻗﯾق ﻣﺣﻛم ‪ ،‬و اﺳﺗﻣر ﻛﻔﺎح اﻹﻧﺳﺎن ﻣﻊ ﻋﻧﺎﺻر اﻟطﺑﯾﻌﺔ ﻹﻗﺎﻣﺔ ﺣﺿﺎرﺗﮫ اﻟﺷﺎﻣﺧﺔ‬
‫و ﻣدﻧﯾﺗ ﮫ اﻟزاھ رة ‪ .‬و ﻓ ﻲ ﺳ ﺑﯾل ذﻟ ك ﻛ ﺎن ﻋﻠﯾ ﮫ أن ﯾﻌﻧ ﻲ ﺑﺎﺳ ﺗﮭﻼك اﻟطﺎﻗ ﺔ و ﺗوظﯾ ف ﻣﺻ ﺎدرھﺎ‬
‫اﻟﻣﺧﺗﻠﻔﺔ و ﻣﻧﮭﺎ اﻟﻧﻔط اﻟذي ﻛﺎن ﻋﺻب اﻟﺗﻧﻣﯾﺔ و اﻟﺗﻛﻧوﻟوﺟﯾﺎ اﻟﻣﺗﻘدﻣﺔ ‪.‬‬
‫و ﺣﺗﻰ ذﻟك اﻟﺣﯾن ﻛﺎن اﻟﺗﻌﺎﻣل ﻣﻊ اﻟﺑﯾﺋﺔ ﻣﻧﺣﺻرا ﻋﻠﻲ اﻟﻣﺳﺗوي اﻟﻣﺣﻠﻲ أو اﻹﻗﻠﯾﻣﻲ ‪،‬‬
‫إﻻ أﻧﮫ ﻧﺗﯾﺟﺔ ﻟﻠﺗطور اﻟﺻﻧﺎﻋﻲ اﻟﺿﺧم و زﯾﺎدة اﻟﺗﻧﺎﻓس ﺑﯾن اﻷﺳ واق اﻟﻣﺧﺗﻠﻔ ﺔ ظﮭ رت اﻟﺣﺎﺟ ﺔ إﻟ ﻲ‬
‫ﺣﻣﺎﯾ ﺔ اﻟطﺑﯾﻌ ﺔ ﻣ ن اﻟﻧﺷ ﺎط اﻹﻧﺳ ﺎﻧﻲ ‪ ،‬ﺑ دﻻ ﻣ ن اﺗﺧ ﺎذ اﺣﺗﯾﺎط ﺎت اﻷﻣ ن ﻟﺣﻣﺎﯾ ﺔ اﻹﻧﺳ ﺎن ﻣ ن ﻗ وي‬
‫اﻟطﺑﯾﻌﺔ ﻛﻣﺎ ﺟرت اﻟﻌﺎدة ﻓﻲ اﻟﻣﺎﺿﻲ‬

‫ﺗﻐﯾﯾر اﻟﻣﻧﺎخ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻣﻲ‪:‬‬

‫ﻟﻌﻠﮫ ﻣن اﻟﻣﻔﯾد أن ﻧﻌرض ﺑﺈﯾﺟﺎز ﻣﺎ ﯾورده اﻟﻌﻠﻣﺎء ﻋن ﻣﻧﺎخ اﻷرض و طﺑﯾﻌﺔ ﺗﻛوﯾﻧﮫ‪.‬‬

‫ظﺎھرة اﻻﺣﺗﺑﺎس اﻟﺣراري‪:‬‬

‫ﻣن اﻟﻣﻌروف أن اﻷرض ﺑﺎﻷﺳﺎس ﻛوﻛب ﺑﺎرد ﻟﯾس ﺑﮫ طﺎﻗﺔ ذاﺗﯾﺔ ﻟﺗدﻓﺋﺗﮫ ‪ ،‬وﻟﻛن اﻟﻣﺻدر اﻟرﺋﯾﺳﻲ‬
‫ﻟﻠطﺎﻗﺔ ﯾ ﺄﺗﻲ ﻣ ن اﻟﺷ ﻣس و ﯾﺗﺷ ﻛل ﻣﻧ ﺎخ اﻷرض ﻣ ن ﺗ وازن ﺗﻠ ك اﻟطﺎﻗ ﺔ ﻣ ﻊ اﻟﻌﻣﻠﯾ ﺎت اﻟﻛﯾﻣﯾﺎﺋﯾ ﺔ و‬
‫اﻟظواھر اﻟﻔﯾزﯾﺎﺋﯾﺔ و ﺗرﻛﯾب اﻟﻐﻼف اﻟﺟوي ﻟﻸرض‪.‬‬

‫و ﯾﺷﯾر اﻟﺑﺎﺣﺛون إﻟﻲ أن اﻷرض ﺗﺗﻠﻘﻰ ﻛﻣﯾﺎت ﺿﺧﻣﺔ ﻣ ن اﻟطﺎﻗ ﺔ اﻟﺷﻣﺳ ﯾﺔ ﻓ ﻲ ﺻ ورة أﺷ ﻌﺔ ﻋﻠ ﻲ‬
‫ﺷ ﻛل ﻣوﺟ ﺎت ﻗﺻ ﯾرة ﻻ ﯾﻌ وق دﺧ ول ﻣﻌظﻣﮭ ﺎ ﻏ ﺎزات اﻟﻐ ﻼف اﻟﺟ وي ‪،‬وﻻ ﺗﺳ ﺧن ھ ذه اﻷﺷ ﻌﺔ‬
‫اﻟﮭواء اﻟﺟوي ﻣﺑﺎﺷرة و إﻧﻣﺎ ﺗﻌﻣل ﻋﻠﻲ ﺗﺳﺧﯾن ﺳطﺢ اﻷرض اﻟذي ﯾﻌﻛس ﺟ زءا ﻣ ن ﺗﻠ ك اﻷﺷ ﻌﺔ‬
‫ﻛﺄﺷ ﻌﺔ ﺗﺣ ت اﻟﺣﻣ راء ﻋﻠ ﻲ ﺷ ﻛل ﻣوﺟ ﺎت طوﯾﻠ ﺔ‪ .‬وﺗﻼﻗ ﻲ ﺗﻠ ك اﻷﺷ ﻌﺔ ﻓ ﻲ طرﯾﻘﮭ ﺎ إﻟ ﻲ اﻟﻔﺿ ﺎء‬
‫اﻟﺧﺎرﺟﻲ اﻟﻐﻼف اﻟﺟوي اﻟﻣﺣﺗوي ﻋﻠﻲ ﻧﯾﺗروﺟﯾن و أﻛﺳﺟﯾن ﻣﻊ ﺑﻌض اﻟﻐﺎزات اﻟدﻓﯾﺋﺔ أو ﻏ ﺎزات‬
‫اﻻﺣﺗﺑﺎس اﻟﺣراري )ﺛﺎﻧﻲ أﻛﺳﯾد اﻟﻛرﺑون و اﻟﻣﯾﺛﺎن و ﺑﺧﺎر اﻟﻣ ﺎء و اﻟﻛﻠوروﻓﻠوروﻛرﺑ ون( و اﻟﺗ ﻲ‬
‫ﺗﻣﺛل أﻗل ﻣن ‪ %١‬ﺑﺎﻟﻐﻼف اﻟﺟوي ‪ ،‬و ﺗﻌﻣل ﻏﺎزات اﻻﺣﺗﺑﺎس اﻟﺣراري ﻋﻠﻲ إﻋﺎدة ﺟزء ﻛﺑﯾر ﻣن‬
‫اﻷﺷﻌﺔ إﻟﻲ اﻷرض ﻣﻣﺎ ﯾﻌﻣل ﻋﻠﻲ ﺗﺳﺧﯾﻧﮭﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻘدر اﻟﻛﺎﻓﻲ ﻻﺳﺗﻣرار اﻟﺣﯾﺎة ﻋﻠﻲ ﺳطﺢ اﻷرض ‪.‬‬
‫و ﺑﺎﻟﺗﺎﻟﻲ ﻓﺎﻻﺣﺗﺑﺎس اﻟﺣراري ظﺎھرة طﺑﯾﻌﯾﺔ ﻻ ﻏﻧﻲ ﻋﻧﮭﺎ ﻟﻺﻧﺳﺎن‪.‬‬

‫ﺗﻐﯾر اﻟﻣﻧﺎخ‪:‬‬
‫إن اﻟﻣﺷﻛﻠﺔ اﻟﺗﻲ ﯾﺗﺣدث ﻋﻧﮭﺎ اﻟﻌﺎﻟم اﻵن ھﻲ ﻣﺎ أﺛﺎره اﻟﺑﻌض ﻣن أن ﺑﻌض اﻷﻧﺷطﺔ اﻹﻧﺳﺎﻧﯾﺔ ﺗﺳﮭم‬
‫ﻓﻲ زﯾﺎدة ﺗرﻛﯾز اﻟﻐﺎزات اﻟدﻓﯾﺋﺔ اﻷﻣر اﻟذي ﯾؤدي إﻟﻲ ارﺗﻔﺎع درﺟﺔ ﺣرارة اﻷرض و ﺗﻐﯾر اﻟﻣﻧﺎخ‪.‬‬

‫وﯾرﻛ ز اﻟﺑ ﺎﺣﺛون اﻟﻣﮭﺗﻣ ون ﺑﻧظرﯾ ﺔ ﺗﻐﯾ ر اﻟﻣﻧ ﺎخ ﻋﻠ ﻲ ﻏ ﺎز ﺛ ﺎﻧﻲ أﻛﺳ ﯾد اﻟﻛرﺑ ون ﺑﺎﻋﺗﺑ ﺎره اﻟﻐ ﺎز‬
‫اﻟرﺋﯾﺳﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻏﺎزات اﻻﺣﺗﺑﺎس اﻟﺣراري )‪. (%٦٠‬‬
‫–‬ ‫و ﺗﺷﯾر اﻹﺣﺻﺎﺋﯾﺎت إﻟﻲ إن اﻧﺑﻌﺎث ﻏﺎز )‪ (CO2‬ﯾﻧﺗﺞ ﻣﻌظﻣﮭ ﺎ ﻣ ن اﻟوﻗ ود اﻟﺣﻔ ري )ﻓﺣ م – ﺑﺗ رول‬
‫ﻏﺎز( ﺧﻼل ﻋﻣﻠﯾﺎت اﺳﺗﺧراﺟﮫ و ﻧﻘﻠﮫ و ﺣرﻗﮫ ‪ ،‬ﺑﯾﻧﻣﺎ ﯾﺳﺎھم ﺣرق اﻟﻐﺎﺑﺎت ﺑﺎﻟﻧﺳﺑﺔ اﻟﺑﺎﻗﯾﺔ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻛﻣﺎ ﺗﺧﺗﻠف أﻧواع اﻟوﻗ ود اﻟﺣﻔ ري ﻧﻔﺳ ﮭﺎ ﻓ ﻲ ﻧﺳ ﺑﺔ ﻣﺳ ﺎھﻣﺗﮭﺎ ﻓ ﻲ ﺗﻠ ك اﻹﻧﺑﻌﺎﺛ ﺎت ﺣﯾ ث ﯾﻣﺛ ل اﻟﻔﺣ م‬
‫)‪ (%٢٧‬ﻣن إﺟﻣﺎﻟﻲ اﺳﺗﮭﻼك اﻟطﺎﻗﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﺎﻟم و ﺑذﻟك ھ و ﺻ ﺎﺣب اﻟﻧﺻ ﯾب اﻷﻛﺑ ر ﻓ ﻲ ﻏ ﺎز ﺛ ﺎﻧﻲ‬
‫أﻛﺳﯾد اﻟﻛرﺑون اﻟﻣﻧﺑﻌث‪.‬‬

‫ﺻﻧﺎﻋﺔ اﻟﺑﺗرول و دورھﺎ‪:‬‬

‫–‬ ‫ﺻﻧﺎﻋﺔ اﻟﺑﺗرول ﻣن اﻟﺻﻧﺎﻋﺎت اﻟﻣﻌﻘدة اﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺣﻔﮭﺎ ﻣﺧﺎطر ﻋدﯾدة ﻓﻲ ﻣراﺣﻠﮭﺎ اﻟﻣﺧﺗﻠﻔﺔ )اﺳﺗﻛﺷﺎف‬
‫إﻧﺗﺎج – ﻧﻘل – ﺗﻛرﯾر – ﺗﺻﻧﯾﻊ( ‪ ،‬و أي أﺧطﺎء ﻗد ﺗﺣدث ﯾﻣﻛن أن ﯾﻧﺗﺞ ﻋﻧﮭﺎ ﺧﺳﺎﺋر ﺑﺷ رﯾﺔ و ﻣﺎدﯾ ﺔ‬
‫ﻓﺎدﺣﺔ ﻟﻠﻌﻣﻠﯾﺔ اﻹﻧﺗﺎﺟﯾﺔ و ﻟﻠﺑﯾﺋﺔ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻟذا ‪ ،‬ﻓﺈن اﻷﻣن اﻟﺻﻧﺎﻋﻲ و ﺣﻣﺎﯾﺔ اﻟﺑﯾﺋ ﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻧﺳ ﺑﺔ ﻟﺻ ﻧﺎﻋﺔ اﻟﺑﺗ رول ﺗﻌ د ﻋﻧﺻ را أﺳﺎﺳ ﯾﺎ ﻻ ﯾﻘ ل ﻓ ﻲ‬
‫أھﻣﯾﺗ ﮫ ﻋ ن ﻋﻧﺻ ر اﻹﻧﺗ ﺎج ‪ ،‬وﻟ ﯾس ﺗرﻓ ﺎ ﯾﻣﻛ ن اﻻﺳ ﺗﻐﻧﺎء ﻋﻧ ﮫ‪ ،‬ﻓﺄﻧﺷ ﺄت ﺷ رﻛﺎت اﻟﺑﺗ رول إدارات‬
‫ﺧﺎﺻ ﺔ ﺑ ﺎﻷﻣن اﻟﺻ ﻧﺎﻋﻲ و ﺣﻣﺎﯾ ﺔ اﻟﺑﯾﺋ ﺔ ﻟﻣواﺟﮭ ﺔ ھ ذه اﻟﻣﺷ ﺎﻛل و ﺗﻔ ﺎدي اﻟﺣ وادث و اﻟﺗﻘﻠﯾ ل ﻣ ن‬
‫أﺿرارھﺎ إﻟﻲ اﻟﺣد اﻷدﻧﻰ‪.‬‬
‫وﻧﻌرض ﻓﯾﻣﺎ ﯾﻠﻲ ﺑﺈﯾﺟﺎز ﻟﻣراﺣل اﻟﺻﻧﺎﻋﺔ اﻟﺑﺗروﻟﯾﺔ اﻟﻣﺧﺗﻠﻔﺔ ﻣﻊ اﻹﺷﺎرة إﻟ ﻲ أﺧط ﺎر اﻟﺗﻠ وث اﻟﺗ ﻲ‬
‫ﻗد ﺗﻧﺟم و اﻹﺟراءات اﻟﻣﺗﺑﻌﺔ ﻟﻠوﻗﺎﯾﺔ و اﻟﺣد ﻣﻧﮭﺎ‪.‬‬

‫أوﻻ ‪ :‬ﻣراﺣل ﺻﻧﺎﻋﺔ اﻟﺑﺗرول و ﺣﻣﺎﯾﺔ اﻟﺑﯾﺋﺔ‪:‬‬

‫ﺗﺷﻣل ﻣراﺣل اﻟﺑﺣث و اﻻﺳﺗﻛﺷ ﺎف ﻣﺟﻣوﻋ ﺔ ﻣﻌﻘ دة ﻣ ن اﻟدراﺳ ﺎت اﻟﺟﯾوﻟوﺟﯾ ﺔ اﻟﮭﺎدﻓ ﺔ إﻟ ﻲ ﺗﺣدﯾ د‬
‫وﺟود اﻟﺗراﻛﯾب اﻟﺟﯾوﻟوﺟﯾﺔ اﻟﺗﻲ ﯾﻣﻛن أن ﺗﺣﺗوى ﻋﻠﻲ ﺗﺟﻣﻌﺎت ھﯾدروﻛرﺑوﻧﯾﺔ ‪.‬‬

‫اﻟﻣﺳﺢ اﻟﺳﯾزﻣﻲ‪:‬‬
‫ﺗﮭدف ھذه اﻟﻌﻣﻠﯾﺔ إﻟﻲ ﺗﺣدﯾد اﻟﺑﻧﯾﺔ اﻟﺟﯾوﻟوﺟﯾﺔ ﺗﺣت ﺳطﺢ اﻷرض ﻣن ﺧﻼل اﻻﻧﻌﻛﺎﺳﺎت اﻟﺻوﺗﯾﺔ‪.‬‬
‫و ﺣﺗﻰ ﻓﺗرة ﻗرﯾﺑﺔ ﻛﺎﻧت ھذه اﻟﻌﻣﻠﯾﺎت ﺗﺗم ﻣن ﺧﻼل ﺗﻔﺟﯾر اﻟدﯾﻧﺎﻣﯾت ﻹﺣداث ﻣوﺟﺎت ﺻوﺗﯾﺔ ﻣﻣ ﺎ‬
‫ﻛﺎن ﻟﮫ آﺛﺎر ﺳﯾﺋﺔ ﻋﻠﻲ اﻟﺗرﺑﺔ و إﺣداث ﺿﺟﯾﺞ ﺷدﯾد ‪.‬‬
‫و ﻟﺗﺟﻧب ھذه اﻵﺛﺎر اﻟﺿﺎرة ﺑﺎﻟﺑﯾﺋﺔ ﯾﺗم اﺳﺗﺧدام أﺣدث اﻟﺗﻛﻧوﻟوﺟﯾﺎ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻣﯾﺔ ﺣﯾث ﺗم اﺳ ﺗﺑدال طرﯾﻘ ﺔ‬
‫ﺗﻔﺟﯾر اﻟدﯾﻧﺎﻣﯾت ﺑطرﯾﻘﺔ ﺟﮭﺎز اﻟﻔﯾﺑروﺳﯾز ‪ ،‬وھﻲ ﻋﺑﺎرة ﻋن ﺟﮭﺎز ﯾرﺳل إﻟﻲ اﻷرض دﻓﻌﺔ طوﯾﻠﺔ‬
‫ﻣن اﻟذﺑذﺑﺎت و ﯾﺗﻠﻘﻰ ﺳﻠﺳﻠﺔ ﻋدﯾدة ﻣن اﻻﻧﻌﻛﺎﺳﺎت اﻟﺗﻲ ﯾﺗم ﻣﻌﺎﻟﺟﺔ ﺑﯾﺎﻧﺎﺗﮭ ﺎ و ﺗﺣوﯾﻠﮭ ﺎ إﻟ ﻲ ﻣوﺟ ﺎت‬
‫ﻗﺻﯾرة و ﯾﻧﺗﺞ ﻋن ھذه اﻟطرﯾﻘﺔ ﻛﺛﺎﻓﺔ أﻗل ﻣن اﻟطﺎﻗﺔ و ﺑﺎﻟﺗﺎﻟﻲ ﺗﺳﺗﺧدم داﺧل اﻟﻣدن أو اﻟﻣﻧﺎطق اﻟﺗﻲ‬
‫ﯾﺿرھﺎ اﺳﺗﺧدام اﻟﻣﺗﻔﺟرات‪.‬‬
‫ﻛﻣﺎ ﯾﺗم ﻓﻲ ﻋﻣﻠﯾﺎت اﻟﻣﺳﺢ اﻟﺳﯾزﻣﻰ اﻟﺑﺣري اﺳﺗﺧدام اﻟﻣدﻓﻊ اﻟﮭواﺋﻲ ﻛﻣﺻ در ﻟﻠطﺎﻗ ﺔ اﻟﺻ وﺗﯾﺔ ‪ ،‬و‬
‫ھو ﺟﮭﺎز ﯾﺳﺗﺧدم ﺻﻣﺎﻣﺎ ﻹطﻼق دﻓﻌﺔ ﻣن اﻟﮭواء اﻟﻣﺿﻐوط اﻟذي ﯾﺣدث ذﺑذﺑﺎت ﻛﺗﻠك اﻟﺗﻲ ﯾﺣدﺛﮭﺎ‬
‫اﻧﻔﺟﺎر اﻟدﯾﻧﺎﻣﯾت وﻟﻛن ﺑﻛﻣﯾﺔ أﻗل ﻣن اﻟطﺎﻗﺔ‪.‬‬

‫و ﺗﺳ ﺎﻋد ھ ذه اﻟﺗﻛﻧوﻟوﺟﯾ ﺎت ﻛﺛﯾ را ﻓ ﻲ اﻟﺣﻔ ﺎظ ﻋﻠ ﻲ اﻻﺗ زان اﻟطﺑﯾﻌ ﻲ ﻟﻠﺑﯾﺋ ﺔ و ذﻟ ك ﺑﻌ دم ھﺟ رة‬

‫اﻟﻛﺎﺋﻧ ﺎت اﻟﺑرﯾ ﺔ و اﻟﺑﺣرﯾ ﺔ ﻣ ن ﻣواﻗﻌﮭ ﺎ ﻣ ﻊ ﺣﻣﺎﯾﺗﮭ ﺎ ﻣ ن ﺗ ﺄﺛﯾر اﻟﺿوﺿ ﺎء و ﻛ ذﻟك ﺣﻣﺎﯾﺗ ﮫ ﻟﻠﺷ ﻌب‬
‫اﻟﻣرﺟﺎﻧﯾﺔ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﻣﻧﺎطق اﻟﺑﺣر اﻷﺣﻣر‪.‬‬
‫و ﻗد أﻟزﻣت وزارة اﻟﺑﺗرول اﻟﺷرﻛﺎت اﻟﻘﺎﺋﻣ ﺔ ﺑ ﺎﻟﺣﻔر ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎﻟﺣﺻ ول ﻋﻠ ﻲ ﻣ واﻓﻘﺗﻲ وزارة اﻟﺑﺗ رول و‬
‫اﻟﺑﯾﺋﺔ ﻛﺷرط أﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻗﺑل اﻟﺷروع ﻓﻲ ﻋﻣﻠﯾﺎت اﻻﺳﺗﻛﺷﺎف ‪.‬‬

‫اﻟﺣﻔر‬
‫ﯾﻌﺗﺑر اﻟﺣﻔر ھو اﻻﺧﺗﺑﺎر اﻟﻧﮭﺎﺋﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻣرﺣﻠﺔ اﻻﺳﺗﻛﺷ ﺎف و أول ﺧط وة ﻓ ﻲ ﻣرﺣﻠ ﺔ اﻹﻧﺗ ﺎج إذ ﯾﺟ ب‬
‫ﺣﻔر ﻋدة آﺑ ﺎر ﺗﻘﯾﯾﻣﯾ ﺔ ﻋﻧ د اﻟﺣﺻ ول ﻋﻠ ﻲ ﺗرﻛﯾ ب ﺑﺗروﻟ ﻲ ﻟﺗﺣدﯾ د ﺣﺟ م اﻟﻣﻛﻣ ن و ﻧوﻋﯾ ﺔ اﻟ ﻧﻔط و‬
‫إﻧﺗﺎﺟﯾﺗﮫ ‪ .‬ﺛم ﯾﻠﻲ ذﻟك ﺣﻔر آﺑﺎر ﺗﻧﻣﯾﺔ ﻹﻧﺗﺎج اﻟﺑﺗرول‪.‬‬
‫وﯾﺗم ﻓﻲ ﻋﻣﻠﯾﺎت اﻟﺣﻔر اﺳﺗﺧدام ﻛﻣﯾﺎت ﻛﺑﯾرة ﻣن ﺳواﺋل اﻟﺣﻔر اﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺗﻧوع ﻓﻲ ﺗرﻛﯾﺑﮭﺎ ﺑﯾن اﻟﺳ واﺋل‬
‫ذات اﻷﺳ ﺎس اﻟﻧﻔط ﻲ أو اﻷﺳ ﺎس اﻟﻣ ﺎﺋﻲ و ﻗ د ﺗﺣﺗ وي ﻓ ﻲ ﺑﻌ ض اﻷﺣﯾ ﺎن ﻋﻠ ﻲ ﻣرﻛﺑ ﺎت ﻛﯾﻣﯾﺎﺋﯾ ﺔ‬
‫ﺿﺎرة‪ ،‬ھذا ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ إﻟﻲ إﻧﮭﺎ ﺗﺣﻣل ﻣﻌﮭﺎ ﻓﺗﺎت ﻋﯾﻧﺎت اﻟﺣﻔر اﻟﻣﻠوﺛ ﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺧ ﺎم ‪ ،‬ﻛﻣ ﺎ ﺗ رﺗﺑط ﺑﻌﻣﻠﯾ ﺎت‬
‫اﻟﺣﻔ ر أﺧط ﺎر أﺧ ري ﯾﻣﻛ ن أن ﺗﮭ دد ﺳ ﻼﻣﺔ اﻟﻌ ﺎﻣﻠﯾن و ﺗﺗﻣﺛ ل ﻓ ﻲ اﺣﺗﻣ ﺎﻻت ﺣ دوث ﺗ دﻓق ﻣﻔ ﺎﺟﺊ‬
‫ﻟﻠﻐﺎزات أو اﻟزﯾت ﻣﻣﺎ ﯾ ؤدي إﻟ ﻲ إﺻ ﺎﺑﺎت ﺑﺎﻹﺿ ﺎﻓﺔ إﻟ ﻲ اﻧﺑﻌ ﺎث ﺑﻌ ض اﻻﯾروﺳ وﻻت و اﻟﻐ ﺎزات‬
‫اﻟﺳﺎﻣﺔ‪.‬‬
‫و ﺗﺷﮭد ﻋﻣﻠﯾﺎت اﻟﺣﻔر اﻟﻌدﯾد ﻣن اﻟﺗطورات اﻟﻣﺳﺗﻣرة ﻓﻲ اﻟﺗﻛﻧوﻟوﺟﯾﺎت اﻷﺳﺎﻟﯾب اﻟﻣﺳﺗﺧدﻣﺔ ﺑﮭدف‬
‫اﻟﺣﻔﺎظ ﻋﻠﻲ اﻟﺑﯾﺋﺔ و ﺗﻘﻠﯾل اﻟﺗﻠوث و ﻣن أﻣﺛﻠﺔ ذﻟك‪:‬‬
‫‪ -‬اﺳ ﺗﺧدام اﻟﺣﻔ ر اﻷﻓﻘ ﻲ و اﻟﻣﺎﺋ ل ﯾﺳ ﺎﻋد ﻋﻠ ﻲ ﺗﻔ ﺎدي اﻟﻣﻧ ﺎطق اﻟﺳ ﺎﺣﻠﯾﺔ و اﻟﺳ ﯾﺎﺣﯾﺔ ﻛﻣ ﺎ ﺗزﯾ د‬
‫ﻣﻌ دﻻت اﻹﻧﺗ ﺎج ﻣ ن اﻵﺑ ﺎر اﻷﻓﻘﯾ ﺔ ﻋﻧﮭ ﺎ ﻓ ﻲ اﻵﺑ ﺎر اﻟﻌﺎدﯾ ﺔ ﻣﻣ ﺎ ﯾﺳ ﺎھم ﻓ ﻲ ﺗﻘﻠﯾ ل ﻋ دد اﻵﺑ ﺎر و‬
‫ﺑﺎﻟﺗﺎﻟﻲ اﻟﺣد ﻣن ﻛﻣﯾﺎت ﻓﺗﺎت اﻟﺣﻔر‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﺗﺟﻣﯾﻊ اﻟﻣﯾﺎه اﻟﻣﺳﺗﺧدﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻣﻠﯾﺎت اﻟﺗﻧظﯾف و اﻟﺗﺑرﯾد و ﻛذﻟك اﻟزﯾوت ﻓ ﻲ ﻣﺳ ﺗودﻋﺎت ﺧﺎﺻ ﺔ‬
‫ﻓ ﻲ اﻷﺟﮭ زة اﻟﺑﺣرﯾ ﺔ ﺣﯾ ث ﯾ ﺗم ﻓﺻ ل اﻟزﯾ ت و ﻧﻘﻠ ﮫ إﻟ ﻲ اﻟﺷ ﺎطﺊ و ﻣﻌﺎﻟﺟ ﺔ اﻟﻣ ﺎء اﻟﻣﺗﺑﻘ ﻲ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻟﻛﯾﻣﺎوﯾﺎت ﻗﺑل إﻟﻘﺎﺋﮫ ﻣرة أﺧري ﻓﻲ اﻟﺑﺣر‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﺗﻘﻠﯾ ل اﻵﺛ ﺎر اﻟﺿ ﺎرة ﻻﺳ ﺗﺧدام ﺳ واﺋل اﻟﺣﻔ ر ﺧﺎﺻ ﺔ ذات اﻷﺳ ﺎس اﻟﻧﻔط ﻲ و ذﻟ ك ﻣ ن ﺧ ﻼل‬
‫اﺳ ﺗﺧدام ﺑ داﺋل أﺧ ري ﻛﻠﻣ ﺎ أﻣﻛ ن ذﻟ ك ‪ ،‬و ﻓ ﻲ ﺣﺎﻟ ﺔ وﺟ وب اﺳ ﺗﺧدام ﺗﻠ ك اﻟﻧوﻋﯾ ﺔ ﯾ ﺗم ﺗزوﯾ د‬
‫اﻟﺣﻔﺎرات ﺑوﺣدات ﻏﺳﯾل ﻟﻐﺳل ﻓﺗﺎت اﻟﺻﺧر اﻟﻧﺎﺗﺞ ﻣن ﻋﻣﻠﯾ ﺎت اﻟﺣﻔ ر ﻣ ﻊ إﻋ ﺎدة ﻣﻌﺎﻟﺟ ﺔ ﻣﯾ ﺎه‬
‫اﻟﻐﺳﯾل ﻗﺑل ﺻرﻓﮭﺎ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﺗرﻛﯾب ﻣﻌدات ﺧﺎﺻ ﺔ أﺛﻧ ﺎء اﻟﺣﻔ ر ﻟﻣﻧ ﻊ اﻟﺗ دﻓق اﻟﻣﻔ ﺎﺟﺊ ﻟﻠﻐ ﺎزات أو اﻟزﯾ ت اﻟﺧ ﺎم أﺛﻧ ﺎء ﻋﻣﻠﯾ ﺔ‬
‫اﻟﺣﻔر‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬اﺳﺗﺧدام ﻣﻌدات ﺧﺎﺻﺔ أﺛﻧﺎء اﻟﺣﻔر ﻟﺣرق اﻟزﯾت اﻟﻣﻧﺗﺞ أﺛﻧﺎء ﻋﻣﻠﯾﺎت اﺧﺗﺑﺎر اﻵﺑﺎر ‪.‬‬

‫اﻹﻧﺗﺎج‪:‬‬
‫ﺑﻌد اﻟﻌﺛور ﻋﻠﻲ اﻟﺑﺗرول ﺑﻛﻣﯾ ﺎت ﺗﺟﺎرﯾ ﺔ ﺗﺑ دأ اﻟﻣرﺣﻠ ﺔ اﻟﺗﺎﻟﯾ ﺔ و ھ ﻲ اﻹﻧﺗ ﺎج ‪ ،‬ﻓﺑﻌ د ﺣﻔ ر اﻵﺑ ﺎر‬
‫اﻟﺗﻘﯾﻣﯾﯾﺔ و ﺗﺣدﯾد ﺣﺟم اﻻﺣﺗﯾﺎطﻲ ﯾﺗم إﻋداد اﻟﺑﺋر ﻟﻺﻧﺗﺎج ‪ ،‬و إﻧﺷ ﺎء اﻟﺗﺳ ﮭﯾﻼت اﻟﻼزﻣ ﺔ ‪ ،‬و ﻓ ﻲ‬
‫ﺑداﯾﺔ ﻋﻣر اﻟﺣﻘل ﯾﻛون اﻟﺿﻐط اﻟطﺑﯾﻌﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻗﺎع اﻟﺑﺋر اﻟﻧﺎﺷﺊ ﻋن وﺟود اﻟﻣﺎء و اﻟﻐﺎز ﻋﺎدة ﻛﺎﻓﯾﺔ‬
‫ﻟدﻓﻊ اﻟزﯾت إﻟﻲ اﻟﺳطﺢ ‪ ،‬وﻟﻛن ﻣﻊ ﺗﻘﺎدم اﻟﺣﻘل ﯾﻧﺧﻔض اﻟﺿﻐط اﻟطﺑﯾﻌﻲ ﻣﻣﺎ ﯾؤدي إﻟﻲ اﻧﺧﻔﺎض‬
‫ﻛﻣﯾﺔ اﻟزﯾت اﻟﻣﻧﺗﺟﺔ ﺗدرﯾﺟﯾﺎ ﻓﯾﺗم اﻟﻠﺟوء إﻟﻲ وﺳﺎﺋل اﻻﺳﺗﺧﻼص اﻟﻣﺣﺳن و أھﻣﮭﺎ اﻟﺣﻘن ﺑﺎﻟﻣﯾ ﺎه‬
‫أو اﻟﺣﻘن ﺑﺎﻟﻐﺎز‪.‬‬

‫و ﯾﺣﺗوي اﻟﻧﻔط اﻟﺧﺎم اﻟﻣﺳﺗﺧرج ﻣ ن اﻟﺑﺋ ر ﻋﻠ ﻲ ﻛﻣﯾ ﺎت ﻣ ن اﻟﻣ ﺎء و اﻟﻐ ﺎز اﻟﻣﺻ ﺎﺣب ﺑﺎﻹﺿ ﺎﻓﺔ‬
‫إﻟﻲ ﺑﻌض اﻟﺷ واﺋب اﻷﺧ رى ﻣﺛ ل اﻟرﻣ ل ‪ ،‬ﻟ ذﻟك ﯾ ﺗم ﻣﻌﺎﻟﺟ ﺔ اﻟﺧ ﺎم ﻗﺑ ل ﻧﻘﻠ ﮫ ﺑﻔﺻ ل ھ ذه اﻟﻣ واد‬
‫‪،‬ﻏﺎﻟﺑﺎ ﻣﺎ ﺗﺣﺗوي اﻟﻣﯾﺎه ﻋﻠﻲ ﺑﻌض اﻷﻣﻼح و ﺗرﻛﯾزات ﻗﻠﯾﻠﺔ ﻣن اﻟﻣواد اﻟﻌﺿوﯾﺔ ﻏﯾر اﻟﺑﺗروﻟﯾ ﺔ‬
‫‪ ،‬و ﺑﻌض اﻟﻣواد اﻟﻣﺷﻌﺔ و اﻟﻛﯾﻣﺎوﯾﺎت و اﻟﻣﻌﺎدن اﻟﺛﻘﯾﻠ ﺔ و ﻛﻣﯾ ﺎت ﻣ ن اﻟ ﻧﻔط اﻟﻌ ﺎﻟق ‪ ،‬أﻣ ﺎ اﻟﻐ ﺎز‬
‫اﻟﻣﺻﺎﺣب ﻓﺣﺗﻰ وﻗت ﻗرﯾب ﻛﺎن ﯾ ﺗم إطﻼﻗ ﮫ ﻓ ﻲ اﻟﮭ واء أو ﺣرﻗ ﮫ دون اﻻﺳ ﺗﻔﺎدة ﻣﻧ ﮫ ﻣﻣ ﺎ ﯾﻧ ﺗﺞ‬
‫ﻋﻧﮫ اﻧﺑﻌﺎث ﻣواد ھﯾدروﻛرﺑوﻧﯾﺔ و أﻛﺎﺳﯾد ﻛﺑرﯾﺗﯾﺔ و ﻣواد ﻋﺿوﯾﺔ وھو ﻣﺎ ﺗم ﺗدارﻛﮫ ﻛﻣﺎ ﺳﻧري‬
‫ﻻﺣﻘﺎ ‪.‬‬
‫وﺑﺎﻟﻧﺳﺑﺔ ﻟﻌﻣﻠﯾﺎت اﻹﻧﺗﺎج ﻣن اﻟﻣﻧﺎطق اﻟﺑﺣرﯾﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻓﺈن إي ﺗﻠوث ﻻ ﯾﻘﺗﺻر أﺛره ﻋﻠﻲ اﻟﻌﺎﻣﻠﯾن ‪ ،‬ﺑل‬
‫ﯾﻣﺗ د أﺛ ره إﻟ ﻲ اﻟﺑﯾﺋ ﺔ اﻟﻣﺣﯾط ﺔ و اﻷﺳ ﻣﺎك و اﻟﻛﺎﺋﻧ ﺎت اﻟﺑﺣرﯾ ﺔ ﺧﺎﺻ ﺔ اﻟﻣﻧ ﺎطق ذات اﻷھﻣﯾ ﺔ‬
‫اﻟﺑﯾوﻟوﺟﯾﺔ اﻟﺧﺎﺻﺔ و اﻟﻔرﯾدة ﻣﺛل ﻣﻧﺎطق اﻟﺷﻌﺎب اﻟﻣرﺟﺎﻧﯾﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺑﺣر اﻷﺣﻣر‪.‬‬
‫ﻛﻣﺎ ﺗواﺟﮫ ﻋﻣﻠﯾﺎت ﺗﻧﻣﯾﺔ اﻟﺣﻘول داﺋﻣﺎ اﺣﺗﻣﺎﻻت ﺣدوث ﺗﺳرب ﺑﺗروﻟﻲ ﺧﻼل ﻋﻣﻠﯾ ﺎت اﻟﺣﻔ ر أو‬
‫إﺗﻣ ﺎم اﻵﺑ ﺎر أو اﻹﻧﺗ ﺎج و اﻟﻣﻌﺎﻟﺟ ﺔ أو اﻟﻧﻘ ل أو ﺧ ﻼل ﻋﻣﻠﯾ ﺎت ﻏﺳ ﯾل ﺧزاﻧ ﺎت اﻟﻧ ﺎﻗﻼت "ﻣﯾ ﺎه‬
‫اﻟﺻﺎﺑورة" ﻣﻣﺎ ﯾؤﺛر ﻋﻠﻲ اﻟﺣﯾﺎة اﻟﺑﺣرﯾﺔ ‪.‬‬
‫وﻣن أﻣﺛﻠﺔ اﻷﺳﺎﻟﯾب اﻟﻣﺗﺑﻌﺔ ﻟﻠﺣﻔﺎظ ﻋﻠﻲ اﻟﺑﯾﺋﺔ ﺧﻼل ﻣرﺣﻠﺔ اﻹﻧﺗﺎج‪-:‬‬
‫‪ .١‬اﻻﺳﺗﻔﺎدة ﻣن اﻟﻣﯾﺎه اﻟﻣﺻﺎﺣﺑﺔ ﺑﺈﻋﺎدة ﺣﻘﻧﮭﺎ إﻟﻲ اﻟﻣﻛﺎﻣن اﻟﻧﻔطﯾﺔ ﻟﻠﺣﻔﺎظ ﻋﻠﻲ اﻟﺿﻐط اﻟطﺑﯾﻌﻲ‬
‫‪ ،‬وﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﻋدم إﻋﺎدة اﻟﺣﻘن ﻓﺈن ﺗﺳﮭﯾﻼت اﻹﻧﺗﺎج ﺳواء اﻟﻣوﺟودة ﻓﻲ اﻟﺑﺣر أو ﻋﻠ ﻲ اﻟﺷ ﺎطﺊ‬
‫ﻣزودة ﺑﻣﻌدات ﺗﺳﻣﺢ ﺑﺗﺟﻣﯾﻊ ھذه اﻟﻣﯾﺎه و ﻣﻌﺎﻟﺟﺗﮭﺎ ﺑﺣﯾث ﻻ ﺗزﯾد ﻧﺳﺑﺔ اﻟﺗﻠ وث ﻋﻠ ﻲ ‪ ١٥‬ﺟ زءا‬
‫ﻓﻲ اﻟﻣﻠﯾون ﻗﺑل ﺗﺻرﯾﻔﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺑﺣر طﺑﻘﺎ ﻟﻠﻣواﺻﻔﺎت اﻟﻘﯾﺎﺳﯾﺔ‪.‬‬

‫‪ .٢‬اﺳﺗﻐﻼل اﻟﻐﺎز اﻟﻣﺻﺎﺣب ﻟﻠزﯾت اﻟﺧ ﺎم ﺑ دﻻ ﻣ ن ﺣرﻗ ﮫ ﺑﻣ ﺎ ﯾﺳ ﺎھم ﻓ ﻲ ﺣﻣﺎﯾ ﺔ اﻟﺑﯾﺋ ﺔ و ﺗﻌظ ﯾم‬
‫اﻟﻘﯾﻣﺔ اﻻﻗﺗﺻﺎدﯾﺔ ﺣﯾث ﺗم ﻣﻧذ أواﺋل اﻟﺛﻣﺎﻧﯾﻧﺎت إﻗﺎﻣﺔ ﻋدة ﻣﺷروﻋﺎت ﺑﺧﻠﯾﺞ اﻟﺳوﯾس أﻣﻛ ن ﻣ ن‬
‫ﺧﻼﻟﮭﺎ ﺗﺣﻘﯾق اﻻﺳﺗﺧدام اﻷﻣﺛل ﻟﮭذا اﻟﻐﺎز‪ ،‬و ﯾﺗم ﺣﺎﻟﯾﺎ إﻧﺗﺎج ‪ ٣٣٠‬ﻣﻠﯾ ون ﻗ دم‪ ٣‬ﯾوﻣﯾ ﺎ ﻣ ن اﻟﻐ ﺎز‬
‫ﯾﺗم إﻋﺎدة ﺣﻘن ﺟزء ﻣﻧﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺣﻘول ﻓ ﻲ ﻋﻣﻠﯾ ﺔ اﻹﻧﺗ ﺎج اﻟﻣﺣﺳ ن و ﻣﻌﺎﻟﺟ ﺔ اﻟﺑ ﺎﻗﻲ ﻹﻧﺗ ﺎج ‪١٥٠‬‬
‫ﻣﻠﯾون ﻗدم ﻣﻛﻌب ﻏﺎز ﻟﻛل ﯾوم ﯾ ﺗم ﺗ دﻓﯾﻌﮭﺎ ﻟﻠﺷ ﺑﻛﺔ اﻟﻘوﻣﯾ ﺔ ﻟﻠﻐ ﺎزات ﺑﺎﻹﺿ ﺎﻓﺔ إﻟ ﻲ ‪ ١٦٠٠‬ط ن‬
‫‪/‬ﯾوم ﺑوﺗﺎﺟﺎز ‪ ٨٠٠ ،‬طن ‪/‬ﯾوم ﻣﺗﻛﺛﻔﺎت ‪.‬‬
‫‪ .٣‬ﺗﺻﻣﯾم اﻵﺑﺎر ﺑﺣﯾث ﯾرﻛب ﻓﻲ ﻣواﺳﯾر اﻹﻧﺗ ﺎج ﺻ ﻣﺎم أﻣ ﺎن ﺗﺣ ت ﺳ طﺣﻲ ﯾﻐﻠ ق ﻓ ور وﻗ وع‬
‫ﺣﺎدث ﻟﻣﻌدات رأس اﻟﺑﺋر ﺑﻣﺎ ﯾﻣﻧﻊ ﺗدﻓق اﻟزﯾت‪.‬‬
‫‪ .٤‬ﺗزوﯾد ﺧطوط اﻷﻧﺎﺑﯾب اﻟﺑﺣرﯾﺔ ﺑﺻﻣﺎﻣﺎت ﺳطﺣﯾﺔ ﺗﻌﻣل ﺑﻧﻔس ﻧظرﯾﺔ ﺻﻣﺎﻣﺎت اﻷﻣﺎن ﺗﺣ ت‬
‫اﻟﺳطﺣﯾﺔ ‪ ،‬ﺣﯾث ﺗﻐﻠق ﻟو ﺣدث ﻛﺳر ﻟﺗﻠك اﻟﺧطوط‪.‬‬
‫‪ .٥‬اﺗﺑﺎع ﻧﻔس اﻟطرﯾﻘﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺧراطﯾم اﻟﺷﺣن و اﻟﺗﻔرﯾﻎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻣواﻧﻲ اﻟﺑﺗروﻟﯾﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪ .٦‬ﺗزوﯾد ﺧطوط اﻟﺑﺗرول اﻟﺗﺎﺑﻌ ﺔ ﻟﻘط ﺎع اﻟﺑﺗ رول ﺑﺎﻟﺗﺳ ﮭﯾﻼت اﻟﻼزﻣ ﺔ ﻻﺳ ﺗﻘﺑﺎل ﻣﯾ ﺎه اﻟﺻ ﺎﺑورة‬
‫اﻟﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻧﺎﻗﻼت و ذﻟك ﻗﺑل ﻋﻣﻠﯾﺎت ﺷﺣن ھذه اﻟﻧﺎﻗﻼت ﺑﺎﻟزﯾت اﻟﺧﺎم‪.‬‬

‫ﻋﻣﻠﯾﺎت اﻟﺗﻛرﯾر و اﻟﺗﺻﻧﯾﻊ‬

‫إن زﯾت اﻟﺑﺗرول ﺑﻌد إﻧﺗﺎﺟﮫ و ﺑﺎﻟﺻ ورة اﻟﺗ ﻲ ﯾﺗواﺟ د ﺑﮭ ﺎ ﻓ ﻲ ﺑ ﺎطن اﻷرض ﻻ ﯾﻣﻛ ن اﺳ ﺗﺧداﻣﮫ‬
‫ﺑﺷ ﻛﻠﮫ اﻟﺧ ﺎم و إﻧﻣ ﺎ ﯾ ﺗم ﺗﺻ ﻧﯾﻌﮫ و ﺗﺣوﯾﻠ ﮫ إﻟ ﻲ ﻣﻧﺗﺟ ﺎت ﺑﺗروﻟﯾ ﺔ ﺻ ﺎﻟﺣﺔ ﻟﻼﺳ ﺗﺧدام ﻓ ﻲ ﺷ ﺗﻲ‬
‫اﻟﺗطﺑﯾﻘﺎت اﻟﻌﻣﻠﯾﺔ‪ ،‬و ﯾﺗم ذﻟك ﺧﻼل ﻋﻣﻠﯾﺔ اﻟﺗﻛرﯾر و ھﻲ ﻋﻣﻠﯾﺔ ﺗﺳﺧﯾن اﻟزﯾت اﻟﺧﺎم وﺗﺣﻠﯾﻠﮫ إﻟﻲ‬
‫ﻣﻛوﻧﺎﺗﮫ اﻷوﻟﯾﺔ وﻓﻲ ﺑﻌض اﻷﺣﯾﺎن ﺗﻛﺳﯾره إﻟﻲ ﻣﻛوﻧﺎﺗ ﮫ اﻷﺻ ﻠﯾﺔ ﻣ ن اﻟﮭﯾ دروﺟﯾن و اﻟﻛرﺑ ون ‪،‬‬
‫ﺛم ﻣروره ﺑﺎﻟﻌدﯾد ﻣن اﻟﻌﻣﻠﯾﺎت اﻟﺗﺣوﯾﻠﯾﺔ و اﻟﻣﻌﺎﻟﺟﺔ ‪.‬‬
‫و ﻣن اﻟطﺑﯾﻌﻲ أن ﻋﻣﻠﯾﺎت اﻟﺗﻛرﯾر ﯾﺻﺎﺣﺑﮭﺎ اﻧﺑﻌﺎث اﻟﻛﺛﯾر ﻣن اﻟﻐﺎزات ﻣﺛ ل )أﻛﺎﺳ ﯾد اﻟﻛﺑرﯾ ت –‬
‫اﻟﮭﯾ دروﻛرﺑوﻧﺎت – أﻛﺎﺳ ﯾد اﻟﻧﯾﺗ روﺟﯾن (ھ ذا ﺑﺎﻹﺿ ﺎﻓﺔ إﻟ ﻲ اﻟﻣﯾ ﺎه اﻟﻣﻠوﺛ ﺔ اﻟﻧﺎﺗﺟ ﺔ ﻣ ن ﻣﺧﺗﻠ ف‬
‫اﻟﻌﻣﻠﯾﺎت اﻟﺗﺻﻧﯾﻌﯾﺔ أو ﻣﯾﺎه اﻟﺗﺑرﯾد‪.‬‬
‫ﻟذﻟك ﻟزم اﻟﻌﻣ ل ﻋﻠ ﻲ اﻟﺣ د ﻣ ن أﺿ رار ھ ذه اﻟﻣﻠوﺛ ﺎت و ﺗطﻠ ب ذﻟ ك ﺗط وﯾر ﺻ ﻧﺎﻋﺔ اﻟﺗﻛرﯾ ر و‬
‫أﺳ ﺎﻟﯾب اﻟﻣﻌﺎﻟﺟ ﺔ ﺑﺎﻹﺿ ﺎﻓﺔ إﻟ ﻲ وﺿ ﻊ أﻧظﻣ ﺔ ﺗﺣﻛ م ﻋﺎﻟﯾ ﺔ و اﺧﺗﯾ ﺎر أﺣ دث اﻟﺗﻘﻧﯾ ﺎت و أﻛﺛرھ ﺎ‬
‫ﺣﻔﺎظﺎ ﻋﻠﻲ اﻟﺑﯾﺋﺔ ‪ ،‬و ﺗﺟﮭﯾز اﻟﻣﻌﺎﻣل ﺑﺎﻷﺟﮭزة اﻟﺧﺎﺻﺔ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻘﯾﺎس ﻧﺳﺑﺔ اﻟﺗﻠوث ﻓﻲ اﻟﻣﯾﺎه و اﻟﮭواء‬
‫‪ ،‬و ﻣراﺟﻌﺔ و ﻣراﻗﺑﺔ ﻧواﺗﺞ اﻻﺣﺗراق و ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﻣﻊ ظﮭور اﻟﻌدﯾد ﻣ ن اﻟﻠ واﺋﺢ و اﻟﺗﻌ دﯾﻼت اﻟﺗ ﻲ‬
‫ﺗﻘﺿﻲ ﺑﺿرورة اﻟﺗﻌﺎﻣل ﻣﻊ ﺗﻠك اﻟﻣﻠوﺛﺎت ووﺿﻊ ﻣواﺻﻔﺎت ﻣﺷددة ﻟﻠﻣﻧﺗﺟﺎت اﻟﺑﺗروﻟﯾﺔ‪.‬‬

‫‪ .١‬ﻣﻌﺎﻟﺟﺔ اﻟﻣﯾﺎه اﻟﻧﺎﺗﺟﺔ ﻋن اﻟﻌﻣﻠﯾﺎت ﺑﻣﻌﺎﻣل اﻟﺗﻛرﯾر‪-:‬‬

‫ﺗﺳﺗﮭﻠك ﻣﻌﺎﻣل اﻟﺗﻛرﯾر ﻛﻣﯾﺎت ﻛﺑﯾرة ﻣن اﻟﻣﯾﺎه و ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﻓ ﻲ ﻋﻣﻠﯾ ﺎت اﻟﺗﺑرﯾ د ﺳ واء ﻣ ن ﻣﺻ ﺎدر‬
‫اﻟﺗرع أو اﻟﺑﺣﺎر و ﺑﻣﺎ ﯾﺗطﻠب ﺿرورة ﻣﻌﺎﻟﺟﺗﮭﺎ ﻗﺑل إﻋﺎدﺗﮭﺎ إﻟﻲ ھ ذه اﻟﻣﺻ ﺎدر و ذﻟ ك ﻟﻠ ﺗﺧﻠص‬
‫ﻣ ن اﻟﻣﻠوﺛ ﺎت و ﺑﺻ ﻔﺔ ﺧﺎﺻ ﺔ اﻟزﯾ وت‪ .‬وﻗ د ﺗ م اﺳ ﺗﺑدال اﻟطرﯾﻘ ﺔ اﻟﻘدﯾﻣ ﺔ اﻟﺗ ﻲ ﻛﺎﻧ ت ﺗﺳ ﺗﺧدم‬
‫أﺣ واض اﻟﻔﺻ ل ﺑطرﯾﻘ ﺔ اﻟﺗﺛﺎﻗ ل ﻟﻔﺻ ل اﻟزﯾ ت ‪ ،‬ﺑﺈدﺧ ﺎل اﻟط رق اﻟﺣدﯾﺛ ﺔ و اﻟﻣﺗط ورة ﻹﻋ ﺎدة‬
‫ﻣﻌﺎﻟﺟﺔ اﻟﻣﯾﺎه اﻟﺧﺎرﺟﺔ ﻣن ﻣﻌﺎﻣل اﻟﺗﻛرﯾر ﺑﻧظﺎم )‪ (DAF‬اﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺳ ﺗﺧدم وﺣ دات اﻟﺗﻘ وﯾم ﺑ ﺎﻟﮭواء و‬
‫اﻟﻔﻼﺗ ر اﻟرﻣﻠﯾ ﺔ إﻟ ﻲ ط رق اﻟﻣﻌﺎﻟﺟ ﺔ اﻟﺑﯾوﻟوﺟﯾ ﺔ ‪ ،‬و ﺗﺻ ل ﻧﺳ ﺑﺔ اﻟزﯾ ت ﻓ ﻲ اﻟﻣﯾ ﺎه إﻟ ﻲ أﻗ ل ﻣ ن‬
‫‪١٠‬أﺟزاء ﻓﻲ اﻟﻣﻠﯾون ‪ ،‬وﺑﻣﺎ ﯾﺗﻔق ﻣﻊ اﻟﻣواﺻﻔﺎت اﻟﻣوﺿ وﻋﺔ ﻣ ﻊ اﺳ ﺗرﺟﺎع اﻟﻣ واد اﻟﺑﺗروﻟﯾ ﺔ و‬
‫إﻋﺎدة ﺗﻘطﯾرھﺎ ﻟﻼﺳﺗﻔﺎدة ﻣﻧﮭﺎ ‪.‬‬
‫وﺗﺗم اﻟﻣﻌﺎﻟﺟﺔ اﻟﺑﯾوﻟوﺟﯾﺔ ﻟﻠﻣﯾﺎه اﻟﻧﺎﺗﺟ ﺔ ﻣ ن اﻟوﺣ دات اﻹﻧﺗﺎﺟﯾ ﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻣﻌﻣ ل ﻟﺗﺣﻘﯾ ق ﻧﺳ ﺑﺔ اﻷﻛﺳ ﺟﯾن‬
‫اﻟﻼزﻣﺔ ﻟﺣﻣﺎﯾﺔ اﻟﺑﯾﺋﺔ اﻟﺑﺣرﯾﺔ و اﻟﻣﺣﺎﻓظ ﺔ ﻋﻠ ﻲ اﻟﺛ روة اﻟﺳ ﻣﻛﯾﺔ ﺑﺻ ﻔﺔ ﺧﺎﺻ ﺔ ‪ ،‬و ﺗﺣﻠ ل اﻟﻣ واد‬
‫اﻟﻌﺿوﯾﺔ و أﻛﺳدة اﻟﻣواد ﻏﯾ ر اﻟﻌﺿ وﯾﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻣﯾ ﺎه و ذﻟ ك ﻟﻣراﻋ ﺎة اﻟﻣواﺻ ﻔﺎت اﻟﻣوﺿ وﻋﺔ ﻟﻘﯾ ﺎس‬
‫ﻣﺗطﻠﺑﺎت اﻷﻛﺳﺟﯾن اﻟﺑﯾوﻟوﺟﯾﺔ )‪ (B.O.D‬و ﻛذﻟك اﻟﻛﯾﻣﯾﺎﺋﯾﺔ )‪. (C.O.D‬‬

‫‪ .٢‬ﺗﺣﺳﯾن ﻣواﺻﻔﺎت اﻟﻣﻧﺗﺟﺎت اﻟﺑﺗروﻟﯾﺔ‪-:‬‬

‫اﻟﻣﻧﺗﺟﺎت اﻟﺑﺗروﻟﯾﺔ ﻋﺑﺎرة ﻋن ﺧﻠﯾط ﻣن اﻟﻣ واد اﻟﮭﯾدروﻛرﺑوﻧﯾ ﺔ ﺗﺣﺗ وي ﻋﻠ ﻲ ﺑﻌ ض اﻟﺷ واﺋب اﻟﺗ ﻲ‬
‫ﺗﺣﺗﺎج إﻟﻲ ﻣﻌﺎﻟﺟﺔ ﻋﻼوة ﻋﻠﻲ ﺑﻌض اﻹﺿﺎﻓﺎت اﻟﻣﺧﺗﻠﻔﺔ اﻟﺗﻲ ﺗوﺿﻊ ﺑﮭدف ﺗﺣﺳﯾن ﺧ واص اﻟﻣﻧ ﺗﺞ‬
‫‪ ،‬أو إﺑطﺎل و ﺗﻘﻠﯾل اﻵﺛﺎر اﻟﺿﺎرة اﻟﻣرﺗﺑطﺔ ﺑﺎﺳﺗﺧدام ﺑﻌض اﻟﻣواد اﻟﮭﯾدروﻛرﺑوﻧﯾﺔ ‪.‬‬
‫و ﻣﻊ اﻻھﺗﻣﺎم اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻣﻲ اﻟﻣﺗزاﯾد ﺑﺎﻟﺣﻔﺎظ ﻋﻠﻲ اﻟﺑﯾﺋﺔ ‪ ،‬ﺑدأت اﻟدول ﻓﻲ ﻓرض ﻗ واﻧﯾن و ﻟ واﺋﺢ ﺗﻘﺿ ﻲ‬
‫ﺑﺗﺣﺳﯾن اﻟﻣواﺻﻔﺎت اﻟﻘﯾﺎﺳﯾﺔ ﻟﻠﻣﻧﺗﺞ‪ ،‬ﻣﻣﺎ ﯾﺗطﻠب أﻣرﯾن أﺳﺎﺳﯾﯾن‪-:‬‬

‫‪ .١‬ﺗﺧﻔﯾض ﻧﺳﺑﺔ اﻟﻛﺑرﯾت ﻓﻲ اﻟﻣﻘطرات اﻟوﺳطﻲ ) اﻟﻛﯾروﺳﯾن – اﻟﺳوﻻر(‪.‬‬

‫ﺗﻣﺳﯾﺎ ﻣﻊ اﻻﺗﺟﺎه اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻣﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺣﺳﯾن اﻟﻣواﺻﻔﺎت ﺑﺻﻔﺔ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ و اﻟﺣد ﻣن ﻣواﺻﻔﺎت اﻟﻛﺑرﯾت ﻓﻲ‬
‫اﻟﻣﻘطرات اﻟوﺳطﻲ ﺑﺻﻔﺔ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﻓﻘد ﺗ م اﻟﺗﺧط ﯾط ﻻﺳ ﺗﻛﻣﺎل اﻹﻣﻛﺎﻧ ﺎت اﻟﻘﺎﺋﻣ ﺔ ﺑﻣﻌﺎﻣ ل اﻟﺗﻛرﯾ ر‬
‫ﻣن ﺧﻼل ﻋدة ﻣﺷروﻋﺎت ‪ ،‬و اﻟﮭدف ھو ﺗطوﯾر إﻧﺗﺎج وﺣدات اﻟﻣﻘطرات اﻟوﺳطﻲ و اﺳﺗﺧدام و‬
‫ﺣدات اﻟﻣﻌﺎﻟﺟﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﮭﯾدروﺟﯾن و ﺧﻔ ض ﻧﺳ ﺑﺔ اﻟﻛﺑرﯾ ت ‪ ،‬و ﺗﺣﺳ ﯾن درﺟ ﺔ اﻻﻧﺳ ﻛﺎب ﻟﻠﺳ وﻻر و‬
‫درﺟ ﺔ اﻟﺗ دﺧﯾن ﻟﻠﻛﯾروﺳ ﯾن ‪ ،‬و ﻗ د أﻣﻛ ن ﺗﺧﻔ ﯾض ﻣﺗوﺳ ط ﻧﺳ ﺑﺔ اﻟﻛﺑرﯾ ت ﻓ ﻲ اﻟﺳ وﻻر اﻟﻣﻧ ﺗﺞ‬
‫ﻟﯾﺗراوح ﺑﯾن ‪ % ،٧ : ،٢‬ﺑﺎﻟوزن ﺣﺳب ﻧوع اﻟﺧﺎم اﻟﻣﻌﺎﻟﺞ ﻋﻠﻣﺎ ﺑﺄن اﻟﻣواﺻﻔﺎت اﻟﻘﯾﺎﺳﯾﺔ ﺗﺳ ﻣﺢ‬
‫ﺑﺄن ﺗﺻل ھذه اﻟﻧﺳﺑﺔ إﻟﻲ ‪ % ١,٥‬ﻛﺣد أدﻧﻲ‪.‬‬

‫‪ .٢‬ﻣرﻛﺑﺎت اﻟرﺻﺎص ﻓﻲ اﻟﺑﻧزﯾن‪-:‬‬

‫ﯾﻌﺗﺑر اﻟﺑﻧزﯾن ﻣن أﻛﺛر اﻟﻣواد ﺗداوﻻ ﻣن ﻗﺑل اﻟﻣﺳﺗﮭﻠﻛﯾن ‪ ،‬و اﺳ ﺗﺧداﻣﮫ ﻛوﻗ ود ﻟ ﮫ ﺗ ﺄﺛﯾرات ھﺎﻣ ﺔ‬
‫ﻋﻠﻲ اﻟﺻﺣﺔ و اﻟﺑﯾﺋﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻟﮭذا ﻛﺎن ﻟزاﻣﺎ اﻻھﺗﻣﺎم ﺑﺗﺣﺳﯾن ﺧواﺻﮫ و أداﺋﮫ‪.‬‬
‫و ﻟﻘد ﻛﺎن اﻻﺗﺟﺎه اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻣﻲ ﻟﺗﺣﺳﯾن أداء اﻟﺑﻧزﯾن ھو إﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺑﻌض ﻣرﻛﺑﺎت اﻟرﺻ ﺎص ‪ ،‬ﻓﻘ د وﺟ د‬
‫أن اﻟرﺻﺎص ﯾﻌﻣل ﻋﻠﻲ رﻓﻊ اﻟ رﻗم اﻷوﻛﺗﯾﻧ ﻲ ﻟﻠﺑﻧ زﯾن ‪ ،‬و ﯾﺣﺳ ن ﺧواﺻ ﮫ اﻟﻣﺣرﻛﯾ ﺔ ﺑﺎﻹﺿ ﺎﻓﺔ‬
‫إﻟﻲ ﺗﺣﻘﯾق ﺧﺎﺻﯾﺔ اﻟﺗزﻟق ﻟﺑﻌض ﻣﻛوﻧﺎت اﻟﻣﺣرك داﺧل اﻟﺳﯾﺎرات ‪ ،‬و ﺣﯾث ﯾﻛون طﺑﻘﺔ ﻋﺎزﻟ ﺔ‬
‫ﺗﺣﻣﻲ ﻗواﻋد اﻟﺻﺑﺎﺑﺎت ﻓﻲ ﻣﺎﻛﯾﻧﺔ اﻻﺣﺗراق ﻣن اﻟﺗﺂﻛل ‪.‬‬
‫و ﻗد أﺷﺎرت ﺑﻐض اﻷﺑﺣﺎث إﻟﻲ أن اﻟرﺻﺎص ﻗد ﯾﺗﺳﺑب ﻓﻲ ﺑﻌض اﻷﻣراض اﻟﺧطﯾرة ﻛﺎﻟﺳرطﺎن‬
‫و اﻷﻣراض اﻟروﻣﺎﺗزﻣﯾﺔ و اﻻﻟﺗﮭﺎب اﻟرﺋوي ‪ ،‬و ﺗﺄﺛﯾره أﻛﺑر ﻋﻠﻲ ﺻﺣﺔ اﻷطﻔﺎل و ﻣﻌدﻻت ﻧﻣوھم‬
‫اﻟﻌﻘﻠﻲ‪.‬‬
‫و ﺑدأ ﻟذﻟك اﻻھﺗﻣﺎم اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻣﻲ ﺑوﺿﻊ ﻗﯾود ﻋﻠﻲ ﻧﺳﺑﺔ إﺿﺎﻓﺔ ھذه اﻟﻣرﻛﺑﺎت و إﯾﺟﺎد ﺑداﺋل أﺧري ﻏﯾر‬
‫اﻟرﺻﺎص ‪ ،‬و ﺗوﺻﻠت اﻷﺑﺣﺎث إﻟﻲ اﺳ ﺗﺧدام ﻣ ﺎ ﯾﻌ رف ﺑ ﺎﻟﻣﺣول اﻟﺣﻔ ﺎزي اﻟﺛﻼﺛ ﻲ اﻟﻣﺳ ﺎﻟك اﻟ ذي‬
‫ﯾﻌﻣل ﻋﻠﻲ ﺧﻔ ض ﻧﺳ ب اﻟﻣﻠوﺛ ﺎت اﻟﻣﻧﺑﻌﺛ ﺔ ﻣ ن ﻧ واﺗﺞ اﻻﺣﺗ راق ‪ ،‬إﻻ أن اﻟﻌﺎﻣ ل اﻟﻣﺳ ﺎﻋد اﻟﻣوﺟ ود‬
‫ﺑﺎﻟﻣﺣول اﻟﺣﻔﺎزي ‪،‬ﻛﻣ ﺎ ھ و ﻣﻌ روف ‪ ،‬ﯾﺗ ﺄﺛر ﺑوﺟ ود اﻟﻣﻌ ﺎدن ﺧﺎﺻ ﺔ اﻟرﺻ ﺎص ﻓﯾﺑط ل ﺗ ﺄﺛﯾره ‪ ،‬و‬
‫دﻋت ھذه اﻟﺣﻘﯾﻘﺔ إﻟﻲ ﺑداﯾﺔ إﻧﺗﺎج اﻟﺑﻧزﯾن اﻟﺧﺎﻟﻲ ﻣن اﻟرﺻﺎص ‪ ،‬و ﺗوﺻﻠت اﻷﺑﺣﺎث إﻟ ﻲ اﺳ ﺗﺧدام‬
‫اﻟﻣرﻛﺑ ﺎت اﻷﻛﺳ ﺟﯾﻧﯾﺔ ﺧﺎﺻ ﺔ "ﺑﯾوﺗﯾ ل اﻷﺛﯾ ر اﻟﺛﻼﺛ ﻲ اﻟﻣﺛﯾﻠ ﻲ " )‪ (MTBE‬ﻛﺄﺣ د ﻣﻛوﻧ ﺎت اﻟﺧﻠ ط ﻣ ﻊ‬
‫اﻟﺑﻧزﯾن ﻟرﻓﻊ درﺟﺔ اﻷوﻛﺗﺎن ﺑدﯾﻼ ﻟﻣرﻛﺑﺎت اﻟرﺻﺎص ‪.‬‬

‫‪ .٣‬إﻋﺎدة ﺗﻛرﯾر زﯾوت اﻟﺗزﯾﯾت اﻟﻣرﺗﺟﻌﺔ‪-:‬‬

‫زﯾوت اﻟﺗزﯾﯾت ﻣﻧ ﺗﺞ ﺿ روري ﻟﺗﺷ ﻐﯾل اﻟﻣﺣرﻛ ﺎت و اﻵﻻت ‪ ،‬و ﺑﻌ د ﻓﺗ رة ﻣ ن اﻻﺳ ﺗﻌﻣﺎل ﯾﻠ زم‬
‫ﺗﻐﯾﯾرھﺎ‪ ،‬و ﻟﻛن اﻟﺗﺧﻠص ﻣن اﻟزﯾوت اﻟﻣﺳ ﺗﻌﻣﻠﺔ ﺑطرﯾﻘ ﺔ ﺧﺎطﺋ ﺔ ﯾﻧ ﺗﺞ ﻋﻧ ﮫ ﻣﺷ ﺎﻛل ﺧطﯾ رة ﺗﮭ دد‬
‫اﻟﺑﯾﺋﺔ و ﺻﺣﺔ اﻹﻧﺳﺎن ‪ ،‬و ﺗﺷﯾر اﻟدراﺳﺎت إﻟﻲ أن ﻣﻌظم ﻛﻣﯾﺎت اﻟزﯾت اﻟﻣﺳﺗﻌﻣﻠﺔ ﯾﺗم إﻟﻘﺎؤھﺎ ﻓﻲ‬
‫ﺷﺑﻛﺎت اﻟﺻ رف اﻟﺻ ﺣﻲ ﺑﺎﻟﻣ دن‪ ،‬ﻣﻣ ﺎ ﯾ ؤدي إﻟ ﻲ اﻧﺳ دادھﺎ و ﺗﻔ ﺎﻗم ﻣﺷ ﺎﻛﻠﮭﺎ اﻟﻣﻌروﻓ ﺔ ‪ ،‬أو ﯾ ﺗم‬
‫إﻟﻘﺎؤھﺎ ﺑﺟوار اﻟﺗرع و اﻟﻣﺻﺎرف ‪ ،‬و ﯾﺗرﺗب ﻋﻠﻲ ذﻟك أﺿرار ﺑﺎﻟﺗرﺑﺔ اﻟزراﻋﯾﺔ و ﻣﯾﺎه اﻟﺷ رب‬
‫و اﻟ ري ‪ ،‬و اﻟﺟ زء اﻟﺑ ﺎﻗﻲ ﻣ ن اﻟوﻗ ود ﯾ ﺗم اﺳ ﺗﻌﻣﺎﻟﮫ ﻛوﻗ ود ﻓ ﻲ ﺑﻌ ض اﻷﻓ ران ﻣﻣ ﺎ ﯾﺳ ﺑب ﺗﻠوﺛ ﺎ‬
‫ﺑﻣﻌدﻻت ﻣرﺗﻔﻌﺔ‪.‬‬
‫و ﺗرﺟﻊ ﺧطورة ھذه اﻟزﯾوت إﻟﻲ اﺣﺗواﺋﮭﺎ ﻋﻠﻲ ﻣﻌﺎدن اﻟرﺻﺎص و اﻟﺑﺎرﯾوم ذات اﻟﺗﺄﺛﯾر اﻟﺿﺎر‬
‫و ھﻲ ﻧﺎﺷﺋﺔ ﻋن اﻹﺿﺎﻓﺎت اﻟﻼزﻣ ﺔ ﻟﺗﺣﺳ ﯾن ﺧ واص اﻟزﯾ وت ‪ ،‬و ﻣ ن ھﻧ ﺎ ﺗﺑ رز أھﻣﯾ ﺔ ﺗﺟﻣﯾ ﻊ‬
‫ھذه اﻟزﯾوت اﻟﻣﺳﺗﻌﻣﻠﺔ ﻣن ﻣﺻ ﺎدرھﺎ اﻟﻣﺧﺗﻠﻔ ﺔ و دون اﻟ ﺗﺧﻠص ﻣﻧﮭ ﺎ ﺑ ﺎﻟطرق اﻟﻣﻌروﻓ ﺔ اﻟﻣﻠوﺛ ﺔ‬
‫ﻟﻠﺑﯾﺋﺔ ) ‪ (Floor Drain‬ﻹﻋﺎدة ﺗﻛرﯾرھﺎ و اﻻﺳﺗﻔﺎدة ﻣﻧﮭﺎ ﻣن ﺟﮭﺔ وﺑﻣ ﺎ ﯾﺣ ﺎﻓظ ﻋﻠ ﻲ اﻟﺑﯾﺋ ﺔ و ﺻ ﺣﺔ‬
‫اﻹﻧﺳﺎن ﻣن ﺟﮭﺔ أﺧري‪.‬‬
 ‫ﺛﺎﻧﯾﺎ ‪ :‬اﺳﺗﺧدام اﻟﻣرﻛﺑﺎت اﻟﺑﺗروﻟﯾﺔ‪-:‬‬
‫إذا ﻛﺎﻧ ت ﻋﻣﻠﯾ ﺎت اﻟﺑﺣ ث ﻋ ن اﻟﺑﺗ رول و إﻧﺗﺎﺟ ﮫ و ﺗﺻ ﻧﯾﻌﮫ ﻏﺎﻟﺑ ﺎ ﻣ ﺎ ﺗ ﺗم ﻓ ﻲ ﻣﻧ ﺎطق اﻟﺗﺟﻣﻌ ﺎت‬
‫اﻟﺳ ﻛﺎﻧﯾﺔ و ﺑﺎﻟﺗ ﺎﻟﻲ ﻓ ﺈن آﺛﺎرھ ﺎ اﻟﺑﯾﺋﯾ ﺔ ﺗﻌﺗﺑ ر ﻏﯾ ر ﻣﺑﺎﺷ رة ﻋﻠ ﻲ اﻟﻣ واطن ‪ ،‬إﻻ أن اﺳ ﺗﺧداﻣﺎت‬
‫اﻟﻣﻧﺗﺟﺎت اﻟﺑﺗروﻟﯾﺔ ﺗرﺗﺑط ارﺗﺑﺎطﺎ وﺛﯾﻘﺎ ﺑﺣﯾ ﺎة اﻹﻧﺳ ﺎن اﻟﯾوﻣﯾ ﺔ ﻣﻣ ﺎ ﯾﺟﻌ ل ﻟﮭ ﺎ أﺛ را ﻣﺑﺎﺷ را ﻋﻠ ﻲ‬
‫ﺻﺣﺔ اﻹﻧﺳﺎن و اﻟﺑﯾﺋﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻟذﻟك ﻓﻣن اﻟﺿروري اﻟﻌﻣل ﻋﻠﻲ اﻟوﻗﺎﯾ ﺔ و ﺗﻘﻠﯾ ل اﻵﺛ ﺎر اﻟﺿ ﺎرة ‪ ،‬وﻗ د‬
‫ﻛﺎن اﻟﺳﻌﻲ إﻟﻲ ﺗﺣﻘﯾق ذﻟك ﻣن ﺧﻼل ‪ ٣‬ﻣﺣﺎور‪-:‬‬
‫)ﺗﺣﺳﯾن ﻣواﺻﻔﺎت اﻟﻣﻧﺗﺟﺎت اﻟﺑﺗروﻟﯾﺔ ﻟﺗﺗﻣﺎﺷﻰ ﻣﻊ اﻟﻘواﻧﯾن اﻟﺑﯾﺋﯾﺔ – اﺳﺗﺧدام أﻧواع وﻗود ﻧظﯾﻔﺔ‬
‫ﺗﻌرف ﺑﺄﻧﮭﺎ "ﺻدﯾﻘﺔ اﻟﺑﯾﺋﺔ" – ﺗرﺷﯾد اﺳﺗﮭﻼك اﻟطﺎﻗﺔ(‪.‬‬
‫وﻗد ﺳﺑق اﻟﺣدﯾث ﻋن اﻟﻧﻘطﺔ اﻷوﻟﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺑﺎب ﻋﻣﻠﯾﺎت اﻟﺗﻛرﯾر و اﻟﺗﺻﻧﯾﻊ‪.‬‬

‫اﺳﺗﺧدام أﻧواع وﻗود ﻧظﯾﻔﺔ ) اﻟﻐﺎز اﻟطﺑﯾﻌﻲ (‬

‫ﻟﻘ د ﺛﺑ ت أن اﻟﻐ ﺎز اﻟطﺑﯾﻌ ﻲ ‪،‬ﺑﺎﻋﺗﺑ ﺎره أﻧظ ف أﻧ واع اﻟوﻗ ود اﻟﺣﻔ ري ‪ ،‬ھ و أﻓﺿ ل ﺑ دﯾل ﻟﻠوﻗ ود‬
‫اﻟﻣﻠوث ﻟﻠﺑﯾﺋﺔ ‪ ،‬ﺧﺎﺻﺔ وﻗد ﺛﺑت ﺗواﻓره ﺑﻛﻣﯾﺎت اﻗﺗﺻﺎدﯾﺔ ﯾﻣﻛ ن ﻣﻌﮭ ﺎ إﻧﺗﺎﺟ ﮫ ﺑﻣﻌ دﻻت ﻣﺗزاﯾ دة ‪،‬‬
‫إﺿﺎﻓﺔ إﻟﻲ إﻣﻛﺎﻧﯾﺔ اﺳﺗﺧداﻣﮫ ﻛوﻗود ﻟﻠﺳﯾﺎرات ‪ ،‬ﺑل و ﻓﻲ ﻧظ ﺎم اﻟﺗﻛﯾﯾ ف اﻟﻣرﻛ زي‪ ،‬وھ و ﺗطﺑﯾ ق‬
‫ﺟدﯾد ﻟﺗﻛﻧوﻟوﺟﯾﺎ ﺣدﯾﺛ ﺔ ﺗﺗﻣﺗ ﻊ ﺑﻣزاﯾ ﺎ ﻓﻧﯾ ﺔ و اﻗﺗﺻ ﺎدﯾﺔ و ﺑﯾﺋﯾ ﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﯾ ﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻣﻘﺎرﻧ ﺔ ﺑ ﺎﻟطرق اﻟﺗﻘﻠﯾدﯾ ﺔ‬
‫اﺳ ﺗﺧدام اﻟﻛﮭرﺑ ﺎء ﻓ ﻲ اﻟﺗﺑرﯾ د اﻟﻣﯾﻛ ﺎﻧﯾﻛﻲ ‪ ،‬ﻓﺈﻧ ﮫ ﯾﻣﻛ ن اﺳ ﺗﺧداﻣﮫ ﻣﺑﺎﺷ رة ﻟﺗﺷ ﻐﯾل اﻟﻣوﻟ دات ﻓ ﻲ‬
‫اﻟﻧظﺎم اﻟﺟدﯾد ‪ ،‬و ﺑﺎﻟﺗﺎﻟﻲ ﯾﻣﻛن ﺗوﻓﯾر )‪ (%٤٠‬ﻣن اﻟطﺎﻗﺔ اﻟﻣﺳﺗﺧدﻣﺔ‪.‬‬
‫وﻣ ن ﻧﺎﺣﯾ ﺔ أﺧ ري ‪،‬ﻓ ﺈن ﻣزاﯾ ﺎ اﺳ ﺗﺧدام اﻟﻐ ﺎز ﻓ ﻲ اﻟﺳ ﯾﺎرات ﺗﺗﻌ دد ﻟﺗﺷ ﻣل ﺗ وﻓﯾر أداء أﻓﺿ ل‬
‫ﻟﻠﻣﺣرﻛﺎت و ذﻟك ﻟطﺑﯾﻌﺗﮫ اﻟﻐﺎزﯾﺔ اﻟﻣﺗﺟﺎﻧﺳﺔ ﻓ ﻲ اﻟﺧﻠ ﯾط ﻣ ﻊ اﻟﮭ واء اﻟ ﻼزم ﻟﻼﺣﺗ راق ‪ ،‬و ﻛ ذﻟك‬
‫زﯾﺎ دة اﻟﻘدرة و اﻟﻛﻔﺎءة اﻟﺣرارﯾﺔ ﻻرﺗﻔﺎع درﺟﺔ ﺣ رارة اﻷوﻛﺗ ﺎن ﺣﯾ ث ﺗﺻ ل إﻟ ﻲ ﻣ ﺎ ﯾﻘ رب ﻣ ن‬
‫)‪ ( ١٣٠ – ١٢٠‬درﺟﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻛﻣﺎ أن اﺳﺗﻌﻣﺎل اﻟﻐﺎز ﯾﺧﻔض ﻣن ﻣﺳﺗوي اﻟﺿوﺿﺎء و اﻻھﺗزاز ‪،‬ﺑﻣﺎ‬
‫ﻟ ﮫ ﻣ ن ﺗ ﺄﺛﯾرات ﺑﯾﺋﯾ ﺔ ﻛﺑﯾ رة ‪،‬وﺟ دﯾر ﺑﺎﻟ ذﻛر أن ﺳ ﻌر اﻟﻐ ﺎز ﯾﻣﺛ ل ﺣ واﻟﻲ )‪ (%٥٠‬ﻣ ن ﺳ ﻌر‬
‫اﻟﺑﻧزﯾن‪.‬‬

‫ﺗرﺷﯾد اﺳﺗﮭﻼك اﻟطﺎﻗﺔ‬

‫أﺻﺑﺢ ﺗﺣﺳﯾن ﻛﻔﺎءة اﺳﺗﺧدام اﻟطﺎﻗﺔ أﺣد اﻟﻌﻧﺎﺻر اﻟرﺋﯾﺳﯾﺔ اﻟﺗ ﻲ ﺗﺳ ﺎھم ﻓ ﻲ ﺣﻣﺎﯾ ﺔ اﻟﺑﯾﺋ ﺔ و ذﻟ ك‬
‫ﻣن ﺧﻼل ﺗرﺷﯾد اﻻﺳﺗﮭﻼك و ﺑﺎﻟﺗﺎﻟﻲ ﺧﻔض اﻻﻧﺑﻌﺎﺛﺎت اﻟﻧﺎﺗﺟﺔ ﻋن اﺳﺗﺧدام اﻟطﺎﻗﺔ‪.‬‬
‫وﯾﺗطﻠب ذﻟك وﺿﻊ اﺳﺗراﺗﯾﺟﯾﺔ ﻣﺗﻛﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻟﺗﺣﻘﯾق ﻣزﯾد ﻣن اﻟﺗﻧﺳﯾق ﺑﯾن اﻟﻘطﺎﻋﺎت اﻟﻣﺧﺗﻠﻔﺔ و ﺗﻧﻣﯾﺔ‬
‫اﻟ وﻋﻲ ﺑﺄھﻣﯾ ﺔ اﻟﺣﻔ ﺎظ ﻋﻠ ﻲ اﻟطﺎﻗ ﺔ ﺑ ﯾن اﻟﻣﺳ ﺗﮭﻠﻛﯾن ‪ ،‬اﻷﻣ ر اﻟ ذي ﯾ ؤدي إﻟ ﻲ ﺧﻔ ض ﻣﻌ دﻻت‬
‫اﺳﺗﺧدام اﻟطﺎﻗﺔ أو إھدارھﺎ ﺑﻧﺳب ﻣﻠﻣوﺳﺔ‪.‬‬
‫و ﻣن أﻣﺛﻠﺔ اﻟﻣﺷﺎرﯾﻊ اﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺳﺎھم ﻓﻲ ﺗرﺷﯾد اﻟطﺎﻗ ﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺷ روع ﺗﺣﻠﯾ ﺔ اﻟﻣﯾ ﺎه ﺑ رأس ﻏ ﺎرب اﻟ ذي‬
‫ﯾﮭدف إﻟﻲ إزاﻟﺔ ﻣﻠوﺣﺔ ﻣﯾﺎه اﻟﺑﺣر ﺑﺎﺳﺗﻐﻼل اﻟطﺎﻗﺔ اﻟﻣﻔﻘ ودة ﻣ ن ﻋ وادم اﻟﺗورﺑﯾﻧ ﺎت اﻟﻐﺎزﯾ ﺔ ﻓ ﻲ‬
‫ﻣﺣطﺔ ﺗوﻟﯾد اﻟطﺎﻗﺔ اﻟﻛﮭرﺑﯾﺔ اﻟﺗﺎﺑﻌﺔ ﻟﻠﺷرﻛﺔ اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﻟﻠﺑﺗرول ‪ ،‬و ﯾوﻓر اﻟﻣﺷروع ﻣﺻدر ﻣﯾ ﺎه آﻣﻧ ﺎ‬
‫و داﺋﻣﺎ ﻟﺗﻐطﯾﺔ اﺣﺗﯾﺎﺟﺎت اﻟﻣﻧطﻘﺔ ﻣن اﻟﻣﯾﺎه اﻟﻌذﺑﺔ ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ إﻟﻲ ﺗرﺷﯾد اﺳﺗﮭﻼك اﻟطﺎﻗﺔ‪.‬‬
 ‫اﻟﺧﺎﺗﻣﺔ‬
‫ﻛﺎﻧت اﻟطﺎﻗﺔ داﺋﻣﺎ ھﻲ اﻟﻣﺣرك ﻟﻌﻣﻠﯾﺎت اﻟﺗﻧﻣﯾﺔ و رﻓﯾق اﻹﻧﺳﺎن ﻓﻲ ﺳﻌﯾﮫ ﻟرﻓﻊ ﻣﺳ ﺗوي اﻟﻣﻌﯾﺷ ﺔ‬
‫‪ ،‬و ﺧﻼل اﻟﻌﻘود اﻟﻘﻠﯾﻠﺔ اﻟﻣﺎﺿﯾﺔ ﺷﮭد اﻟﻌ ﺎﻟم ﺗﻐﯾ رات ﻋدﯾ دة ﻓ ﻲ ﻣﻔﮭوﻣ ﮫ ﻟﺗﺣﻘﯾ ق اﻟﺗﻧﻣﯾ ﺔ اﻟﺷ ﺎﻣﻠﺔ‬
‫ﺑﺈدﺧﺎل اﻟﺟﺎﻧب اﻟﺑﯾﺋﻲ ‪ ،‬و أﺻﺑﺢ ﻣن اﻟﺿروري ﺗﺣﻘﯾق اﻟﺗﻛﺎﻣل ﺑﯾن ﻣﻧظوﻣ ﺔ اﻟطﺎﻗ ﺔ و اﻟﺗﻧﻣﯾ ﺔ و‬
‫اﻟﺑﯾﺋﺔ ‪.‬‬
‫إن ﺗﺣﻘﯾق ذﻟك اﻟﺗﻛﺎﻣل اﻟﻣﻧﺷود ﺑﯾن اﻟطﺎﻗﺔ و اﻟﺗﻧﻣﯾﺔ و اﻟﺑﯾﺋﺔ ﯾﺳﺗﻠزم ﻋﻣﻼ ﺷﺎﻗﺎ ‪ ،‬ﻛﻣﺎ أن اﺳﺗﻣرار‬
‫اﻟﻧﺟﺎح ﯾﺗطﻠب اﻹدراك اﻟﺗﺎم ﻷﺛر اﻟﺳﯾﺎﺳﺎت اﻟﻣﺗﺑﻌﺔ و اﻟﻘ درة ﻋﻠ ﻲ ﻗﯾ ﺎس اﻟﻧﺗ ﺎﺋﺞ ﻣ ن أﺟ ل اﻟﻌﻣ ل‬
‫ﻋﻠﻲ اﻟﺗطوﯾر اﻟﻣﺳﺗﻣر ﻟﺗﻠك اﻟﺳﯾﺎﺳﺎت ﺑﻣ ﺎ ﯾﺗﻔ ق ﻣ ﻊ ﻣﺗطﻠﺑ ﺎت اﻟﻌﻣ ل ‪ ،‬و ﻻﺷ ك أن ﻣ ﺎ ﻋرﺿ ﻧﺎه‬
‫ﯾﺳﺎھم ﻓﻲ وﺿﻌﻧﺎ – ﺑﺈذن ﷲ – ﻋﻠﻲ اﻟطرﯾق اﻟﺻﺣﯾﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺳﺑﯾل ﺗﺣﻘﯾق أھداﻓﻧﺎ‪.‬‬
 Natural Gas
Processing Technology
 Course Content

 Natural gas Origin, Accumulation and production

 Oil and Gas Separation

 Condensate Stabilization

 Gas Dehydration

 Sweetening processes

 Refrigeration

 LPG/LNG
 Natural gas
Origin, Accumulation and production

December 2007
Natural gas
Origin, Accumulation and production

Contents:
Introduction .................................................................................................. 3
Petroleum Accumulations .............................................................................. 4
Petroleum Reservoirs ..................................................................................... 7
Preparing for Drill ....................................................................................... 12
Oil and gas Rig Systems .............................................................................. 13

2
1. Introduction

 We know that both Oil and Natural Gas are called Hydrocarbons because
they are made up of the two elements Hydrogen (H) and Carbon (C).
 Crude oil and natural gas are referred to collectively as petroleum.
 Crude oil is the heavier constituents of hydrocarbons that naturally occur in
liquid form.
 Natural gas refers to the lighter constituents of petroleum that naturally occur
in gaseous form.
 Thus, in the main, the geologic features that apply to the origin, migration,
and accumulation of petroleum will apply equally well to crude oil and natural
gas.
 This entails consideration of the natural features of the earth where
commercial quantities of petroleum have been discovered all over the world.
2. Origin and Accumulation of Oil and Gas
 To understand how oil and gas originated, it is necessary to learn something
about the basic characteristics of rocks. Most oil is found in rocks.
 Natural gas is also found in rocks and is often associated with oil.
 Both oil and natural gas are called hydrocarbons because they are made of
up the two elements. Hydrogen (H) and Carbon (C).
 Certain rocks contain many tiny openings called pores or spaces. If a rock
has pores, then it is porous and has porosity. Some rocks have high
porosity, others have low porosity or even no porosity.
 Oil and gas are found in these pores. Another desirable, feature of oil and
gas bearing rocks is permeability.
 Rock is permeable, or has permeability. This is where the pores of the rock
are connected. Permeability provides a way for any oil and gas in the rock to
move or flow from pore to pore. Rocks have high permeability and other
have low permeability.

3
 Figure 1: Porous rock containing oil
3. Petroleum Accumulations
 For petroleum to accumulate there must be:
 A source of oil and gas.
 A porous bed must exist which is permeable enough top permit the oil
and gas to flow through it- the reservoir rock.
 A trap, which is a barrier to fluid flow so that accumulation can occur
against it.
 Much knowledge has been obtained from experience and observations, but
certain generalisations can be made.
 Petroleum originates from organic matter.
 To become commercial, the hydrocarbons must be concentrated.
 Petroleum reservoirs are mostly in sedimentary rocks.
How Oil and Gas formed :

 There are 3 stages to the formation of Oil and Gas:

 Generation
 Migration
 Accumulation
 In Generation the debris (sand, and dead vegetation and animals) falls to
the bottom of the sea and builds up a level over millions of years.

4
 In Migration the layers of sand and dead vegetation and animals change to
a substance called kerogen, which is the start of Oil and Gas. More layers
mean more heat and temperature, which changes the kerogen to Oil and
Gas.
 In Accumulation the Oil and Gas is trapped inside non-permeable rock
which keeps the fluids underground, as the non-permeable rock does not let
the oil and gas to escape.

4. Migration of Petroleum

 Put very simply, in Hydrocarbon Migration, Oil and Gas moves from the very
fine grained to rough and uneven rocks like limestone and sandstone where
it settles. This is called Primary Migration.
 In Secondary Migration the Hydrocarbons move through the rock holding the
oil and gas called carrier beds and build up levels in the reservoirs or lakes.
 Several natural forces and condition that assist this migration include:
 Compaction of source beds by the weight of the overlying rocks, thus
providing a driving force tending to expel fluids through pore channels or
fractures to regions of lower pressure and normally a shallower depth;
 Gravitational separation of gas, oil, and water in porous rocks that are
usually water saturated;
 Pressure differential from any cause between two interconnected points
in a permeable medium;
 Faulting of the earth’s strata.

5
 Figure 3: Hydrocarbon Migration
How oil and Gas Obtained (Exploration)?
Geologists and geophysicists are employed to try to find the right conditions for a
gas or oil deposit. Geologists employ sophisticated technology to try to find
pockets of oil and gas below the earth’s surface. They need to have a clear
picture of what is below the Earth’s surface.
They use seismology, which is creating shock waves like tiny earthquakes that
pass through hidden rock layers, and they then interpret the waves that are
reflected back to the surface. The seismic information is changed into digital
recordings that are written on computer tapes. The information is then
transformed into a representation of
what is below the Earth’s surface.
High-speed computers are also used
to help develop three-dimensional
underground maps that help try to
locate gas deposits. They also
interpret satellite images to examine
surface rocks and terrain.
Magnetometers are used to get
measurements of magnetic
characteristics of the crust. This
device is able to measure small
changes in the Earth's magnetic field
at the surface, which indicates what
kind of rock formations might be
present underground.

6
The only way to actually find the gas deposits is to drill. Gas wells are drilled
thousands of feet into the Earth’s crust to extract natural gas from pockets in
underground rock formations or from deep, salt-water aquifers and then big
pumps bring it to the surface.

Petroleum Reservoirs
The accumulation of oil and gas into a commercial deposit required a reservoir to
contain the oil and gas along with some water and a trap, which represented a set
of geologic conditions that retained the oil and gas in the reservoir until
discovery.

Figure 4: The diagram shows a structural trap formed by the folding of the rock
layers (strata) into a large fold in the rocks called an anticline.

A petroleum reservoir is a rock capable of containing oil, gas, or water. To be

commercially productive, it must have sufficient thickness, a real extent, and
pore space to contain an appreciable volume of fluids hydrocarbons and it must
yield the contained fluids at a satisfactory rate when penetrated by a well.

Figure 5: In the diagram above, the Oil and gas are trapped in the section of
rock that has broken. This is called a fault trap.

7
Porosity

 Sandstone and carbonates are the most common reservoir rocks. In order to
contain fluids. The rocks must have porosity. Porosity is having many holes
and able to hold fluid in the holes.
 The porosity may be classified as
 Primary, which represents the voids resulting from original deposition
such as intergranular porosity of sandstone.
 Secondary, which resulted from later physical or chemical change such
as dolomitization, solution channels, or fracturing.
 Porosity is expressed as the ratio of void space to the bulk volume of the
rock, usually expressed in percentage. Dependent upon the method of
determination, porosity may represent either total or effective porosity.
 In many porous rocks, there are a certain number of blind or unconnected
pores. Effective porosity refers to only those pores that are connected so as
permit fluid passage.

Figure 6: Major types of reservoir porosity

 Porosity in reservoir rocks is normally between 10% and 20%, but some
excellent reservoirs may have porosity of 30% or more. Accumulations in
reservoirs with less than about 5% porosity are usually not commercial.
 Porosity can be divided into several types, summarised in Figure 7.
Sandstone usually has primary porosity, which decreases with depth of
burial as the grains are compacted and inter-granular cementation develops.
 However, leaching of carbonate cements and unstable minerals in
sandstone can cause good secondary porosity even at depth where they
would normally be tight.

8
Permeability
 Permeability is a quantitative measure of the ease with which a porous rock
will permit passage of fluids through it under the pressure gradient.
Permeable means having holes and being able to leak.
 Link porosity, it is dependent upon rock grain shape, angularity, and size
distribution. In addition, it is very strongly dependent on the size of the
grains.
 The smaller the grains, the larger will be the surface area exposed the
following fluid.
 The additional drag or frictional resistance of the larger surface area lowers
the flow rate at a given pressure differential, and thus the smaller grain size
will result in a lower permeability.

Figure 7: Porosity Types.

 The coarse-grained, well-sorted rock has good permeability as it holds a lot
of oil. The fine grained and poorly sorted rock has poor permeability, as it
does not hold a lot of oil.

Petroleum Traps

 A trap is a set of geologic rocks that has stopped the migration of oil and gas
and caused oil and gas to be retained in a porous reservoir. The traps are
like a box or underground prison, which keeps the oil and gas and water
inside the porous rocks.
 These can be a dome or large bubble of salt, which was once liquid but
boiled up and cooled in the porous rocks. This is called a Salt Dome.

9
 Figure 8: Salt Dome
 The other form of trap is called a Stratigraphic Trap in which a layer of
rock changes type from Non-Porous to Porous and back to Non-Porous
inside one rock layer.

Figure 9: A Stratigraphic Trap

 A simple form of trap is illustrated in Figure (4) which shows a vertical cross
section of a porous and permeable reservoir rock (such as a sandstone) that
is overlain by a dense and impermeable bed (such as shale).
 It can be pictured that the oil and gas originated at a point located down-dip
to the right or left of the fold. As gas and oil moved upward through pore
passage of the water-filled reservoir rock, they encountered the sealing bed
of shale or similar rock overlying the reservoir rock and continued to move
upward and laterally below the sealing surface until stopped by the attic of
the fold.

10
 Figure 10: Oil Reservoir Layers
 The gas, being lightest of the three fluids, would accumulate at the crest;
and the oil, being next in density, would form a layer below the gas and
above the water.
 Actually, the accumulated oil and gas would not displace all of the water
originally contained in the pores of the reservoir rock, and this would
constitute the interstitial or connate water content of the reservoir.
 This nonreplaced water is of particular significance in making volumetric
estimates of oil and gas reserves.
 Normally, for an intergranular type of reservoir, the interstitial water content
will be in the range of 20 to 50 percent of pore space and, in some cases,
either above or below this range.
 The connate water content is greatly influenced by the surface character of
the sand grains, by the level of 100 percent water. In general, oil-wet sand
has a much lower connate-water saturation than water-wet sands. Also,
sands of low permeability show higher connate-water saturation.
Furthermore, in a reservoir with very small pores, there is a transition zone
at the bottom where over a vertical interval the connate water gradually
increases to 100 percent.
 This happening explains why that on the edge of many reservoirs significant
percentages of oil saturation may be observed from cuttings and cores, yet
he production will be all water.
 Transition zones are more extensive and of more significance in oil
reservoirs than in non-associated gas reservoirs.

11
Associated and Non-associated Gas
 Natural gas produced from a reservoir that contains oil is called associated
gas. The term applies to both free gas from a gas cap and to solution gas. In
general, the term casing-head gas is synonymous with associated gas since
it commonly refers to gas production from oil wells.
 Gas produced from a reservoir that does not contain oil is referred to as non-
associated gas on the basis that it is not directly associated with oil
underground.
 In certain fields, these terms assume particular importance because
regulatory and control measured applied to associated gas are directed
toward a consideration of the effect of gas production upon oil production
rates and ultimate recovery, whereas the production of non-associated gas
does not involve such consideration.

Preparing for Drill :

Once the site has been selected, it must be surveyed to determine its boundaries,
and environmental impact studies may be done. Lease agreements, titles and
right-of way accesses for the land must be obtained and evaluated legally. For
off-shore sites, legal jurisdiction must be determined.
Once the legal issues have been settled, the crew goes about preparing the land:
The land is cleared and leveled, and access roads may be built.
Because water is used in drilling, there must be a source of water nearby. If there
is no natural source, they drill water well.
They dig a reserve pit, which is used to dispose of rock cuttings and drilling mud
during the drilling process, and line it with plastic to protect the environment. If
the site is an ecologically sensitive area, such as a marsh or wilderness, then the
cuttings and mud must be disposed offsite -- trucked away instead of placed in a
pit.
Once the land has been prepared, several holes must be dug to make way for the
rig and the main hole. A rectangular pit, called a cellar, is dug around the
location of the actual drilling hole. The cellar provides a work space around the
hole, for the workers and drilling accessories. The crew then begins drilling the
main hole, often with a small drill truck rather than the main rig. The first part of
the hole is larger and shallower than the main portion, and is lined with a large-
diameter conductor pipe. Additional holes are dug off to the side to temporarily
store equipment -- when these holes are finished, the rig equipment can be
brought in and set up.
Depending upon the remoteness of the drill site and its access, equipment may be
transported to the site by truck, helicopter or barge. Some rigs are built on ships
or barges for work on inland water where there is no foundation to support a rig.

12
Oil and gas Rig Systems:
Once the equipment is at the site, the
rig is set up. Here are the major
systems of a land oil rig:
Power system Anatomy of an oil rig
Large diesel engines - burn diesel-fuel
oil to provide the main source of power
Electrical generators
Powered by the diesel engines to
provide electrical power
Mechanical system –
Driven by electric motors
Hoisting system
Used for lifting heavy loads; consists
of a mechanical winch (drawworks)
with a large steel cable spool, a block-
and-tackle pulley and a receiving
storage reel for the cable
Turntable - part of the drilling
apparatus

Rotating equipment
Used for rotary drilling
 swivel - large handle that holds the weight of
the drill string; allows the string to rotate and
makes a pressure-tight seal on the hole
 Kelly - four- or six-sided pipe that transfers
rotary motion to the turntable and drill string
 turntable or rotary table - drives the rotating
motion using power from electric motors
 drill string - consists of drill pipe (connected
sections of about 30 ft / 10 m) and drill collars
(larger diameter, heavier pipe that fits around
the drill pipe and places weight on the drill bit)
 drill bit(s) - end of the drill that actually cuts
up the rock; comes in many shapes and
materials (tungsten carbide steel, diamond) that Mud circulation in the hole
are specialized for various drilling tasks and
rock formations
 Casing - large-diameter concrete pipe that lines
the drill hole, prevents the hole from collapsing,
and allows drilling mud to circulate
 Circulation system - pumps drilling mud (mixture of water, clay, weighting
material and chemicals, used to lift rock cuttings from the drill bit to the surface)
under pressure through the kelly, rotary table, drill pipes and drill collars
 pump - sucks mud from the mud pits and pumps it to the drilling apparatus

13
 pipes and hoses - connects pump to drilling apparatus
 mud-return line - returns mud from hole
 shale shaker - shaker/sieve that separates rock cuttings from the mud
 reserve pit - collects rock cuttings separated from the mud
 mud pits - where drilling mud is mixed and recycled
 Derrick - support structure that holds the drilling apparatus; tall enough to allow
new sections of drill pipe to be added to the drilling apparatus as drilling
progresses

Drill-mud circulation system

14
Well Completion
After drilling and casing the well, it must be 'completed'. Completion is the process
in which the well is enabled to produce oil or gas.
In a cased-hole completion, small holes called perforations are made in the portion
of the casing which passed through the production zone, to provide a path for the oil
to flow from the surrounding rock into the production tubing. In open hole
completion, often 'sand
screens' or a 'gravel pack' is
installed in the last drilled,
uncased reservoir section.
These maintain structural
integrity of the well bore in
the absence of casing, while
still allowing flow from the
reservoir into the wellbore.
Screens also control the
migration of formation
sands into production
tubulars and surface
equipment, which can cause
washouts and other
problems, particularly from unconsolidated sand
formations in offshore fields.
After a flow path is made, acids and fracturing
fluids are pumped into the well to fracture, clean,
or otherwise prepare and stimulate the reservoir
rock to optimally produce hydrocarbons into the
wellbore.
In many wells, the natural pressure of the
subsurface reservoir is high enough for the oil or
gas to flow to the surface. However, this is not
always the case, especially in depleted fields
where the pressures have been lowered by other
producing wells, or in low permeability oil
reservoirs. Installing a smaller diameter tubing
may be enough to help the production, but
artificial lift methods may also be needed.

15
Oil and Gas

Separation

1
Oil and Gas Separation:

Contents:
Introduction .......................................................................................................... 3
Oilfield terminology ............................................................................................. 5
Well fluid and their characteristics ..................................................................... 8
Primary functions of oil and gas separators ...................................................... 10
Secondary functions of oil and gas separators ................................................. 13
Methods used to remove oil from gas in separators ......................................... 15
Methods used to remove gas from oil in separators.......................................... 25
Estimated quality of separated fluids ................................................................. 29
Physical Description .......................................................................................... 30
Common components ........................................................................................ 32
Summary for the function of separated fluid .................................................... 37

2
INTRODUCTION
Phase separation of the production stream is usually performed as soon as is
conveniently possible because:
1. It is technically easier and less costly to process the gas, crude oil, and
produced water phases separately.
2. The produced water is often corrosive. Therefore, removing the water often
allows less costly materials of construction to be used downstream and
reduces corrosion damage.
3. Less energy is required to move the separated single phases; so phase
separation permits the back pressure to be lowered and this, in turn,
increases well production.
The current emphasis is on two-phase (gas/liquid) and three-phase (gas/crude/free-
water) separation.
First, the plentiful and somewhat confusing terminology used to describe separators
is reviewed. Then vertical and horizontal separators and, far more briefly, double-
barreled horizontal, spherical, filter coalescer, and sub-sea separators are described
with special attention given to the features common to all separators. Next, the
advantages, disadvantages, and applications of vertical and horizontal separators are
compared. Then phase separation theories including retention time, droplet settling,
and hydraulics (residence time distributions) are summarized. Design methods for
both horizontal and vertical separators are reviewed next. Emphasis is on overall
considerations, data required, sizing equations, separator geometry, mist extractors,
and concerns such as foaming. Recent use of computational fluid dynamics is also
summarized. Detailed design examples for vertical and horizontal separators are also
presented. Maintenance, operating problems, and troubleshooting conclude the
course. Centrifugal separators are used primarily for liquid/liquid or liquid/solid
separations; therefore, they are outside the present scope.

3
OILFIELD TERMINOLOGY
The term "oil and gas separator" in oilfield terminology designates a pressure vessel
used for separating well fluids produced from oil and gas wells into gaseous and
liquid components. A separating vessel may be referred to in the following ways:
1. Separator.
2 Stage separator.
3. Knockout vessel, knockout drum, knockout trap, water knockout, or liquid
knockout.
4. Flash drum, flash vessel, or flash trap.
5. Expansion separator or expansion vessel.
6. Scrubber (gas scrubber).
7. Filter (gas filter), filter separator.
8. Skimmer, liquid hydrocarbon skimmer.
9. Slug catcher.

Separator and stage separator :

The terms separator and stage separator refer to a conventional oil and gas separator.
These separating vessels are normally used on a producing lease or platform near the
wellhead, manifold, or tank battery to separate fluids produced from oil and gas
wells into oil and gas or liquid and gas (Figure-1). They must be capable of handling
"slugs" or "heads" of well fluids. Therefore, they are usually sized to handle the
highest instantaneous rates of flow.

Knockout vessel, drum, or trap

May be used to remove only water from the well fluid or to remove all liquid, oil
plus water, from the gas. In the case of a water knockout for use near the wellhead,
the gas and liquid petroleum are usually discharged together, and the free water is
separated and discharged from the bottom of the vessel. A liquid knockout is used to

4
remove all liquid, oil plus water, from the gas. The water and liquid hydrocarbons
are discharged together from the bottom of the vessel, and the gas is discharged
from the top.

Flash drum or vessel

Normally refers to a conventional oil and gas separator operated at low pressure,
with the liquid from a higher-pressure separator being "flashed" into it. This flash
drum is quite often the second or third stage of separation, with the liquid being
discharged from the flash drum to storage.

Expansion vessel
It is the first-stage separator vessel on a low-temperature or cold-separation unit
(LTS). This vessel may be equipped with a heating coil to melt hydrates, or a
hydrate-preventive liquid (such as glycol) may be injected into the well fluid just
before expansion into this vessel.

Gas scrubber
It may be similar to an oil and gas separator. Usually it handles fluid that contains
less liquid than that produced from oil and gas wells. Gas scrubbers are normally
used in gas gathering, sales, and distribution lines where they are not required to
handle slugs or heads of liquid, as is often the case with oil and gas separators. A
"scrubber" can refer to a vessel used upstream from any gas-processing vessel or
unit (scrubbers are often used ahead of compressors, glycol and amine units), and
they are often applied downstream of field separators to remove entrained and/or
condensed liquids to protect the downstream vessel or unit.

5
Filter (gas filter or filter/separator), dust Scrubber, or
Coalescer.
These separators are designed to remove small quantities of mists, oil fogs, rust,
scales, and dust from gases. Typical applications are upstream of compressors,
dehydration units, amine units, custody transfer and town-border stations. Solids are
trapped by the filter fibers while liquid droplets are coalesced into large drops that
are then separated by gravity. These filter separators are used for final "polishing"
and are often preceded or protected, by a conventional scrubber or separator.

Skimmer, liquid hydrocarbon skimmer

Normally refers to a conventional oil and gas separator operated at low pressure to
separate a liquid from another liquid.

Slug catcher,
A particular separator design able to absorb large volumes at irregular intervals.
Usually found on gas gathering system or two-phase pipeline systems. A slug
catcher may be a single large vessel or a manifolded system of pipes.

All of the previous separators use gravity as the separating force. External force
fields (electrostatic and centrifugal) can and have been used. However, electrostatic
fields are used primarily to break water-in-crude emulsions. Centrifugal force (i.e., a
hydrocyclone) is most useful for separating primary oil-in-water dispersions. Skid-
mounted rotating thermal separators have also been used to recover natural gas
liquids from associated gas.

6
Figure- 1 Typical surface equipment for handling oil and gas separators
and other related equipment

7
WELL FLUIDS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

Some of the physical characteristics of well fluids handled by oil and gas separators
are briefly outlined in this section.

Crude Oil.
Crude oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons produced in liquid form. The API
gravity of crude oil can range from 6 to 50oAPI and viscosity from 5.0 to 90,000 cP
at average operating conditions. Color varies through shades of green, yellow,
brown, and black.

Condensate.
This is a hydrocarbon that may exist in the producing formation either as a liquid or
as a condensable vapor. Liquefaction of gaseous components of the condensate
usually occurs with reduction of well-fluid temperature to surface operating
conditions. Gravities of the condensed liquids may range from 50 to 120oAPI and
viscosities from 2.0 to 6.0 cP at standard conditions. Color may be water-white, light
yellow, or light blue.

Natural Gas.
A gas may be defined as a substance that has no shape or volume of its own. It will
completely fill any container in which it is placed and will take the shape of the
container. Hydrocarbon gas associated with crude oil is referred to as natural gas and
may be found as "free" gas or as "solution" gas. Specific gravity of natural gas may
vary from 0.55 to 0.90 and viscosity from 0.011 to 0.024 cP at standard conditions.

8
 Free Gas.
Free gas is a hydrocarbon that exists in the gaseous phase at operating
pressure and temperature. Free gas may refer to any gas at any pressure that
is not in solution or mechanically held in the liquid hydrocarbon.
Solution Gas.
Solution gas is homogeneously contained in oil at a given pressure and
temperature. A reduction in pressure and/or an increase in temperature may
cause the gas to be emitted from the oil, whereupon it assumes the
characteristics of free gas.
Condensable Vapors.
These hydrocarbons exist as vapor at certain pressures and temperatures and
as liquid at other pressures and temperatures. In the vapor phase, they as-
sume the general characteristics of a gas. In the vapor phase, condensable
vapors vary in specific gravity from 0.55 to 4.91 (air = l.0), and in viscosity
from 0.006 to 0.011 cP at standard conditions.

Water.
Water produced with crude oil and natural gas may be in the form of vapor or liquid.
The liquid water may be free or emulsified. Free water reaches the surface separated
from the liquid hydrocarbon. Emulsified water is dispersed as droplets in the liquid
hydrocarbon.

Impurities and Extraneous Materials.

Produced well fluids may contain such gaseous impurities as nitrogen, carbon
dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and other gases that are not hydrocarbon in nature or
origin. Well fluids may contain liquid or semi-liquid impurities, such as water and
paraffin. They may also contain solid impurities, such as drilling mud, sand, silt, and
salt.

9
PRIMARY FUNCTIONS OF OIL AND GAS SEPARATORS

Separation of oil from gas may begin as the fluid flows through the producing
formation into the well bore and may progressively increase through the tubing,
flow lines, and surface handling equipment. Under certain conditions, the fluid may
be completely separated into liquid and gas before it reaches the oil and gas
separator. In such cases, the separator vessel affords only an "enlargement" to permit
gas to ascend to one outlet and liquid to descend to another.

Removal of Oil from Gas

Difference in density of the liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons may accomplish
acceptable separation in an oil and gas separator. However, in some instances, it is
necessary to use mechanical devices commonly referred to as "mist extractors" to
remove liquid mist from the gas before it is discharged from the separator. Also, it
may be desirable or necessary to use some means to remove non-solution gas from
the oil before the oil is discharged from the separator.

Removal of Gas from Oil

The physical and chemical characteristics of the oil and its conditions of pressure
and temperature determine the amount of gas it will contain in solution. The rate at
which the gas is liberated from a given oil is a function of change in pressure and
temperature. The volume of gas that an oil and gas separator will remove from crude
oil is dependent on:
(1) physical and chemical characteristics of the crude,
(2) operating pressure,
(3) operating temperature,
(4) rate of throughput,
(5) size and configuration of the separator, and
(6) other factors.

10
Rate of throughput and liquid depth in the separator determine the "retention'' or
"settling" time of the oil. Retention time of 1 to 3 minutes is generally adequate to
obtain satisfactory separation of crude oil and gas unless foaming oil is being
handled. When foaming oil is separated, retention time should be increased to 5 to
20 minutes, dependent on the stability of the foam and on the design of the
separator. Advancements in field processing systems and production procedures -
such as automatic custody transfer - emphasize the need for complete removal of
non-solution gas from the oil. Agitation, heat, special baffling, coalescing packs, and
filtering materials can assist in the removal of non-solution gas that otherwise may
be retained in the oil because of the viscosity and surface tension of the oil.

Separation of Water from Oil

In some instances it is preferable to separate and to remove water from the well fluid
before it flows through pressure reductions, such as those caused by chokes and
valves. Such water removal may prevent difficulties that could be caused
downstream by the water - such as corrosion, hydrate formation, and the formation
of tight emulsion that may be difficult to resolve into oil and water.
The water can be separated from the oil in a three-phase separator by use of
chemicals and gravity separation. If the three-phase separator is not large enough to
separate the water adequately, it can be separated in a free-water knockout vessel
installed upstream or downstream of the separators. If the water is emulsified, it may
be necessary to use an emulsion treater to remove it. Figures-2, 3 and 4 are
illustrations for three-phase separators.

11
SECONDARY FUNCTIONS OF OIL AND GAS SEPARATORS

Maintain Optimum Pressure on Separator

For an oil and gas separator to accomplish its primary functions, pressure must be
maintained in the separator so that the liquid and gas can be discharged into their
respective processing or gathering systems. Pressure is maintained on the separator
by use of a gas backpressure valve on each separator or with one master
backpressure valve that controls the pressure on a battery of two or more separators
(Figures-5 and 6).

Fig-5 : Low pressure – gas backpressure valve. Fig-6 : High- pressure – gas backpressure
valve.
The optimum pressure to maintain on a separator is the pressure that will result in
the highest economic yield from the sale of the liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons.
This optimum pressure can be calculated theoretically or determined by field tests.

Maintain Liquid Seal in Separator

To maintain pressure on a separator, a liquid seal must be effected in the lower
portion of the vessel. This liquid seal prevents loss of gas with the oil and requires
the use of a liquid-level controller and a valve. The oil discharge control valve can
be actuated by a float-operated pilot, by a floatless liquid-level controller, or by a
torque tube-type (displacement) liquid-level controller (Figures-7, 8, 9 and 10).
12
Fig-7 : torque-tube (displacement)-type liquid-level controller . Fig-8 : Diaphragm-motor-type oil-discharge control valve

Fig-9 : Floatless liquid-level controller and Fig-10 : level type valve for controlling oil
diaphragm-motor pil-control valve on discharge from oil and gas separators .
high-pressure oil and gas separator . Valve is float operated .

13
 METHODS USED TO REMOVE Liquid FROM GAS
IN SEPARATORS

Liquid mist can be effectively removed from the gas stream in an oil and gas
separator by a well-designed mist extractor. Condensable vapors in the gas cannot
be removed by mist extractors. Condensation of these vapors, caused by reduction
of temperature, may occur after the gas has been discharged from the separator.
Thus, existence of liquid in the effluent gas from an oil and gas separator in many
instances may not necessarily reflect the efficiency of the separator. Because
condensable vapors may have the characteristics of natural gas at separator
temperature and pressure, condensation of these vapors may occur immediately after
being discharged from the separator.
Density difference of liquid and gas may accomplish separation of liquid droplets
from a gas stream where the velocity of the stream is slow enough and sufficient
time is allowed to accomplish separation. Limiting the gas velocity in a separator
may obtain satisfactory separation without a mist extractor. However, mist
extractors are generally installed in conventional oil and gas separators to assist in
separation and to minimize the amount of liquid (mist) carried out with the gas.
The methods used to remove oil from gas in oil and gas separators are density
difference (gravity separation), impingement, change of flow direction, change of
flow velocity, centrifugal force, coalescence, and filtering.

Density Difference (Gravity Separation)

Natural gas is lighter than liquid hydrocarbon. Minute particles of liquid
hydrocarbon that are temporarily suspended in a stream of natural gas will, by
density difference or force of gravity, settle out of the stream of gas if the velocity of
the gas is sufficiently slow. The larger droplets of hydrocarbon will quick]y settle
out of the gas, but the smaller ones will take longer.

14
At standard conditions of pressure and temperature, the droplets of liquid
hydrocarbon may have a density 400 to 1,600 times that of natural gas. However, as
the operating pressure and temperature increase, the difference in density decreases.
At an operating pressure of 800 psig, the liquid hydrocarbon may be only 6 to 10
times as dense as the gas. Thus, operating pressure materially affects the size of the
separator and the size and type of mist extractor required to separate adequately the
liquid and gas.
The fact that the liquid droplets may have a density 6 to 10 times that of the gas may
indicate that droplets of liquid would quickly settle out of and separate from the gas.
However, this may not occur because the particles of liquid may be so small that
they tend to “float" in the gas and may not settle out of the gas stream in the short
period of time the gas is in the oil and gas separator.
Particles of liquid hydrocarbon with diameters of 100 µm and larger will generally
settle out of the gas in most average-sized separators. However, mist extractors
usually are needed to remove smaller particles from the gas.
As the operating pressure on a separator increases, the density difference between
the liquid and gas decreases. For this reason, it is desirable to operate oil and gas
separators at
as low a pressure as is consistent with other process variables, conditions, and
requirements.

Impingement
If a flowing stream of gas containing liquid mist is impinged against a surface, the
liquid mist may adhere to and coalesce on the surface. After the mist coalesces into
larger droplets, the droplets will gravitate to the liquid section of the vessel. If the
liquid content of the gas is high, or if the mist particles are extremely fine, several
successive impingement surfaces may be required to effect satisfactory removal of
the mist.

15
Change of Flow Direction
When the direction of flow of a gas stream containing liquid mist is changed
abruptly, inertia causes the liquid to continue in the original direction of flow.
Separation of liquid mist from the gas thus can be effected because the gas will more
readily assume the change of flow direction and will flow away from the liquid mist
particles. The liquid thus removed may coalesce on a surface or fall to the liquid
section below.

Change of Flow Velocity

Separation of liquid and gas can be effected with either a sudden increase or
decrease in gas velocity. Both conditions use the difference in inertia of gas and
liquid. With a decrease in velocity, the higher inertia of the liquid mist carries it
forward and away from the gas. The liquid may then coalesce on some surface and
gravitate to the liquid section of
the separator. With an increase in gas velocity, the higher inertia of the liquid causes
the gas to move away from the liquid, and the liquid may fall to the liquid section of
the vessel.

Centrifugal Force
If a gas stream carrying liquid mist flows in a circular motion at sufficiently high
velocity, centrifugal force throws the liquid mist outward against the walls of the
container. Here the liquid coalesces into progressively larger droplets and finally
gravitates to the liquid section below. Centrifugal force is one of the most effective
methods of separating liquid mist from gas. Efficiency of this type of mist extractor
increases as the velocity of the gas stream increases. Thus for a given rate of
throughput, a smaller centrifugal separator will suffice.
Separators and scrubbers using centrifugal force for the removal of liquid mist from
the gas can handle large volumes of gas.

16
Small-diameter oil and gas separators (below 3 or 4 ft in diameter) using centrifugal
force are generally not used as the primary separator on producing leases. This is be-
cause of the possibility that the small vessels may be inundated with a "slug" or
"head" of liquid that may allow excessive liquid to exit with the gas and excessive
gas to exit with the liquid. Therefore, primary separators on oil and gas streams are
usually "conventional" units (other than centrifugal) to prevent the possibility of
"overloading" the separators with liquid.

Coalescence
Coalescing packs afford an effective means of separating and removing liquid mist
from a stream of natural gas. One of their most appropriate uses is the removal of
liquid mist from gas in transmission and distribution systems where the amount of
liquid in the gas is low. Coalescing packs can be made of Berl saddles, Raschig
rings, knitted wire mesh, and other such tower-packing materials. The packs use a
combination of impingement, change of direction, change of velocity, and
coalescence to separate and to remove liquid mist from gas. These packs provide a
large surface area for collection and coalescence of the liquid mist .

A word of caution is appropriate concerning the use of coalescing packs in oil and
gas separators for general field use. Coalescing packs may be made of frangible ma-
terial that can be damaged during transit or installation if they are installed in the
separator in the manufacturing shop before shipment to point of use. Knitted wire
mesh may foul or plug from paraffin deposition and other foreign material and thus
make a separator inoperative after a short period of service. Also, excessive pressure
drop across the pack may force the pack out of place and allow channeling around or
through the pack.
Even though coalescing packs are very effective in the removal of liquid mist from
gas, it is usually preferred to use vane-type mist extractors for most oil and gas sepa-
rators because they may be used under widely varying field conditions. Because of
17
the "fouling" tendency of coalescing-type mist extractors, their use may appropri-
ately be restricted to gas scrubbers used in gas gathering, transmission, and
distribution systems.

Filtering
Porous filters are effective in the removal of liquid mist from gas in certain
applications. In effect, the porous material strains or filters the liquid mist from the
gas. The porous material may use the principles of impingement, change of flow
direction, and change of velocity to assist in separation of liquid mist from gas.
Pressure drop through mist extractors used in separators should be as low as
practical while maximum separating efficiency is still maintained. Generally, filter-
type mist extractors will have the highest pressure drop per unit volume of capacity
and the coalescing type will have the lowest. Pressure drop through the other types
of mist extractors will usually range between these two extremes.

See all the following Figures-11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 and 20

Fig-9 : Two basic types of inlet diverters .

18
 Fig 12 : example of typical impingement separator

Fig-13: Example of centrifugal and combination centrifugal –impingement separators

19
Fig-14 : dual-tube horizontal two-phase oil and gas separator with centrifugal
primary and secondary separating element

Fig-16 : 2 phase vertical separator

20
Fig-16 : 2 phase vertical separator

21
22
.

23
METHODS USED TO REMOVE GAS FROM OIL
IN SEPARATORS

Because of higher prices for natural gas, the widespread reliance on metering of
liquid hydrocarbons, and other reasons, it is important to remove all non-solution
gas from crude oil during field processing.
Methods used to remove gas from crude oil in oil and gas separators are settling,
agitation, baffling, heat, chemicals, and centrifugal force.

Settling
Gas contained in crude oil that is not in solution in the oil will usually separate from
the oil if allowed to settle a sufficient length of time. An increase in retention time
for a given liquid throughput requires an increase in the size of the vessel and/or an
increase in the liquid depth in the separator. Increasing the depth of oil in the separa-
tor may not result in increased emission of non-solution gas from the oil because
"stacking up" of the oil may prevent the gas from emerging. Optimum removal of
gas from the oil is usually obtained when the body of oil in the separator is thin -
i.e., when the ratio of surface area to retained oil volume is high.

Agitation
Moderate, controlled agitation is helpful in removing non-solution gas that may be
mechanically locked in the oil by surface tension and oil viscosity. Agitation usually
will cause the gas bubbles to coalesce and to separate from the oil in less time than
would be required if agitation were not used. Agitation can be obtained by properly
designed and placed baffling.

24
Baffling
An inlet degassing element can be installed on the inlet of the separator to assist in
introducing the well fluid into the separator with minimum turbulence and in
removing gas from the oil (Figure-21). This element disperses the oil in such a
manner that gas can more readily escape from the oil. This type of element
eliminates high-velocity impingement of fluid against the opposite wall of the
separator. The baffles placed in the separator between the inlet and the oil level
spread the oil into thin layers as it flows downward from the inlet to the oil section.
The oil is rolled over and over as it cascades down the baffles, and the combination
of spreading and rolling is effective in releasing entrained gas bubbles. This type of
baffling is effective in handling foaming oil.
Special perforated baffles or tower packing can be used to remove non-solution gas
from crude oil. Such baffling or packing provides slight agitation, which allows the
gas bubbles to break out of the oil as it flows through the baffles or packing.

25
Heat
Heat reduces surface tension and viscosity of the oil and thus assists in releasing gas that is
hydraulically retained in the oil. The most effective method of heating crude oil is to pass it
through a heated-water bath. A spreader plate that disperses the oil into small streams or
rivulets increases the effectiveness of the heated-water bath. Upward flow of the oil
through the water bath affords slight agitation, which is helpful in coalescing and
separating entrained gas from the oil. A heated-water bath is probably the most
effective method of removing foam bubbles from foaming crude oil. A heated-water
bath is not practical in most oil and gas separators, but heat can be added to the oil
by direct or indirect fired heaters and/or heat exchangers, or heated free-water
knockouts or emulsion treaters can be used to obtain a heated-water bath.

Chemicals
Chemicals that reduce the surface tension of crude oil will assist in freeing non-
solution gas from the oil. Such chemicals will appreciably reduce the foaming
tendency of the oil and thereby increase the capacity of a separator when foaming oil
is handled. In one particular case, the capacity of an oil and gas separator was
increased from 3,800 to 9,600 B/D when silicone was injected into and mixed with
the oil upstream of the separator with no other change made in the system. Silicone
is effective in reducing the foaming tendency of crude oil when it is mixed with the
oil in such small quantities as parts per million or parts per billion.

Centrifugal Force
Centrifugal force is effective in separating gas from oil. The heavier oil is thrown
outward against the wall of the vortex retainer while the gas occupies the inner
portion of the vortex. A properly shaped and sized vortex will allow the gas to
ascend while the liquid flows downward to the bottom of the unit (Figure-20,
22 and 23).

26
27
Estimated Quality of Separated Fluids

Crude Oil
The free (non-solution) gas content of separated crude oil will vary widely
depending on many factors, such as size and configuration of the separator, design
and arrangement of the separator internals, operating pressure and temperature, rate
of flow, GOR, depth of liquid in the separator, viscosity, and surface tension of the
oil.
The factors listed previously, in addition to the agitation resulting from pressure
reduction and flow, well-fluid water content, impurities, and degree of
emulsification of the oil and water will determine the water content of the separated
crude oil.
When special chemicals, equipment, procedures, and techniques have been used or
applied they improve the quality of the separated crude oil.

Separated Water
It is probable that the effluent water from a three-phase separator will contain oil.
The quality of the separated water discharged from a three-phase separator depends
on the same factors as previously listed for controlling the water content of the
effluent oil. When special chemicals and separating techniques have been used or
applied they improve the quality of the effluent water.
If the difference in the specific gravities of the oil and water at separator operating
conditions is less than 0.20, special attention is required because the small difference
in the densities of the oil and water will result in limited and incomplete separation.
Lower qualities of effluent oil and water may result in such cases.

28
Gas
The oil (liquid hydrocarbon) content of the gas discharged from an oil and gas
separator probably will be in the range of 0.10 gal/MMscf to 1.00 gal/MMscf (0.01
to 0.13 ppmv). Currently, it is difficult to measure the amount of oil in the separated
gas under field operating conditions. With experience and patience, it can be done
with a laser liquid particle spectrometer. The previously mentioned range of oil
content in the separated gas has been accepted in recent years as an approximation
of the performance of standard commercially available oil and gas separators under
normal or average conditions equipped with suitably designed mist extractors.

Gas Quality From Scrubbers

The liquid content of gas discharged from gas scrubbers is usually less than the
liquid content of gas discharged from oil and gas separators. Gas scrubbers are
normally installed downstream of oil and gas separators or other separating
equipment. If there is a separator upstream of the scrubber, the liquid hydrocarbon
content of the scrubbed gas should be less than 0.10 gal/MMscf (less than 0.01335
ppmv).

PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION
Wellhead separators are often classified by their geometrical configuration (vertical,
horizontal, horizontal double-barrel, or spherical) and by their function (two-phase),
(vapor-liquid), or three-phase (gas-oil-water) separation. These four shapes are
illustrated in Figure-24, 25, 26 and 27, respectively.
The features common to all separators are reviewed first and then vertical,
horizontal, double-barrel horizontal, spherical, filter and subsea separators are
described briefly. Finally, two important internals (mist extractors and level
controls) are discussed.

29
30
Common Components

All separators normally have the following components or features:

Primary Separation Section. For collecting and removing the bulk of the
liquid in the inlet stream. Some form of inlet baffling is usually used to exploit the
momentum of the inlet stream either by creating centrifugal force (as in vertical
separators) or an abrupt change of direction (as in horizontal separators) thus
separating most of the incoming liquid. In horizontal units, the inlet baffle reduces
the incoming fluid velocities so that quiescent settling, or gravity, can complete the
phase separation. Many different and proprietary shapes have been tried for the inlet
baffling device, but structural channel iron is usually a very good choice.

Secondary or Gravity Settling Section. Here the gas velocity and

turbulence is reduced so that entrained liquid drops can settle out by gravity. Internal
baffling is often used to dissipate foams, further reduce turbulence, and accelerate
drop removal.

Mist Extraction or Coalescence Section. The mist extractor, which

can consist of a series of vanes, a woven wire mesh pad, or a centrifugal device,
removes small droplets (normally down to 10 micron diameter) of liquid from the
gas stream before the gas leaves the vessel. Liquid carry-over often meets a 0.1
gallon per MMscf spec.

Well-designed and operated mist extractors can be very efficient at removing liquid
mists from gas streams. In the final analysis, liquid removal is accomplished by
gravity; that is, by the large density difference between the "heavy" (40-60 lb/ft3)
liquid and the "light" (< 4 lb/ft3) gas.

31
Vane-Type extractors are shown in Figure-28(E), 29(D), 30, 31, and 32. Figure-
29(D) and 30 show Dixon plates that were an industry standard. Dixon plates are
essentially flat plates oriented parallel to the gas flow and inclined at 45 degrees to
the horizontal. They markedly reduce the level of turbulence in the gas flow because
the gas must now flow between the plates that are spaced about 1 in. apart. Dixon
plates; also reduce the vertical distance a liquid drop must fall due to gravity to be
collected.

Blade-type mist extractors, today's standard, accelerate the separation using

impingement, change in gas flow direction and velocity, and coalescence. Figures-
31 and 32 show two types of very efficient blade mist extractors; namely, chevron
blade and serpentine vane. Figure-31 also shows how drop impingement, change in
direction of gas flow and change in gas velocity are used to enhance drop removal.
In serpentine vane (Figure-32), liquid drainage occurs outside and at right angles to
the gas flow, thus minimizing liquid re-entrainment.
The plates or vanes, which are usually spaced 0.5-3 in. apart, can be made of carbon
or stainless steel. PVC, or polypropylene. Excellent removal (> 90%) of drops larger
than 10 mm is often claimed for vane extractors and entrainment losses of 0.1
gal/MMscf are often guaranteed. Vane extractors enjoy two big advantages. They
are inexpensive, and they do not plug or foul as readily with paraffin, wax, solids,
etc. Nevertheless, cleaning provisions should be made (e.g., suitably located
manholes for steam lances). Typically, pressure drops vary from 2 or 3 to 6 or 8 in.
water.

Wire-Mesh or Fibrous mist extractors (Figure-33) are used only for clean inlet
streams where plugging by solids is unlikely. Wire-mesh mist extractors are made
by knitting wire typically 0.002-0.020 in. diameter. Wire-mesh mist eliminators are
available in carbon or stainless steel, monel, nickel, aluminum, or plastic. A
common type is made from 0.011 in. wire and has a void fraction of 97.7%, a bulk

32
density of 12 lb/ft3, and a surface area of 110 ft2/ft3. In the past wire-mesh designs
consisted of a random distribution of wire; however, a structured order of wire-mesh
arrangement is now available. A 4- to 6-inch pad is often used at pressure drops of
0.1-1.0 in. water. Droplets as small as 5 μm and liquid entrainments lower than 0.1
gal/MMscf can be achieved. Wire-mesh pads capture liquid drops by three
mechanisms; inertial impaction, direct interception, and Brownian capture
(Figure-34).
Dirty liquids such as crude oil plug wire-mesh pads very readily. Therefore, wire-
mesh mist extractors are not generally used for oilfield separators except when the
vessel is too small for vane packs.

33
34
35
Liquid Accumulation Section.
This section collects the liquid(s) removed from the gas and provides sufficient
capacity to handle surges in liquid flow. Adequate retention time is necessary to
allow for removal of any gas breaking out of solution and, in three-phase separators,
for separation of free water and oil. A vortex breaker may be located over the liquid
outlet nozzle(s) to prevent gas or vapor entrainment with the bottom liquid.
Poor outlet design can result in the formation of vortexes at the outlets. This, in turn,
causes large amounts of liquid carry-over and gas slippage. Vortex formation is
often not detected, even though it causes excessive pressure drop and, of course,
poor separation. Vortex formation can be prevented by installing vortex breakers
and by maintaining adequate liquid levels upstream of the outlet. Figures-35 and 36
show types of gas and liquid vortex breakers.

Recommended minimum liquid levels are:

1. A liquid level of at least two outlet nozzle diameters for gas/liquid interfaces.
2. A liquid level of at least three times the outlet nozzle diameter for liquid/liquid
interfaces.

36
Summary for the Function of Separator Internals
Internal Device Purpose of Device or Situation
where Device should not be used

1- Mist Pad a- remove liquid mist from gas.

b- break oil-water emulsion.
c- not used where hydrate, wax, or dirt may be present.
2- Deflector a- separate liquid from gas.
Plate b- used in all services.
3- Coalescing a- remove liquid mist from gas.
Plate b- separate oil from water.
c- not used where hydrate, corrosion, wax or dirt present.
4- Straightening a- remove liquid mist from gas.
Vanes b- separate oil from water.
c- not used where hydrate, corrosion, wax or dirt present.
5- Filter a- remove solid particles from gas or liquid.
Elements b- separate oil from water.
c- remove mist from gas.
d- not used where wax or hydrate may be present.
6- Coalescing a- separate oil from water.
Materials b- not used where wax may be present.
7- Centrifugal a- separate gas from liquid.
Devices b- not used where wax or dirt may be present.
c- not used with intermittent gas flow.
8- Horizontal a- usually used in large gas-liquid vessels where waves
Baffles occur.

9- Vortex a- should be used on all liquid outlet nozzles in gas-

Breakers liquid separators.
b- are not needed if vessel is full of liquid.
10- Float a- should be used when internal level control float is
Shield used.

11- Water Jets and a- used only when solids may be present.
Sand Cones

37
 Condensate

Stabilization

1
Condensate Stabilization

Contents:
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 3
Multistage Separation............................................................................................ 4
Multiple Flashes at Constant Pressure and Increasing Temperature.................. 5
Cold Feed Distillation Tower ............................................................................... 6
Distillation Tower with Reflux ............................................................................. 7

2
Introduction :
The liquids that are separated from the gas stream in the first separator may be
flowed directly to a tank or may be "stabilized" in some fashion.
These liquids contain a large percentage of methane and ethane, which will flash
to gas in the tank.
This lowers the partial pressure of all other components in the tank and increases
their tendency to flash to vapors. The process of increasing the amount of
intermediate (C3 to C5) and heavy (C6 + ) components in the liquid phase is
called "stabilization." In a gas field this process is called condensate stabilization
and in an oil field it is called crude stabilization.
In almost all cases the molecules have a higher value as liquid than as gas. Crude
oil streams typically contain a low percentage of intermediate components. Thus,
it is not normally economically attractive to consider other alternatives to
multistage separation to stabilize the crude. In addition, the requirement to treat
the oil at high temperature is more important than stabilizing the liquid and may
require the flashing of both intermediate and heavy components to the gas stream.

Gas condensate, on the other hand, may contain a relatively high percentage of
intermediate components and can be easily separated from entrained water due to
its lower viscosity and greater density difference with water. Thus, some sort of
condensate stabilization should be considered for each gas well production
facility.

PARTIAL PRESSURES
The fraction of any one component that flashes to gas at any stage in a process is a
function of the temperature, pressure, and composition of the fluid at that stage.
For a given temperature this tendency to flash can be visualized by the partial
pressure of the component in the gas phase that is in equilibrium with the liquid.
Partial pressure is defined as:

The partial pressure at a given pressure and temperature is lower when there are
more moles of other components in the gas phase. The lower the partial pressure
the greater the tendency of the component to flash to gas. Thus, the higher the
fraction of light components in the inlet fluid to any separator, the lower the partial
pressure of intermediate components in the gas phase of the separator, and the
greater the number of intermediate component molecules that flash to gas.

3
MULTISTAGE SEPARATION
Figure 6-1 shows a multistage separation process. By removing molecules of the
light components in the first separator they are not available to flash to gas from
the liquid in the second separator, and the partial pressure of intermediate
components in the second separator is higher than it would have been if the first
separator did not exist. The second separator serves the same function of
increasing the partial pressure of the intermediate components in the third
separator and so forth.
The simplest form of condensate stabilization is to install a low-pressure separator
downstream of an initial high-pressure separator. Unless the gas well produces at
low pressure (less than 500 psi) and the gas contains very little condensate (less
than 100 bpd), the additional expenditure for this stage of separation is almost
always economical when balanced against increased liquid production. If vapor
recovery from the tank is required by environmental regulations, the flash
separator will significantly reduce the horsepower required. If vapor recovery is
not required, the gas from the flash separator may be economically feasible to be
recovered and recompressed for sales even if it is not feasible to recover stock tank
vapors.

4
MULTIPLE FLASHES AT CONSTANT PRESSURE
AND INCREASING TEMPERATURE
It is possible to stabilize a liquid at a constant pressure by successively flashing it
at increasing temperatures as shown in Figure 6-2. At each successive stage the
partial pressure of the intermediate components is higher than it could have been
at that temperature if some of the lighter components had not been removed by the
previous stage. It would be very costly to arrange a process as shown in Figure 6-
2, and this is ever done. Instead, the same effect is obtained in a tall, vertical
pressure vessel with a cold temperature at the top and a hot temperature at the
bottom. This is called a "condensate stabilizer."
Figure 6-3 shows a condensate stabilizer system. The well stream flows to a high
pressure, three-phase separator. Liquids containing a high fraction of light ends are
cooled and enter the stabilizer tower at approximately 200 psi. In the tower the
liquid falls downward in a process that results in many flashes at ever-increasing
temperatures. At the bottom of the tower, some of the liquids are cycled to a
reboiler where they receive heat to provide the necessary bottoms temperature
(200°F to 400°F). The reboiler could be either a direct-fired bath, an indirect-fired
bath, or a heat medium exchanger.

5
The liquids leaving the bottom of the tower have undergone a series of stage
flashes at ever-increasing temperatures, driving off the light components, which
exit the top of the tower. These liquids must be cooled to a sufficiently low
temperature to keep vapors from flashing to atmosphere in the storage tank.

COLD FEED DISTILLATION TOWER

Figure 6-4 shows the cold feed distillation tower of Figure 6-3. The inlet stream
enters the top of the tower. It is heated by the hot gases bubbling up through it as it
falls from tray to tray through the downcomers. A flash occurs on each tray so that
the liquid is in near-equilibrium with the gas above it at the tower pressure and the
temperature of that particular tray.
As the liquid falls, it becomes leaner and leaner in light ends, and richer and richer
in heavy ends. At the bottom of the tower some of the liquid is circulated through
a reboiler to add heat to the tower. As the gas goes up from tray to tray, more and
more of the heavy ends get stripped out of the gas at each tray and the gas
becomes richer and richer in the light ends and leaner and leaner in the heavy ends
(just the opposite of the liquid). The gas exits the top of the tower,
The lower the temperature of the inlet liquid, the lower the fraction of intermediate
components that flash to vapor on the top trays and the greater the recovery of
these components in the liquid bottoms. However, the colder the feed, the more

6
heat is required from the reboiler to remove light components from the liquid
bottoms. If too many light components remain in the liquid, the vapor pressure
limitations for the liquid may be exceeded. Light components may also encourage
flashing of intermediate components (by lowering their partial pressure) in the
storage tank.

Figure 6-4. Cold-feed distillation tower of condensate stabilization system.

There is a balance between the amount of inlet cooling and the amount of
reboiling required.

Typically, the liquid out the bottom of the tower must meet a specified vapor
pressure. The tower must be designed to maximize the molecules of intermediate
components in the liquid without exceeding the vapor pressure specification. This
is accomplished by driving the maximum number of molecules of methane and
ethane out of the liquid and keeping as much of the heavier ends as possible from
going out with the gas.

DISTILLATION TOWER WITH REFLUX

Figure 6-5 shows a stabilizer with reflux. The well fluid is heated with the bottoms
product and injected into the tower, below the top, where the temperature in the
tower is equal to the temperature of the feed. This minimizes the amount of
flashing. In the tower, the action is the same as in a cold-feed stabilizer or any

7
other distillation tower. As the liquid falls through the tower, it goes from tray to
tray, and gets increasingly richer in the heavy components and increasingly leaner
in the light components.

The stabilized liquid is cooled in the heat exchanger by the feed stream before
flowing to the stock tank.
At the top of the tower any intermediate components going out with the gas are
condensed, separated, pumped back to the tower, and sprayed down on the top
tray. This liquid is called "reflux," and the two-phase separator that separates it
from the gas is called a "reflux tank" or "reflux dram," The reflux performs the
same function as the cold feed in a coldfeed stabilizer. Cold liquids strip out the
intermediate components from the gas as the gas rises.
The heat required at the reboiler depends upon the amount of cooling done in the
condenser.
The colder the condenser, the purer the product and the larger the percentage of
the intermediate components that will be recovered in the separator and kept from
going out with the gas. The hotter the bottoms, the greater the percentage of light
components will be boiled out of the bottoms liquid and the lower the vapor
pressure of the bottoms liquid,
A condensate stabilizer with reflux will recover more intermediate components
from the gas than a cold-feed stabilizer. However, it requires more equipment to
purchase, install, and operate. This additional cost must be justified by the net
benefit of the incremental liquid recovery; less the cost of natural gas shrinkage
and loss of heating value, over that obtained from a cold-feed stabilizer.

8
 Gas
Dehydration

-1-
Gas Dehydration
Contents:
Principles of Gas Dehydration ............................................................................ 3
Water Content of Gases ........................................................................................ 4
Hydrate Formation .............................................................................................. 15
Factors Promoting Hydrate Formation .............................................................. 17
Procedures and Resources for Determining Hydrate-Formation
Temperatures of Sweet and Sour Gas Streams ............................................... 20
Temperature Control Methods and Equipment Used To Inhibit
Hydrate Formation in a Natural Gas Stream ..................................................... 22
Methanol Injection Rate Required To Inhibit Hydrate
Formation in a Natural Gas Stream.................................................................... 26
Glycol Dehydration ............................................................................................ 38
Describing the Glycol Dehydration Process ..................................................... 41
Glycol Dehydration System Components ...................................................... 43
Process/Design Variables .................................................................................. 49
Optimizing and Troubleshooting Dehydrator Operations ................................ 51
Solid Desiccant Dehydration .............................................................................. 54
Adsorption Calculations ..................................................................................... 57
Process Flow and the function of the major components of Solid
Desiccant Dehydrators ........................................................................................ 61
Function of Major Components of Solid Desiccant Dehydrators .................... 66
Instrumentation .................................................................................................... 70
Optimizing Adsorption-Type Dehydrators........................................................ 76

-2-
PRINCIPLES OF GAS DEHYDRATION
Background
Liquid water and/or water vapor are removed from natural gas to:
• Prevent formation of hydrates in transmission lines.
• Meet a water dew point requirement of a sales gas contract.
• Prevent corrosion.

Techniques for dehydrating natural gas include:

• Absorption using liquid desiccants.
• Adsorption using solid desiccants.

Through absorption, the water in a gas stream is dissolved in a relatively pure liquid
solvent stream. The reverse process, in which the water in the solvent is transferred
into the gas phase, is known as stripping. The term regeneration is also used to
describe stripping (or purification) because the solvent is usually recovered for reuse
in the absorption step.
Absorption and stripping are frequently used in gas processing and most gas
sweetening operations, as well as in glycol dehydration.

The second major process by which water vapor is removed from a gas stream is
called adsorption. Adsorption is a physical phenomenon that occurs when molecules
of a gas are brought into contact with a solid surface and some of them condense on
the surface.
Dehydration of a gas with a dry desiccant is an adsorption process in which water
molecules are preferentially held by the desiccant and removed from the stream.

Water Content of Hydrocarbon

Based on experimental data, Fig-2 shows the solubility of water in sweet
hydrocarbon liquids. In sour hydrocarbon liquids, water solubility can be
substantially higher.

-3-
Fig 2 - Solubility of Water in Liquid Hydrocarbons

-4-
WATER CONTENT OF GASES

The saturated water content of a gas depends on pressure, temperature, and

composition. The effect of composition increases with pressure and is particularly
important if the gas contains CO2 and/or H2S. For lean, sweet natural gases
containing over 70% methane and small amounts of heavy hydrocarbons,
generalized pressure-temperature correlations are suitable for many applications.
Fig.-3 is an example of one such correlation which has been widely used for many
years in the design of “sweet” natural gas dehydrators. The gas gravity correlation
should never be used to account for the presence of H2S and CO2 and may not
always be adequate for certain hydrocarbon effects, especially for the prediction of
water content at pressures above 1500 psia. The hydrate formation line is
approximate and should not be used to predict hydrate formation conditions.

The following examples are provided to illustrate the use of Fig.-3:

Example 20-1 — Determine the saturated water content for a sweet lean
hydrocarbon gas at 150°F and 1,000 psia.

From Fig. -3,

W 220 lbMMscf
For a 26 molecular weight gas,
Cg 0.98 (Fig. -3)
W 0.98220216 lbMMscf
For a gas in equilibrium with a 3% brine,
Cs 0.93 (Fig. -3)
W 0.93220205 lbMMscf

-5-
Fig- 3 : Water Content of Hydrocarbon Gas

-6-
Water Content of High CO2/H2S Gases
Both H2S and CO2 contain more water at saturation than methane or sweet
natural gas mixtures. The relative amounts vary considerably with temperature and
pressure. Fig. -4 and-5 display saturated water content of pure CO2 and H2S,
respectively, at various temperatures and pressures. Fig. -6 shows the saturated
water contents of pure CH4, CO2 and selected mixtures vs. pressure at 100°F. Fig. -7
exhibits the saturated water content of pure CH4, CO2 and a 95% CO2 – 5% CH4
mixture vs. pressure at 100°F. Several significant observations can be made from
these figures and other available data.

1. Saturated water content of pure CO2 and H2S can be significantly higher than
that of sweet natural gas, particularly at pressures above about 700 psia at
ambient temperatures.
2. Corrections for H2S and CO2 should be applied when the gas mixture
contains more than 5% H2S and/or CO2 at pressures above 700 psia. These
corrections become increasingly significant at higher concentrations and
higher pressures.
3. The addition of small amounts of CH4 or N2 to CO2 or H2S can dramatically
reduce the saturated water content compared to the pure acid gas.

FIG-4
Water content of CO2

-7-
FIG-5

-8-
FIG-6

-9-
 FIG-7

Acid gas water content is a very complex subject. The data and methods
presented here should not be used for final design. Fig. -4, -5, -6 and -7 are all
based on experimental data. A cursory study of these figures reveals the
complexities involved. An accurate determination of water content requires a careful
study of the existing literature and available experimental data. In most cases
additional experimental data is the best way to verify predicted values.

Below 40% acid gas components, one method of estimating the water content uses
Eq -1 and Fig. -3, -8, and -9.

W yHC WHC yCO2 WCO2 yH2SWH2S Eq -1

- 10 -
where:
W = Saturated water content of gas stream, lb H2O/MMSCF
Wxx = Effective saturated water content of each
component, lb H2O /MMSCF
yxx = Mole fraction of component in gas stream

Note that Fig. -8 and -9 provide values for what is termed the “effective”
water content of CO2 and H2S in natural gas mixtures for use only in Eq -1. These
are not pure CO2 and H2S water contents.

FIG-9
FIG-8

Another method for estimation of the saturated water content of acid gas
mixtures up to 6000 psia uses Fig. -10 and -11. With gases containing CO2, the CO2
must be converted to an “equivalent” H2S concentration. For purposes of this
method, it is assumed the CO2 will contribute 75% as much water to the gas
mixture, on a molar basis, as H2S.

- 11 -
FIG-10

- 12 -
 FIG-11

Example 20-2 — Determine the saturated water content of an

80% C1, 20% CO2 mixture at 160 °F and 2000 psia. The experimentally
determined water content was 172 lb/MMscf.

Method One
WHC  167 lbMMscf (Fig. -3)
WCO2 240 lbMMscf (Fig. -9)
W 0.801670.20240
 182 lbMMscf

- 13 -
Method Two
First the composition must be converted for use with Fig. -10.
yH2S pseudo  0.75yCO20.750.200.15
W 0.49 bblMMscf (Fig. -10)
Density of water  350 lbbbl
0.49350172 lbMMscf

Fig. -12 compares the two methods presented for saturated water content
determination of high CO2/H2S gas mixtures with some of the available
experimental data. The last four data points shown in Fig. -12 indicate the dangers
involved with extrapolation to higher CO2 or H2S contents. In one case, the
estimated water content agrees within 11% of the experimental value. In another
case, the experimental value is over 6 times the estimated water content.

Fig -12 Comparison of Experimental vs. Calculated Water Contents for Acid Gases

Water Content lb/MMscf

Mixture T, °F P, psig
Experimental Eq -1 Fig.-10 &-11
11% CO2/89% C1 100 2000 40.6 42 39.2
11% CO2/89% C1 160 1000 286 277 287
20% CO2/80% C1 100 2000 40.6 43 44.1
20% CO2/80% C1 160 1000 282 278 287
8% H2S/92% C1 130 1500 111 105 112
27.5% H2S/72.5% C1 160 1367 247 258 273
17% H2S/83% C1 160 1000 292 278 290
C1/CO2/H2S
100 1100 81 72 NA
30%/60%/10%
C1/CO2/H2S
100 1900 442 72 NA
9%/10%/81%
5.31% C1/94.69% CO2 77 1500 109.2 38 NA
5.31% C1/94.69% CO2 122 2000 164.6 105 NA

- 14 -
Hydrate Formation
A hydrate is a physical combination of water and other small molecules to produce a
solid that has an "ice-like" appearance, but possesses a different structure than ice.

The conditions that promote hydrate formation are:

Primary Considerations
 Gas must be at or below its water dew point with "free" water present.
 Low temperature.
 High pressure.
Secondary Considerations
 High velocities.
 Pressure pulsations.
 Introduction of a small crystal of the hydrate.
 Physical site for crystal formation such as a pipe elbow, an orifice,
thermowell, or line scale.

All of these primary and secondary considerations should be minimized when forced
to operate near a possible hydrate region.

Determining the Hydrate-Formation Temperatures of Sweet and

Sour Gas Streams

Chemical Makeup of Hydrates

Hydrates form when free water combines with the following gases:
 Butane (C4)
 Carbon dioxide (CO2)
 Ethane (C2)
 Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
 Methane (C1)
 Nitrogen (N2)
 Propane (C3)
Liquid water has a mobile lattice structure. This lattice structure has two vacant
lattice positions. When gas molecules fill these vacancies, the lattice is immobilized,
and the gas and water form a solid structure.

Composition
Hydrocarbons with five or more carbon atoms (C5+) do not fit into these lattice
vacancies, so they do not form hydrates. Pure n-butane does not form hydrates by
itself, but n-butane does exist in hydrates when other smaller hydrate-forming

- 15 -
molecules are present. Hydrates are 90 wt% water with specific gravities that range
from 0.96 to 0.98. Therefore, hydrates float on water, but sink in hydrocarbon
liquids.
Structure
Hydrates form one of two different crystalline structures: Structure I or Structure II.
Figure-13 summarizes the characteristics of hydrate crystalline structures. Figure-14
shows Structure I and Structure II lattices.

STRUCTURE I STRUCTURE II
2 small and 8 large voids 16 small and 6 large voids
Generally formed by CH4, C2H6, H2S, Generally formed by C3H8, i-C4H10,
CO2 CH2Cl2, CHCl3
5 3/4 water molecules per gas molecule 17 water molecules per gas molecule
MAX MAX

FIGURE 13: CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDRATE CRYSTAL STRUCTURES

FIGURE 14: HYDRATE STRUCTURES

- 16 -
Factors Promoting Hydrate Formation
Primary
The following are the primary conditions that promote hydrate formation:
 Free water (Gas is at or below its dew point.)
 High pressure
 Low temperature

Secondary
Secondary conditions that promote hydrate formation include the following:
 High velocities.
 Physical sites where crystals might form such as pipe elbows, orifices, or line
scale.
 Pressure pulsations.
 Small crystals of hydrates that may act as seed crystals.
 Turbulence in gas streams (promotes crystal growth by agitating supercooled
solutions).

Other Considerations
Gas composition greatly affects hydrate-formation temperatures. High H2S
concentrations promote hydrate formation. The presence of ethane and propane also
promotes the formation of hydrates. Gases with higher specific gravities form
hydrates at lower pressures.

Hydrates take several hours to form. In one test, hydrate crystals took more than 10
hours to form in gases super-cooled to 14°F.

Effects of Composition on Hydrate Formation Conditions

C1 Through C3
The smaller natural gas molecules, methane (C1) and ethane (C2), form stable
structure I hydrates. However, even small concentrations of propane (C3) or ethane
strongly promote the formation of hydrates in gas streams. In a test performed by
Deaton and Frost, a 1% solution of propane in methane at 50°F lowered the hydrate
formation pressure of methane nearly 400 psi. Deaton and Frost found ethane
produced similar results as propane.

H2S and CO2

H2S and CO2 form stable Structure-I hydrates. H2S in a gas stream strongly
promotes the formation of hydrates. Above 85°F H2S does not form hydrates. This

- 17 -
critical temperature above which hydrates do not form is higher for H2S than for
other components typically found in natural gas streams. Therefore, in gas streams
of equal densities, the gas stream with H2S forms hydrates more readily.

Using Graphical Techniques to Predict Hydrate-Formation Conditions

Generally, hydrate formation temperatures should be evaluated anytime a gas stream
containing water and hydrate-forming components is cooled below 80°F. It is not
necessary to evaluate hydrate formation temperatures below 32°F since pure water
freezes anyway.

Figure 15 plots hydrate-formation temperatures of pure light gases. Hydrate

formation will occur in the region above and to the left of the curve for a given
compound. The discontinuities in the lines correspond to changes in phase of the
nonhydrate phases.

FIGURE 15: HYDRATE FORMATION CONDITIONS OF PURE LIGHT GASES

- 18 -
Empirical hydrate formation graphs may be used to determine the hydrate formation
conditions of a gas stream. The gravity graphic method and the K-value method are
the two graphical methods used to predict hydrate formation conditions.

Computer programs are more commonly used, but the gravity graphic method is still
useful for roughly approximating hydrate formation conditions.

Gravity Graphic Method

Figure 16 plots the hydrate-formation conditions of gases based on their specific
gravity relative to air (MW = 29).

Because hydrocarbon mixtures belong to the same chemical family, the method’s
use of specific gravity makes some adjustment for the composition of the gas
stream.

FIGURE 16: Pressure-Temperature Curves for Predicting Hydrate Formation

- 19 -
The gravity graphic method roughly approximates hydrate formation conditions.
This method should not be used on gas streams with substantial concentrations of
non-hydrocarbons (N2, CO2, and especially H2S).

Procedures and Resources for Determining the Hydrate-Formation

Temperatures of Sweet and Sour Gas Streams (Gravity Graphic Method)

1. Calculate the weight of component per mole of gas mixture by multiplying the
mole fraction of each component by the molecular weight of each component.
Record the partial molecular weight of each component in the right column of the
table provided with the exercise.
2. Calculate the total molecular weight of the gas mixture. To make this calculation,
total the partial molecular weights in the right column of the table provided with
the exercise.
Record the total weight at the bottom of the right column of the table provided
with the exercise.
3. Use Eqn. 6 to calculate the specific gravity (relative to air) of the gas mixture.

sp. gr.(gas) = MWgas (Eqn. 2)

[ MWair ]
where: sp. gr.(gas) = Specific gravity of the gas stream
MWgas = Molecular weight of gas stream, lb/mole
MWair = Molecular weight of air
= 29 lb/mole
4. Use Figure 16 to determine the hydrate-formation temperature of the gas stream.

The following sample problem demonstrates the gravity graphic method

Sample Problem: Determine the Hydrate-Formation Temperatures of Sweet and

Sour Gas Streams (Gravity Graphic Method)

Calculate the approximate temperature at which the gas stream entering a chill down
train at a Gas Plant forms hydrates. Use the gravity graphic method. The left column
of Figure 17 lists the composition of the gas stream and the right column is provided
to help organize the calculations.

Given:
Pressure = 424 psig
Temperature from dehydrator = 80°F

- 20 -
 MOLE MOLECULAR lb/Mole OF
COMPONENT
FRACTION WEIGHT MIXTURE
N2 0.0066 28.0 0.185
CO2 0.0003 44.0 0.0132
H2S 0.0 34.3 0.00
C1 0.6317 16.0 10.1
C2 0.2111 30.1 6.35
C3 0.1088 44.1 4.80
i-C4 0.0078 58.1 0.453
n-C4 0.0242 58.1 1.41
i-C5 0.0031 72.2 0.224
n-C5 0.0048 72.2 0.346
n-C6 0.0014 86.2 0.121
C7+ 0.0002 100.2 0.020
TOTAL GAS STREAM 1.00 -- 24.0

FIGURE 17: TABLE FOR CALCULATING THE MOLECULAR WEIGHT OF

THE GAS STREAM

Solution:
1. The right column of Figure 17 shows the calculation of the weight of each gas
component per mole of gas stream.
2. The weight of each gas component per mole of gas stream is totaled at the bottom
of the right column of the table provided in Figure 17.
3. The use of Eqn. 2 to calculate the specific gravity (relative to air) of the gas
mixture results in the following:
sp. gr. = MWgas
[ MWair ]
24.0 lb / mole
=
[ 29.0 lb / mole ]
= 0.828 (Eqn.2)
4. From Figure 16, the hydrate-formation temperature of the gas stream at 424 psig
(439 psia) is determined to be 57°F.

Answer:
Hydrates can form in this gas stream at approximately 57°F.

Allowable Gas Expansions

Graphical methods also predict permissible gas expansions. These graphs use the
gravity graphic method to determine the allowable expansion (decrease in pressure)

- 21 -
at various initial temperatures. As with the gravity graphic method, these graphs are
useful for initial estimates, but should not be used for design.

Temperature Control Methods and Equipment Used To Inhibit Hydrate

Formation in a Natural Gas Stream

Heating a natural gas or depressurizing it (thus cooling it) while it is under hot
conditions can inhibit hydrate formation. In above ground operations, the
temperature drop caused by depressurizing (expanding) a gas can result in the
temperature of the gas stream dropping below its hydrate-formation temperature.
Because of the high temperatures underground, a gas stream can be expanded
underground without the resulting temperature dropping below its hydrate-formation
temperature. Therefore, expanding a gas stream in a well bore helps prevent hydrate-
formation in downstream processing.

The two main pieces of equipment used to control gas stream temperature and
inhibit hydrate formation are downhole regulators and indirect heaters. Downhole
regulators inhibit hydrate formation by expanding gas streams while they are in the
wellbore. Indirect heaters inhibit hydrate formation both at wellheads (wellhead
heaters) and along flowlines (flowline heaters).
Indirect heaters are often used to inhibit hydrate formation caused by expansion or
to replace heat lost by a flowline to the surrounding air and ground.

Downhole Regulators
The use of downhole regulators to inhibit hydrate formation by controlling gas
stream temperatures is generally feasible when the gas well has the following
conditions:
 A high reservoir pressure that is not expected to decline rapidly
 Excess pressure
 High capacity
The temperature and pressure of a gas stream as well as its composition determine
whether hydrates will form when gas is expanded into the flowlines. Cooling occurs
as gas is expanded across the choke. Downhole regulators lower the pressure of the
gas stream from well pressure to near-salesline pressure in the wellbore. Operating
conditions resulting from the expansion of the gas are outside the hydrate-formation
range of the gas stream because of the high temperatures in the well.

Downhole Regulator Design

Downhole regulators contain a spring-loaded valve and stem that outside vendors set
from the surface by using a wireline (wire used to lower tools into the wellbore) run
through the wellbore tubing. The pressure drop across the regulator remains constant
and does not depend, within a broad range, on the flow rate of the well.

- 22 -
The design of downhole regulators requires using complex calculations that must
account for the following:
 Downhole pressures and temperatures
 Well depth
 Wellbore configuration

Indirect Heaters
Two types of indirect heaters are used to inhibit hydrate formation: wellhead and
flowline.
The expansion of gas streams at or near wellheads often results in the formation of
hydrates.
Wellhead heaters keep the temperatures of these gas streams above their hydrate-
formation temperatures.

Flowlines some parts of the world often lose enough heat to the surrounding air and
ground to lower the temperature of the gas stream below its hydrate-formation
temperature. Flowline heaters inhibit hydrate formation by replacing this lost heat
and keeping the temperature of the gas stream above its hydrate-formation
temperature. Flowline heaters also inhibit hydrate formation by heating gas streams
expanded or choked downstream from the wellhead.

Indirect Heater Design

Different heater designs accomplish the same purpose: to heat the gas. Flowline
heaters do not require the chokes and high-pressure safety valves that wellhead
heaters need.

Indirect heaters are vessels that contain a fire tube and a coil immersed in a heat
transfer fluid (usually water or a glycol and water mixture) within a heater shell. The
fire tube is usually fired by gas. The coil contains the fluid (the gas stream) to be
heated and operates at full gas pressure. The heater shell operates at atmospheric
pressure. Figure 18 shows a typical indirect heater.

Flowline Heaters - Flowline heaters heat gas streams above their hydrate-forming
temperatures. In many cases, properly designed and placed wellhead heaters provide
sufficient heat to eliminate the need for flowline heaters.

Indirect Heater Sizing

The determination of the size of a heater depends on the following conditions:
 Amounts of gas, water, oil, or condensate expected in the heater
 Inlet temperature and pressure
 Outlet temperature and pressure (to avoid hydrate-forming conditions)

- 23 -
The size of heater coils to use depends on the volume of fluid flowing through the
coil and the required heat-transfer load.
When heater coils are sized, it is important to consider operating conditions in
addition to normal, steady-state operating conditions. Transient startup of a shut-in
well may require extra heating capacity. The temperature and pressure conditions of
a shut-in well and the extra liquids accumulated while the well was shut in may
increase the heating load. Often, heaters are necessary only while wells are being
started up. Installing preheat coils ahead of chokes is generally practical for wells
operated only intermittently.

FIGURE 18: TYPICAL INDIRECT HEATER

Advantages and Disadvantages of Temperature Control Methods

Downhole Regulators
Downhole regulators have the following advantages:
 Low initial investment
 Do not require routine service

Downhole regulators have the following limitations or disadvantages:

 They may not inhibit hydrate formation during startup. It may be necessary to
inhibit hydrate formation by injecting either methanol or glycol until the gas
flow and temperature stabilize.

- 24 -
  When well output falls below normal production levels, processors must
remove and replace downhole regulators with another hydrate inhibition
method.
 When work is performed inside a wellbore, the well may be permanently
damaged.

Indirect Heaters
The advantages of using indirect heaters to inhibit the formation of hydrates include
the following:
 Minimal maintenance or attention required
 Very low chemical requirements

The disadvantages of using indirect heaters to inhibit hydrates include the following:
 Difficulty of supplying clean and reliable fuel to remote locations
 Large operating (fuel) costs if cheap fuel is not available
 Potentially large capital costs
 Significant plot space required
 Special safety equipment needed because of fire hazard

Comparison of Temperature Control Methods

Figure 19 compares the use of downhole regulators and wellhead heaters to inhibit
hydrate formation. The high capital costs of heaters generally limit their use to large
hydrate inhibition installations. Downhole regulators work best in large reservoirs
with high gas pressures that are not expected to decline rapidly.

DOWNHOLE WELLHEAD
DESIGN FACTORS
REGULATORS HEATERS
Investment Very low Very high
Fuel None Very high
Operating Maintenance Low Low
Chemicals None Very low
Plot Area None Very high
Hazards High High

FIGURE 19: COMPARISON OF TEMPERATURE CONTROL METHODS

- 25 -
Methanol Injection Rate Required To Inhibit Hydrate
Formation in a Natural Gas Stream

Chemical Injection
Currently, methanol (MeOH) and monoethylene glycol (MEG) are the two
chemicals most commonly injected into gas streams to inhibit hydrate formation.
Consider the use of chemical injection to inhibit hydrate formation for the
following:
 Gas pipelines in which hydrates form at localized points
 Gas streams operating a few degrees above their hydrate formation
temperature
 Gas-gathering systems in pressure-declining fields
 Situations where hydrate problems are of short duration

Hydrate inhibitors act similarly to antifreeze. Adding a known quantity of an

inhibitor to a known quantity of pure liquid reduces the hydrate-formation
temperature by a calculable amount.

Methanol
Methanol works well as a hydrate inhibitor because of the following reasons:
 It can attack or dissolve hydrates already formed.
 It does not react chemically with any natural gas constituents.
 It is not corrosive.
 It is reasonable in cost.
 It is soluble in water at all concentrations.
Methanol significantly depresses hydrate-formation temperatures.

Methanol Applications
Because methanol’s material cost is so low and its vapor losses so high, methanol is
often not recovered. Not requiring a recovery system significantly reduces capital
costs. Therefore, methanol injection is generally economical for temporary
installations, situations with low gas volumes, or situations with mild, infrequent, or
seasonal hydrate problems.

Methanol Injection System

Figure 20 shows a simplified schematic of a typical methanol injection system. This
system inhibits hydrate formation at a choke or pressure-reducing valve. A gas-
driven pump injects the methanol into the gas stream upstream of the choke or
pressure-reducing valve. The temperature controller measures the temperature in the
gas stream and adjusts the power-gas control valve. The power-gas control valve
controls the flow of power gas, which controls the methanol injection rate.

- 26 -
 MeOH

Temp. Controller

Power gas pump

Methanol

Gas stream
Injection point
Choke

FIGURE 20: METHANOL INJECTION SYSTEM

Method of Injecting Methanol - The injection of methanol considerably upstream

of a hydrate-forming location allows the methanol to distribute and vaporize
completely. Because of methanol’s high volatility, nozzle placement and design are
not as critical as they are for glycol injection. Methanol injection nozzles should be
located as follows:
 Upstream of front-end exchangers
 At the inlets of turboexpanders
 At any refrigerated condensers in downstream fractionation

- 27 -
Glycol Injection Rate Required To Inhibit Hydrate
Formation in a Natural Gas Stream
Like methanol, glycol inhibits hydrate formation when injected into gas streams.
Figure 21 compares the advantages and disadvantages of glycol and methanol
injection.

INHIBITOR ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES/ LIMITATIONS

Glycol Usually lower operating cost
than methanol when both
systems recover injected
chemical
Low vapor losses (low volatility)
Methanol Relatively low initial cost
Simple system
Does not generally need to be
recovered
Low viscosity
When injected, distributes well
into gas streams
Can dissolve hydrates already
formed
High initial cost
Possibility of glycol contamination
Limited use (only non-cryogenic
applications)
Cannot dissolve hydrates already formed
High operating cost
Generally, use glycol injection if
methanol injection rate is over 30 gph
Large vapor losses (high volatility)

FIGURE 21: COMPARISON OF CHEMICAL INJECTION INHIBITORS

Glycol does not evaporate as easily as methanol. In some applications, glycol does
not dissolve into liquid hydrocarbons as easily as methanol. Glycol solubility in
hydrocarbon liquid increases with:
 Glycol molecular weight
 Temperature increase
 Increase in glycol concentration in water-glycol mixture

Glycol Concentration and Dilution:

In addition to inhibiting hydrate formation, you also need to choose glycol

concentrations that do not freeze. Figure 22 shows the freezing points of various
aqueous glycol solutions.

- 28 -
FIGURE 22: FREEZING POINTS OF AQUEOUS GLYCOL SOLUTIONS

Note that solutions with glycol concentrations between about 60 wt % and 80 wt %

do not freeze. Because of this, glycol solutions are generally kept between these
concentrations, even if lower concentrations are required to depress the hydrate-
formation temperature.

When glycol injection is performed below 20°F, the glycol freezing point must be
considered. Glycols crystallize, but do not freeze solid, which inhibits flow and
proper separation. For this reason, it is common practice to keep glycol
concentrations between 60-80 wt %.

To avoid the formation of emulsions, the water content of the injected inhibitor (lean
glycol) solution should be greater than 20 wt %. Therefore, the injection rate of pure
glycol required by the system to inhibit hydrate formation is first calculated and then
the injection rate of the lean glycol solution is calculated.

- 29 -
To keep the concentration of the glycol between 60 wt % and 80 wt %, the extent to
which the free water dilutes the injected glycol must be determined. Figure 23 lists
and summarizes dilution restrictions

SITUATION ALLOWABLE OR RECOMMENDED

DILUTION OF GLYCOL
Unknowns about the system exist Not over 5% to 10%
Spot injection (in a heat exchanger, for If distribution of glycol is a problem,
example) limit to about 5%
Pipelines operating above 20°F Up to about 20%
FIGURE 23: ALLOWABLE GLYCOL DILUTIONS

Selecting Glycol Type

The glycols normally used for hydrate inhibition are the following:
 MEG
 DEG
 TEG
Selection of the appropriate type of glycol depends on the composition of the gas
stream and on information provided by the glycol vendor.
For instance, Dow Chemical recommends that its glycols be used at concentrations
of 70 wt % to 75 wt % to avoid freezing problems. Dow Chemical also makes the
recommendations for selecting glycols listed in Figure 24.

SITUATION/CONDITION RECOMMENDATION
Natural gas transmission in Use MEG because it depresses hydrate
which recovery is not important formation temperatures the most.
Injected glycol contacts Use MEG because it has the lowest solubility
hydrocarbon liquids of the glycols in high molecular weight
hydrocarbons.
Severe vapor losses Use DEG or TEG because both glycols have
lower vapor pressures than the other glycols.
Severe vapor losses and injected When both of these conditions are present,
glycol contacts hydrocarbon DEG may be the best choice
liquids

FIGURE 24: GLYCOL RECOMMENDATIONS

- 30 -
Glycol Injection and Recovery System Using a Three-Phase Separator
Figure 25 shows a typical glycol injection and recovery system that uses a three-
phase separator. The power-gas-driven pump, the temperature controller, and the
injection point shown in Figure 15 are similar to the methanol injection system
shown in Figure 5. A gas driven pump injects the glycol into the gas stream
upstream from the choke or pressure reducing valve. The temperature controller
measures the temperature in the gas stream and adjusts the power-gas control valve.
The power-gas control valve controls the flow of power gas, which controls the
injection rate.

FIGURE 25: GLYCOL INJECTION AND RECOVERY SYSTEM

- 31 -
 LP Sales
Gas
Flare SDV 203
SDV 463

Flare
SDV 450
PCV 455
SDV 491 E 201 PCV 203D2
A/B
Gas from
D-201 PCV-201 D1
PCV-452
LTS SDV 494
SDV 462
Glycol

From
D-204

E202 LCV 203 D2

A/B LCV 457

LCV 203 D1 Reach Glycol

LCV 461
Lean Glycol

D-205

Rich Glycol

F201 F201
Blanket Gas B A

D 210
Skimmer Reboiler

Closed Drain
D - 211 P 208 A/B

Lean Glycol to
injection points

TK 202 TK 201
Rich Glycol Lean Glycol
Storage Tank F 203 F 204
Storage Tank

P-210/211

Glycol Sump Air Pump

FIGURE 26: GLYCOL INJECTION AND RECOVERY SYSTEM

- 32 -
The recovery side of the system shown in Figure 25 includes a reboiler and a three-
phase separator. The glycol injection and recovery cycle is as follows:
 The injection nozzle injects the lean glycol into the gas stream.
 The lean glycol absorbs the water and inhibits hydrate formation in the choke
or pressure-reducing valve.
 The three-phase separator separates the water and rich glycol from the
hydrocarbon gas and liquid.
 The separated components are piped to their respective destinations.
 The reboiler boils off excess water from the rich glycol, and thereby prepares
it to be injected again.

Glycol Injection and Recovery System Components

Separators
The low-temperature separator shown in Figure 25 separates the hydrocarbon gas
from the hydrocarbon condensate-rich glycol mixture. The glycol-oil separator in
Figure 25 flashes the remaining hydrocarbon condensate-rich glycol mixture to a
low pressure and then separates out the rich glycol.

Separating the rich glycol from the hydrocarbon liquid is more difficult than
separating hydrocarbon liquid from vapor. Performing both separations in one vessel
sacrifices some effectiveness and efficiency. Generally, three-phase separators
require longer residence times (20 to 40 minutes) and suffer higher glycol losses.

Reboiler
The temperature in the reboiler depends on the type and concentration of the glycol
used. Reboilers in hydrate inhibition systems do not regenerate glycols to the same
high levels of purity used in dehydration systems.

Glycol skimmer
A two -phase separator with a 5 to 10 minute liquid retention time prevents excess
hydrocarbon vapor from entering the stripping column. If hydrocarbons enter the
stripping column, they can flash, increase glycol losses, and possibly break the
ceramic packing.
If the specific gravity of the gas stream is high, then a three-phase separator
(containing vapor, aqueous, and liquid hydrocarbon phases) with a 20 to 30 minute
residence time is preferred.

- 33 -
 FIGURE 27: GLYCOL SKIMMER

Inhibitor Pump
A drum on top of a typical power-gas-driven pump contains the inhibitor: methanol
or glycol. The drum connects directly to the pump (generally, a positive
displacement pump). Methods for monitoring the inhibitor injection rate include
inserting a calibrated dipstick through the top of the drum or pumping the inhibitor
into a measured vessel. Drums are replaced when empty.
Glycol Losses
Glycol injection systems that involve both hydrocarbon liquids and gases generally
lose glycol to the following:
 Solubility (normally about 0.3 to 3 gallons of glycol per 1000 barrels of
hydrocarbon liquid produced)
 Leakage
 Carryover with hydrocarbon liquid and in the reboiler
 Vaporization in the reboiler and during injection

Nozzle Selection and Placement

Nozzle selection and placement indirectly affect glycol injection calculations.
Although calculated to inhibit hydrate formation, injection rates may need to be
adjusted to maintain a flow rate or pressure recommended for a particular nozzle
design or placement.

Because of glycol’s low vapor pressure, nozzle design is more critical for glycol
than it is for methanol. To mix adequately with the natural gas, glycol requires a
fine, well-distributed mist. Also, to inhibit hydrates fully, the nozzle must be placed
to ensure full coverage.
Installing backup nozzles in parallel with the primary nozzle allows nozzle removal,
replacement, or inspection without interrupting inhibitor service.

Nozzle Selection - Nozzle design is especially important in the design of glycol

injection systems for cold separation facilities. The criteria for selecting a nozzle
include the following:

- 34 -
  Capacity
 Spray angle
 Sufficient pressure drop between the nozzle and the gas stream over the
expected range of operating conditions
Normally, a pressure differential of 100 psi to 150 psi sufficiently atomizes glycol.
Also, gas stream velocities above 12 ft/s help ensure atomization.

Nozzle Placement - Normally, nozzles are located just upstream of the heat
exchanger or chiller where hydrates form. The spray from a properly located nozzle
covers the entire tube sheet of a heat exchanger.

Inadequate atomization causes the formation of glycol droplets that settle and flood
the bottom of the heat exchanger. As a result, the glycol inhibits hydrate formation
in the bottom, but not the top, of the heat exchanger. Flooding of the bottom of the
heat exchanger also significantly decreases its effectiveness.

Inadequate coverage can leave some tubes with a concentration of glycol that is too
low, which will result in the formation of hydrates. As shown in Figure 18, hydrates
plug the tubes, and thereby increase the differential pressure across the heat
exchanger.

FIGURE 28: INCREASE IN PRESSURE DROP BECAUSE OF HYDRATE FORMATION

- 35 -
Figure 29 shows one nozzle location but three flow rates. Too low a nozzle flow rate
produces the same result as a nozzle located too close to the tube sheet. Too high a
nozzle flow rate produces the same result as a nozzle located too far from the tube
sheet.

FIGURE 29: NOZZLE PLACED AT ONE LOCATION: THREE FLOW RATES

- 36 -
WATER REMOVAL PROCESSES
Liquid/Solid Desiccants
In those situations where inhibition is not feasible or practical, dehydration must be
used. Both liquid and solid desiccants may be used, but economics favor liquid
desiccant dehydration when it will meet the required dehydration specification.
Liquid desiccant dehydration equipment is simple to operate and maintain. It can
easily be automated for unattended operation; for example, glycol dehydration at a
remote production well. Liquid desiccants can be used for sour gases, but additional
precautions in the design are needed due to the solubility of the acid gases in the
desiccant solution.
Solid desiccants are normally used for extremely low dew point specifications as
required to recover liquid hydrocarbons.

Glycol Dehydration
Background
The more common liquids in use for dehydrating natural gas are diethylene glycol
(DEG), triethylene glycol (TEG), and tetraethylene glycol (TREG). In general,
glycols are used for applications where dew point depressions of the order of 60°F
to 120°F are required.

DEG was the first glycol to be used commercially in natural gas dehydration and
can provide reasonable dew point control. With the exception of TEG, DEG is the
best liquid available.
However, with normal field equipment, DEG can be concentrated to only 95%
purity, whereas TEG concentrations can reach 98 to 98.5% without special
equipment. Although both glycols perform sufficient dehydration in many
situations, TEG is used more commonly because it requires lower circulation rates
for a comparable dew point depression than DEG does and can reach lower dew
points. It is not advisable to use triethylene glycol for dehydration at low
temperatures (approximately 50°F), due to its high viscosity. TREG is primarily
used when dehydration conditions fall between those encountered in normal TEG
operations, and those in which gas stripping or vacuum distillation becomes
necessary.
A process flow diagram of a glycol dehydration unit is shown in Figure 30. Good
practice dictates installing an inlet gas scrubber, even if the dehydrator is near a
production separator.

- 37 -
The inlet gas scrubber will prevent accidental dumping of large quantities of water,
hydrocarbons, and/or salt water into the glycol contractor. Even small quantities of
these materials can result in excessive glycol losses due to foaming, reduced
efficiency, and increased maintenance.

FIGURE 30: PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM FOR GLYCOL DEHYDRATION UNIT

In the glycol dehydration process, regenerated glycol is pumped to the top

tray of the contactor (absorber). The glycol flows down through the contactor
countercurrent to the gas flow. Water rich glycol is removed from the bottom of the
contactor, passes through the condenser coil, flashes off gas in a flash drum, and
flows through the glycol-glycol heat exchanger to the regenerator. In the
regenerator, absorbed water is removed from the glycol at atmospheric pressure by
heating. The regenerated glycol is cooled in the glycol heat exchangers and is
recirculated to the contactor by the glycol pump.
TEG will absorb about 1 SCF of natural gas per gal at 1000 psig absorber pressure.
There will be more absorption if aromatic hydrocarbons are present. A three to five
minute residence time in the flash drum is required for degassing. Excessive
hydrocarbons in the glycol may cause high glycol losses and foaming. The overhead
vent from the glycol regenerator may contain hydrocarbons and should be piped to a
safe location.

- 38 -
The separation of TEG and water in the regenerator is accomplished easily with only
internal reflux. The separation of DEG and water is more difficult due to DEG's
higher vapor pressure.

Fig-31 EQUILIBRIUM WATER DEW POINTS FOR GASES IN CONTACT

WITH VARIOUS CONCENTRATIONS OF TEG

To obtain the high glycol concentrations required for high dew point depressions,
stripping gas or vacuum distillation must be used in the reboiler portion of the
regeneration unit. The amount of stripping gas required to re-concentrate the glycol
to a high purity ranges from 2 to 10 ft3 per gallon of glycol circulated. If stripping
gas is used, a recovery system may be justified.

The dew point depression obtainable with triethylene glycol can be estimated
from Figure 31 based on the contact temperature and the concentration of the
reconcentrated glycol that is used. Figure 31 shows the equilibrium water dew point
at different temperatures for gases in contact with various concentrations of glycol.
To use this plot, locate the contact temperature, read up to the glycol concentration,
and then read across to find the equilibrium water dew point. In practice it is seldom
economical for actual gas dew points to approach equilibrium dew points closer
than 20°F.

- 39 -
DESCRIBING THE GLYCOL DEHYDRATION PROCESS
In general, the process of dehydrating natural gas streams with glycol is similar to
using glycol injection to inhibit hydrate formation. However, because the glycol
must not only absorb, but also remove the water from the gas stream, dehydration
systems absorb the water in contactors (also called absorbers) instead of by
injection. Glycol dehydration systems also require higher and more precisely
regulated temperatures in their reboilers.

FIGURE 32: GLYCOL DEHYDRATION SYSTEM

Glycol Dehydration Process

Figure 33 shows the simplified glycol dehydration system. Wet inlet gas enters the
bottom of the contactor while lean glycol enters the top. As the wet gas stream flows
upward, it contacts the downward flowing lean glycol. During this contact, the

- 40 -
glycol absorbs water from the gas stream. Dry outlet gas leaves the top of the
contactor and rich glycol exits the bottom.

The rich glycol enters the top of the stripping column and countercurrently contacts
steam rising from the reboiler. The rich glycol then enters the reboiler, which boils
the water out of the glycol. The lean glycol leaves the bottom of the reboiler and
enters the surge tank for storage. The pump raises the glycol to system pressure,
preparing it for another dehydration cycle.

Sea Line
System Valve Gas flow meter

Rich Gly.

Flashed Gas

Glycol
Flash
Drum

Dehydration Glycol Reboiler

tower T-101

Glycol
Glycol Accumulator
Cartridge
filter Glycol Carbon
filter

Lean /Rich Gly. Ex.

Produced
Gly. Inj. Pump

FIGURE 33: GLYCOL DEHYDRATION SYSTEM

Most glycol dehydration systems are much more complex than the one shown in
Figure 33. In addition to the contactor, reboiler, still column, surge tank, and glycol
pump in Figure 33, most glycol dehydration systems use:
 A flash tank separator
 A heat exchanger: lean gas/glycol and glycol/glycol
 An inlet scrubber
 Filters
 Stripping column

This additional equipment improves the efficiency and effectiveness of the

simplified system . Figure 34 shows another glycol dehydration system.

- 41 -
 FIGURE 34: PROCESS FLOW OF A GLYCOL DEHYDRATION SYSTEM

Glycol Dehydration System Components

This section describes the major components in a glycol dehydration system and
how they function. The following components are covered in this section:
 Inlet scrubber
 Contactor
 Flash tank separator
 Filters
 Glycol pump
 Heat exchangers
 Still column
 Reboiler

Inlet Scrubber

Inadequate scrubbing causes about half of all glycol dehydration system problems.
Inlet scrubbers remove free water and many contaminants from the inlet gas stream.
In addition to free water, these contaminants include:

- 42 -
  Oils or hydrocarbons
 Entrained brine
 Downhole additives
 Solids, such as sand and corrosion products

Figure 35 summarizes the problems caused by these contaminants if not removed by

the inlet scrubber.
CONTAMINANT PROBLEMS
Free Water Increases glycol recirculation, reboiler heat duty, and fuel
costs
If the dehydration system becomes overloaded with water,
glycol can carry over from the contactor and/or still .
Sales gas specification may not be achieved
Oils or Reduce the drying capacity of the glycol With water present,
Hydrocarbons can cause foaming
Undissolved oils can:
• Plug absorber trays
• Foul heat transfer surfaces in the reboiler
• Increase the viscosity of the glycol
• Light hydrocarbons can flash in the stripping column
and cause loss of glycol and/or damage to the packing
Entrained Brine Dissolves into glycol
Corrodes steel, especially stainless steel
Deposits on reboiler fire tubes, causing hot spots and firetube
burnout
Downhole Cause foaming, corrosion, and, if they deposit on fire tubes,
Additives hot spots
Solids Promote foaming
Erode valves and pumps
Eventually plug trays and packing

FIGURE 35 : PROBLEMS CAUSED BY CONTAMINANTS

- 43 -
Contactor

Contactor towers contact the lean glycol with the wet gas stream. As Figure 5
shows, contactor towers consist of three sections:

 Scrubbing section in the bottom

 Drying (mass transfer) section in the middle
 Glycol cooler and mist extractor in the top
Note: The scrubber section in the glycol contactor’s base and the glycol cooling coil
are optional items (restricted to small field units) .

FIGURE 36 : CONTACTOR TOWER

Scrubbing Section - The gas stream enters the bottom section of the contactor and
then enters a second scrubber integrated into the contactor and a wire mesh mist
extractor. These remove any contaminants and entrained liquids not removed by the

- 44 -
inlet scrubber. This second stage of scrubbing further minimizes the contamination
of the glycol and helps prevent the free water from overloading the system.

Drying Section - In the middle section of the contactor, the gas stream flows
upward and thoroughly contacts the downward flowing lean glycol through valve
trays, bubble caps, or packing.

Mist Extractor - A mesh or woven mist extractor reduces carryover to less than 1 lb
liquid glycol/MMSCF. For the mist extractor, 4 to 8 inches of stainless steel mesh
and 4 inches of Dacron are generally recommended.

Flash Drum Separator

The flash tank separates hydrocarbon liquid and vapor from the glycol. TEG absorbs
1 SCF/gal glycol at 1,000 psig and 100°F, but glycol absorbs heavier hydrocarbons
much more readily. Flash tanks separate gas condensate and glycol best between
100°F to 150°F and between 50 psig and 75 psig.

A two-phase separator with a 5 to 10 minute liquid retention time prevents excess

hydrocarbon vapor from entering the stripping column. If hydrocarbons enter the
stripping column, they can flash, increase glycol losses, and possibly break the
ceramic packing. If the specific gravity of the gas stream is high, then a three-phase
separator (containing vapor, aqueous, and liquid hydrocarbon phases) with a 20 to
30 minute residence time is preferred.

Filters

Keeping the solids content in glycol below 0.01 wt % helps prevent the wearing of
pumps, plugging of heat exchangers, foaming, fouling of contactor trays and still
packing, cell corrosion, and hot spots on reboiler fire tubes. Placing a filter after the
glycol-glycol heat exchanger takes advantage of the reduced viscosity of the heated
glycol.

Two types of filters are typically used for the glycol solution. Cartridge filters
remove solids, that is, corrosion products. Activated carbon filters remove
hydrocarbon impurities, for example, well treating chemicals and compressor oils.
The placement of a rich glycol filter after the lean/rich glycol exchange has the
advantage of a lower glycol viscosity, but the lower viscosity is at the expense of a
potential increase to the fouling rate of the rich side of the lean/rich glycol
exchanger.

- 45 -
Glycol Pump

Glycol circulation pumps contain the only moving parts in a glycol dehydration
system. The three types of pumps used in dehydration systems are:

 Electric-motor driven
 High-pressure gas-operated
 High-pressure liquid-operated

Larger dehydration systems generally use electric-motor driven pumps. Smaller

dehydration systems and those remotely located generally use high-pressure gas-
operated or high-pressure liquid-operated pumps.
Installing a second (spare) pump capable of providing full glycol circulation ensures
continuous dehydration if the primary glycol circulation pump fails.

Heat Exchangers

Glycol dehydration systems often use three heat exchangers:

 Lean gas/glycol
 Glycol/glycol
 Reflux coil located in still column

Lean Gas/Glycol Heat Exchangers use lean gas to further cool the glycol to 5°F to
15°F above the exit temperature of the gas stream before the glycol enters the top of
the contactor.
Generally, glycol dehydration systems use double-pipe or shell-and-tube heat
exchangers for lean gas/glycol heat exchangers.

Glycol/Glycol Heat Exchangers preheat the rich glycol leaving the bottom of the
contactor before it enters the reboiler and cools the lean glycol leaving the reboiler
before it goes to the lean gas/glycol heat exchanger and the top of the contactor.

The reflux coil (using cool, rich glycol) or the cooling fins on the still column
(whichever is applicable) maintains the temperature at the top of the still column.
The glycol/glycol heat exchangers essentially increase the energy efficiency of the
system. The large difference between the exit temperatures of the lean and rich
glycol from these heat exchangers requires counter current flow to prevent
temperature cross. Therefore, larger glycol dehydration systems generally use two
double-pipe or plate-and-frame heat exchangers in series.

- 46 -
Still Column
Reflux Coil - The top of the still column contains a cooling coil that condenses
some of the steam rising from the reboiler, providing reflux for the column. This
cooling coil controls condensation and reduces glycol losses.

In addition to the reboiler, the still column also reconcentrates glycol. Still columns
countercurrently contact rich glycol with steam rising from the reboiler. This steam
strips water from the liquid glycol. Still columns usually contain 4 to 8 ft of ceramic
packing although some large units use trays.

FIGURE 37 : STILL COLUMN PACKING

Reboiler
Reboilers provide enough heat to boil the water out of the glycol. Glycol
dehydration systems often use direct-fired heaters, but not when the fire hazard they
present poses too much of a threat. In such locations, for example, offshore
platforms, fire codes and safety require the use of indirect-fired heaters.

The bulk temperature of TEG must be kept below 400°F and the maximum fire-tube
skin temperature below 430°F to help prevent thermal decomposition of the TEG.
The U-shaped fire tube in a TEG reboiler must be sized for an average heat flux of
6,000 to 8,000 Btu/hr-ft2 to keep the TEG and the reboiler below these
temperatures.

Surge Tank (Accumulator)

The surge tank (accumulator) holds glycol to compensate for fluctuations in the load
on the glycol dehydration systems. During normal operation, surge tanks are only
about half full of glycol. During shutdown, however, they need to hold all of the
glycol that drains down from the trays, vessels, and piping. Contact with air can
result in degradation of the glycol. A gas blanket usually protects the glycol from air
contamination.

- 47 -
Stripping Gas
Adding a stripping gas to the still column increases the glycol purity produced by
the glycol reconcentrator from about 98.5% to 99.9%. Glycol dehydration systems
using stripping gas generally inject dry, sales gas into the top of the reboiler. The
stripping gas flows up counter currently to the glycol, further stripping water from
the glycol. Using sales gas increases the cost of the system because of the loss of
revenue.

Process/Design Variables
Several process and design variables have an important effect on the successful
operation of a glycol dehydration system.

Gas Temperature
Plant performance is especially sensitive to the temperature of the incoming gas. At
constant pressure, the water content of the inlet gas increases as this temperature is
raised. Glycol vaporization losses are also increased at the the higher temperature.
Furthermore, problems can result from too low a temperature (below 50°F) because
glycol becomes very viscous.

Lean Glycol Temperature

The temperature of lean glycol entering the absorber has a significant effect on the
gas dew point depression, and should be held to a minimum to achieve the best
operation. However, it should be kept at least 10°F above the inlet gas temperature
to minimize hydrocarbon condensation in the absorber and subsequent foaming.

Glycol Reboiler Temperature

The reboiler temperature controls the concentration of the water in the glycol. With
a constant pressure, the glycol concentration increases with higher reboiler
temperatures. The reboiler temperature should never be allowed to remain at or
above the glycol degradation temperatures. When higher glycol concentrations are
required, stripping gas can be added to the reboiler.

Regenerator Top Temperature

The temperature in the top of the regenerator is also important. A high temperature
can increase glycol losses due to excessive vaporization. The recommended
temperature in the top of the column is about 225°F. If the temperature in the top of
the column drops too low, too much water can be condensed and washed back into
the regenerator to flood the column and fill the reboiler with excessive liquids.

- 48 -
 Reboiler Pressure
Reducing the pressure in the reboiler at a constant temperature results in higher
glycol purity. This pressure reduction lowers the water partial pressure in the vapor,
increasing the driving force under which water leaves the glycol solution.

Glycol Concentration
The water content of the dehydrated gas depends primarily on the lean glycol
concentration. The dry gas leaves the contactor approaching equilibrium with the
lean glycol. The leaner the glycol flowing to the absorber, the more efficient the
dehydration. Figure 31 shows the effect of glycol concentration on gas dew point.

Glycol Circulation Rate

When the number of absorber trays and glycol concentration are fixed, the dew point
depression of a saturated gas is a function of the glycol circulation rate. Whereas the
glycol concentration mainly affects the dew point of dry gas, the glycol rate controls
the total amount of water that can be removed. A typical glycol circulation rate is
about three gallons of glycol per pound of water removed (seven maximum). The
minimum circulation rate to assure good glycol-gas contacting is about two gallons
of glycol for each pound of water removed.

A greater dew point depression is easier to achieve by increasing the glycol

concentration rather than by increasing the glycol circulation rate (see Figure 4). To
use this plot, locate the glycol circulation rate, read up to the glycol concentration,
and then read across to find the dew point depression. An excessive circulation rate,
especially above the design capacity, overloads the reboiler and prevents good
glycol regeneration. It also prevents adequate glycol-gas contacting in the absorber,
increases pump maintenance problems, and can increase glycol losses.

Figure 38:
Effect of TEG
circulation rate and
concentration on dew
point depression

- 49 -
Optimizing and Troubleshooting Dehydrator Operations
Glycol Maintenance

Operating and corrosion problems usually occur when the circulating glycol gets
dirty. Therefore, to achieve a long, trouble-free life from the glycol, it is necessary to
recognize these problems and know how to prevent them. Some of the major areas
are discussed below:

Methanol

Methanol in the feed gas to a glycol dehydrator will be absorbed by the glycol. This
results in the following problems:

 Methanol will add additional heat duty on the reboiler and additional vapor
load on the regenerator. High methanol injection rates and slug carryover can
cause flooding.
 Aqueous methanol causes rust in carbon steel, so corrosion can occur in the
regenerator and reboiler vapor space.

Most of the methanol absorbed in the rich glycol solution can be removed by
flashing in the regenerator. Activated carbon filters are used to adsorb methanol
from the lean glycol solution to avoid these problems.

Thermal Decomposition
Excessive heat, a result of one of the following conditions, will decompose glycol
and form corrosive products:
 High reboiler temperature above the glycol decomposition level.
 Localized overheating, caused by deposits of salt or tarry products on the
reboiler fired tubes or by poor flame direction on the fired tubes.

pH Control
New glycol has a neutral pH of approximately seven. As it is used, however, the pH
always decreases and the glycol becomes acidic and corrosive, unless pH
neutralizers or buffers are used. The equipment corrosion rate increases rapidly with
a decrease in the glycol pH. Acids created by glycol oxidation, thermal
decomposition products, or acid gases picked up from the gas stream are the most
troublesome of corrosive contaminants. A low pH accelerates the decomposition of
glycol. Ideally, the glycol pH should be held at a level of 7.0 to 7.5. A value above
8.0 to 8.5 tends to make glycol foam and emulsify.

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Borax, ethanolamines (usually triethanolamine), or other alkaline neutralizers can be
used to control the pH. These neutralizers should be added with great care -- slowly
and continuously -- for best results. An overdose of neutralizer will usually
precipitate a suspension of black sludge in the glycol. The sludge could settle and
restrict glycol circulation. Frequent filter element changes should be made while pH
neutralizers are added.

Salt Contamination
Salt deposits accelerate equipment corrosion, reduce heat transfer in the reboiler
tubes, and alter specific gravity readings when a hydrometer is used to measure
glycol-water concentrations. This troublesome contaminant cannot be removed with
normal regeneration.
Therefore, an efficient scrubber upstream of the glycol plant should be used to
prevent salt carryover with the incoming gas. In areas where large quantities of brine
are produced, some salt contamination will occur. The removal of salt from the
glycol solution is then necessary.
Salt contaminated glycol may be reclaimed by several methods. Scraped-surface
heat exchangers in conjunction with centrifuges are used in cases of extreme
contamination. Other reclamation methods are vacuum distillation or ion exchange.

Hydrocarbons
Liquid hydrocarbons, a result of carryover with the incoming gas or condensation in
the absorber, increase glycol foaming, degradation, and losses. They must be
removed with a glycol-gas separator, hydrocarbon liquid skimmer, or activated
carbon beds.

Sludge
An accumulation of solid particles and tarry hydrocarbons very often forms in the
glycol. This sludge is suspended in the circulating glycol; over a period of time, the
accumulation becomes large enough to settle out. This action results in the
formation of black, sticky, abrasive gum that can cause trouble in pumps, valves,
and other equipment, usually when the glycol pH is low. The gummy substance
becomes hard and brittle when deposited on the absorber trays, stripper packing, and
other places in the circulating system. Good solution filtration prevents a buildup of
sludge.

Foaming
Foaming can increase glycol losses and reduce plant capacity. Entrained glycol will
be carried over the top of the absorber with the sales gas when stable foam builds up

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on the trays. Foaming also causes poor contacting between the gas and glycol,
decreasing the drying efficiency.

Some foam promoters are:

 Hydrocarbon liquids.
 Field corrosion inhibitors.
 Salt.
 Finely divided suspended solids.

Excessive turbulence and high liquid-to-vapor contacting velocities usually cause

the glycol to foam. This condition can be caused by mechanical or chemical
problems.

The best way to prevent foaming is proper care of the glycol. This involves effective
gas cleaning ahead of the glycol system and good filtration of the circulating
solution. The use of defoamers does not solve the basic problem, and serves only as
a temporary control until the conditions generating foam can be identified and
removed.

Analysis and Control of Glycol

Analysis of glycol is essential to good plant operation. Meaningful analytical
information helps pinpoint high glycol losses, foaming, corrosion, and other
operating problems.

Analyses enable the operator to evaluate plant performance and make operating
changes to obtain maximum drying efficiency.
A glycol sample should first be visually inspected to identify some of the
contaminants:

 A finely divided black precipitate may indicate the presence of iron

corrosion products.
 A black, viscous solution may contain heavy hydrocarbons.
 The characteristic odor of decomposed glycol (a sweet aromatic odor) usually
indicates thermal degradation.
 A two-phase liquid sample usually indicates the glycol is heavily
contaminated with hydrocarbons.

The visual inspections should next be supported by chemical analysis. Samples of

the lean and rich glycol should be taken and routine tests performed: salt analysis,
solids content, pH, iron content, foam test, and titration procedure (to determine the
amount of neutralizer necessary to raise the pH to a safe level). These analyses
usually provide sufficient information to determine the condition of the glycol.

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Glycol Loss Prevention
Glycol losses can be defined as liquid carryover from the contactor (normally 0.10
gal/ MSCF with a standard mist eliminator) plus vaporization from the contactor and
regenerator, and spillage. Glycol losses, exclusive of spillage, range from 0.05
gal/MSCF for high pressure, low temperature gases to as much as 0.30 gal/MSCF
for low pressure, high temperature gases.

There are several ways to reduce glycol losses.

 A certain amount of glycol always vaporizes in the sales gas stream.
Adequate cooling of the lean glycol before it enters the absorber minimizes
these losses.
 Normally, most of the glycol entrainment is removed by a mist eliminator in
the top of the absorber. Excessive gas velocities and glycol foaming in the
absorber sharply increase the glycol carryover. A downstream gas scrubber
can pay for itself quickly and save much money by trapping the carryover
and recovering the excess glycol. This gas scrubber also helps prevent
problems downstream of the glycol plant.
 Vaporization losses in the stripper can be held to a minimum with good
glycol condensation and control of the tower top temperature. Glycol
entrainment, or mechanical carryover, can be reduced with proper
maintenance of the stripper and reboiler.
 Mechanical leaks can be reduced by keeping the pump, valves, and other
fittings in good order. The glycol from these leaks should be collected and
reprocessed.
 Excessive entrainment losses may be the result of foaming in the absorber
and/or regenerator. Defoamers are sometimes used.

Glycol Filtration
Filters extend the life of the glycol pumps, and prevent an accumulation of solids in
the absorber and regeneration equipment. Solids that settle on metal surfaces
frequently set up cell corrosion. Filters also remove the solids that contribute to
fouling, foaming, and plugging. Sock-type filters are preferred, although fine
screens and cartridge filters are also suitable. The filters should be designed to
remove all solid particles over 5 microns in size.
They should be able to operate up to pressure drops of 20 to 25 psi. For best results,
filters should be placed in the rich glycol line, but the lean glycol can also be filtered
to help keep the glycol clean. Frequent filter changes may be needed during plant
start-up, or when neutralizers are added to control the glycol pH.

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Solid Desiccant Dehydration
Background
Since solid desiccant units cost more than glycol units, their use is usually limited to
applications such as very sour gases, very low water dew point requirements,
simultaneous control of water and hydrocarbon dew points, and special cases such
as oxygen containing gases, etc. In cryogenic plants, solid desiccant dehydration
usually is preferred over methanol injection to prevent hydrate and ice formation.
Solid desiccants are also often used for the drying and sweetening of NGL liquids.

Desiccants in common commercial use fall into one of three categories:

 Alumina - Regenerable aluminum oxide base desiccant.

 Silica Gel - Regenerable silicon oxide adsorbent.
 Molecular Sieves - Regenerable solid desiccants composed of crystalline
metal aluminosilicates (zeolites).

Each desiccant category offers advantages in different services. The best choice is
not routine.

Activated alumina has a strong affinity for water and high internal adsorption area
due to the presence of pores or very fine capillaries. Alumina condenses and holds
the water in the pores by surface adsorption and capillary attraction. Activated
alumina desiccant can be used for drying liquids which do not contain unsaturates
such as olefins or diolefins. It is less costly than molecular sieve desiccant but its
capacity for absorbing water also tends to be lower, particularly when attempting to
reach very low water levels, e.g. 5 wppm in the product.

Silica gel has a higher equilibrium adsorption capacity (see Figure 6) than alumina
because its available surface is greater. Due to silica gel's higher price per pound,
alumina is generally the economic choice. Silica gel is not used where free water can
be present, because free water destroys silica gel. Free water over long-term
operation, either as droplets or slugs, will also damage molecular sieve and activated
alumina by mechanical attrition and should be avoided.

Molecular sieves have the feature of uniform pore size, which allows them to
exclude molecules based on size. Because different pore size molecular sieves are
produced, selection of proper type of sieve can alleviate the problem of undesirable
coadsorption.

- 54 -
Molecular sieves have a higher design adsorption capacity than the other regenerable
desiccants, but this is often offset by their considerably higher price per pound.

Molecular sieve dehydrators are commonly used ahead of NGL recovery plants
where extremely dry gas is required. Cryogenic NGL plants designed to recover
ethane produce very cold temperatures and require very dry feed gas to prevent
formation of hydrates.
Dehydration to approximately 1 ppmw is possible with molecular sieves.

Two types of molecular sieves, Type 3A and Type 4A, are commonly used for
drying hydrocarbon liquids. Type 4A sieves are less costly than Type 3A sieves and
are used for distillates which do not contain unsaturates. When unsaturates are
present in the feed, Type 3A are used to assure good regeneration.

Solid desiccants are used in gas dehydrators containing two or more towers. Figure
7 is a simple two-tower system. One tower is onstream adsorbing water from the
gas, while the other tower is being regenerated and cooled. Figure 8 shows a typical
molecular sieve dehydrator vessel. Hot gas removes the adsorbed water, after which
the tower is cooled. The towers are switched before the onstream tower becomes
water saturated. Generally a bed is designed to be on line for 8 to 24 hours. When
the bed is taken off-line, the water is removed by heating the bed to 450-600°F. The
regeneration gas used to heat the bed is usually a slipstream of dry process gas. The
regeneration gas is returned to the process after it has been cooled and the free water
removed. Since heat is a major operating cost, this is a major design consideration.

- 55 -
FIGURE 39 : SOLID DESICCANT DEHYDRATOR TWO TOWER SYSTEM

- 56 -
 FIGURE 40: TYPICAL MOLECULAR SIEVE GAS DEHYDRATION VESSEL

Adsorption Calculations
Adsorption calculations for a molecular sieve dehydrator are discussed below. The
allowable superficial vapor velocity through the bed is the first parameter that must
be estimated using Figure 41. To use this plot, locate the operating pressure, read up
to the type sieve, then read across to find the allowable superficial velocity. Once the
allowable superficial velocity is estimated, the bed diameter can be calculated for a
design vapor rate. The design pressure drop through the bed is calculated using
Equation 3 and should be about five psi. A design pressure drop higher than eight
psi is not recommended.

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• Molecular sieve pressure drop.

DP = BμV + Cρ V2 (Eqn. 3)
L
where:
DP = Pressure drop, psi.
L = Length of packed bed, ft.
V = Vapor velocity, ft/min.
μ = Vapor viscosity, cP.
ρ = Vapor density, lb/ft3.

Constants:
Desiccant Type B C
1/8 in. bead 0.0560 0.0000889
1/8 in. extrudate 0.0722 0.000124
1/16 in. bead 0.152 0.000136
1/16 in. extrudate 0.238 0.000210

FIGURE 41 ALLOWABLE VELOCITY FOR MOLE SIEVE DEHYDRATOR

The next step is to choose a cycle time and calculate the pounds of sieve required.
Eight to twelve hour cycles are common. Cycles greater than 12 hours may be
justified, especially if the gas is not water saturated. Long cycles mean fewer
regenerations and longer sieve life, but larger beds and additional capital investment
are required.

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During the adsorption cycle, the bed operates with three zones The top zone is called
the saturation zone. The molecular sieve in this zone is in equilibrium with the wet
inlet gas. The middle or mass transfer zone (MTZ) is where the water content of the
gas is reduced from saturation to < 1 ppm. Normally a system is designed so that
there is a moisture analyzer to indicate when the mass transfer zone is likely to break
through the end of the bed. A guard bed zone (typically one to two feet deep) is
provided after this point to prevent actual breakthrough before the system has a
chance to change to the regenerated bed.

Unfortunately, both the water capacity and the rate at which the molecular sieves
adsorb water change as the molecular sieves age. The object of the design is to
install enough sieve so that three to five years into the life of the sieve, the mass
transfer zone will be at the bottom of the bed at the end of the adsorption cycle.

In the saturation zone, the molecular sieve is expected to hold approximately 13

pounds of water per 100 pounds of sieve. This capacity needs to be adjusted when
the gas is not water saturated or when the temperature is above 75°F. See Figures 42
and 43 for the correction factors. To determine the pounds of molecular sieve
required in the saturation zone, calculate the amount of water to be removed during
the cycle and divide by the sieve capacity (use Equations 4 and 5).

Equ. 4

See fig 42
See fig 43

Equ. 5

- 59 -
Even though the MTZ will contain some water, the saturation zone is calculated
assuming it will contain all the water to be removed. The length of the mass transfer
zone can be calculated using Equation 7 from Work Aid 4. The total bed height is
the summation of the saturation zone, mass transfer zone, and guard bed zone
heights. Approximately six feet free space above and below the bed is needed.

FIGURE 42 MOLE SIEVE CAPACITY CORRECTION FOR

UNSATURATED INLET GAS

FIGURE 43 MOLE SIEVE CAPACITY CORRECTION FOR

TEMPERATURE

- 60 -
Process Flow and the function of the major
components of Solid Desiccant Dehydrators
Unlike glycol dehydration system’s continuous processing, the adsorption process is
a batch procedure with multiple desiccant beds used in cyclic operation to dry the
gas on a continuous basis. Adsorber towers must be taken out of drying service to be
regenerated. Because of this, solid desiccant dehydrators typically use two, three, or
four adsorber towers. Some applications use as many as twelve towers. There are
economic and process advantages for three or more adsorber tower designs in some
situations.

The following three separate functions must alternate in each adsorber tower:
 An adsorbing or gas-drying cycle
 A heating or regenerating cycle
 A cooling cycle to prepare the regenerated bed for another adsorbing cycle

At any given time, one of the towers is on stream in the adsorbing or drying cycle
while the other is in the process of being heated or cooled. Several automatically
operated switching valves and a controller route the inlet gas and regeneration gas to
the right tower at the proper time. Typically, a tower is on the drying or adsorbing
cycle for 4 to 12 hours, with 8 hr the usual time. The tower being regenerated is
heated for about 5 to 6 hours and cooled during the remaining 2 to 3 hours.

Process of Regeneration
As the wet inlet gas flows downward through the tower on the adsorption cycle,
each of the adsorbable components is adsorbed at a different rate. The water vapor is
immediately adsorbed in the top layers of the desiccant bed. Each of the light
hydrocarbon gases and heavier hydrocarbons moving down through the bed are also
adsorbed to a greater or lesser extent. With molecular sieves, minimal adsorption of
hydrocarbons occurs due to the exclusion from the smaller pores. Heavier
hydrocarbons displace the lighter ones in the desiccant bed as the adsorbing cycle
proceeds. As the upper layers of desiccant become saturated with water, water in the
wet gas stream begins displacing the previously adsorbed hydrocarbons in the lower
layers.
For each component in the inlet gas stream, there will be a section of bed depth,
from top to bottom, where the desiccant is saturated with that component and where
the desiccant below is just starting to adsorb it. The depth of bed from saturation to
initial adsorption is the mass transfer zone (MTZ) described earlier.

As the flow of gas continues, the MTZ's move downward through the bed and water
displaces all of the previously adsorbed gas until, finally, the entire bed is saturated

- 61 -
with water vapor. When the bed is completely saturated with water vapor, the outlet
gas is just as wet as the inlet gas. Before the desiccant bed has become completely
saturated, the towers must be switched from the adsorption cycle to the regeneration
cycle (See Figure 44).

One regeneration-gas-supply scheme consists of taking a pressure drop across a

pressurereducing valve that forces a portion (5% to 15%) of the entering wet-gas
stream through the regeneration system. In most plants, a flow controller regulates
the volume of regeneration gas used. This gas is heated until it reaches 400° to
600°F, then it is piped to the tower being regenerated. The adsorbed water begins to
desorb at the start of the regeneration cycle if dry regeneration gas is used. The bulk
of the water is removed from the molecular sieve at a temperature of 240°F to
250°F, but the desorption continues, although at a continually diminishing rate, until
the end of the heating cycle.

After all the water has been removed, heating is maintained to drive off any heavier
hydrocarbons and contaminants that do not vaporize at lower temperatures. The
desiccant bed is properly regenerated when the outlet gas (peak-out) temperature has
reached 350° to 550°F.

After the heating cycle, the desiccant bed is cooled by flowing unheated
regeneration gas until the desiccant is sufficiently cooled.

All of the regeneration gas used in the heating and cooling cycles is passed through
a heat exchanger where it is cooled to condense the water removed from the
regenerated desiccant bed. This water is separated in the regeneration gas separator,
and the gas is mixed with the incoming wet-gas stream. This entire process is
continuous and automatic.

The following sections cover the process flow of dehydrators using two, three, and
four adsorber towers.

Process Flow of Solid Desiccant Dehydrators

Two-Tower Dehydrators
Solid desiccant dehydrators using two adsorber towers offer only one flow
arrangement. While one tower dehydrates the process fluid stream, the other tower
regenerates. The two towers alternate between drying and regeneration. Figure 11
shows the process flow of the process fluid (gas or liquid) and the regeneration gas
in a two-tower solid desiccant dehydrator.

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 FIGURE 44: PROCESS FLOW OF TWO-TOWER SOLID DESICCANT DEHYDRATOR

In the dehydrator shown in Figure 44, the process fluid passes through the inlet
separator. As in glycol dehydrators, the inlet separator removes free water and other
contaminants from the process fluid. From the inlet separator, the process fluid
flows to and down through whichever adsorber tower is in the adsorbing phase (In
Figure 44, this is Tower 2.). In the tower, the solid desiccant adsorbs water from the
process fluid. From the tower, the dried process fluid flows to the outlet filter and
out of the dehydrator.

While Tower 2 dries the process fluid, the regeneration gas removes the water from
the solid desiccant in Tower 1. The regeneration gas flows through the regeneration
gas heater, up through Tower 1, to the regeneration gas cooler, and to the
regeneration gas separator. Once the heated regeneration gas has dried the solid
desiccant, the regeneration gas bypasses the regeneration gas heater and cools the
desiccant.

- 63 -
Gases used for regeneration include:
 Dry product gas
 Gas diverted from the process gas stream (5% to 10% of the main flow)
 Gases from outside the dehydrator, such as demethanizer overhead
In this example, after the adsorbent in Tower 2 is saturated, valves redirect the
process fluid and the regeneration gas so that Tower 1 adsorbs and Tower 2
regenerates.

Three-Tower Dehydrators
Solid desiccant dehydrators with three adsorbing towers offer several process flow
variations.

The process cycle of three towers may be arranged so that two towers dehydrate in
parallel while one tower regenerates. Or, the process cycle may be arranged so that
one tower is adsorbing, one tower is regenerating, and one tower is cooling.

Parallel (Split-Flow Design) - Figure 45 shows a three-tower dehydrator with two

towers adsorbing in parallel. The process flow of the dehydrator shown in Figure 45
is similar to the flow shown in Figure 44, except that the flow of the process fluid is
split between two towers.
A three-bed system (two beds in parallel) may be economical for a large installation
since there are three smaller beds rather than two large beds. If three beds (vessels)
are less expensive, the vessel savings is then weighed against the additional piping
and valves required for a three-bed system. If economic considerations are
inconclusive, process advantages or past experiences may dictate this three-tower
system. For example, this configuration can be operated continuously with only two
towers at reduced throughput, facilitating desiccant replacement on the run.

- 64 -
 V-1

A-1

Feed D-1A D-1B D-1C

Gas C

Dry Gas To
F-1 F-2
Cooling
Train

C-4
H-1A/B/C A/B

FIGURE 45: PROCESS FLOW OF THREE-TOWER SOLID DESICCANT DEHYDRATOR

Feed
V18
Gas V-1
A-1

D-1D D-1E D-1F

C C

Dry Gas To
F-1A F-2A Cooling
Train

D-1
G C

C-4
C/D

H-1D/E

FIGURE 46 PROCESS FLOW OF THREE-TOWER SOLID DESICCANT DEHYDRATOR

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Function of Major Components of Solid Desiccant Dehydrators

This section describes the function, design, and operation of the major components
of a solid desiccant dehydrator.
The following are the essential components of any solid desiccant dehydration
system:
 An inlet gas stream separator/liquid coalescer.
 Two or more adsorption towers (contactors) filled with solid desiccant.
 A high-temperature heater that provides hot regeneration gas to reactivate the
desiccant in the towers.
 A regeneration gas cooler that condenses water from the hot regeneration gas.
 A regeneration gas separator (knockout) that removes the condensed water
from the regeneration gas.
 Piping manifolds, switching valves, and controls that direct and control the
flow of gases according to the process requirements.

Inlet Separator/Coalescer

As with glycol dehydrators, inlet separators protect the dehydrator from impurities
such as free water, salt, compressor oils, hydrocarbon liquids, paraffins, corrosion
inhibitors, glycol, amines, rust, iron sulfide, iron oxide, fractionation sands, drilling
mud, pipeline scale, and sulfur. These impurities impact the desiccant bed and cause
breaking and powdering of the desiccant. Methanol (used for hydrate inhibition) can
also damage some adsorbents.
Nonvolatile liquids coat the desiccant and block its pores. Solid impurities plug the
bed increasing the pressure drop and crushing the desiccant. All of these effects
shorten the operating life of the desiccant. If the dehydration unit is downstream of
an amine unit, glycol unit, or compressors, a filter-separator or liquid coalescer (for
liquid service) may be needed.

- 66 -
Adsorber Tower
The adsorber tower holds the solid desiccant and contacts it with the process fluid.
Figure 47 shows a typical adsorber tower.

16" Fill
hole

1/16" mol. sieve

4" 1/8" ceramic

4" 1/4 " ceramic
Supporting
7'

FIGURE 47: ADSORBER TOWER

- 67 -
Three problems that frequently cause poor operation are insufficient distribution,
inadequate insulation, and improper bed supports.

Distribution - Poor gas distribution at the inlet and outlet of the desiccant beds can
cause gas channeling and desiccant damage. The inlet gas distributor should be
provided with adequate baffling before the gas enters the desiccant bed. Neither the
gas to be dehydrated nor the regeneration gas should impinge directly on the bed nor
should there be any sudden changes of direction near the surface of a desiccant bed.
When the bottom head of the vessel is filled with support balls, a gas distributor may
be needed between the balls and the lower portion of the desiccant bed when
upflowing heating or cooling is used. This distributor should be used particularly on
very large diameter vessels to prevent gas channeling and poor reactivation of the
desiccant. Channeling, high localized velocities, and swirling can cause desiccant
dusting (breakage) and high pressure drop through the desiccant bed. The lodging of
the desiccant dust between the standard-size particles increases the pressure drop.

Inert balls are also required on top of the adsorbent bed to prevent bed movement
resulting from high fluid velocities. The use of a 6" layer of these inert balls is
recommended. A floating screen should be placed between the inert balls and the
adsorbent to prevent the migration of inert balls to the interior of the bed. This
migration is caused by the cyclic nature of the adsorption process.

Insulation - Internal or external insulation for the adsorber may be used. The main
purpose of internal insulation is to reduce the total regeneration-gas requirements
and costs. Internal insulation reduces heat transfer to the adsorber vessels. Normally,
a castable refractory lining is used for internal insulation.

The refractory must be applied and properly cured to prevent liner cracks. Provision
must also be made for expansion and contraction of the internal insulation so that
there will be no cracking or weld failures. Liner cracks permit some of the wet gas
to bypass the desiccant bed. Only a small amount of wet, bypassed gas can cause
freezeups in cryogenic plants.
Ledges installed every few feet along the vessels wall can help eliminate bypassing.
For heating cycles longer than two hours, provision should be made for heat
transferred to the vessel shell and heads.

Bed Supports - The bed support can be in the form of a mechanical grid, such as
subway type grating on I-beams , The grid must be of sufficient strength to support
the adsorbent bed, inert balls, and the bed pressure drop. A set of wire screens, sized
to retain the adsorbent particles, should be fastened on top of the grid. The screens
(usually stainless steel) are fastened in place by tying them to the support
gridwithstainlesssteel wire. To prevent the loss of desiccant and support balls

- 68 -
through the gap between the vessel and the wire screen, this gap is sealed using
some suitable rope-like material (typically asbestos) that can withstand the
regeneration temperatures and the process/regeneration gas fluid.
Several layers of inert support balls are required between the adsorbent and the wire
screens to prevent grinding between them. These layers also prevent desiccant dust
or whole particles from plugging the screen openings. Normally, for 1/8-in.
desiccant, a 2-3 inch layer of 1/2-in. balls is gently placed on the screen followed by
a smooth 2-3 inch layer of 1/4-in. balls. For 1/16-in. desiccant (commonly used for
liquid dehydration), an additional layer of 1/8-in. balls are placed on top of the 1/4-
in. balls. This complies with the 2:1 ratio between the layers as recommended by the
desiccant vendors.

Regeneration Gas Heater

The regeneration gas heater heats the regeneration gas to about 500°F. Solid
desiccant dehydrators use many types of heaters including salt bath, direct fired, hot
oil, and steam.
Small units (8 MMBtu/hr) generally use indirect-fired, salt bath heaters for safety
reasons.
Larger units tend to use direct-fired heaters. In addition, other sources of heat are
used including compressor-exhaust gases and waste heat from turbines and other
heat sources.

Regeneration Gas Cooler

Regeneration gas coolers reduce the temperature of the regeneration gas to condense
the adsorbed water and, sometimes, hydrocarbons. Cooling the regeneration gas also
prepares it for further processing.
Coolers are heat exchangers that use air, water, or natural gas to cool the
regeneration gas.
Typically, they use ambient air to cool the regeneration gas to within 15°F to 20°F
of the air temperature.

Regeneration Gas Separator

Regeneration gas separators remove liquids condensed by the regeneration gas
cooler from the regeneration gas. If the liquid is primarily water, then a two-phase
separator, similar (except smaller), to the inlet separator is used. If the liquid
contains substantial amounts of hydrocarbons, then the dehydrator requires a three-
phase separator to remove the liquid from the gas stream and separate the liquid into
water and hydrocarbons.

- 69 -
Switching Valves
Switching valves direct the process fluid and regeneration gas to the appropriate
component of the dehydrator. Two-way valves leak less than three-way valves.
Switching valves are in a harsh operating service as they must operate with all
combinations of cold gas and hot gas on either side of the valve. This temperature
cycling can cause valves to stick and/or leak.
Valve sequencing and opening times are also important to prevent a sudden upflow
of gas which could fluidize the bed and damage the desiccant. Switching valves
require frequent servicing to eliminate leakage.

Instrumentation
The monitoring of solid desiccant dehydrators requires a variety of instrumentation
to measure or control the following process variables:
 Flow rate, temperature, and pressure of the process fluid
 Water content of the product fluid
 Flow rate and pressure of the regeneration gas
 Inlet and outlet temperatures of the regeneration gas
 Temperature of the regeneration gas leaving the regeneration gas cooler
 Adsorbent differential bed pressure
 Cycle time controllers
Measuring the flow rate, temperature, and pressure of the inlet gas monitors the load
on the dehydrator. Monitoring the temperature and water content of the outlet gas
measures the performance of the dehydrator. Measuring the conditions of the
regeneration gas and the regeneration cooler monitors the efficiency of the
regeneration cycle.

A moisture sample probe should be located in the adsorbers in cryogenic plants

several feet from the outlet end of the bed and extend to the center. This probe, used
in conjunction with the outlet-gas moisture probe, offers valuable flexibility in
studying and solving dehydrator problems. If gas is channeling through the
desiccant bed a high dew point is seen in the outlet gas. However, unless the gas is
channeling through the bed at the exact point where the sample probe is located, the
desiccant surrounding the probe will ensure that the probe will continue to “see”
only dry gas. The probe also permits capacity tests for optimizing drying cycle
times. These tests can be conducted with reasonable safety because movement of the
water front can be detected prior to breakthrough.

Temperature recording devices plot the temperature of the regeneration gas entering
and exiting the adsorber tower against the elapsed time of the cycles.
It is important to monitor bed differential pressure. An increase in differential
pressure can indicate desiccant problems such as excessive plugging or the
formation of fines.

- 70 -
Effects of Key Process Variables on the operation of a Solid
Desiccant Dehydrator
This section covers the following key process variables that affect the performance
and operation of solid desiccant dehydrators:
 Direction of process fluid and regeneration gas (downflow vs. upflow)
 Quality of inlet process fluid (level of contamination, including free water)
 Temperature of process fluid and regeneration gas
 Pressure of process gas and regeneration gas
 Adsorption, heating and cooling cycle times
 Velocity of process fluid and regeneration gas
 Regeneration gas source (wet or dry)
 Special liquid service considerations

Direction of Gas Flow

The following section discusses the effects of the direction of flow of the process
fluid on dehydrator performance during the drying, regeneration, and cooling cycles.
The flow direction influences effluent purity, regeneration gas requirements, and
desiccant life.

Drying Cycle
Normally, gas flows down through adsorber towers during the drying cycle.
Increasing the rate of upward flow of gas through a tower fluidizes the adsorbent
bed. Any such unsettling or movement can erode and/or crack the desiccant which
decreases the drying performance and life of the desiccant, and generates desiccant
fines. Also, downward flow allows higher velocities, which allow smaller and less
expensive towers.

Conversely, hydrocarbon liquids normally flow up through adsorber towers.

Hydrocarbon liquid streams frequently contain some gaseous components. Upward
liquid flow allows any gas bubbles to pass through the desiccant bed. Downward
liquid flow allows these gaseous components to accumulate at the top of the tower.
This accumulation reduces the amount of desiccant exposed to the hydrocarbon
liquid decreasing the effective capacity of the tower.
Sometimes downward liquid flow is also used to avoid early breakthrough of water.
This is particularly true when the water content of the liquid is high. Choice of
upflow versus downflow is also dictated by the flow magnitude of the streams to be
dried.

- 71 -
Regeneration (Heating) Cycle
Normally, regeneration gas flows in the direction opposite of the process fluid in the
drying cycle. For drying hydrocarbon gas, this direction is up through the adsorber
tower. If the regeneration gas flows in the same direction as the process fluid, then
regeneration gas must displace the water and contaminants concentrated at the top of
the bed down through the entire bed. Same direction flow risks the contamination of
the rest of the adsorbent bed and can require longer regeneration times. Typical
regeneration flow direction for liquid dehydrators is downward.

With regeneration gas flowing in the direction opposite of the process fluid in the
drying cycle, the hot regeneration gas in the lower part (upper part for hydrocarbon
liquids) of the bed strips contaminants from the desiccant. If the hot regeneration gas
sufficiently increases the partial pressure of the contaminants, the contaminants will
desorb off the desiccant. This flow direction also produces extremely dry adsorbent
at the bottom of the adsorber tower.
During the dehydrating cycle, this dry adsorbent removes the last amounts of water
from the process fluid and produces effluent with very low water contents. If the
contaminants do not desorb off the desiccant, they will build up and potentially coke
or polymerize.

Cooling Cycle
If a system uses wet gas for cooling, then the cooling gas flows in the same direction
as the process fluid. This partially preloads the desiccant bed with water. The
additional water load deposited during cooling must be included when the amount of
desiccant required is calculated.

If a system uses dry product gas for cooling, then the cooling gas flows in the
direction opposite of the process fluid. This direction of flow results in more
complete desiccant regeneration.

Quality of Inlet Gas (Process Fluid)

The relative saturation of the inlet gas is the most important variable in determining
the weight of desiccant to use. The use of wet gas to regenerate a desiccant bed does
not remove all of the water from the bed. Therefore, the use of wet gas requires the
determination of the residual capacity of the desiccant bed. The residual capacity of
the desiccant bed is the difference between the dynamic capacity of the desiccant
bed and the weight percent of water left in the desiccant bed after the wet gas has
regenerated it. This variable is the driving force that affects the transfer of water to
the adsorbent. If saturated gas (100% relative humidity) is being dried, a much
greater useful capacity can be expected for most desiccants than when partiallly
saturated gases are being dried. The exception is the molecular sieve. Its equilibrium
curve is almost flat from 20% to 100% relative humidity.

- 72 -
Contaminants
The most important variable affecting the decline rate of desiccant capacity is the
chemical composition of the gas or liquid to be dried. Compressor oils, corrosion
inhibitors, glycols, amines, and other high-boiling contaminants may be present in
the feed gas. Normal regeneration temperatures do not vaporize the heavy materials.
The residual contaminants slowly build up on the desiccant's surface, reducing the
area available for adsorption. Many corrosion inhibitors chemically attack certain
desiccants and permanently destroy their usefulness. Silica gels shatter when free
water or hydrocarbon liquids are carried into the beds.

Methanol in the inlet gas is a major contributor to the coking of molecular sieves
where regeneration is carried out at temperatures above 550°F. Polymerization of
methanol during regeneration produces intermediates which cause coking of the
beds. An Exxon affiliate that had been using substantial amounts of methanol to
inhibit hydrate production in a two-phase system experienced rapid declines in sieve
life because of coking. Conversion to ethylene glycol injection for hydrate control
has greatly increased sieve life and added at least 10% to sieve capacity.

Temperature
The higher the temperature of a process fluid, the greater its saturated water content.
Solid desiccants have significantly higher adsorbing capacity at lower temperatures.

Regeneration gas may be combined with the incoming wet gas ahead of the
dehydrator. If the temperature of these gases differs by more than 15 to 20°F then
water and hydrocarbons may condense out of the warmer gas stream. High
regeneration-gas temperatures assure good desorption of water and contaminants.
Regeneration gas condenser temperatures should be as low as possible to condense
and remove water and heavy hydrocarbons from the gas.

If a dehydrator uses wet gas to cool its desiccant, overcooling the desiccant causes
the solid desiccant to adsorb water from the cooling gas and presaturate the
adsorbent bed. The cooling cycle should be ended when the desiccant bed reaches
about 125°F. If dry gas is used for cooling the desiccant may be cooled to within 10
to 20°F of the feed gas temperature.

Pressure
The adsorptive capacity of a desiccant bed unit decreases as the pressure is lowered
when adsorbents are operating below saturation capacity. Also, the water content of
a gas increases as the pressure is lowered. If the dehydrators are operated well below
design pressure, the drying cycle time is shortened to counter the reduced driving
force and to remove the increased mass of water in order to maintain the desired
effluent dew point. The same mass flow rate of incoming gas at a reduced pressure

- 73 -
increases gas velocity and increases the bed pressure drop. Excessive pressure drop
causes dusting (adsorbent breakage) and damage to the desiccant. At pressures
above 1,300 psia to 1,400 psia, the coadsorption effects of hydrocarbons sometimes
become significant.

Cycle Time
The drying cycle time is the runlength of the drier before it requires regeneration.
The design drying cycle sets the drier water loading and, hence, drier size. Since
desiccant capacity decreases with age (number of regenerations) initial cycle times
are considerably longer than design cycle times. Design cycle times are used to
establish when desiccant replacement is necessary. The design cycle time is
approximately equal to the regeneration time at the design flow rate. Therefore,
when less time is required to saturate a desiccant than to regenerate it, either the
dessiccant must be replaced, or the flow rate decreased.

Typically, the adsorption cycle is operated on a fixed time. Fixed time cycles are
common as are dehydrator installations that switch beds on water breakthrough
measurements. As the desiccant ages, the cycle time must be shortened to prevent
water breakthrough. More regenerations reduce desiccant life, thus, a compromise
between cycle time and cycle frequency must be achieved. The cycle length should
provide an economic balance between cost of the drier and regeneration facilities,
and regeneration frequency, which affects desiccant life and operability.

Listed below are the steps required in the regeneration cycle and the approximate
time required to perform these steps. Some of these steps are unique to a particular
service. This information will aid the designer in establishing a drying cycle, or if
the drying cycle, is already set, it will indicate the available time for heating and
cooling.
Approximate Time*
1. Depressure: 1 hour
2. Drain (for liquid drying only): 1 hour
3. Cold Purge (not always performed, discussed below): 1 hour
4. Heat to Regeneration Temperature: Variable
5. Heat Soak (not always performed, discussed below): 1-2 hours
6. Cool to Temperature Approaching Drying Temperature: Variable
7. Fill (for liquid drying only)/Pressure: 1 hour

* Where automated regeneration facilities are provided for small size equipment
considerably shorter times may be practical.

- 74 -
Gas Velocities
Inlet (Process) Gas
Decreasing the gas velocity during the drying cycle usually achieves both lower
effluent moisture contents and longer drying-cycle times. Figure 18 shows the
general effect of gas rate on the extent of dehydration. Minimum flow rates utilize
the desiccant fully. However, low linear velocities require towers with large cross-
sectional areas. In selecting the linear flow rate, a compromise must be made
between the tower diameter and the maximum utilization of the desiccant. A high
linear flow rate causes agitation of the granules, dusting and loss of capacity to
adsorb. In addition, fluidization can occur if the gas velocity (or liquid in the case of
liquid drying) upwards through the bed exceeds the fluidization velocity.

Regeneration Gas
Producing very low effluent water contents (less than 0.1 ppm) requires sufficiently
high regeneration gas velocities. Low gas velocities produce channeling which
results in poor regeneration. Frequently, achieving very low effluent water contents
requires regeneration gas velocities of at least 10 ft/min.

Regeneration Gas Source

The source of gas for heating and cooling desiccant beds depends on plant
requirements and, possibly, on the availability of a suitable gas stream. Using dry
regeneration gas produces effluent with low water contents. Using wet feed gas
results in moderate effluent water contents. Graphs plotting isoteres (lines of
constant water loading) can be used to predict the regeneration gas conditions
required to achieve a given effluent water content.

The effectiveness of reactivation can also play a major role in retarding the decline
of a desiccant adsorptive capacity and in prolonging its useful life. Not removing all
of the water from the desiccant during each regeneration sharply decreases its
usefulness. For example, if the dynamic adsorptive capacity of a thoroughly
reactivated desiccant is 10%. A 3% residual water remaining on the desiccant
because of insufficient regeneration, would cause its capacity to drop from 10% to
7%.

Although gases rich in heavier hydrocarbons may be dried satisfactorily with

molecular sieves, the use of this same rich gas in a 500° to 600°F regeneration
service aggravates coking problems. Lean dry gas is always preferable for
regeneration.

- 75 -
Optimizing Adsorption-Type Dehydrators
Desiccant Performance
Operating data should be monitored to try to prevent permanent damage to the
desiccant. Performance tests are frequently scheduled on a routine basis, ranging
from monthly during early operations, to six months or longer. The size of the unit
and the quantity of the desiccant also affect the frequency of performance tests.

Desiccants decline in adsorptive capacity at different rates under varying operating

conditions. Markedly different capacity-decline rates may be experienced for the
same desiccant under similar conditions of gas flow, temperature, pressure, water
removal requirements, cycle times, and regeneration temperatures. Desiccant aging
is a function of many factors, including the number of cycles experienced and
exposure to any harmful contaminants present in the inlet stream. Many of these
contaminants are not completely removed during normal reactivation. Contaminants
may be the cause of 90% of unsatisfactory solid desiccant operations. Therefore, the
single most important variable affecting the decline rate of desiccant capacity is the
chemical composition of the gas or liquid to be dried. Feed stream composition
should always include the contaminants.

The capacity of a new desiccant will decline slowly during the first few months in
service because of cyclic heating, cooling, and wetting. Desiccant capacity usually
stabilizes at about 55 to 70% of the initial capacity. To get maximum use out of the
desiccant, a moisture analyzer can be used to optimize the drying cycle time. That
time can be shortened as the desiccant ages. Both inlet and outlet moisture-analyzer
probes should be used. Moisture analyzers for very low water contents require care
to prevent damage to the probes. Sample probes and temperature probes must be
installed to reach the center of the gas phase.

Proper conditioning of the inlet gas is important. Compressor oils, corrosion

inhibitors, glycols, amines, and other high-boiling contaminants present in the feed
gas cause a further decline in desiccant capacity, because normal reactivation
temperatures will not vaporize the heavy materials. The residual contaminants
slowly build up on the desiccant's surface, reducing the area available for
adsorption. Many corrosion inhibitors chemically attack certain desiccants,
permanently destroying their usefulness. A layer of less expensive desiccant can be
installed on the top of the bed to catch these contaminants.

Although gases rich in heavier hydrocarbons may be dried satisfactorily with

molecular sieves, the use of this same rich gas in a 550 to 600°F regeneration

- 76 -
service aggravates coking problems. Lean dry gas is always preferable for
regeneration, if it is available.

Methanol in the inlet gas is a major contributor to the coking of molecular sieves
where regeneration is carried out at temperatures above 550°F. Polymerization of
methanol during regeneration may produce dimethyl ether and other intermediates
that will cause coking of the beds.

Monitoring bed differential pressure is important. An increase in differential

pressure can indicate desiccant problems such as excessive coking or the formation
of fines. The differential pressure along with the bed run length should also be
recorded when doing a performance test on a desiccant bed.

The useful life of most desiccants ranges from one to four years in normal service. A
longer life is possible if the feed gas is kept clean. The effectiveness of reactivation
can also play a major role in slowing the decline of a desiccant's adsorptive capacity
and in prolonging its useful life. Obviously, if all the water is not removed from the
desiccant during each regeneration, its usefulness will sharply decrease.

Performance data are used for monitoring desiccant life and planning for desiccant
change out. The steps involved are as follows:

 Plot plant capacity and cycle time versus number of cycles.

 Extrapolate to determine when shortest cycle possible with existing
regeneration equipment will be reached.
 At that point, or during the nearest regular plant turnaround preceding that
point, an adsorbent change must be planned.

Regeneration gas not only supplies heat but also acts as a carrier to remove water
vapor from the desiccant bed. Insufficient reactivation can occur if the regeneration
gas temperature or velocity is too low. The desiccant manufacturer will generally
recommend the optimum regeneration temperature and velocity for the product.
Velocity should be high enough to remove the water and other contaminants
quickly. This measure will minimize the amount of residual water and protect the
desiccant.
To maximize desiccant capacity and to ensure the minimum effluent moisture
content, a higher reactivation temperature or a drier reactivation gas, or both, may be
needed. Higher reactivation temperatures may also be used to remove volatile
contaminants before they can form coke on the desiccant. The final effluent hot gas
temperature should be held one or two hours to achieve effective desiccant
reactivation.

- 77 -
Equipment Items
In addition to the above process variables, engineers can optimize solid desiccant
dehydration equipment by considering the following:

 An accurate estimation of bed sizes in order to realistically evaluate

competitive bids from desiccant vendors.
 Optimal design of adsorber internals (inlet gas distributor, internal insulation
and bed supports), switching valves, and control systems.
 Proper design of regeneration gas systems.
 Since mole sieve can produce dust, filters are frequently installed
downstream to protect subsequent equipment.

- 78 -
Sweetening processes

1
Sweetening processes and sulfur recovery
Contents:
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 3
Reasons for Sweetening ....................................................................................................... 3
Process Flow ........................................................................................................................ 4
Sulphur Recovery unit ......................................................................................................... 7
Mercury removal .................................................................................................................. 9

2
Gas Sweetening

Sour Gas contains either components H2S or CO2. H2S is by far the most dangerous but CO2
can cause problems with solids formation in compression and cooling. Both these components
are acid gases and are removed by similar “sweetening” processes.

Introduction

Quality requirements for gas entering LNG plants include:

i) Shall not contain more than 23 mg of H2S per m3. (16 ppmv)
ii) Shall not contain more than 115 mg of total Sulphur per m3
iii) Shall not contain more than 2% by volume of CO2.

- sweetening processes remove sour and undesirable gases from the gas stream:

H2S - Hydrogen Sulphide

CO2 - Carbon Dioxide
COS - Carbonyl Sulphide
CS2 - Carbon Disulphide

Basic Flow Diagram of Amine Treating Process for CO2 and H2S Removal

Reasons for Sweetening

 Safety and Environmental Protection
 Product Specification (see above)
 Corrosion Prevention

3
  Improved Heating Values
 CO2 Solid formation (cryogenic operations)
 Economics (sometimes)

- sour gas is supplied to the sweetening system from the inlet separator and the condensate
stabilizer.
- sour products recovered in this process are further processed in a sulphur recovery unit
(SRU)
- if the volume is low enough (less than 1 tonne of sulphur per day in the inlet gas), the gases
are incinerated and released to atmosphere as CO2 and SO2.
- various types of sweetening processes are employed in industry today. All processes utilize a
solid or liquid desiccant to recover the sour component. After the desiccant has recovered the
sour component it must be regenerated to release the sour components so it can be reused.
- The most common liquid desiccants in use are “amines”.

Process Flow
Amine systems tend to be located in a central plant to service the entire sour gas production
for a field.

A typical amine sweetening process is shown in the following diagram.

4
Inlet Separator
 Removal of liquids and/or solids
 Separator should be sized to handle surge capacity. Poor separator design can cause
problems in the treating facilities.

Contactor
 Sour gas enters the bottom of the tower and moves upward through the trays
 H2S and CO2 in the gas react with the liquid amine solution and are removed from the gas
stream.
 The reaction is often assisted by placing fresh lean amine on various trays down the tower.
This ensures that the gas will contact lean amine a few times as it moves up the
tower.(This is not shown on the diagram).
 As the sweet gas leaves the tower, it is often contacted with water to remove any amine
that has vapourized and is travelling with the gas. The top 2 or 3 trays may be used for this
function. This is considered a “water wash” section of the tower.
 The water wash is often used if the contactor temperature is especially high or if MEA is
used as the amine.
Outlet Separator
 The sweetened gas is passed through a separator to remove any amine solution (or liquid
water) that may be travelling with the gas flow
 The gas is now saturated with water and must proceed through dehydration facilities to
lower the water dew point before sale.
Flash Drum
 From the contactor, the amine may enter a flash drum to allow any hydrocarbon an
opportunity to leave the amine solution.

Heat Exchanger (HTEX)

 The rich amine passes through a heat exchanger where it picks up heat from the hotter
lean amine on its way to the contactor.
 Since this service is clean, plate and frame exchangers can be used, but often a more
common shell and tube exchanger is put in service.
Stripper
 The rich amine enters the stripper, where hot acid gas and steam heat the rich amine,
removing the H2S and CO2 that is bound into the product.
Reboiler
 The amine at the bottom of the stripper tower is heated to 105oC – 140oC (depending on
the type of amine being used).
 This causes the acid gas/amine reaction to reverse and the acid gas
vapourizes with steam from the amine solution.

5
  The acid gas/steam vapour re-enters the stripper and contacts new rich amine on its way
out the top. Amine carried with the acid gas/steam vapour tends to reunite with the rich
liquid amine thereby removing it from the vapour flow.
Condenser
 After leaving the top of the stripper tower, the acid gas/steam vapour is cooled to remove
heat and condense out the water from the flow.
 The water is separated in a reflux drum and returned to the stripper tower as a liquid.
 The acid gas vapour is sent downstream to a Sulphur Recovery Unit (SRU).
 If the plant has a gas sulphur inlet rate of less than 1 tonne/day (this is a very small
amount), the acid gas may be incinerated. Burning the H2S creates SO2 which is a
monitored pollutant.

Reclaimer
 a reclaimer may be used in MEA or DGA service.
 A reclaimer heats a slipstream of the amine from the reboiler to higher temperatures. In
MEA service, a caustic solution is added to increase the pH of the mixture.
 This higher temperature (and higher pH) cleans out some products of “side reactions” and
an amine sludge is created. This must be disposed of properly.

Rich Amine
The amine picks up H2S and CO2 in the contactor tower.

Lean Amine
 A lean amine stream from the bottom of the reboiler (or bottom of the tower) is pumped
back to the contactor.
 The lean amine is often passed through a charcoal filtration system to remove entrained
solids
 If anti-foam additives are added to the system, the charcoal filters will remove them, so
they should be taken off-line during addition.
 The lean amine must be cooled to approximately 6oC warmer than the inlet gas
temperature before it enters the contactor.

6
Sulphur Recovery unit
Acid Gas Options

The acid gas stream from the sweetening unit contains mainly H2S and CO2. The proportion of
each will depend on the inlet gas composition and the type of amine that you are using.

The H2S in the acid gas is very toxic (and smelly) so it could not possibly be released to the
atmosphere without some further processing.

The options facing an operator are:

1. Re-inject the acid gas into a formation.
2. Burn the acid gas, converting the H2S into SO2. Release the SO2 to the
atmosphere.
3. Convert the H2S into elemental sulphur (S). Sell the sulphur into the world market.
The most common method of converting H2S into S is the Claus process.

7
Modified Claus Process

 If H2S is reacted with oxygen (burned), it will form SO2 and water. This is a very
exothermic reaction – it creates a lot of heat. Even though SO2 is not as deadly as H2S,
it is still a pollutant that can have adverse health effects in high concentrations.
Therefore creating SO2 is undesirable.
 The “Modified Clause Process” was developed in 1937 and involves a Combustion
Reaction & Catalytic Reaction (in stages)
 The combustion reaction occurs in a reaction furnace where acid gas from the
sweetening system is reacted with oxygen to form H2O and SO2,
But….
 Only 1/3 of the H2S is converted. This means that only enough oxygen (air) is fed into
the reaction to convert 1/3 of the H2S stream to SO2.
 This gas is then cooled and any pure sulphur that has formed is condensed out.
 The gas mixture is then reheated and fed into a vessel with a catalyst bed of activated
alumina. The remaining H2S and SO2 react with each other to form elemental sulphur
(S) and H2O.
2H2S + SO2  2H2O + 3S

Processes for Sulphur Recovery

 This creates more heat as the reaction occurs. Therefore, as the gas mixture leaves the
first catalytic reactor, it is cooled and sulphur condenses out and drains to a holding
tank (usually heated with steam coils and located underground).
 The remaining gas is again reheated and enters a second reactor where the same
reaction takes place.

8
  Depending on the amount of conversion required, 3 or 4 reactor vessels may be
employed. (Four reactors is uncommon)
 Acid gas is made up of H2S + CO2 and often contains small amounts of hydrocarbons
also. The efficiency of the Modified Claus Process depends on the concentration of the
H2S in the acid gas (because of partial pressures).
 If the concentration of acid gas is high – say > 80% by weight, then you could expect
the following conversion efficiencies as the acid gas works its way through the
process:

Initial reaction furnace  62% of the H2S converted to S

1st catalytic bed  86% of the H2S converted to S
2nd catalytic bed  93% of the H2S converted to S
3rd catalytic bed  97% of the H2S converted to S
4th catalytic bed  98% of the H2S converted to S

 Lower conversion percentages can be expected with lower concentrations of H2S

because of lower partial pressures – reactions are slower.
 You can see that sulphur is created in the reaction furnace. This is because the H2S and
SO2 start to react on their own without help from any catalyst.

The H2S product is then processed in a Claus Plant.

reaction (1) 2 H2S + 3 O2  2SO2 + 2 H2O

Alumina
reaction (2) SO2 + 2 H2S catalyst > 3S (stockpile) + 2 H2O

• Tail gas is gas that exits the Claus plant with residual SO2. It may be cleaned up according
to environmental restrictions.

Mercury removal
The amalgamation of mercury and aluminum causes weak spots which will fail and cause
leak . in is difficult to continue the process of making LNG when this occurs . To prevent
this , mercury guard system have been established which remove mercury according to the
reaction
Active S
Hg + S HgS

Mercury sulghied is then adsorbed on the activated carbon bed which must be replaced
periodically after the bed is spent ( usually each 6 years ) .

9
Refrigeration

- 1-
Refrigeration

Contents:
Introduction ........................................................................................3
Lean Oil Absorption ...........................................................................4
Cryogenics ...........................................................................................6
Gas Chilling .........................................................................................7
Single Component Refrigeration (Propane) .................................. 13

- 2-
 Refrigeration
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Refrigeration, by definition, is the process of moving heat from one
temperature level to a higher temperature level. The heat at this higher
temperature level is then rejected to a secondary medium.

Refrigeration, or cooling of the process stream, occurs because in

changing its state from liquid to vapour, the refrigerant absorbs its
latent heat from the process stream.

ECONOMICS OF LIQUID SEPARATION

The value of a natural gas stream is determined by the component
make-up along with the demand and availability of users for the
components. In some locations this means selling the dehydrated gas
as a single product. For other markets it means liquefying and
separating the heavier gases from the methane and selling the liquids
as separate products.
Several different processes have been used to liquefy and separate
the heavier gases. Three processes: lean oil absorption, refrigeration
and cryogenics, are the most common in the gas processing industry.
The appropriate process for a facility is determined by the make-up of
the natural gas stream, available gas pressures and market for
separate products.

- 3-
Lean Oil Absorption
This process is one of the oldest separation processes, but it is still in
use. High percentages of propane (90 – 95%) and heavier
hydrocarbons (98 – 100 %) can be separated and recovered with this
process. Lean oil absorption, however, can recover little or none of the
ethane.
In this process heavier hydrocarbons are absorbed by the lean oil
when it comes in contact with the natural gas stream. The oil with the
trapped hydrocarbons must then be stripped to recover the heavy
hydrocarbons and prepare the oil for recycling. The heavier
hydrocarbons are recovered by raising the temperature of the oil
mixture. This activity along with necessary pumping requires large
amounts of energy. Because of this requirement, lean oil absorption is
not very energy efficient and therefore relatively expensive to operate.

Figure 5.1 Lean Oil Absorption

- 4-
Refrigeration

This process also has been in use for many years. Refrigeration
separates about the same volume of propane and heavier
hydrocarbons as lean oil absorption. In addition, it can recover small
amounts of ethane.

Refrigeration cools the natural gas stream by passing the stream

through a chiller. Chilling causes the heavier hydrocarbons to liquefy
and these can then be separated from the gas.

The energy requirements are for compressing the refrigerant and

driving the condenser. While the volume of heavier hydrocarbon
recovery is somewhat less than lean oil absorption, the amount of
equipment and energy used with refrigeration for recovery is much
less.

Figure 5.2 Refrigeration

- 5-
Cryogenics

This is the newest of the three processes. Cryogenics can separate

and recover similar quantities of propane and heavier hydrocarbons as
lean oil absorption. However, cryogenics, unlike the other methods,
can recover very high quantities of ethane (80 – 95 %).

Cryogenics cools a natural gas stream to extremely low temperatures

to liquefy the ethane and heavier hydrocarbons. The liquids are then
separated from the methane. While requiring additional compression to
raise the pressure of the methane, cryogenics has moderate energy
requirements when compared to lean oil absorption.

Figure 5.3 Cryogenics

- 6-
GAS CHILLING
Whenever gas is cooled sufficiently, liquids begin to form. A good
example of this separation process is the typical drinking glass. When
the glass is filled with ice, condensation forms on the outside surface of
the glass. This occurs because the warm moist room air is chilled
when it contacts the cold glass and water vapor condenses. The
temperature at which water condenses out of the air is called dew
point. Other examples are clouds, fog or dew.

Figure 5.4 Condensation

When natural gas is chilled, some of the heavier hydrocarbon gases
condense and separate from the gas. If natural gas is chilled to a very
low temperature, e.g., –150 °F (–100 °C), much of the ethane, almost
all of the propane and heavier gases will condense. The methane will
remain as a gas.

Figure 5.5 Gas Condensation

- 7-
The chilling process will, however, trap some of the methane in the liquid.
This is undesirable because Natural Gas Liquids (NGL's) with high methane
content are not marketable. Trapped methane must be removed from the liquid
hydrocarbons. Gas chilling operations maximize the amount of ethane or
heavier hydrocarbons liquefied but minimize the quantity of trapped methane.

Figure 5.6 Released Methane

The quantity of methane which remains trapped during the chilling

process depends on several factors:

 Pressure and temperature of the chilling system. Less methane

will be trapped at low pressures.

 Rate at which chilling takes place. More methane will be trapped

if the temperature is reduced very quickly.

 Mechanical efficiency of the vessel which separates methane

from the liquids. If the separation process of methane from
liquids is too warm, not only is the methane released, but so are
some of the heavier gases.

- 8-
Three methods are used for chilling natural gas:
Refrigeration, pressure reduction and expansion, each method is
typified by temperature range and recovery efficiency.
Method Temperature Typical Percent
Range Recovery
Refrigeration 0º to – 20ºF Ethane 25
(–18º to – 29ºC) Propane 55
Butanes 93
Heavier 97
Pressure – 50º to – 70ºF Ethane 70
Reduction (– 46º to – 57ºC) Propane 80
(J-T Process) Butanes 97
Heavier 99
Expander Process –125º to – 150ºF Ethane 80
(– 87º to – 101ºC) Propane 96
Butanes 99
Heavier 100
A. Refrigeration: This method uses an external refrigeration
system to chill the gas stream. Typical refrigeration systems use
either propane or Freon as the refrigerant.
B. Pressure Reduction: With this method the pressure of the gas
stream is reduced with a pressure reducing valve called a J-T
valve. The reduction in pressure causes a reduction in
temperature.
C. Expansion: Gas at a given temperature and pressure contains
energy which is in the form of heat, pressure or velocity. This
expansion method utilizes this energy. In this method the gas
stream passes through an expander-compressor. As gas flows
into the expander side of the expander-compressor, the pressure
drops. The flowing gas also turns a wheel in the expander.
Energy to turn the wheel is removed from the inlet gas and is
transferred to the outlet gas being compressed in the
compressor. The combination of gas expansion and removal of
energy produces very low (cryogenic) gas temperatures.

- 9-
 Figure 5.7 Expander Process

CRYOGENIC PROCESS
Cryogenic means very low temperatures, e.g., – 50 to –150 °F (– 46 to
–101 °C). When a gas stream is chilled to these temperatures the
process can be very efficient in condensing (liquefying) the heavier gas
components. However, the successful recovery of the liquids requires
a proper combination of temperature and pressure. Cryogenic
processing of a natural gas stream involves three basic steps:

Dehydration, Chilling, and Fractionation

Figure 5.8 Cryogenic Processing

- 10-
Dehydration

Dehydration is the removal of water or water vapor. Because of the

very cold temperatures in cryogenic processing, almost all of the water
vapor must be removed from the gas stream. Any water vapor
remaining will form hydrates damaging equipment or stopping gas flow.
This water is removed using different dehydration methods.
Dehydration can be accomplished with either a liquid desiccant or a dry
desiccant. Liquid-desiccant dehydration uses a liquid which has an
attraction for water. Natural gas and the liquid desiccant come in
contact and the desiccant absorbs the water from the gas. A liquid
desiccant can reduce the dew point of gas to as low as – 30 °F (– 34
°C).
If the gas must be drier, dry desiccant dehydration is used. A dry
desiccant is a solid, granulated material which has an attraction for
water. Gas flows through a bed of these granules and water attaches
itself to the surface of the granules. This process is called adsorption.
Dry desiccants can lower the dew point of gas to –150 °F (–101°C).

The method of dehydration at a specific facility depends on the water

content of the inlet gas. Some cryogenic processes will have only dry-
desiccant dehydration. However, if water content of the inlet gas is
high, then first there will be liquid-desiccant dehydration followed by
dry-desiccant dehydration.

Chilling

Chilling of the gas is the heart of the cryogenic process. Dry gas is
chilled in stages to liquefy the heavier hydrocarbon gases.

The gas steam can be chilled by heat exchange with cold gas, by
refrigeration, by pressure reduction and by pressure reduction with
energy removal. The first three methods provide cold temperatures in
the range of 0.0 °F to – 70 °F (–18°C to – 57 °C). To obtain the lowest
temperatures, pressure reduction with energy removal is accomplished
using the expander-compressor.

- 11-
Fractionation

When the heavier gases condense out of natural gas during chilling,
methane is trapped in the liquids. Fractionation is the process of
separating the liquids from the gas or separating any one component
from the chilled mixture.

The products of fractionation are gas and a liquid mixture. Methane is

boiled from the chilled liquid mixture. Heat for this process comes from
heat exchangers which are part of the cryogenic process. The
remaining liquid, a mixture of heavier hydrocarbons, is the other
product of fractionation.

- 12-
REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
Gas plant refrigeration processes can be divided into two broad
classifications:

1) Turbo-expander processes

2) Externally refrigerated processes

The turbo-expander processes referred to also as Cryogenic

(generation of cold) processes.

The externally refrigerated processes can in turn be broken down

as follows:
1) Single component refrigeration (e.g. propane)
2) Cascade refrigeration (two or three stages)

All are low temperature processes commonly employing temperatures

between – 34 °C and – 130 °C.

SINGLE COMPONENT REFRIGERATION

(PROPANE)
The single component propane refrigeration process is most common
gas plants employing familiar equipment which are fairly easy to
maintain. At loads over 50% the performance of the system is rated as
excellent achieving very low dew-points. Propane refrigeration is well
suited to gas plant applications where chilling to between –12°C and –
40°C is required. Boiling points of propane are – 42°C at 1 bar and
38°C at 131.0 bars.

Propane as Refrigerant

Propane as a refrigerant in externally refrigerated processes is

effective when large rate of heat removal are required from the gas

- 13-
streams. It is readily available in large plants and has excellent
thermodynamic qualities. It possesses much greater refrigerating
effect than other refrigerants such as Freon, Ammonia and Carbon
dioxide.

Propane boiling point at atmospheric pressure is fairly low and requires

large amounts of heat to convert it from a liquid to a gas in the chillers.
When in vapour form after compression, it requires a low pressure to
condense it for use as a liquid in another cycle. It has no offensive
odor and is not of poisonous or toxic nature. Further, propane has no
corrosive action on metals and can be safely stored in properly
designed vessels.
The biggest drawback of propane however, is that it is inflammable and
explosive when mixed with air. Great care is required to handle it and
all safety precautions should be adhered to when charging the system
initially or periodically or during any maintenance work in the system.

Propane Refrigeration Equipment

Propane refrigeration systems require the following equipment to
produce the required cold:
1) Chillers and Throttling Valve
2) Suction Scrubber
3) Centrifugal compressor
4) Condenser
5) Surge tank
6) Economizer
7) Propane Refrigerant Reclaimer

Chiller and Throttling Valve

The chillers accomplish the transfer of heat from the gas-stream to the
boiling refrigerant thus lowering the temperature of the incoming gas.

Generally the entire refrigeration process depends upon two facts:

1) That propane refrigerant has a low boiling point and will boil as
soon as it contacts the warm gas.
2) That the boiling point varies with the pressure of the refrigerant.
- 14-
The chillers as in Figure 5.9, generally, are kettle type shell and tube
heat exchangers cooling the raw gas to the designed temperature as it
flows through the tubes. The liquid propane in the shell is maintained at
such a level as to keep the tubes completely submerged. A standard
throttling valve (JT valve) is used and normally operates on the chiller
shell level control. The pressure of the whole system is controlled by a
butterfly control valve located in the vapor line overhead. It acts as a
back pressure controller.

The butterfly valve ensures that no excessive suction pressures

overload the compressors and in addition, maintains the chiller gas
temperature indirectly through the pressure variations. In operation, if
the gas temperature rises above the specified temperature for a
particular load, the butterfly valve opens allowing the chiller pressure to
drop and propane to boil at a lower temperature. As a result, gas
cooling is increased bringing the operating conditions back to normal.
In other words, at maximum plant throughput, the butterfly valve will
also be at the maximum opening while chiller pressure will be at the
minimum.
In some plants this control valve is omitted to minimize flow restriction
caused in the line. Chiller temperature control is accomplished through
compressor speed variations.

Figure 5.9 Propane Gas Chillers

- 15-
Compressor Suction Scrubber

The compressor suction drum which receives the cold propane vapor
is a vertical vessel of 6 ft or more and is equipped with a heating coil
near the bottom and a mist extractor near the top. The purpose of the
coil is to provide the required heat to flash off any liquids returning from
the chillers and protect the compressor from damage. This coil is kept
warm at all times (around 46°C) and the outgoing propane temperature
should be held at 10° cooler than the liquid propane in the storage
drum.

Liquid problems can occur in the following conditions:

1) Liquid carryover from the evaporators or economizers caused

from inadequate separation space, high liquid levels, plant upset
conditions, improper construction of baffles, etc.

2) Migration and condensation in cold suction lines and compressor

casing during system shutdown.
The liquid level in the suction drum is kept below the bottom of the
gauge drum and an alarm usually installed at that point indicates the
rising level of the liquid propane. A second controller and alarm,
located slightly above the first one, shuts the compressor down in case
the level in this drum becomes excessively high. Propane vapor from
the suction scrubber overhead next, enters the first stage of the
compressor.

The centrifugal compressor

Is driven by steam or gas turbine and is used to raise the pressure of

the propane refrigerant.

The condenser

Is used to cool and condense the discharged propane vapor from the
compressor back to its original liquid form.

- 16-
Surge Drum
The surge drum is used for storage the liquid propane until it begins its
next cycle. Makeup propane for losses occurred is handled at this point
and is estimated at around 1 kg per MM cf of gas. The pressure in this
drum must be maintained above 92.0 bars and in no case less than
35.0 bars above the compressor suction pressure. This enables the
propane to force its way through the chiller level control valve and
through the coils of the suction drum and re-claimed. A line may be
provided from the fuel gas system to re-pressure the surge drum if
required during the winter. All fresh propane purchased must be dry
and free of any moisture. A drier installed down stream from the surge
drum ensures of maximum propane dryness maintained in the system.

Economizers
The economizer is designed to lower the temperature of the liquid
refrigerant by flashing or heat exchange and improves the refrigeration
cycle efficiency.

The economizer, located in the liquid propane supply to the chillers,

reduces the compressor requirements by as much as 20 % by cooling
the liquid down before it commences its chilling duties. This is
accomplished by stepping down the liquid propane pressure achieving
some pre-cooling which assists in the overall refrigeration system.
Economizer vapor from overhead is recompressed again in the second
stage while the liquid from the bottom joins the liquid propane line to
the chillers. The level of the liquid is held fairly constant in this drum to
avoid any propane droplets entering into the second stage of the
compressor and since the refrigeration loads are usually well balanced
very little makeup should be required to maintain this level. However,
as an added precaution, high level in the economizer will shut down
the compressors and stop all flows in the system.

Economizers may be substituted by sub-coolers in some plants

provided there is a cold stream available to exchange heat with the
warm liquid propane.

- 17-
Propane Refrigerant Reclaimer
A reclaimer is provided in conjunction with the gas chillers to purify the
propane stream from the compressor lubricating oils causing reduced
chilling capacities. A coil located near the bottom of this drum receives a
portion of warm liquid propane and boils off batches of propane liquid
withdrawn from the bottom of the chiller shell. The propane vapor then flows
from overhead to the compressor suction, while any lube oil in the propane
remains in the blowcase. This oil if left in the chillers turns viscous at the low
temperatures encountered and forms a sludge which hampers the
operations.

Reclaiming propane chiller bottoms is a lengthy operation and usually takes

a whole shift to boil off one batch. Normally, several batches of propane with
heavy ends can be boiled off before it is necessary to dump the lube oil
residue from the re-claimer to the closed hydrocarbon drain system.

Principles of Operation
Referring to the general flow diagram in Figure 5.10 the cooling is
accomplished in the chillers by passing the inlet gas through the tubes
while maintaining a level of liquid propane at the proper pressure
around the tubes in the shell of the chiller. The heat exchange surface,
or outside area of the tubes in the chiller, is designed for an eight
degree approach, which means that the gas leaving the chillers will be
eight degrees warmer than the liquid propane in the chiller shell.
Therefore, to cool the gas to – 37 ºC requires that the propane be
maintained at – 42 ºC any pure liquid will have a specific boiling
temperature corresponding to the pressure being exerted against it.
For instance, water boils at 100°C when under atmospheric pressure at
sea level. If the pressure is lowered, or a vacuum pulled on the water,
the boiling temperature is also lowered until it will boil at a room
temperature of 26 °C under a 29 inch vacuum. When the liquid boils, it
absorbs heat from some source such as, in the case of a boiling pan of
water, the flame below it. In the plant chillers the propane will boil at –
42 °C if the pressure on it is held at atmospheric level and the boiling
liquid will absorb heat from the gas in the tubes. For each pound of
propane vaporized a definite amount of heat will be absorbed from the
gas. Thus, heat is removed until the temperature of the gas has
decreased to the desired level of – 37 °C. To cool the design volume of

- 18-
gas to – 37 °C it will be necessary to vaporize 4041 kg per minute of
propane.

To hold the pressure in the shell of the chillers down to 15 psia and to
provide a continuous supply of propane to replace that 'which has
vaporized, it is necessary to withdraw the vaporized propane from the
chiller, compress it, cool it until it is again a liquid and reinject it into the
chillers. Just as there is a definite boiling point for a pure liquid at any
given pressure, so is there also a definite temperature at which the
vapors will condense into a liquid for any pressure. Since the propane
condenser was designed with the same 8° approach as the chillers,
and the design cooling water temperature is 22 °C, the propane will
leave the condenser shell at 50 °C. To condense of 50 ºC, the propane
must be at 92.8 bars, however, to allow for pressure losses in the line
and condenser, the compressor was designed for a discharge
pressure of 96.6 bars. From the condenser, the liquid propane flows to
a surge tank which is merely to allow for minor upsets and changes in
operating conditions in the refrigeration system.

Figure 5.10 Propane Refrigeration Systems

- 19-
In flowing from the surge tank where the temperature is 50 °C to the
shell of the chillers where the temperature is – 42 °C, the propane
loses much of its cooling capacity in cooling itself. The horsepower
used in compressing the propane which has vaporized, only to cool the
remaining liquid, is lost, inasmuch as it has not been used in cooling
gas. To minimize this loss and increase the efficiency of the cycle, the
pressure on the liquid is reduced in three steps. At the two intermediate
steps, the liquid is allowed to boil or flash in vessels called flash tanks
or open flash economizers, thus cooling itself to a temperature
corresponding to the pressure level.

The resulting vapor must then only be compressed from that pressure
level to 96.6 bars instead of from 7 to 96.6 bars. This results in
considerable savings in horsepower

Propane Refrigeration Controls

Several controlling devices are involved in the automatic operation of
refrigeration system including the protective equipment designed to
shut down the units if and when abnormal operating conditions prevail.
One of these is the operation of the butterfly valve, on the chiller vapor
line, which may be over-ridden by another controller measuring the
suction pressure to the compressor. This not only maintains correct
chiller temperatures but ensures also that the compressor is not
overloaded. This controller may also limit the compressor speed
preventing the pull of a vacuum in the suction header. A high pressure
alarm in the suction line alerts personnel when the butterfly valve is
operated through the suction header controller while a low pressure
alarm signals abnormal operating conditions.

Another controller, located in the discharge header of the compressor,

serves to warn personnel when too much cooling is taking place in the
condenser.

The above are just a few of the controllers involved in the operation of
the refrigeration process. There are many more and may differ in
principle from plant to plant.

- 20-
PROPANE REFRIGERATION PROBLEMS
No system can be free of operational problems and this includes the
refrigeration systems of gas plants.

Accumulation of liquid propane in the compressor suction line:

Beginning with the refrigerant compressors, especially on start up
periods, the worst problem faced is the possible accumulation of liquid
propane in the suction line. This problem will occur if the pressure and
temperature conditions between the chillers and compressors are
allowed to equalize and propane vapor to condense. To prevent this,
all suction lines, liquid traps and drains should be always checked
before the unit is started, particularly if the flow of propane to the
chillers has not been blocked off.

Compressor high discharge head conditions:

Compressor high discharge head conditions, encountered particularly
in reciprocating compressors due to an erratic operation of the
condenser, could be alleviated by employing centrifugal types of
compressors delivering a constant head at any particular speed or
load.

Propane contamination with oil:

Propane contamination with oil picked up from the compressors is
another problem in gas plants. This problem can be minimized by
passing the compressed propane vapor through the oil separators,
usually of cyclone type, separating the oil which is drained away later.
The blow case (re-claimer) mentioned earlier is another means of
removing the oil from the propane if this unit is properly operated.

Excess liquid level builds up in the suction scrubber:

Excess liquid level builds up in the suction scrubber and inter-stage
bottles should be watched carefully and some liquid may have to be
returned back to the surge drum or dumped to close the hydrocarbon
drain system if levels become excessively high.

Compressor Surging:
The propane compressor is capable of a wide range in operating
conditions, but there is a point for each impeller speed below which the

- 21-
compressor operation becomes unstable and starts to surge. When the
differential pressure across an impeller exceeds that for which the
impeller was designed, at that speed, it can no longer pump and gas
will reverse flow.
As soon as enough gas has passed backward through the impeller to
bring the differential pressure down within the limits of the impeller, it
will immediately start to pump again until the differential limit of the
impeller is again exceeded, at which time the entire cycle will be
repeated. While gas is back flowing through the impeller and it is not
pumping, there is no load on the driver and the speed increases
rapidly.

Then as the impeller again starts to pump gas, the driver is loaded
violently causing a decrease in speed. Besides being extremely noisy
and stopping the flow of gas, surging can damage the compressor and
driver and could even cause enough vibration to part the propane lines.

The causes of surging are:

(1) Throttling the suction and reducing the pressure by starving the
compressor, or not supplying the minimum gas it must handle at the
speed it is operating and,
(2) Throttling the discharge and increasing the pressure differential
across the impeller.

During normal plant operations, the first would be the most likely cause
or surging and could best be remedied by furnishing more gas to the
compressor. A flow controller has been provided on the discharge of
the compressor so that when the discharge volume approaches the
surge point the controller will cause a motor valve to open in the
recycle line and divert discharge gas back into the suction. This gas,
however, will be at the discharge temperature of 63 °C and must be
cooled to normal suction temperature or it will cause the discharge
temperature to increase until the compressor becomes overheated and
it will not put up the differential pressure. To accomplish this cooling, a
temperature controller located in the compressor suction will cause
liquid propane from the surge tank to be injected into the bypass line
whenever the suction temperature rises above –39 °C. The liquid
propane will vaporize on contact with the warm discharge gas,
extracting heat from it and cooling it to the desired temperature.
- 22-
Aerial coolers Problems:
Other equipment frequently requiring attention is the aerial coolers and
their controlling equipment particularly in the summer time. It is well
known to the operators that without some water spraying on these
coolers during hot days the propane vapors would be difficult to
condense unless the compressor discharge pressure is lowered and
the load is cut back. Compressor pressures well designed will allow the
vapor to condense at around 48°C. For colder weather methanol
injection points are usually provided in the propane vapor lines in order
to avoid freezing of water vapor that might be contained in the
propane. Amount of methanol pumped should be controlled to avoid
interference with propane condensation. Methanol injection may also
be required into the propane liquid line just before the chiller level
control valve, especially when wet propane has been added to the
system.
Another frequent problem with aerial coolers is dirt accumulated on the
tubes, such as baked on dust, seeds from poplar trees or others which
decrease the heat transfer. Cleaning the condenser surfaces with jets
of water or performing other repairs will largely improve plant
production. Further, other foreign material collected inside the tube
surfaces, such as oil carried with the propane from the compressors
should be cleaned regularly to ensure proper heat transfer being
maintained.

The chiller tubes:

The chillers require some attention at times to ensure the tubes are
cleaned and free from oil coating which turns viscous and waxy like
solid grease. This not only interferes with the proper heat transfer but
accumulates around the level float preventing its free movements and
resulting in erratic control of the liquid level. This level should be held
as set at all times in order to avoid lower gas temperatures at low
levels or liquid propane carried into the vapor line at high levels and
eventually into the compressor suction drum. The chiller problems are
minimized to some extent, by the use of the blow case and good
operation of the oil separators located in the discharge header of the
compressors.

- 23-
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)

1
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)

Contents:
Introduction ................................................................................................ 3
Principles of Distillation ............................................................................. 5
Light Ends ................................................................................................... 9
Binary Column .......................................................................................... 10
Reflux ........................................................................................................ 13
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) .................................................................. 18
Introduction ............................................................................................... 18
The LNG Chain ......................................................................................... 20
Classic Cascade Process ........................................................................... 26
Propane Pre-cooled Mixed Refrigerant Process ..................................... 27
Storage and Loading. ................................................................................ 27
LNG Frequently Asked Questions........................................................... 33

2
LPG FRACTIONATION

1.1 Distillation
Distillation is a separation process. To separate things requires that some
difference be recognized and utilized. We separate many things by detecting a
difference in a physical property color, size, weight, shape Ear examples and
acting on this information.

Separation by distillation employs a difference in boiling points of two or

more materials.

The components or compounds making up crude oil are numbered in the

thousands, Many of these components have similar physical properties,
including boiling points that may differ by only a few degrees. Therefore it is
difficult to separate some pure compounds from the complex mixture of
components in crude oil by distillation alone.

Fortunately, we seldom need pure compounds and it is often sufficient to

separate groups of compounds from each other by boiling range.

If we separate many compounds in crude oil into groups we find that these
groups have characteristics that make them considerably more valuable than
the whole crude.

Some of those groups are products, dome may be feedstocks to other

processing units where they are chemically changed into more valuable
products, These products, in turn, are usually separated, or purified, by
distillation.

3
 1.2 Principles of Distillation
1.2 Principles of Distillation
The basic principle of distillation is simple, when a solution of two or more
components is boiled, the lighter component (the one most volatile the one
with the greatest tendency to vaporize) vaporizes preferentially.

This results in the vapor above the liquid being relatively rich in the lighter
(more volatile material) and the liquid is left with proportionately more of the
less volatile, or heavier, liquid. Thus a separation, to some degree, has taken
place as shown in Figure 1

FIGURE 1 VAPORIZATION
A two component mixture, comprising crosses and dots, is contained in a
vessel. We add heat until the more volatile material, in this case the dots, starts
ho vaporize. Now the vapor contains a higher proportion of dots than does the
original liquid.

It is important to note that an equilibrium will be established. That is at a

given temperature and pressure there is an equilibrium in composition
reached. By equilibrium we mean there is a given concentration of "dots" in

4
the vapor and in the liquid dependent upon the original concentration of each
component in the liquid and their respective properties in relation to each
other.
As shown in Figure 2, a practical operation as it is used in the refinery. First,
let's separate and remove the product.

Lighter Boiling Component

Heavier Boiling Component

FIGURE 2 SIMPLE DISTILLATION

By cooling the overhead vapor, it condense and remove from the original
mixture. Thus a partial separation has been made, partial because there are a
few "crosses" in the distillate product. This has occurred because at the
temperature and pressures we are conducting the distillation, the heavier
component still vaporizes to some extent. This is typically the case, because
usually the components of interest in a given distillation have fairly close
boiling points.

5
Therefore, to purify the distillate product, we may have to conduct a second
distillation. We can visualize this as shown in Figure 3, obviously, we can
continue to cascade these simple distillations until the desired purity of
product is achieved.

FIGURE 3 2 STAGE DISTILLATION

The distillations depicted so far are that we call batch distillations, and are not
normally practical in the refinery, although it is done frequently in the
laboratory. Let's make our
distillation equipment look more like refinery pieces of equipment and let's
make it continuous instead of a batch operation.

6
This is called a flash vaporization. It is shown in Figure 4. Liquid is pumped
continuously through a heater and into a drum where the pressure is lower.
The lighter material flashes (reboils) instantly. Vapor and liquid flow from the
drum continuously. The same system is shown more diagrammatically in the
lower section of Figure 4.

FIGURE 4 FLASH VAPORIZTION

7
Suppose we have 50% of the charge taken overhead. That is, we set the
temperature and the pressure of the system such that one half of the charge is
boiled off. And further suppose the resultant overhead product does not
contain the desired concentration of the lighter product. As we have seen
before, we can increase the purity by adding a stage of distillation as shown in
Figure 5.

FIGURE 5 SCHEMATIC ILLUSTRATION OF A

TYPICAL DISTILLATION OPERATION

8
1.3 Light Ends

Regardless of how the fluids are removed from natural gas, fractionation is
necessary if products that meet any kind of rigid specification are to be made.
The number of fractionating columns required depends on the number of
products to be made and the character of the liquid which serves as feed. The
single tower system shown in Figure 6(a) ordinarily produces one
specification product from the bottom stream, with all other components in the
feed passing overhead. This type of fractionator (stabilizer) is ordinarily used
where a natural gasoline or stable liquid is being produced for sale to a
pipeline.

FIGURE 6 TYPICAL FRACTIONATION SYSTEMS

The two-tower system shown in Figure 6 (b) is most commonly used to
produce an LPG mixture overhead and a natural gasoline product as the
bottoms. In this system, the deethanizer must remove all methane, ethane, and
other constituents not salable in the two product streams from the second

9
tower. Any material that enters the second tower must necessarily leave in one
of the product streams.
The three-tower system shown in Figure 6 (c) most commonly produces
commercial propane, commercial butane and natural gasoline as products. In
this system also, the deethanizer must work properly to remove all
constituents that cannot be sold in one of the three products. The sequence of
fractionation following the deethanizer may be varied. In the second tower, an
LPG mixture could be produced overhead with natural gasoline produced as
bottoms. The third tower would then split the LPG into commercial propane
overhead and commercial butane as bottoms. This sequence is favored
sometimes where the market situation is variable and a market for LAG only
exists during a portion of the year. During this period, the third tower would
be shut down and not operated.

1.3.1 Binary Column

The column shown in Figure 7 is a simple binary column with seven trays.
There is only one feed and there are only two products (overhead and bottom).
More complex columns may have several feed streams, entering the column at
different points, and more than two products, As shown in Figure 7 there is
reflux liquid and reboiling vapor returned to the column in addition to the feed.

FIGURE 7 SIMPLE BINARY COLUMN

10
If we compare feeds to and products from two continuous stages; we note the
liquid from the upper stage, and the feed to the lower stage, are similar in that
both are leaner in the lighter component than is the feed to the upper stage,
there, we could combine each intermediate product with the feed to the next
lower stage. This would improve the yield of the light fraction and all the
original feed would be recovered eventually in the overhead and bottom
products.

An obvious simplification in equipment can be made if we allow the hot vapor

from any stage to mix directly with the liquid from the stage above the next
higher stage (the intermediate product). This eliminates the need for the
intermediate condensers and heaters. Now we have the continuous, multi-
stage distillation.

We have described staging for the purpose of concentrating the lighter

component in the overhead, The same principles apply to concentrating the
heavier component in the bottom product.

The upper two stages are called "rectifying" stages; those below the feed are
called "stripping" stages.

The upper rectifying section increases purity of the overhead product while
the stripping section increases recovery of the overhead product. In many
cases the bottom product in the one of primary interest. For the bottom, or
heavy, product the rectifying section increased recovery and the stripping
section improves purity.

11
1.3.2 equilibrium Stage

A stage as shown in Figure 8 (or more correctly, an equilibrium stage) is

defined as any portion of the distillation column such that the liquid and vapor
leaving it have compositions in equilibrium with each other. By definition,
then, a stage should be designed such that it provides intimate contact, or
mixing, of the rising vapor and the descending liquid. The concept of an
equilibrium stage is converted to an actual mechanical separation tray by
using an efficiency factor which is lees than one and depends on the tray
design.

FIGURE 8 BABBLE CAP TRAY (EQUILIBRIUM

STAGE)

12
Figure 9 shows three types of contact trays used. Bubble caps have a riser in
the middle of the cap through which the gas passes. This gas hits the top and
flows out through the slots. The riser keeps the liquid from flowing through
the gas opening, which is called weeping. As the name implies ,sieve trays are
nothing but a series of holes drilled in flat metal. Gas bubbles through the
holes. The size, number and spacing of holes must be proper to obtain good
gas-liquid contact and prevent weeping.
The Ballast tray shown is one manufacture’s version of a valve tray, the
generic description where the contact device move; with gas rate. There are
many types and configuration which are proprietary to a given manufacturer.
The "valve" rests on the tray deck in the closed position until gas impact is
sufficient to cause it to open. It is, in effect a variable orifice whose opening
depends on gas rate up to the limit imposed by the mechanism which holds it
in place.
Both sieve and valve trays are less expensive than and can he more efficient
than bubble cap but weeping can present a problem at low gas or liquid rates.

FIGURE 9 COMMON TYPES OF TRAYS

13
1.3.3. Reflux

A definition of a ward "reflux" is a "flowing back". Applying to distillation

tower, reflux is the liquid flowing back down the tower from each successive
stage.

Kinds of Reflux (Figure 10 & 11)

A. Cold Reflux

Is defined as reflux that is supplied at some temperature, below the

temperature at the top of the tower. Each pound of this reflux removes a
quantity of heat equal to the sum of its latent heat and sensible heat
required to raise its temperature from reflux drum temperature to the
temperature at the top of the tower. A constant quantity of reflux is
recalculated from the peflux drum into the top of the tower. It is vaporized
and condensed and returns to the reflux drum.

B. Hot Reflux

Is reflux that is admitted to the tower at the same temperature as that

maintained at the top of the tower. It is capable of removing only the latent
heat because no difference in temperature is involved.

C. Internal Reflux

Is the reflux or overflow from plate to plate in the tower, and may be called
hot reflux because It is always substantially at its boiling point. It is also
capable of removing only the latent heat because no difference in
temperature is involved.

D. Circulating Reflux

It is able to remove only the sensible heat that is represented by its change
in temperature as it circulates. The circulated reflux is withdrawn and is
returned to the tower after having been cooled.

E. Side Reflux

14
This type of reflux (circulating reflux) may be conveniently used to remove
heat at points, below the top o£ the tower, If used in this manner, it tends to
decrease the volume of vapor the tower handle as shown in Figure 9.

15
FIGURE 10 FUNCTION OF COLD AND SIDE REFLUXES

FIGURE 11 KINDS OF REFLUX

16
Reflux Ratio

Is defined as the amount of internal reflux divided by the amount of top

product. Since internal or hot reflux can be determined only by computation,
plant operators usually obtain the reflux ratio by dividing actual (Cold) reflux
by the top product. It is denoted by R, which equal L/D.

The importance of Reflux Ratio

In general, increasing the reflux improves overhead purity and increases

recovery of the bottom product. The number of stages required for a given
separation will be dependent on the reflux ratio used.

Two important things to be considered:

1. The minimum number of plates (stages) is required for a given

separation at condition of total reflux.

2. There is a minimum reflux ratio below which it is impossible to

obtain the desired enrichment, however many plated are used.

Total Reflux

Total reflux is the conclusion when all the condensate is returned to the tower
as reflux; no product is taken off.

At total reflux the number of stages required for a given separation is the
minimum at which it is theoretically possible to achieve the separation.

Total reflux , carried out at:

1. Towers start-up

2. The testing of the tower

17
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)

1-Introduction
When natural gas cooled to temperature approximately -260 degrees F, at
atmospheric pressure it condenses to a liquid called liquefied natural gas (LNG) .
One volume of this liquid takes up about 1/600 of the volume of natural gas at stove
burner tip . LNG weighs about 45 percent as much as water. LNG is odorless,
colorless, non-corrosive and non-toxic . When vaporized, it burns only in
concentrations of 5 percent to 15 percent when mixed with air . Neither LNG nor its
vapor can explode in unconfined environments.

Composition

Natural gas is composed primarily of methane (typically, at least 90%), but may also
contain ethane, propane and heavier hydrocarbons . Small quantities of nitrogen,
oxygen, carbon dioxide, sulfur compounds, and water may also be found in
"pipeline" natural gas. The liquefaction process removes the oxygen, carbon
dioxide, sulfur compounds, and water. The process can also be designed to purify
the LNG to almost 100% methane.

LNG is a relatively costly and inefficient method of moving natural gas to market.
The gas has to be liquefied and transported in specially built ships to an LNG
receiving terminal where it is turned back into its original, gaseous, form. This
involves significant investment in facilities and the consumption of 1015 per cent of
the gas in its production, liquefaction, transportation and regasification. Pipelines
employ simpler technology and involve a much smaller loss of gas (perhaps 23 per
cent). As a result, a pipeline is generally the preferred method of transportation for
natural gas. However, over long distances or where water too deep for pipelines has
to be crossed, LNG is often the only technically and economically viable
transportation option.

18
 Figure 3.2
Gas and Oil Transportation Costs

The other advantage that LNG enjoys over pipeline gas is the ability to deliver to
two or more markets located some distance from each other. This can help facilitate
the marketing of the natural gas since the bringing together of several buyers can
achieve both the scale of demand and the build-up needed by the project. In contrast
the economic viability of a long-distance pipeline may require that a large volume of
natural gas be delivered to a single market. In a new market it may take some time
and considerable investment to develop the size of market needed to justify the
investment in the pipeline. Consequently, an LNG project may be the chosen
method of developing a gas reserve even in cases where a pipeline development may
be the lower-cost option.

Figure 3.2 also shows estimates of the cost of moving oil by pipeline and by ship.
The costs are much lower than for natural gas. There is more energy per unit volume
of oil than for gas and hence an oil pipeline can move more energy than a similar-
sized gas pipeline. The cost of an oil tanker is much lower than an LNG ship making
the cost of moving oil by ship only a small fraction of the cost of transporting LNG.
The comparatively low cost of moving oil has meant that it has become an
internationally traded commodity with, for example, only small variations in prices
between markets. In contrast, the higher cost of moving gas has resulted in markets
developing on a regional basis with different pricing regimes and, often, different
contractual arrangements in each market.

The LNG Chain

In assessing the feasibility of an LNG project each element of the chain which links
the natural gas in the ground to the ultimate consumer of the natural gas has to be
19
considered. This chain is shown in Figure 3.3. The main links are natural gas
production, liquefaction, shipping, receiving terminal (including regasification),
distribution of the regasified LNG and, finally, consumption of the gas. In the
majority of the currently operational LNG schemes, the buyer takes delivery at its
receiving terminal so gas production, liquefaction and shipping are the responsibility
of the seller. This is an ex-ship or cost, insurance and freight (CIF) contract. The
main difference between ex-ship and CIF is the point at which the buyer takes
ownership of the LNG. In a CIF contract this is either as the LNG is loaded on to the
vessel or on the voyage to the receiving terminal. Payment is made at the time that
ownership transfers but the seller remains responsible for the transportation and
insures the cargo on behalf of the buyer. In an ex-ship sale, ownership of the LNG
transfers to the buyer as the LNG is unloaded and payment becomes due at that
time.

LNG Chain

In the remainder of the operational projects, the buyer lifts the LNG from the
liquefaction plant and is responsible for transporting the LNG to the receiving
terminal. This is a free on board (FOB) contract. In these cases, it is the buyer who
is responsible for the shipping, either owning the LNG ships or chartering them
from a shipowner. The seller will be less interested in the economics of the shipping,
but he will want to be sure that the buyers' plans for shipping will provide a safe and
reliable offtake for the LNG.

All the LNG projects developed between 1964 and 1997 have had as their buyer (or
buyers) financially sound companies. In Europe the buyers have been gas utilities,
most of which are wholly or partly government-owned. In Japan, the buyers have
been privately owned gas and electricity utilities, all of which are strong and reliable
customers for an LNG project. The most recent entrants into the LNG market in

20
Asia have been Korea and Taiwan. In both countries the buyers are companies in
which the government is the major shareholder. In all these cases the buyer could be
relied on to construct the facilities to receive, regasify and distribute the gas or, in
the case of the electricity utilities in Japan, the power stations to consume the gas.
As a result, the assessment of the feasibility of an LNG project only needed to
consider gas production, liquefaction and shipping. The feasibility of the remainder
of the chain was an issue for the buyer. The only issues downstream of the shipping
phase that the seller needed to address in the feasibility study were the volumes the
buyer would take during build-up and at plateau, the potential seasonal or other
variations in offtake, the timing of the buyer's requirements and the expected price.

This may change as new markets for LNG are developed. In many countries,
Independent Power Producers (IPPs) are expected to be the main customers for new
supplies of natural gas. Such projects will provide a very different risk profile
compared with traditional buyers. They will often be single-project companies
without the balance sheet strength or the government support enjoyed by the gas or
power utilities that have been the LNG buyers in the past. It may be necessary for
the LNG seller to invest in the receiving terminal and the power plant in order to
make the project viable. Even where this does not happen, the financing of the gas
production, liquefaction plant and shipping is likely to be closely linked with the
financing of the receiving terminal and the power plant. This means that the
assessment of project feasibility may have to consider the entire LNG chain from
gas production through to gas consumer.

Feed gas
Although nearly all LNG plants receive non-associated natural gas, the quality of the
gas varies widely between projects. This can have a significant impact on the cost of
both field development and the LNG plant which, in turn, will affect the economics
of the overall project. The existence of condensate or other heavier hydrocarbons in
the gas produced from the field can be of particular benefit. These products will be
separated from the natural gas and sold in the oil market, providing an additional
revenue stream which helps offset the cost of gas production. Condensates are an
important additional revenue stream in projects such as Indonesia (Arun), Qatargas
and the Australian North-West Shelf project. Liquid petroleum gases (LPG)propane
and butaneare also present in most natural gas fields. They are separated from the
lighter gases, methane and ethane, before the feedgas enters the liquefaction process.
Propane is used as a refrigerant gas for the initial cooling of the feedgas. In some
projects, there are sufficient LPGs available to justify selling them separately from
the LNG, thereby generating a further revenue stream. This happens, for example, in
the Indonesian (Arun and Bontang), Abu Dhabi and Australian North-West Shelf
projects.

21
In other projects, it is not economic to sell LPG separately since the volumes
available are not large enough to remunerate the capital investment in facilities for
its storage and loading. In these cases the LPGs remain with the methane and ethane
in the LNG increasing the heat content (calorific value) of the LNG which adds to
the income from each unit volume of LNG since payment is based on the heating
value of the resulting gas vapour. Ethane, another hydrocarbon found in varying
quantities in most natural gas reservoirs, is generally left in the LNG. However, it
can be used as a feedstock for petrochemical manufacture so where there is a
relatively high proportion of ethane in the feedgas its separation could provide a
feedstock for an adjacent chemicals plant.

Impurities in the natural gas will increase costs since the liquefaction process needs
a very clean feedgas in order to work effectively. All gas reserves contain
contaminants such as water, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide or trace elements
such as mercury. Carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide or water would freeze out in
the liquefaction process and stop the flow of gas while mercury would have a
catastrophic corrosive effect on the aluminium which is used extensively in the
process units. Contaminants have to be removed before the gas enters the
liquefaction process which can add significantly to the capital cost of the project.
The Nattuna field in Indonesian waters north of the island of Borneo contains at
least 40 tcf of methane and is relatively close to LNG markets in Japan, Korea and
Taiwan. Unfortunately, it also contains around 200 tcf of carbon dioxide. The
technical problems and the costs of separating out and disposing of the carbon
dioxide has meant that the gas remains undeveloped over 20 years after it was first
discovered. The design of the liquefaction process will have to take into account the
composition of the feedgas. This can have a significant impact on the overall cost of
the plant, especially where it has to process gas from two or more fields which may
provide feedgases with very different compositions.

LNG Plant
The site for the liquefaction plant will generally be chosen as close as possible to the
gas reserves to minimise the cost of piping the gas to the plant. The plant site also
has to have close access to deep water. The largest LNG ships in operation in the
1990s (with the capacity to carry 135,000 cubic metres of LNG) need around 14
metres' water depth to berth safely. It is possible to use a long jetty to access deep
watera 5-kilometre jetty was originally used at the Brunei LNG plantbut this will
add to project costs. It is also necessary to select a location with sheltered berthing
facilities and easy access for the LNG ships in order to minimise the risk of delays
to the fleet. A further requirement of the plant site is good soil conditions to carry
the weight of the process facilities and tanks. Any requirements for land reclamation
or major piling to support the tanks and other equipment will add to the
development costs.

22
Having chosen the site for the plant, one of the next key decisions for the project
developers will be the capacity of the plant and number of LNG trains. An LNG
train consists of the gas processing and liquefaction units required to treat and
liquefy the gas. Most LNG plants consist of two or more LNG trains each of which
can operate independently of the others. This means that in the event of problems on
one train, or when a train is shut down for overhaul or maintenance, the others can
remain in operation, thereby minimising the risk of total loss of production for both
the LNG producer and the buyer. The Kenai plant in Alaska was the only LNG plant
in operation in 1997 based on a single train. However, the plant in Trinidad, which
is due to commence production around the year 2000, is planned to start life as a
single-train unit. Many of the plants in operation have had extra trains added as they
have been expanded to meet increased demand. The Bontang plant in Indonesia was
originally constructed as a two-train plant. By 1997 it had six trains in operation, a
seventh being commissioned and an eighth due to come onstream by the year 2000.
A ninth train was also being considered for commissioning after that year.

The size of LNG trains has increased over time as technology has improved. The
early plants built in the 1960s and early 1970s used trains with capacities of around
1 mtpa but this increased to around 22.5 mtpa by the late 1980s when the Australian
North-West Shelf project was commissioned. The Oman LNG project, which is due
to come onstream in the year 2000, has LNG trains designed to produce around 3.4
mtpa of LNG. Designs now exist for train sizes of 4 mtpa or more. The decision on
the size of the LNG plant will take into account a number of factors including the
size of the gas reserves, the technology chosen for the liquefaction of the natural gas
and the expected demand for the LNG. Figure 3.3.3 lists the design capacity of each
of the operational LNG plants supplying the Asian market and their estimated 1997
production capacity. All the projects are producing more than their original design
capacity and in some cases the increase is very large. In designing and constructing
LNG trains owners and contractors have generally built in significant margins to
minimise the risk of the project failing to meet its contractual obligations with the
buyers. As operational experience is gained, confidence in the ability of the plant to
produce above design capacity increases and the project is able to offer to sell the
additional LNG on a long-term basis. Debottlenecking of the facilities can further
add to the production capacity. For example, the Australian North-West Shelf plant
is producing and selling some 25 per cent more LNG than the design capacity of the
original three trains. In many LNG plants, major additions to capacity are achieved
by building additional LNG trains. This is a cost-effective way of increasing
capacity since advantage can be taken of existing infrastructure such as storage and
loading facilities. As Figure 3.3.3 shows, both of the Indonesian LNG plants, the
Abu Dhabi plant and the Malaysian plant have all had additional trains added. The
most dramatic increase in capacity is at the Bontang plant in Indonesia where the
number of trains has increased from two to six and the production capacity has

23
increased nearly fivefold over the original design. As discussed above, further LNG
trains are under construction and being planned at Bontang which will take its
production capacity to over 20 mtpa by the turn of the century.

The process for the liquefaction of the feedgas is essentially the same as that used in
domestic refrigerators, but on a massive scale. A refrigerant gas is compressed and
released through a valve which reduces its temperature (the Joule Thompson effect).
It is then used to cool the feedgas. The temperature of the feedgas is eventually
reduced to minus 161 degrees centigrade (minus 253 degrees Fahrenheit) at which
point methane, the main constituent of natural gas, liquefies. At this temperature all
the other hydrocarbons in the natural gas will also be in liquid form. In the LNG
process constituents of the natural gas (propane, ethane and methane) are used as
refrigerants either individually or as a mixture. The earliest LNG plants (for example
the Kenai project in Alaska) employed a cascade process developed by the Phillips
Company where separate refrigerants

(propane, ethylene and methane) are used in sequence to liquefy the feedgas. In this
process, ethylene is used as a refrigerant since it is a product widely available on the
open market and avoids the need to separate the ethane from the feedgas. In the case
of the Kenai project, the natural gas supplied to the plant consists mainly of methane
so both propane and ethylene refrigerants are brought into the plant from outside
sources.

A simplified diagram of the cascade process is shown in Figure 3.3.3A. The first
refrigerant circuit uses propane which, in addition to cooling the feedgas, also
precools the ethylene and methane used in the second and third stages of the
liquefaction process. The feedgas, which emerges from this initial cooling stage at a
temperature of minus 35 degrees centigrade, is then passed through the second
refrigerant, ethylene, which brings its temperature down to minus 105 degrees
centigrade. The ethylene also cools the methane refrigerant used in the final stage of
the process. The methane refrigerant brings the feedgas temperature down to minus
161 degrees centigrade and the resulting liquid (LNG) is pumped to the storage
tanks to await loading on to an LNG ship. The cascade process employs plate fin
heat exchangers which are also used in liquefaction technologies now being offered
by other manufacturers.

Most of the LNG plants built in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s employed technology
developed by Air Products and Chemicals Inc. (APCI) which uses a mixed
component refrigerant (MCR) made up of propane, ethane and methane. In more
recent versions of this process, a propane circuit is used as a precoolant for both the
feedgas and the MCR which increases the overall efficiency of the process. A
simplified diagram of the propane precooled mixed refrigerant process is shown in
Figure 3.3.3B. The propane precooling circuit reduces the temperature of the

24
feedgas to minus 35 degrees centigrade. The feedgas is then passed through spirally
wound tubes in the main heat exchanger where its temperature is reduced to minus
161 degrees centigrade by the MCR refrigerant. In both the cascade and the APCI
processes the final removal of the heavy hydrocarbons (LPGs and condensates) is
made after the precooling of the feedgas by the propane refrigerant. Although the
APCI technology has been dominant in the last 25 years, advanced versions of the
cascade technology were developed during the mid-1990s and a modern version of
the Phillips process, first used in the Kenai project in Alaska in the 1960s, has been
chosen by Trinidad LNG project. Other suppliers are also developing their own
liquefaction processes. This means that there are now alternative types of heat
exchanger available to companies planning a new LNG project. Each of the
processes has its own advantages and disadvantages, but the project developer now
has the opportunity to choose the process best suited to its particular requirements.

Figure 3.3.3A
Classic Cascade Process

The compressors are important pieces of equipment in the LNG plant whatever the
technology. In the early LNG plants, the compressors were steam-driven but more
recent plants have used industrial gas turbines as the compressor drivers. This has
reduced capital costs since the need for steam-generating facilities and water
treatment plants for the boiler water

25
 Figure 3.3.3B
Propane Precooled Mixed Refrigerant Process

feed has been eliminated. One of the contributors to the increase in train capacity
has been the use of ever-larger gas turbines.

In most LNG plants sea water is used as a coolant. This requires facilities to handle
large volumes of water drawn from some distance offshore and from as great a depth
as practicable to ensure that the temperature of the inlet water is as low as possible
to increase the efficiency of the cooling process. The Australian North-West Shelf
plant is unique in relying entirely on air cooling. The Kenai plant in Alaska uses air
cooling in the initial stages of the liquefaction process and freshwater cooling for the
final, methane, refrigerant circuit.

Storage and Loading.

After the gas has been processed into a liquid it is transferred to the storage tanks to
await loading into the LNG ships. The tanks are generally constructed of nickel steel
(i.e. steel containing 9 per cent nickel) to withstand the extremely low temperatures
of the LNG. The tanks are insulated to maintain the liquid at minus 161 degrees
centigrade. Some of the stored LNG boils off and the resulting vapour is used as fuel
gas for the plant. There are three main designs of LNG storage tank: single
containment, double containment and full containment (Figure 3.3.4). A single
containment tank has a nickel steel wall and roof. A second carbon steel wall
surrounds the tank and holds the insulation. This second wall is not designed to hold
the LNG so, in the event of a failure of the inner tank, the LNG could leak out. The
tank is normally surrounded by a bund (low wall) which would contain any spilled
LNG. Facilities to spray foam and water on to the LNG will also generally be
installed to ensure that the risk of ignition of the vapour from any spilled LNG is
minimised. A double containment tank has an inner nickel steel wall and roof. A
26
second outer concrete wall surrounds the tank and is designed to contain the LNG in
the event of the inner wall failing. Vapour would vent to the atmosphere in these
circumstances but foam and water spray would be used to protect against any risk of
an ignition. Finally, a full containment tank has an inner tank, with nickel steel walls
and an aluminium floating roof, which contains the liquid LNG. It is surrounded by
a second concrete outer tank which can contain both the liquid LNG and the vapour.

The full containment tank provides maximum integrity against failure and, hence,
the tanks can be placed much closer together than for single containment tanks.
However, the costs are significantly higher so it may be an expensive option
especially if there is adequate land area available for the tank farm. Single
containment tanks require a greater distance between tanks, but the cost of each tank
is lower. Whatever the choice of tank design, sufficient safeguards are put in place
to ensure that the risk of an LNG spill is an absolute minimum. Many of the tanks in
the early LNG plants were single containment. Following some problems with
cryogenic tanks (in LPG rather than LNG storage), there was a move towards full
containment tanks. The most recent LNG projects to come onstream (Malaysia,
Australia North-West Shelf and Qatargas) have all used full containment tanks. The
storage tanks represent a significant part of the total cost of the LNG plantas much
as 20 per cent or more. In addition to choosing the design of the storage tanks, the
project developers will have to make decisions on the total volume of the storage
capacity and the number of tanks to be built.

27
The total volume of storage is determined taking into account the need to provide
sufficient capacity to minimise the risk of delay to the LNG ships, balanced against
avoiding unnecessary additional capital costs of extra storage capacity. The
optimum volume of storage required is usually evaluated using a sophisticated
simulation programme which models the operation of the LNG plant and the
shipping fleet, taking into account the probabilities of the plant shutting down and
the ships being delayed by weather or other factors. The main factor determining the
storage needs is usually the size of the LNG ships. Most operational plants have the
capacity to store at least two shiploads of LNG. Thus a project using 135,000-cubic
metre ships would require about 250,000300,00() cubic metres of storage. This is
generally achieved with three to five tanks each with a capacity of between 60,000
and 80,000 cubic metres. Larger tanks with a capacity of up to 200,000 cubic metres
have been designed and are currently being developed for use at receiving terminals
where buyers often have to hold strategic stocks of LNG to deal with possible
interruptions to supply and fluctuations in demand. Operators of liquefaction plants
generally prefer to use several smaller tanks to increase flexibility and to minimise
any disruptions in the event of a tank being out of commission.

LNG Plant Design and Construction

In most LNG projects it is the LNG plant which has a longer time-frame for design
and construction than any other part of the chain. It is also likely to be the major
item of capital investment for the project developers. Therefore, the LNG plant will
be critical in determining both the overall project development schedule and the total
project cost. However, work on the LNG plant has to be co-ordinated closely with
the planning and development of natural gas production, the design and construction
of the LNG ships, the financing of the project and the marketing of the LNG.

The main stages in the design and construction of an LNG plant are; conceptual
engineering, front end engineering design (FEED) and, finally, the detailed
engineering and construction of the plant itself. As the work moves through each of
these stages the design of the plant becomes more closely defined, the equipment
needs are identified and the confidence in the estimated cost increases. Conceptual
engineering involves turning the initial ideas of the project sponsors into an outline
definition of the LNG plant which can be used to call for bids from the contractors
for the FEED study. Before moving into the conceptual engineering, the project
sponsors will have decided on the approximate size of the plant based on assessment
of the requirement for LNG in the market and of the size and producibility of the gas
reserves. During conceptual engineering, the targets for plant capacity will be turned
into firm plans to produce the required volumes of LNG. Conceptual engineering
will generally be carried out by a team of engineers drawn from the project sponsors
or from one of the sponsors appointed as technical leader. Contractors may be used

28
to provide specialist expertise and initial contact will be made with equipment
manufacturers, including licensors of liquefaction technology.

As conceptual engineering progresses, decisions will be made on the number of

trains, the design capacity of each train and the basic layout of facilities on the plant
site. Storage requirements are also likely to be determined in consultation with the
team working on shipping requirements. The preferred liquefaction process will
probably be identified at this stage. It is possible to defer this decision but delay is
likely to result in additional costs since it will be necessary to run with two (or
more) alternative plant designs in parallel. Having identified the preferred

liquefaction process it will be possible to work with the licensor of the technology to
determine the number and size of the turbines needed to provide compression in the
plant. It is also likely at this stage that a decision will be made on whether to use air
or water cooling for the plant. One of the key factors to be taken into account in
designing the plant is the specification of the feedgas. This will determine what
facilities are needed to treat the gas before it enters the liquefaction process. It will
also be an important factor in determining the heating value and the constituents of
the LNG which will be produced.

The specification of the LNG will be important in the marketing since prospective
buyers will want to be confident that the LNG received from the project will be
compatible with their facilities and meet the requirements of users of the regasified
LNG. For example, each buyer will want to know the heating value of the LNG it
will receive. If it is higher than LNG (or pipeline natural gas) it already receives
from other sources then it may be necessary to install nitrogen injection facilities to
reduce the heating value. Conversely, LNG with a low heating value may have to be
spiked with LPG to bring it to a similar level to its other supplies. The density of the
LNG will also be important to the buyer. If LNGs of different densities are stored in
the same tank there is a risk that the contents could roll over-a phenomenon whereby
the lighter contents rise to the top of the tank. If this happens rapidly there is the
possibility of a rapid build-up of gas pressure which could cause the tank to fail.
Consequently, if the LNG offered by the project has a very different density from
other LNGs that the buyer receives, then it may be necessary for the buyer to
segregate the LNG to be received from the project by building new tanks or by
installing mixers on the existing tanks.

If condensate and LPGs are to be extracted from the feedgas and sold as separate
product streams then facilities will have to be included for their handling, storage
and export from the plant. The need to load products other than LNG on to ships
will impact on the design of the berthing facilities. The LNG plant must be able to
berth, load and dispatch the LNG ships with a minimum of delay. Any disruption to

29
the scheduling of the LNG fleet could have a major impact on the project's ability to
supply the LNG in the volumes and on the schedule agreed with the buyers.
Therefore, it may be necessary to provide separate berthing facilities for condensate
and LPG ships, although on some projects LNG and LPGs are loaded from the same
berth.

The output from the conceptual engineering will be a statement of requirements

(SOR) for the LNG plant. This document will provide the basis for the production of
a new cost estimate which will be the first in which some confidence can be placed.
Even so, at this stage the range of uncertainty of the estimate is likely to be
wideprobably plus or minus 30 per cent around the base case estimate. The project
sponsors will use the SOR as a basis on which to prepare bid packages to call for
proposals from contractors to carry out the FEED work. The selected FEED
contractor will prepare a more detailed design of the plant. The requirement for all
major pieces of equipment will be identified during FEED and final decisions will
be made on such key issues as the number, size and type of storage tanks and the
number and size of turbines. The appointed FEED contractor will work closely with
a team from the project sponsors (or the appointed technical leader) since final
choices will be made on key aspects of the plant design. It is possible that contracts
may be awarded during the FEED process for major items of equipment which have
the longest lead times and hence could impact on the overall project schedule. The
storage tanks often fall into this category and it may also be necessary to place
orders for the heat exchangers and the turbines.

Completion of the FEED will allow a new cost estimate to be made with a reduced
level of uncertaintypossibly a range of plus or minus 20 per cent around the base
case estimate. It should also be possible, at this stage, to develop a schedule for
construction of the plant which will provide a basis for estimating the phasing of
capital expenditure. This will be an important issue in both the economics of the
investment and seeking finance for the project. The objective will be to keep early
expenditure as low as possible since the sponsors will want to minimise the time
interval between the spending of the capital and the receipt of revenues. However, it
will also be important to ensure that capital expenditure is scheduled in a way which
minimises the risk of a delay to startup of LNG production.

One of the main outputs from the FEED work will be the bid documents which will
be used to invite contractors to tender to carry out detailed engineering, procurement
of equipment and construction of the plant the so-called engineering, procurement
and construction (EPC) contract. The EPC contact will normally be awarded to a
single main contractor or a consortium of two or more contractors brought together
for the purpose of working on a particular LNG project. There are only a small
number of contractors around the world with capacity or experience to build a
largescale LNG plant so at this stage there are unlikely to be more than three or four
30
bidders. The main contractor may be asked to bid on a lump-sum, turnkey basis
under which the engineering, procurement and construction is carried out for a fixed
sum of money. The contractor agrees to deliver to the project sponsors, by an agreed
date, a plant ready for startup and meeting the specifications set out in the EPC
contract. The lump-sum fee has to cover the cost of equipment and labour and the
contractor's own costs and profit. Under this type of contract the project developers
can have some confidence in the final cost of the plant, although variations to the
design during the construction can lead to changes in the lump-sum payment. There
will also normally be penalty clauses in the EPC contract requiring the contractor to
compensate the sponsors in the event that startup is delayed for other than force
majeure reasons or changes to the plant specification by the sponsors after award of
the EPC contract.

An alternative approach is to use a reimbursable contract under which the contractor

charges the project developers for the actual cost of equipment and labour. The
contractor receives a fee which may be a fixed amount or a percentage of the final
cost. As for a lump-sum, turnkey contract, there may be penalty clauses if the plant
is not ready for startup as agreed in the EPC contract. Whichever route is chosen for
the EPC contract, the sponsors will be looking for a cost estimate for the plant which
they can use to make a final decision on whether to commit to the project. The
signature of the EPC contract will normally be co-ordinated with the signature of
other project agreements. These will include the LNG sale and purchase agreement
(SPA) with the buyers, any agreements with the host government covering fiscal
issues or land use, agreements for the acquisition of the LNG ships and any
financing agreements.

A team of engineers from the project sponsors (or from the appointed technical
leader) will work closely with the contractor to ensure that decisions affecting the
design and construction of the plant can be made quickly and effectively. The main
contractor will use a number of subcontractors to carry out work on the plant. The
contractor will probably take over responsibility for any orders for long lead time
equipment made by the project sponsors during the FEED stage of the work. The
schedule for designing and constructing the LNG plant will vary with location and
with the size of the plant. Figure 3.3.5 illustrates a possible schedule for a twotrain
project. The total time from commencement of work on the conceptual engineering
to ready for startup of the first train is of the order of six to seven years with two to
three years of design work (conceptual engineering and FEED) preceding an EPC
contract of around four years. It is possible to reduce this time-frame by overlapping
work, particularly during the conceptual engineering and FEED stages. For example,
the bid packages for the EPC contract may be released in stages so that preparation
of EPC bids by contractors can commence before FEED is complete. The early
ordering of the long lead time equipment can also contribute to the shortening of the

31
time-frame. However, it is unlikely that the schedule can be compressed into much
less than five years.

In Figure 3.3.5 the second train is shown as being ready for startup six months after
the first train. This would allow the contractor to build the two trains in parallel,
making optimum use of labour by transferring them between trains. It also avoids
the costly process of demobilising and then remobilising the workforce. Overall,
costs are likely to be optimised with this approach. However, if the build-up of LNG
deliveries agreed by the buyer is relatively slow then this would result in facilities
remaining underutilised and it may be more efficient to delay startup of the second
(and any subsequent) trains until their production is needed by the market.

Figure 3.3.5
LNG Plant Development Schedule

Costs will generally be higher with this approach, but the delay in incurring capital
expenditure should more than compensate in terms of the overall project economics.
The scheduling of plant design and construction has to be closely co-ordinated with
work on other parts of the project. The marketing of the LNG will be particularly
important in determining the LNG plant schedule. In some circumstances the lack of
an immediate market opportunity for the project may provide extra time for work on
planning the plant. However, it will be important to ensure that unnecessary early
expenditure on plant design is avoided since this can have a significant negative
impact on the profitability of the project.

32
LNG Frequently Asked Questions

How Is It Stored?

LNG tanks are always of double-wall construction with extremely efficient

insulation between the walls. Large tanks are low aspect ratio (height to width) and
cylindrical in design with a domed roof. Storage pressures in these tanks are very
low, less than 5 psig. Smaller quantities, 70,000 gallons and less, are stored in
horizontal or vertical, vacuum-jacketed, pressure vessels. These tanks may be at
pressures any where from less than 5 psig to over 250 psig. LNG must be
maintained cold (at least below -117 "F) to remain a liquid, independent of pressure.

How Is It Kept Cold?

The cold insulation, as efficient as it is, will not keep the temperature of LNG cold
by itself. LNG is stored as a "boiling cryogen," that is, it is a very cold liquid at its
boiling point.
Stored LNG is analogous to boiling water, only 470 °F colder. The temperature of
boiling water (212°F) does not change, even with increased heat, as it is cooled by
evaporation (steam generation). In much the same way, LNG will stay at near
constant temperature if kept at constant pressure. This phenomenon is called "auto-
refrigeration". As long as the steam (LNG vapor boil off) is allowed to leave the tea
kettle (tank), the temperature will remain constant.

If the vapor is not drawn off, then the pressure and temperature inside the vessel will
rise. However, even at 100 psig, the LNG temperature will still be only about -
200°F.

What is CNG ?

Compressed natural gas (CNG) is natural gas pressurized and stored in welding
bottle-like tanks at pressure up to 3600 psig . typically, it is same composition of the
local "pipeline" gas with some of the water removed . CNG and LNG are both
delivered to the engine as low pressure vapor (ounces to 300 psig) . CNG is often
misrepresented as the only form natural gas can be used as vehicle fuel . LNG can
be used to make CNG . this process requires much less capital intensive equipment
and about 15 % of the operating and maintenance costs .

33
What is LPG ?

Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is often confused with LNG and vice versa . they are
not the same and the difference are significant . LPG is composed primarily of
propane and butane . LPG can be stored as a liquid in tanks by applying pressure
alone .

Benefits of LNG
LNG's numerous benefits are leading to a growing appreciation of its potential as a
transportation fuel for heavy-duty vehicles. These benefits include:

 Higher energy density — Since it's a liquid, a greater volume ofLNG can be
stored in a smaller space. Especially onboard a vehicle, getting the greatest
possible range and lowest weight are important considerations.

 Speed of fueling — Large vehicles can often be filled in four to six minutes,
and fuel composition can be determined with a high degree of accuracy since
most LNG produced for vehicles is now in the 99+ percent range for
methane. This control over composition results in a more finely tuned fuel
system and engine, which leads to optimization of engine performance and
thus greater fuel economy and lower emissions.

 Delivery and availability — LNG is frequently transported in trailer trucks

that hold up to 11,500 gallons, in small tank trucks and trailers,railcars,
barges and 30 million-gallong LNG ships. LNG trailer trucks are often used
to deliver LNG to refueling stations, much like diesel or gasoline delivery.

 Potential for lower-cost fueling facilities; lighter fuel tanks and

approximation of diesel-engine efficiencies — The source of LNG is often
natural gas that is liquefied and trucked in from centralized locations to take
advantage of existing facilities, pipeline operations and very low-cost gas
supply. LNG can be produced in about half of the almost 90LNG storage
locations in the United States and Canada operatged by local gas utilities. In
addition, several cryogenic natural gas extraction plants in the gas-producing
states now produce LNG as a sidestream.
 Large liquefaction plants are being build specifically to produce LNG for
fuel.

34
LNG Uses

LNG is used worldwide for established as well as emerging applications:

 The largest application for LNG is world trade where natural gas is liquefied
and transported by large ocean tankers from remote reserves to markets in
Asia, Europe, North America.

 Most LNG that is traded internationally is used to fuel electric power plants.
Growing needs for electricity in Asia have increased demand for LNG nearly
8% per year since 1980, making it one of the fastest growing energy sectors.

 Another established application for LNG is seasonal gas storage. Roughly

one hundred LNG plants, called peakshaving plants, have been constructed
worldwide to liquefy and store natural gas during warmer months for
vaporization and injection into local pipelines during cold weather.

 LNG is also emerging as an alternative motor fuel to diesel. With only one
carbon and four hydrogen atoms per molecule, methane is the cleanest
burning fossil fuel. In liquid form, much more fuel can be stored aboard
vehicles than as compressed natural gas (CNG) so it is well suited for high-
fuel-consumption vehicles that must carry a lot of fuel.

 In some regions, natural gas suppliers truck LNG to communities and

industrial plants remote from gas pipelines. Once delivered, LNG is stored in
insulated tanks so that it can be vaporized and distributed as natural gas to the
customers.

 Some organizations are investigating ways to liquefy methane captured from

landfills. The challenge is removing the carbon dioxide from the landfill gas
prior to liquefaction. Landfill gas commonly contains about 50% carbon
dioxide and 50% methane.

 Smaller quantities of high-purity liquid methane, up to 99.999% pure, are

used for many scientific research applications.

Why liquefy natural gas?

Converting natural gas to a liquid reduces its volume by about 600 to 1. Liquefying
natural gas makes it feasible to transport natural gas by tanker and to store it in
preparation for re-gasification and delivery to markets.
35
How is natural gas liquefied?

A large refrigeration system liquefies natural gas by cooling it to -256

degrees
Fahrenheit.

How is LNG used?

LNG is used worldwide for established, as well as emerging applications:


 World Trade. Natural gas is liquefied and transported by ship from
remote reserves to markets in Asia, Europe and North America, where it is
often used to fuel electric power facilities. Growing needs for electricity in
Asia have increased demand for LNG nearly 8 percent per year since
1980, making it one of the fastest growing energy sectors.
 Seasonal Gas Storage. Roughly 100 LNG facilities, called peakshaving
facilities, have been constructed worldwide to liquefy and store natural gas
during warmer months for vaporization and injection into local pipelines
during cold weather.
 Alternative Motor Fuel to Diesel. With only one carbon and four hydrogen
atoms per molecule, methane is the cleanest burning fossil fuel. In liquid
form, much more fuel can be stored aboard vehicles than as compressed
natural gas (CNG) so it is well suited for high-fuel-consumption vehicles.

What are the advantages of LNG?

LNG takes up 600 times less space than regular natural gas at ambient
temperature and pressure, which makes it easier to transport and store
than natural gas. LNG can be stored above or below ground in
specially designed double walled storage tanks.

36
 LNG can be transported over long distances via double-hulled LNG ships,
which are specially designed tankers that keep the LNG chilled during
transport.
LNG is replacing diesel in many heavy-duty trucks and buses and
many new gas-fueled locomotives as a lower emissions alternative.
What are the disadvantages of LNG?

LNG operations are capital intensive. Upfront costs are large for construction
of liquefaction facilities, purchasing specially designed LNG ships, and
building re- gasification facilities.
Methane, a primary component of LNG, is considered a greenhouse gas
because it increases carbon levels in the atmosphere when released.

What is the difference between LNG, CNG, NGL, LPG, and GTL?

It is important to understand the difference between Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG),

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG), Natural Gas Liquids (NGL), Liquefied
Petroleum Gas (LPG), and Gas to Liquids (GTL). Figure 21 shows the
difference in typical composition of these products.

37
Figure 21. Typical Composition of LNG, NGLs, CNG, GTL, and LPG

LNG is made up of mostly methane. The liquefaction process requires the removal
of the non-methane components like carbon dioxide, water, butane, pentane and
heavier components from the produced natural gas. CNG is natural gas that
is pressurized and stored in welding bottle-like tanks at pressures up to 3,600 psig.
Typically, CNG is the same composition as pipeline quality natural gas. NGLs are
made up mostly of molecules that are heavier than methane like ethane, propane,
butane. LPG is a mixture of propane and butane in a liquid state at room
temperatures. GTL refers to the conversion of natural gas to products like
methanol, dimethyl ether (DME), middle distillates (diesel and jet fuel), specialty
chemicals and waxes.

38
How is LNG transported for export?

LNG is transported in specially designed ships to re-gasification facilities.

These ships are double-hulled and have capacities from 25,000 to 138,000
m3 or more. The ships are fitted with a special cargo containment system inside the
inner hull to maintain the LNG at atmospheric pressure and -256oF. There are about
145 ships currently in the global LNG fleet and more than 56 additional ones are on
order.

What facilities make up an LNG import terminal?

An LNG import terminal consists of berths for mooring ships to discharge

LNG onshore via pipelines, LNG storage tanks, vaporizers, to turn LNG from a
liquid back into natural gas, and utilities for operating the facility.

How is LNG stored?

LNG is stored in tanks designed to contain the product safely and securely. Storage
tank designs vary. Large tanks are low aspect ratio (height to width) and
cylindrical in design with a domed roof. LNG is stored at atmospheric
pressure. LNG must be maintained cold to remain a liquid, independent of pressure.

How is LNG kept cold?

Insulation, as efficient as it is, will not keep the temperature of LNG cold by itself.
LNG is stored as a boiling cryogen -- a very cold liquid at its boiling point given the
pressure at which it is being stored. Stored LNG is analogous to boiling water, only
472°F colder. The temperature of boiling water (212°F) does not change,
even with increased heat, as it is cooled by evaporation (steam generation). In much
the same way, LNG will stay at near constant temperature if kept at constant
pressure. This phenomenon is called autorefrigeration. As long as the steam (LNG
boil off vapor) is allowed to leave the tea kettle (tank), the temperature will remain

39
constant. This boil off is captured by the LNG facilities and ships and used as fuel
or sent to the pipeline grid.

What are the regulatory requirements for LNG ships?

LNG ships must comply with relevant local and international

regulatory requirements including those of the International Maritime
Organization (IMO), International Gas Code (IGC) and the USCG. All LNG ships
must also comply with host Port Authority requirements. Specific regulations are
outlined in Appendix 3.

Is LNG safe?
LNG has been safely handled for many years. The industry has
maintained an excellent safety record, especially over the past 40 years. The
safe and environmentally sound operation of these facilities, both ships and
terminals, and the protection of these facilities – like othercritical parts of the
energy-infrastructure -- from terrorist activities or other incidents are a
concern and responsibility shared by operators as well as federal, state and
local authorities across the U.S. Onshore LNG facilities are industrial sites and, as
such, are subject to all rules, regulations and environmental standards imposed
by the various jurisdictions. These same or similar concerns apply to natural gas
storage, pipeline transportation, distribution and consumption of natural gas.

Have there been any serious LNG accidents?

LNG is a form of energy and must be understood as such. Today LNG is

transported and stored as safely as any other liquid fuel. In 1944, before the
storage of cryogenic liquids was fully understood, however, there was a

40
serious incident involving LNG in Cleveland, Ohio.This incident virtually
stopped all development of the U.S. LNG industry for 20 years.

In addition to Cleveland, there are other U.S. incidents sometimes attributed

to LNG. A construction accident on Staten Island in 1973 has been cited by
some parties as an "LNG accident" because the construction crew was working
inside an empty LNG tank. In another case, the failure of an electrical seal on an
LNG pump
in 1979 permitted gas (not LNG) to enter an enclosed building. A spark
of indeterminate origin caused the building to explode. As a result of this incident,
the electrical code has been revised for the design of electrical seals used
with all flammable fluids under pressure.

How does an LNG fire compare with other fuel fires?

Fighting an LNG spill fire is very similar to fighting any hydrocarbon fire.
Techniques have been refined over the years to cope with LNG as with any other
hydrocarbon fire. The Texas A&M fire school and Northeast Gas Association
have been training fire fighters and other industry professionals on LNG spill
fires for over 25 years. Development of special dry chemical and high
expansion foam systems to control LNG fires began with a series of industry
sponsored tests and resulted in engineering data that permit the LNG facility
designer to configure very reliable LNG fire control systems.

Will LNG burn?

LNG vapor, mainly methane (natural gas), burns only within the narrow range of a 5
percent to 15 percent gas-to-air mixture. If the fuel concentration is lower than 5
percent, it cannot burn because of insufficient fuel. If the fuel concentration is

41
higher than 15 percent, it cannot burn because there is insufficient oxygen. For LNG
to burn, it must be released, vaporize, mix with air in the flammable ratio, and be
exposed to an ignition source. From an environmental standpoint there is very little
smoke associated with an LNG fire.

Will LNG explode?

Explosion is a hazard unlikely to occur with LNG activity. LNG in liquid form
itself will not explode within storage tanks, since it is stored approximately -
256°F (- 160°C) and at atmospheric pressure. Without pressure or confinement or
heavily obstructed clouds of the vapors, there can be no explosion. An explosion
from a release of LNG vapors is possible only if all the following conditions occur
at the same time: vapors are in the flammability range, vapors are in a confined
space and a source of ignition is present.

Is an LNG spill detectable?

Within an LNG facility or onboard a ship, there are various types of detectors used
to alert personnel to a leak or spill. These could include detectors for the presence
of gas, flame, smoke, high temperatures or low temperatures. While LNG vapors
have no odor or color, if an LNG release occurs, LNG's low temperature
causes water vapor to condense in the air and form a highly visible white cloud.

Would an LNG spill mean similar pollution to an oil spill?

If LNG were to leak, it would quickly evaporate leaving no residue when it came
into contact with soil or water; so there is no need for environmental clean up of
LNG spills on water or land.

42
How are LNG terminals designed to be safe?

Safety features include gas detectors, ultraviolet or infrared (UV/IR) fire detectors,
closed-circuit TV, offsite monitoring, personnel training requirements, and restricted
access to terminal property. In addition, the stringent design parameters for LNG
import terminals require that proper measures are in place in the unlikely event of a
spill or equipment failure.

What are the public safety issues related to LNG Flammable Vapor Clouds ?

If LNG is released, the resulting LNG vapors (methane) will warm,

become lighter than air, and disperse with the prevailing wind. Cold
LNG vapor will appear as a white cloud.
If a source of ignition is present where LNG vapors (methane) exist at a 5%-
to-15% concentration in the air, the vapor cloud will burn along a
flame front toward the source of the fuel.
It should also be noted that LNG vapors do not catch fire as easily as those of
other common fuels such as gasoline or propane, and LNG vapors
dissipate more easily, meaning that potential hazards can persist longer for
other fuels than for LNG. Fires
If LNG is released in the presence of an ignition source, a fire will result from
the continuous evaporation of the LNG contained within the impoundment.
Since this fire would burn with intense heat, firefighting and other
safety equipment is installed at terminals and onboard ships to help
manage an incident.
"Liquefied Natural Gas Facilities: Federal Safety Standards" are found in
Title 49 CFR Part 193.

43
How are LNG ships designed to be safe?

LNG ships are especially designed with a double hull to provide optimum protection
for the integrity of the cargo in the even of collision or grounding. The ship
has safety equipment to facilitate ship handling and cargo system handling. The
ship- handling safety features include sophisticated radar and positioning
systems that enable the crew to monitor the ship’s position, traffic and identified
hazards around the ship. A global maritime distress system automatically transmits
signals if there is an onboard emergency requiring external assistance. The
cargo-system safety features include an extensive instrumentation package that
safely shuts down the system if it starts to operate outside of predetermined
parameters. Ships also have gas- and fire-detection systems, nitrogen purging,
double hulls and double containment tanks or leak pans. Should fire occur on
the ship, two 100 % safety relief valves on each tank are designed to release
the ensuing boil off to the atmosphere without over pressurizing the tank.
LNG ships use approach velocity meters when berthing to ensure that the
prescribed impact velocity for the berth fenders are not exceeded. When moored,
automatic mooring line monitoring provides individual line loads to help maintain
the security of the mooring arrangement while alongside. When connected to the
onshore system, the instrument systems and the shore-ship LNG transfer system acts
as one system, allowing emergency shutdowns of the entire system from ship and
from shore.

A side from design features, are there additional safety measures for LNG
ships?

To ensure safety for transportation of LNG, the USCG requires safety zones around
LNG ships. The safety zones prohibit entry by other ships thereby helping to
eliminate the possibility of a collision of an LNG ship with another ship. In fact, the
concept of a safety zone is not confined to shipping. Like the safety zones applied

44
in operating aircraft, and even our cars, LNG safety zones allow a safe
stopping distance in the event that another ship loses control. A USCG escort boat
manages the safety zone around a ship. The USCG uses safety zones to centrally
manage and coordinate shipping traffic in coordination with port authorities.
Through the use of strict operational procedures, putting a priority on safety and
well-trained, well-managed crews, shipping risks are well managed.

Is LNG environmentally friendly?

When LNG is vaporized and used as fuel, it reduces particle emissions to near zero
and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions by 70 percent in comparison with
heavier hydrocarbon fuels. When burned for power generation, the results are even
more dramatic. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions are virtually eliminated and CO2
emissions are reduced significantly. If spilled on water or land, LNG will
not mix with the water or soil, but evaporates and dissipates into the air leaving no
residue. It does not dissociate or react as does other hydrocarbon gases and is not
considered an emission source. Additionally there are significant benefits
when natural gas is used as fuel over other fossil fuels. However, methane, a
primary component of LNG, is considered to be a greenhouse gas and may
add to the global climate change problem if released into the atmosphere.

What happens if there is an LNG release at the storage facility?

An LNG release is very unlikely due to the strict design requirements for facilities.
The design of LNG tanks and piping prevents releases or spills. But if there is a
rupture of a segment of piping in the facility, a spill of LNG could occur. The
facility is designed so that such a spill would be contained. Liquid would
accumulate in one of several catch basins, where it would evaporate.Emergency
shutdown systems would be involved to minimize any release. The tank
impoundment in the facility can contain more than 100 percent of the LNG tank

45
volume, which assures that the release from any accident will be fully contained.
The rate of evaporation and the amount of vapors generated are dependent on the
amount of liquid spilled and the surface area of the catch basin.

How are the LNG facilities designed to be safe?

All facilities that handle LNG have built-in systems to contain LNG and prevent
fires. This is true whether in the LNG facility, transferring LNG to and from LNG
ships, shipping LNG or vaporizing (re-gasifying) LNG. There are differences
in design among these types of facilities, but the environmental, health and safety
issues are the same.

46