Galileo’s Defense of

the Copernican Model

• 2nd Pass: Galileo on Horizontal Vertical,
and Projectile Motion
• Galileo’s Response to the Objections to the
Copernican Model
Newtonian Synthesis
• Copernicus-Galileo-Brahe-Kepler Summary
• Newton’s 3 Laws of Motion
• Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation and
Implications
• Remarks on the Universe as a Mechanism
 Questions to Keep in Mind
• Explain how Galileo used his discoveries in mechanics and
astronomy, as well as the supernova observations during
his lifetime to argue in favor of the Copernican Model
• Explain how Kepler’s discoveries resolved the Tychonic
Model vs. Copernican Model issue
• When is an object accelerating? Is a car moving in a circle
at a constant speed accelerating? Why or why not?
• State each of Newton's 3 laws of motion. Cite some
situations that demonstrate each law in action.
• How is the motion of a falling apple similar to the motion
of the orbiting moon?
• Galileo observed that objects fall with a constant
acceleration that is independent of their mass. How do
Newton's theories account for this observation?
• Explain the statement “Newton's laws of motion are
axioms while Kepler's laws of planetary motion are
empirical laws.”
 Big Questions

How did we come to realize that the

Earth is not the center of the
universe?

How did we come to adopt the view

that the universe is a mechanism?
Galileo’s Defense of the
Copernican Model

4
 Motion according to Galileo
• Falling Motion
– Falling is independent of weight.
– Falling is uniformly accelerated.
• Horizontal Motion
– To sustain motion, no force is needed
– Force is only required to change motion, not
sustain it.
• Projectile Motion
– Projectile motion is a superposition of vertical
and horizontal motion
The Truth of the Tower
Physics 10 - Astronomy to Mechanics 7
 Galileo on Horizontal Motion

• Galileo:
– No force is needed to sustain horizontal motion
 Galileo on Horizontal Motion

• Galileo:
– No force is needed to sustain horizontal motion
– Horizontal motion = motion on the surface of
the Earth  circular motion
 Galileo on Horizontal Motion

• Galileo:
– No force is needed to sustain horizontal motion
– Horizontal motion  motion on the surface of
the Earth  circular motion
– Ergo: No force is needed to sustain circular
motion
Physics 10 - Astronomy to Mechanics 13
• Drake, S., 1973, "Galileo Gleanings XXII: Galileo's Experimental Confirmation of
Horizontal Inertia: Unpublished Manuscripts", Isis, Vol 64, 291-305
14
http://exploringdata.net/ws_galil.htm 15
Physics 10 - Astronomy to Mechanics 16
http://catalogue.museogalileo.it/gallery/ApparatusToDemonstrateParabolicTrajectoryProjectiles.html 17
Galileo’s Thought Experiment on Projectile Motion
(from Dialogue Concerning Two Chief World
Systems, 1632)
Galileo’s Thought Experiment on Projectile Motion
(from Dialogue Concerning Two Chief World
Systems, 1632)
Relative motion and the soda can.mp4

20
Relative motion demonstration.mp4

21
galileodrop.mov

22
 Status of Heliocentric vs. Geocentric Debate
after Galileo’s Studies in Mechanics

• Aristotelian Physics is wrong

• Galileo: Horizontal motion = circular motion

Scientific Objections 1&2:
1.Stellar parallax not observed
2. No change in the apparent size
of stars

Galileo:
Stars are very far...
Scientific Objection 3a:
No wind moving thousands
of miles per hour

Galileo: Air moves along

with the Earth
Scientific Objection 3b:
falling motion will not be so
simple

Galileo: Aristotle is wrong,

falling motion will still be
simple
Scientific Objection 3c:
How many horses will be
needed to pull the earth and
make it move at thousands of
miles per hour?
Galileo: None – not needed for
circular motion!
Note: Newton has a different
view
Scientific Objection 4:
If the Earth is rotating very fast
around its axis it will break
apart.
Galileo: The so-called Celestial
spheres are rotating faster, why
don’t they break apart?
 Quiz

Physics 10 - Astronomy to Mechanics 29

 Additional notes on Galileo

• Galileo was often right but was sometimes

wrong e.g.
– Ignored Kepler and his elliptical orbits

– Insisted on circular motion

– Wrong explanation of tides

 II. Newtonian Synthesis

• Newton’s 3 Laws of motion

• Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation and
Implications
• The Universe as a Mechanism
Status of Heliocentric vs. Geocentric Debate
after Galileo, Brahe & Kepler’s contributions
(~ca 1609-1632)
• Ptolemaic Model abandoned
• Tychonic vs. Copernican
• Objections based on Aristotelian Addressed by
physics not yet addressed by Galileo
Copernican Model

• Kepler’s 1st and 2nd Laws of Ignored by

planetary motion (1609) Galileo
• Kepler’s 3rd Law of planetary motion Ignored by
(1619) Galileo
 Tycho vs. Copernicus?
• Heliocentric model wins
• But Copernicus was wrong about the
details

Physics 10 - Astronomy to Mechanics 33

 Tycho vs. Copernicus?
• Heliocentric model wins
• But Copernicus was wrong about the
details

• Kepler:
– Planets orbit around the Sun
– but orbits are elliptical instead of circular

Physics 10 - Astronomy to Mechanics 34

Our Model of the Universe (ca 1642)

• Better data Tycho Brahe

• Final touch-up of Johannes Kepler
the model
• Promotion of the Galileo Galilei
heliocentric model
Still missing: someone to put the pieces
together in order to form a coherent
physical theory in the modern sense
 Sir Isaac Newton
Isaac Newton
Sir Isaac Newton
(1642-1727)
• Fundamental contributions in
physics and mathematics:
– invented calculus (independently: Leibnitz)
– Theory of mechanics
– Theory of gravity
– demonstrated that Kepler’s laws are a consequence
of his theory of mechanics and gravity: Principia
– Etc.
 Questions to Keep in Mind
• Explain how Galileo used his discoveries in mechanics and
astronomy, as well as the supernova observations during
his lifetime to argue in favor of the Copernican Model
• Explain how Kepler’s discoveries resolved the Tychonic
Model vs. Copernican Model issue
• When is an object accelerating? Is a car moving in a circle
at a constant speed accelerating? Why or why not?
• State each of Newton's 3 laws of motion. Cite some
situations that demonstrate each law in action.
• How is the motion of a falling apple similar to the motion
of the orbiting moon?
• Galileo observed that objects fall with a constant
acceleration that is independent of their mass. How do
Newton's theories account for this observation?
• Explain the statement “Newton's laws of motion are
axioms while Kepler's laws of planetary motion are
empirical laws.”
Newton’s First Law of Motion

Law of Inertia: A body at rest or in the state

of uniform motion will remain at rest or in
uniform motion, unless acted upon by a net
external force.
Consequences of First Law
• Following Galileo, a force is required to
change motion, but not to maintain it.
• Change in motion means
– moving faster
– moving slower
– changing direction (Newton’s correction)
Newton’s First Law: frictionpuck
Warning
• Everyday and technical usage of terms may
sometimes differ:
– e.g. “work”, “acceleration”, distinction between
force, power, energy
Short math excursion:
Scalars and Vectors
• Scalar vs. Vector:
– Both are specified using numbers + appropriate
units
– But vectors have direction of a direction
• Examples:
– Scalar: volume, temperature
– Scalar/Vector pairs
• Distance vs. Displacement
• Speed vs Velocity
Newton’s Second Law

law of acceleration:
The acceleration of an object is equal to the net
force applied to it, divided by its mass.

a=F/m a/2 = F / 2m a/3 = F / 3m

Newton’s Second Law

law of acceleration:
The acceleration of an object is equal to the net
force applied to it, divided by its mass.

F=m a
a=F/m a/2 = F / 2m a/3 = F / 3m
Newton’s Second Law

law of acceleration:
The acceleration of an object is equal to the net
force applied to it, divided by its mass.

F=m a
a=F/m a/2 = F / 2m a/3 = F / 3m

The motion of an object is completely determined

by its mass and the net force acting upon it.
Example: Why can you throw a
baseball farther than a bowling ball?
Example: Why can you throw a
baseball farther than a bowling ball?

Answer:
• The force you apply to both balls is the
same
• The bowling ball has a larger mass [inertia]
 the acceleration is smaller
Newton’s Third Law of Motion
Law of action and
reaction: For every
action, there is an
equal and opposite
reaction.

Interacting bodies exert forces on each other.

Examples:
• Recoil of a gun
• Jump from a boat onto
the shore
• two ice skater pushing
each other
• rocket in space
 Quiz
• 2. In physics, is a car moving along a
circular path at a constant speed
accelerating? Explain your answer.

Physics 10 - Astronomy to Mechanics 52

 About falling objects:
Is there a difference
between an apple and the
Moon ?
 Quiz
• Is a car moving along a circular path at a
constant speed accelerating (physics sense)?
Explain your answer.
• Answer: Yes - In physics, an object is
accelerating if it’s either slowing down,
speeding up, or changing direction. The car
is accelerating because it is continually
changing direction.

Physics 10 - Astronomy to Mechanics 54

 Questions to Think About
• How did Newton infer his Law of Universal
Gravitation
• How do Newton’s Laws of Motion and Law
of Universal Gravitation Account for
Galileo’s observation that objects fall at a
constant acceleration independent of their
mass
• Explain the statement “Newton's laws of
motion are axioms while Kepler's laws of
planetary motion are empirical laws.”
Physics 10 - Astronomy to Mechanics 55
The story with the moon
• Observation 1: The Moon orbits the Earth
on a near circular orbit.
The story with the moon
• Observation 1: The Moon orbits the Earth
on a near circular orbit. Newton 1  Moon
is constantly being
accelerated. It is
continuously falling
towards the Earth.
Physics 10 - Astronomy to Mechanics 58
Force is needed to maintain circular motion

Physics 10 - Astronomy to Mechanics 59

The story with the apple
• Observation 2: An apple falls from a tree.
The story with the apple
• Observation 2: An apple falls from a tree.
• Newton’s ingenious idea: The very same
force [gravity] that makes an apple fall from
the tree also keeps the Moon on its orbit
around the Earth.
Details ...
• Distance of moon ~ 60 x Radius of Earth
– Average Earth-moon distance = 384,000 km
– Radius of Earth = 6,370 km
– 384,000/6,370 ~ 60
Details ...
• Acceleration of Moon towards Earth

– where R = earth - moon distance

• =384,000 km = 3.84 x 10^8 m
– T = 1 sidereal month
• = 27.3 days = 2.36 x 10^6 s
• a = 2.72*10^(-3) m/s^2~ g/3600
Details ...
• Acceleration of Moon towards Earth~ g/3600
• Distance of moon ~ 60 x Radius of Earth
• 60*60=3600 (Coincidence?)
Newton’s law of gravity
Mm
F G 2
r
• M: mass of one object [e.g. Earth]
• m: mass of the other object [e.g. apple, Moon]
• r: distance between the two objects
• F: Force with which the two objects are
attracting each other
-11 2 2
• G: gravitational constant [6.6710 N m /kg ]
Consequence: Newton II + law of
gravity + equivalence principle
F  ma  GmM
r2

a GM
r2
• The m’s cancel.
• Acceleration does not depend on m, the mass
of the object. All objects fall at the same rate.
Consequence: Newton II + law of
gravity + equivalence principle
F  ma  GmM
r2

a GM
r2
English translation:
• Two factors determine the acceleration of an object:
the force acting on an object and the mass or inertia
of the object.

• The gravitational force on a heavier body is greater

than on a lighter body, but the inertia is also greater
by the same proportion. These factors cancel so the
end result is light and heavy objects fall at the same
rate.
Kepler’s three laws, Newton’s three
laws, what is the difference ?
From Newton to Kepler
• Kepler:
T 2
R C 3

but
– what is the origin of such a relation ?
– what determines the constant C ?
 From Newton to Kepler
• Newton:
T 2
4 2

R 3
G ( M  m)
 From Newton to Kepler
• Newton: 2
T 4 2

R 3
G ( M  m)
• For many astronomical systems one body is
much heavier than the others M+m  M
• (e.g. Sun is much heavier than the planets)
 From Newton to Kepler

T 2
4 4 2 2
 
R 3
G ( M  m) GM
Note to teacher: Derive this if there is enough time
 T 2
4 4 2 2
 
R 3
G ( M  m) GM
• The constant in Kepler’s 3rd is determined
by the mass of the central object.
• Formula allows us to measure the mass of
astronomical systems.
Bottomline: Newton’s Laws are more
general than Kepler’s Laws of Planetary
Motion
Example 1: The mass of the Sun
From planetary orbits =>
30
mass of the Sun:M = 210 kg
Hints:

Period of Revolution =365.256 days

=3.16*10^8 s
Example 2: The mass of the Earth
From motion of moon => M = 61024 kg

Hints:

1 sidereal month = 27.3 days = 2.36 x 10^6 s

Earth-moon distance = 384,000 km = 3.84 * 10^8 m
Example 3: Mass of Jupiter
Obtained from motion of moons
Example 4: What if the planet has
no moons (e.g. Venus)
• send a satellite into Venus orbit, Venera 7
in 1970
 Further validation of Newton’s
Laws
• Explanation of tides
• Explanation of oblateness of the Earth
• Prediction of return of Halley’s comet
• Discovery of Neptune
• Everyday mechanics

Physics 10 - Astronomy to Mechanics 78

Amazing Amazon Box

Physics 10 - Astronomy to Mechanics 79

Domino Chain Reaction

Physics 10 - Astronomy to Mechanics 80

Universe as a Mechanism

Physics 10 - Astronomy to Mechanics 81

 We may regard the present state of
the universe as the effect of its past
and the cause of its future. An
intellect which at a certain moment
would know all forces that set
nature in motion, and all positions
of all items of which nature is
composed, if this intellect were also
vast enough to submit these data to
analysis, it would embrace in a
Pierre-Simon, Marquis de single formula the movements of the
Laplace, French greatest bodies of the universe and
mathematician and those of the tiniest atom; for such an
astronomer intellect nothing would be uncertain
(1749-1823) and the future just like the past
would be present before its eyes.
Physics 10 - Astronomy to Mechanics 83
Physics 10 - Astronomy to Mechanics 84
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Physics 10 - Astronomy to Mechanics 86
Physics 10 - Astronomy to Mechanics 87
Physics 10 - Astronomy to Mechanics 88
Physics 10 - Astronomy to Mechanics 89
Physics 10 - Astronomy to Mechanics 90
The Universe as a Mechanism
The Universe as a Mechanism
Antikythera Mechanism (If time permits)

Physics 10 - Astronomy to Mechanics 93

 Quiz: Answer one of the
following questions
• How did Newton infer his Law of Universal
Gravitation
• How do Newton’s Laws of Motion and Law
of Universal Gravitation Account for
Galileo’s observation that objects fall at a
constant acceleration independent of their
mass
• Explain the statement “Newton's laws of
motion are axioms while Kepler's laws of
planetary motion are empirical laws.”
Physics 10 - Astronomy to Mechanics 94