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Evolution, Transformation, and Representation in Buddhist Architecture -

The Square Shrines of Buddhist Monasteries in Central Asia after the Fourth
Century

Article · December 2011

DOI: 10.5659/AIKAR.2011.13.4.31

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 ARCHITECTURAL RESEARCH, Vol. 13, No. 4(December 2011). pp. 31-42 ISSN 1229-6163

Evolution, Transformation, and Representation

in Buddhist Architecture
The Square Shrines of Buddhist Monasteries in Central Asia after the Fourth Century

Young Jae Kim and Dong Soo Han

Part-time Lecturer, Ph.D. (History and Theory of Architecture), School of Architecture, Hanyang University, Seoul, Korea
Associate Professor, School of Architecture, Hanyang University, Seoul, Korea

http://dx.doi.org/10.5659/AIKAR.2011.13.4.31

Abstract This study notices that all religions in Central Asia from the fourth century through seventh century C.E. provided considerable
hands in keeping a uniform unity through a process of assimilation, although art and architecture were greatly stimulated by the creative
genius of the many people. The study thus intends to argue that the common ideas of rituals and primitive forms of religious shrines lead
the square-based layout of Buddhist shrines the unity and universality in the architectural products of particular regions or epochs: i.e.
the “square-based plan” in Buddhist temples of Central Asia was a significant prototype in the synthesis with pre-Buddhist architectural
models and Buddhist universal ideas. Thus, this thesis notes that they did not lose the universal principles of the Buddhist shrine plans due
to ritual functions, and even there have been never differences from pre-Buddhist building models remarked by the periods and the venues
in which they were produced, although there had been continuous evolutions and adaptive transformations in the local tastes of religious
architecture. Accordingly, this study discusses how such plans in Buddhist architecture had been consistently produced within that regional
style also representative of the local idioms of architecture, and how they were adopted in the sites, founded on the composition of ritual
functions. The foreign architectural cultures were selectively chosen getting along with local building types of each site according to each
taste for architecture as a result.

Keywords: Central Asia, Buddhist Monastery (Temple), Zoroastrian Temple, Nabataean Temple

1. INTRODUCTION realms. Under mutual exchanges on new information between each

Despite the long distance between Eastern Asia, Central Asia,
and South Asia, there had been considerable similarities in cultural
patterns and building forms. It is why they have had a same cultural
sphere, called Silk Road, 1 which had bound different cultural
1
The modern terminology of “Silk Road” is English translation of German Seiden
Strassen, which was used for the first time by Ferdinand von Richthofen (1833-
1905). In the second century B.C.E. the Silk Roads had been the most critical
channels for cultural exchange between the East and the West. The transmission
was launched from northwestern India to Pakistan, Afghanistan, Central Asia,
Xinjiang (新疆, Chinese Turkistan), China, Korea and Japan. Most maps depict
the Silk Road as departing from Xian in China, though most of China’s silk was
produced further south (Frances Wood, 2002: Chapter 1). From Xian(西安), the
Silk Road ran westwards through Lanzhou (蘭州), then through the Gansu (甘
肅) corridor to Dunhuang (敦煌). Near Dunhuang, the desert routes split. The
main northern route followed the southern edge of the Tian Shan mountains,
Corresponding Author: Young Jae KIM, Part-Time Lecturer
School of Architecture, Hanyang University
222, Wangshimni-ro, Seongdong-gu, Seoul 133-791, South
Korea
Tel : +82 2 070 8872 5788 e-mail : kyjwow@empal.com
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is
properly cited.
area, existing building constructions within them were obviously
combined with new architectural forms and techniques, and
advanced considerably according to the need of the times. Also,
so far most studies have been considerably separated from the site
where the statues and the murals were originally placed at the early
time. In the study of Buddhist monasteries, what we intent to tell
are that the spatial composition of the monastery is closely related
to the site (built-environment), built-icons like statues, and wall
paintings. In other words, in the most necessary studies to us, it is
even more significant to reflect the original context shown from
both sites and legacies than to appreciate their own relics exhibited
in the museum, because the plan of shrines and the manners of
enshrinement in the monasteries played critical roles in deciding
the characteristics of the building.
According to the need and willingness of Buddhists, likewise,
the plans of shrine and the placement of statues and murals
running along the north of the Taklamakan desert and passed through the oasis
towns of Hami(哈密), Turfan(車師前王廷, Gaochang高昌), Karashahr(焉耆),
Korla(危須), Kucha(龜玆), Aksu(姑墨), and Uch-turfan (溫宿) before reaching
Kashgar (疎勒). This route, called Tianshannanlu(天山南路, or Xiyubeidao 西域
北道) more arduous than the southern route, came into its own in the late fourth
century. Also, this northern route crosses the west over the Congling(Pamirs),
and emerges into Dayuan(Ferghana), Kangju(Tashkent plus the Chu, Talas, and
middle Jaxartes basins), and Yancai (the Alans). Whereas, the southern route,
called Xīyunandao(西域南道), ran through the oases of Shanshan(Charklik, 鄯善,
Loulan), Cherchen(且末), Niya(尼壤), Keriya(拘彌), Khotan(Heitian, 干闐) and
Yarkand(沙車), Tashkurghan(蒲犁), and ended in Kashgar(疎勒). (Fig. 1)

©Copyright 2011 Architectural Institute of Korea.

 32 Young Jae Kim and Dong Soo Han

Figure 1. Buddhist Temples in Central Asia (vis-à-vis Gandharan and Zoroastrian temples)

i andddhi
ments houses.l Therefore,
i l ithrough
( i i the dh d
qualitative i
analy- l ) Parthian(Iranian) and Nabataean(Syrian) temple, early
have been in the same way represented
sis depending on the layout of the sanctums with perfect for Buddhist times of the centraltypes
house altar;atsingle-celled
Near East and shrine; and four-columned
Central shrine. The
Asia, and fire temples,
regions. These
drawings in allsameCentraltendencies in Buddhist
Asian Buddhist monasteries
temples (Fayazhave been
Tepa, rather than Greco-Roman temple and megaron-type Buddhist
fifth type which appeared in Airtam II and Adzina Tepe hous-
Guldara, Kara Tepe, Tapa Sardar, Dal’verzin-tepe, Adzina of
closely related with a cosmopolitan social and spiritual climate temples is based on the preexistence of Zoroastrian four-columned
4
es.
Central
Tepe, Asia, Iopen
Airtam & II,toAk-Beshim
influences from I & allII, directions. So, Buddhism
Krasnorechensk I& shrines in the pre-Buddhist period.
could play a role of an intermediary
II, partially adding the square shrines of Xinjiang such force. Likewise, alongasthe The thesis consistently
2. BUDDHIST MONASTERIES examines IN the above-mentioned
CENTRAL ASIA five
Silk Road from Gandhara,
Karadong(n.61), the layouts ofKizil(n.38),
Dada Oilik(D12), monasteries had Shor-been types of Buddhist halls
1) COMPLEX AT AIRTAM AT UZBEKISTANvis-à-vis “eight elements” applied in the
consistently preserved in “geometric square
chuk(F4), Toqquz Sarai(A), Bezeklik Temple 9), the struc- plans” caused by pre- architectural composition of the Buddhist
Airtam temple consists of two complexes. On the one temples in Central
Buddhist architectural models and Buddhist
ture of square shrines is classified into five types: shrine ideas. They had many Asia, which
hand, the lower rudiments
buildingwereof coined
the main from early houses
temple andAir-
(hereafter public
transformations
surrounded under the influences
by circumambulation on other
passages andreligious
outer enclo-factors tam I) was built on the leveled ground of a natural hill do-the
buildings of Near East, Central Asia, Northern India since
depending on residential buildings of each
sure walls; shrine with a central altar surrounded by circu- locales sharing historical pre-Buddhist
minating time,(Galina
the banks as well Pugachenkova,
as stylistic features of Nabataean,
1991/1992: 27),
climate of eachpassages
mambulation area, doctrinal
and tastes
outerofenclosure
sectarian Buddhists, and such
walls3; single- Zoroastrian, and Gandharan temples in the
and the Airtam I was circled by surrounding corridors, con- pre-Buddhist period
celled shrine with a central altar; single-celled shrine;temples.
other religions constructions as Zoroastrian and Nabataean and necting with adjacent big and small rooms called a hilani. of
or the same. As a result, this study proposes the developments
My argumentshrine.
four-columned is that the
The“square plans”which
fifth type in the appeared
territories inof Central
Air- Buddhist
The cellaplans in consistent
belonged to fourcontacts
columns, withandBuddhist tastes and
L-shaped appeared
I-
AsiaII(Afghanistan,
tam and Adzina Uzbekistan,
Tepe Buddhist Tajikistan,
templesand is Xinjiang),
based on which the in the synthesis of local idioms for constructions
shaped corridors run behind the three walls of the hall. It is with architectural
territories were intimately connected
preexistence of Zoroastrian four-columned shrines through the variousinpathsthe of considerations
evident that the universally
L-shaped required for ritual purposes.
and I-shaped passages, multi-
the Silk Route,period.
pre-Buddhist did not only accept ritual functions drawing upon This study further argues
layered narrow corridors, four columns that the shrine
insideplans in Buddhist
the cella, and
2
religious behaviors
The thesis consistently for the pradakshina
examines the patha as an integral part
above-mentioned architec ture in C entra l Asi a were clos
distyle in antis shared the important architectural features ely rel ated witof h
of the pilgrimage activity, but also local
five types of Buddhist halls vis-à-vis “eight elements” and foreign architectural
ap- Parthian(Iranian) and Nabataean(Syrian)
fire temples. Such penchants strongly came from a local temple, early house types
traditions such as Zoroastrian temples
plied in the architectural composition of the Buddhist tem- and Nabataean(Syrian) at Near East
solution and construction
for the Central Asia, and fire temples,
of Buddhist ratherin
temples than
theGreco-
re-
4
monuments
ples in Central and houses.
Asia, whichTherefore, throughwere
rudiments the qualitative
coined fromanalysis Roman temple and megaron-type houses.
gion. On the other hand, the complex of the higher Buddhist
depending on the layout of the sanctums
early houses and public buildings of Near East, Central Asia, with perfect drawings construction (hereafter Airtam II) was carried out on two
in all Central
Northern IndiaAsiansinceBuddhist temples (Fayaz
the pre-Buddhist time,Tepa, Guldara,
as well as sty-Kara levels. The upper level was located on the plain remains of
them the shrines with double-layered walls “two-celled shrines”: e.g. “single-celled shrines”
listic features of Nabataean, Zoroastrian, and GandharanAk-
Tepe, Tapa Sardar, Dal’verzin-tepe, Adzina Tepe, Airtam I & II, the Greco-Bactrian building. On the bottom level from the
Beshim in I &the
II, pre-Buddhist
Krasnorechensk I & II,orpartially adding in case of shrines with single-layered walls (Kurt Behrendt, 2004). However, his definition
temples period the same. As athe square
result, north a rectangular court was surrounded by a clay wall.
shrines of Xinjiang such as Karadong(n.61), Dada Oilik(D12), does not deliver a clear meaning about the shape of the two-celled shrine because we can
this study proposes the developments of Buddhist plans in The temple had pronaos (vestibule) and long entrance hall
Kizil(n.38),contacts
Shorchuk(F4), Toqquz Sarai(A), Bezeklik Temple not convey what it is like if we do not see its image beforehand. Thus, in this thesis the
consistent with Buddhist tastes appeared in the 9), with surrounding passages and two additional rooms on the
the structure of square shrines is classified into five types: shrine type will be mainly defined as “a square shrine surrounded by circumambulation passage
synthesis of local idioms for constructions with architectur- eastern side of the building (Pugachenkova, 1991/1992: 29).
and outer enclosure walls,” rather than the two-celled shrine, to avoid further confusion
alsurrounded
considerations by circumambulation
universally required passages and purposes.
for ritual outer enclosure The entire plan is not typical of the Buddhist buildings of
walls; between forms and texts. But, in convenience sake, the term ‘two-celled shrine’ will be
Thisshrine
studywith a central
further arguesaltar
thatsurrounded
the shrine byplans
circumambulation
in Budd- India and other locales located around the Mount Hindu-
passages and outer 3 sometimes used in this thesis.
hist architecture in enclosure
Central Asia wallswere ; single-celled shrinewith
closely related with a kush: it does not exist in the territory of Gandhara. Rather,
4
The megaron appeared in a unit for domestic architecture in western Anatolia
3 The prefix ‘pra’ in Sanskrit pradakshina, as forming a part of this word, expresses
2
4 region of Early Bronze Age in the first Parthian period and at the same time the
The double-layered walls consist of the one enclosed walls behind the The megaron appeared in a unit for domestic architecture in western
surroundinground.
proceeding ‘Dakshina’
corridors means
and the ‘right,
other ’ and signifies
enclosed wallsgenerally
made behindany matter respectable
the sanc- megaron
Anatolia regionappeared in Early
of Early Bronze
Bronze AgeAge (earlier)
in the architecture
first Parthian periodofandThessaly
at the and
tum.
and Kurt Behrendt
convenient. Yijingnamed
writes,them the call
“Indians shrines with hand
the right double-layered walls that to
‘dakshina,’ implying same time theEurope
southeastern megaron appeared
of the in Early
Mycenaean Bronze
culture, the Age (earlier)
megaron architecture
played an important
“two-celled shrines”:
follow the right e.g. “single-celled
is respectable and convenient.”shrines” in case
He proceeds of shrines
to mention with
that the ceremony ofrole
Thessaly
as a main andpublic
southeastern
room likeEurope of the Mycenaean
the throne of kings. Theculture, the mega-
vernacular dwellings,
single-layered walls (Kurt Behrendt, 2004). However, his definition does ron played an important role as a main public room like the throne of kings.
not deliver a clear meaning about the shape of the two-celled shrine be- 141). For
of walking round towards the right three times is suitable to gain gift (I-Tsing, 1970: whether rectangular or rounded, also contained a large
The vernacular dwellings, whether rectangular or rounded, also contained ahall and a storeroom
such rituals,
cause we cana Buddhist
not convey shrine
whator hall
it isneeds
like ifat we
leastdo
annot
assembly
see itsvenue
image subsuming
before- a cella behind
large hallit.and
They were elongated
a storeroom in response
behind to demands
it. They were for ainlarger,
elongated responsemoretoformal
hand. Thus,
with an altarin
andthis
an thesis the type
ambulatory path,will
which bewere
mainly defined
inevitable as “a caused
elements squareby the need demands
structure;for i.e.atwo
larger, more
posts formal
in the structure;
interior i.e. two poststoinsupport
placed longitudinally the interior
the ceiling.
shrine surrounded by circumambulation passage and outer enclosure placed longitudinally to support the ceiling. The megaron plan was re-
for the rituals. The megaron plan was remarkable at Tiryns (James Wright, 1982: 186-201). It has
walls,” rather than the two-celled shrine, to avoid further confusion be- markable at Tiryns (James Wright, 1982: 186-201). It has the walls of the
3
The forms
tween double-layered
and texts. walls consist
But, of the one enclosed
in convenience sake, thewalls
termbehind the surrounding
‘two-celled the walls pierced
vestibule of the vestibule
by threepierced by three
opening, opening,
clearly under clearly
Cretanunder Cretan
influence, influence,
where
shrine’ will
corridors andbethe
sometimes usedwalls
other enclosed in this
made thesis.
behind the sanctum. Kurt Behrendt named such
where pillared walls are
such pillared a characteristic
walls feature
are a characteristic (Valentin
feature Muller,
(Valentin 1944:
Muller, 1944:347).
347).
 bronze statue of Buddha, and dome-like top, and decorated same arr
arch called iwan, which made a considerable contribution to 7) The l
making entrances and ornamentation of front facades in suring 1
Evolution, Transformation, and Representation in Buddhist Architecture Iranian Islamic temples afterward; and the other two going 33 court. L
to the side corridors round the rectangular cella, which was est main
2. BUDDHIST MONASTERIES IN CENTRAL ASIA surrounded
rectangular by cella,three
which walls.was In front of by
surrounded a cella,
three walls.also, In therefront Such ten
were
of a cella, also, there were on two sides of a double-platform of
on two sides of a double-platform with sculptures with Dal’verz
1) COMPLEX AT AIRTAM AT UZBEKISTAN seated
sculpturesBuddhas of seated on the
Buddhas floor.on the floor. have or
Airtam temple consists of two complexes. On the one hand, the rooms,
lower building of the main temple (hereafter Airtam I) was built on courtyar
the leveled ground of a natural hill dominating the banks (Galina Tepe. (F
Pugachenkova, 1991/1992: 27), and the Airtam I was circled by and J ha
surrounding corridors, connecting with adjacent big and small age or a
rooms called a hilani. The cella belonged to four columns, and and narr
L-shaped and I-shaped corridors run behind the three walls of
the hall. It is evident that the L-shaped and I-shaped passages, 5
The tem
multi-layered narrow corridors, four columns inside the cella, and Fig 3. Ak-Beshim I(L) I(L)
Figure 3. Ak-Beshim and Ak-Beshim
and Ak-Beshim II(R) II(R) Paipakov,
distyle in antis shared the important architectural features of fire The plan has the same layout
The plan has the same layout as megaron-type houses as megaron-type houses in
in Minor
6
The seco
Minor Asia and Zoroastrian temples in Gandhara and west- Beshim in
temples. Such penchants strongly came from a local solution for the Asia and Zoroastrian temples in Gandhara and western Central encircling
construction of Buddhist temples in the region. On the other hand, ern AsiaCentral
in terms Asia in proportion
of its terms of itsand proportion
composition and (K.M.composition
Paipakov, meters, wi
(K.M. Paipakov,
the complex of the higher Buddhist construction (hereafter Airtam 1967). However, in that the eastern side occupied 1967). However, in that the eastern side is
by cells rated with
occupied by cells is
II) was carried out on two levels. The upper level was located on the obviously different from them because the territory of vihara obviously different from them because wooden p
7
Toqquz
plain remains of the Greco-Bactrian building. On the bottom level the for territory
monks was of vihara
included, forthemonks
originalwasplan included,
of the temple the original
must be that have a
plan of the temple
from the north a rectangular court was surrounded by a clay wall. derived from the hilani front which is flanked by two rooms must be derived from the hilani front with smaller ro
which is flanked by
The temple had a pronaos (vestibule) and long entrance hall with towers. Further, Greek elements such as peristyle and distyle in two rooms with towers. Further, Greek Sahri-Bah
and Butka
surrounding passages and two additional rooms on the eastern elements antis are never such shownas peristyle and distyle
in the temple (Fig. 3). in Such
antistendencies
are neverfor
monasteri
shown in the
side of the building (Pugachenkova, 1991/1992: 29). The entire the subdivision of rooms and the composition of passages temple (Fig. 3). Such tendencies for the subdi-
rather at Hadda,
plan is not typical of the Buddhist buildings of India and other can be presented in building remains at Ay Khanum. (Fig. 28) The
locales located
the similar around
plans, the Mount
except for an Hindukush: it does not at
important monastery exist
Ak-in penchants
vision of for rooms the and
subdivision of rooms of
the composition andpassages
the compositionrather canof
the territory of Gandhara. Rather, the similar
Beshim, appear in the surrounding territory of Tian Shan, plans, except for an passages
be presented in building remains at Ay Khanum. (Fig. links
in the Ay Khanum Palace might be in the intimate 28)
important monastery at Ak-Beshim, appear
reaching Kucha, Shorchuk, Toqquz-Sarai, Bezeklik, and so in the surrounding ofThebuilding
penchants remains for the at Ak-Beshim
subdivision temple, of rooms whichand the adopted
compo- the
territory of Tian Shan, reaching Kucha, Shorchuk,
forth, in rapport with fire temples that created the various Toqquz-Sarai, L-shaped or I-shaped corridors and
sition of passages in the Ay Khanum Palace might be in the the subdivisions of the same
Bezeklik,
types of and so forth, in
surrounding rapport with
corridors. Thus, fireit temples
is concludedthat created
that passages
intimate and links rooms as uncovered
of building remains in Buddhist
at Ak-Beshim monasteriestemple, in
the various types of surrounding corridors.
this complex was produced by a local solution in that Air- Thus, it is concluded Airtam I and II, Adzina Tepe, and
which adopted the L-shaped or I-shaped corridors and theKara Tepe. In contrast, another
that
tamthis complex employed
I complex was produced thebysame a local
foursolution
pillared in that Airtam
halls, the temple at Ak-Beshim,
subdivisions of the dated sametopassages
the seventh andtorooms
early eighth centuries,
as uncovered
Icomposition
complex employed the same four pillared halls,
of rooms on both sides, distyle in antis, and the the composition had a quadrangle in plan, 38 by 38meters.
in Buddhist monasteries in Airtam I and II, Adzina Tepe, A cella with the size of
ofL-shaped
rooms on both sides, distyle in antis, and
and I-shaped passages in the Buddhist temple as the L-shaped and 10.5 by 10meters had a X-shaped plan
and Kara Tepe. In contrast, another temple at Ak-Beshim, by niches in the center of the
I-shaped passages in the Buddhist temple
Zoroastrian temple did in the temples of Oxus, Susa, and as Zoroastrian temple did western, southern, and eastern walls
dated to the seventh to early eighth centuries, had a qua- which include triple pedestal
inSurkh
the temples
Kotal of at Oxus, Susa,(Fig.
that time. and Surkh
2) Kotal at that time. (Fig. 2) for deities.inThe
drangle central
plan, 38 sculpture
by 38meters. of Buddha A cella was with in thethe nichesizeof the
of
southern wall opposite the sanctuary
10.5 by 10meters had X-shaped by niches in the center of entrance, and it was encircled
bythetwo corridors:
western, i.e. theand
southern, edifice consists
eastern walls inwhich
an open courtyard,
include triplea
sanctuary
pedestal for deities. The central sculpture of Buddha waseach
and two side corridors joined with doorways in in
side.
the The
niche central
of the entrance
southern was in theopposite
wall northern the wall sanctuary
franked by en- two
strong
trance,pillars
and itfrom was the outsidebyoftwo
encircled the corridors:
shrine. Thei.e. outside of the
the edifice
5
shrine. (Fig. 3)
consists in an open courtyard, a sanctuary and two side ninth
The second Ak-Beshim temple dated to the cor-
Fig 2. Airtam II (L) and Airtam I(R)
Figure 2. Airtam II (L) and Airtam I(R) to tenth joined
centuries differed to a certain degree from 6
2) AK-BESHIM AT TAJIKISTAN ridors with doorways in each side. TheAk-Beshim.
central en-It
2) AK-BESHIM
One of the important AT TAJIKISTAN Buddhist monasteries, responding consisted
trance was of aincella (3.2 by 3.2wall
the northern meters)
franked encircled
by two by strong
a corridor and
pillars
One of the important Buddhist monasteries,
to the Buddhist monastery of Airtam, is in Ak-Beshim at the responding to a large hall entered from south-east.
from the outside of the shrine. The second Ak-Beshim tem- The corridor, 2.3 to 2.7 meters
the
ChiuBuddhist
valley. monastery
The monastery of Airtam,
has aisrectangular
in Ak-Beshim at the
shape, 22Chiu
by wide, encircled
ple dated to thetheninth sanctuary
to tenth from three walls.
centuries differed There to awere
certaintwo
Valley. The monastery has a rectangular
76 meters. The entrance, gateway, and vihara complex for shape, 22 by 76 meters. appendices-houses faced open5 to the yard (K. Paipakov, 1967).
degree from Ak-Beshim. It consisted of a cella (3.2 by 3.2
The
monksentrance,
were in gateway, and vihara
the eastern part ofcomplex
the temple for monks
with anwere openin 3) TOQQUZ
meters) SARAI
encircled by AT XINJIANG
a corridor and a large hall entered from
the eastern part of the temple with an
courtyard along the walls. The courtyard proceeded to an open courtyard along the south-east. The corridor,consists
Toqquz Sarai at Tumshuk 2.3 to of 2.7a large
meters square wide, court, a court
encircled
walls. The courtyard proceeded to an open
open praying hall with four clay statues of Buddha sitting praying hall with four with a large stupa. The large court and
the sanctuary from three walls. There were two appendices- stupa court are aligned on
clay statues of Buddha sitting on high pedestals.
on high pedestals. The walls and the ceiling of the hall were The walls and a northwest-southeast axis, probably
houses faced open to the yard (Fig. 3) (K. Paipakov, 1967). with 6 the same arrangement
the ceiling ofwith
decorated the painting.
hall were decorated
There waswith an painting.
eight-columned There was an as the main axis of Large Sanctuary. (Fig. 7) The large court has the
hall
eight-columned
with a great flat hall ceiling
with a greatbetweenflat ceiling between the
the sanctuary sanctuary
and cour- 3) TOQQUZ SARAI AT XINJIANG
and courtyard, as presented in the eight-columned
tyard, as presented in the eight-columned hall of Oxus hall of tem-
Oxus 5 TheToqquz
second Krasnorechensk
Sarai at Tumshuk temple likewise matched
consists of athelarge
first Ak-Beshim
square court,in plan.
temple, including three doors on three-flight
ple, including three doors on three-flight of stairs in the of stairs in the western The sanctuary and small part of the yard in
a court with a large stupa. The large court and stupa courtfront of it, two encircling corridors,
side: the central
western side: the onecentral
leadingone to the sanctuary
leading to thewith a bronzewith
sanctuary statue
a were
are placed
aligned alongonwith a square cella in plan, 6 axis,
a northwest-southeast by 6 meters,
probably with awith
dome-like
the
ofbronze
Buddha, and dome-like top, and decorated
statue of Buddha, and dome-like top, and decorated arch called iwan, top and decorated arch. The sanctuary was
same arrangement as the main axis of Large Sanctuary. decorated with sculptural ensembles
(Fig.
which madeiwan,
arch called a considerable
which made contribution
a considerable to making entrances
contribution to structurally
7) The large connectedcourtwithhaswallstheby wooden
complete pillars shape
(K. M. Paipakov,
of square, 1967).mea-
and ornamentation of front facades
making entrances and ornamentation of front facades in
in Iranian Islamic temples 6
The temple matches the first Krasnorechensk
suring 10.8 by 10.10 meters, and a platform runs around (Kransnia Recha). (K. M. Paipakov,
the
afterward; and the other two going to the
Iranian Islamic temples afterward; and the other two going
side corridors round the 1967).
court. Large Sanctuary A, 50 by 32 meters, must be the old-
to the side corridors round the rectangular cella, which was est main temple complex, including some of the side rooms.
surrounded by three walls. In front of a cella, also, there Such tendency in Central Asia occurred in Tapa Sardar, and
were on two sides of a double-platform with sculptures of Dal’verzin tepe (Fig. 8, 9).7 The monastery also does not
34 Young Jae Kim and Dong Soo Han

complete shape of square, measuring 10.8 by 10.10 meters, and along a central axis. Notable is that early Buddhist monasteries such
a platform runs around the court. Large Sanctuary A, 50 by 32 as Kara-tepe, Toqquz Sarai A, and Karadong built around the fourth
meters, must be the oldest main temple complex, including some century did not have any antechamber. Yet, in the time of course,
of the side rooms. Such tendency in Central Asia occurred in Tapa long and narrow plans with an antechamber and a porch became
Sardar, and Dal’verzin tepe (Fig. 8, 9).7 The monastery also does not widespread in Xinjiang region. On both sides of the back wall of the
have orderly rooms. Large Sanctuary A has the irregular rooms, main room is an arched passageway leading to the rear chamber
facing onto the stupa. It is very analogous to the courtyard plan which is very narrow like a corridor. These passages create a square
with lopsided rooms of Complex B at Kara Tepe. (Fig. 6) At Large unit, called the central pillar (Ho Puay-peng,1992:61). However, it
Sanctuary
the elongated A, further, small temple
hall caves at Kizil, I and J has aand
Kucha, square base 1.9
Shorchuk does
in thenot seem that
territory of itthedoes have
Silk a pillared
Road, stupa because
as above-noted soonly
far, arched
may
the elongated
meters,
Ming-oi, the which hall
platform have caves
for an
the at Kizil,
image
stupa or
or a Kucha,
stupa,
altar on
on aand
each Shorchuk
side
square with
base.an in theor
niche
have territory
closewalls can ofbethe
relationships seenSilk
in Road,
the
with front asofabove-noted
ceremonial our eyes. Such somonasteries
performances far, may formay
thetheelongated
elongatedhall hallcavescavesat atKizil,
Kizil,Kucha,
Kucha,and andShorchuk
Shorchuk in in
thetheterritory
territory ofof thetheSilk
Silk Road,
Road, asasabove-noted
above-noted soso far,far,
may
Ming-oi,
ambulatory.
They are which
Such
differenthavefrom
long andthenarrow
stupa
those or
plans
of altar
of the
Bamiyanonsmall
a square
temple
and base.
Ibase.
Hadda, and J have
with
the aclose
central
faithful: relationships
pillar
narrow are a with
process
surrounding ceremonial
to confirm
corridors performances
the
for relationship
the pradak- for
Ming-oi,
Ming-oi,which whichhave havethethestupa stupaororaltar altaronona asquare square base. have
haveclosecloserelationships
relationshipswith withceremonial
ceremonialperformances
performancesforfor
They
are
which are
shown had indifferent
the
stupas from
elongated
with those
hall
squarecaves of
at Bamiyan
Kizil,
platforms Kucha,
and and
and Hadda,
Shorchuk
quadrangle the faithful:
between
shina narrow
the divine
cult, anterooms surrounding
and the human
for the by corridors
circumambulating
preparation for
of the pradak-
the
rituals, shrine
and
They
Theyarearedifferent
differentfrom fromthose thoseofofBamiyanBamiyanand andHadda, Hadda, thethefaithful:
faithful: narrow
narrow surrounding
surrounding corridors
corridors forforthethe pradak-
pradak-
which
the
Ming-oi,
cellas had
elongated
which
(four stupas
hall
have
meters with
caves
the
on square
atside)
stupa
each or platforms
Kizil,
altar
withKucha,
onaa domed and
square quadrangle
andbase.Shorchuk
ceiling They andare shina
in
(M.
elongated cult,plan anterooms
theMaillard,1983:133).
territory offor forRoad,
the communal
Silk
The the and
long preparation
as above-noted
narrow
rituals. Such of symmetrical
hall rituals,
so far, may
popular and
in the
thewhich
which had
elongated had stupas
stupas
hall with
caves with square
at square
Kizil, platforms
platforms
Kucha, and
and and quadrangle
quadrangle
Shorchuk in shina
shina
the cult,
cult,anterooms
territory ofanterooms
the communalfor
Silkwith forthethe
Road, as preparation
preparationofso
above-noted ofrituals,
rituals,
far, may andand
cellas
Ming-oi,
different
four (four
squinchwhich
from metershave
those
arches. onof each
the
Bamiyan
Indeed, side)
stupa orwith
and
such altara on
Hadda, domed
quadrangle which ceiling
a square
plans had base.anda
stupas
had elongated
have close
territory
elongated of plan
the
plans Silkfor
relationships Road,
become aas rituals.
ceremonial
above-noted
common Such
so
language far, symmetrical
performances
may
because have for
close
most
cellas
cellas
Ming-oi, (four
(fourmeters
which meters on
havefrom on
the each
each
stupaside)
side)
or withwith
altar aondomed
a domed
a square ceiling
ceiling
base. and and elongated
have elongated
close planplanforforcommunal
relationships communal
with rituals.
ceremonial rituals.performances
SuchSuchsymmetrical
symmetrical
for
four
They
with squinch
are
square arches.
different
platforms Indeed,
and those such
quadrangle of quadrangle
Bamiyan
cellas (four plans
and
meters had
Hadda,
onhad eacha elongated
the faithful:plans
relationships narrow
with become ahouses
common
surrounding
ceremonial language
corridors thebecause
for most
pradak-
the Anatolia,
less
four
They number
foursquinch
are squinch than
different rectangular
arches.
arches.
from Indeed,
Indeed,
those plans.
such
such
of Inquadrangle
this
quadrangle
Bamiyan sense,
andplansitHadda,
plansis ob-
hada a ofelongated
the buildings
elongated
faithful: such
plans
plans
narrow as early
become
become aperformances
surrounding common
a common in Near for
East
language
corridors language
for
faithful:
and
because
the because narrow
pradak- most
most
less
which
side) number
hadathe
with than
stupas
domed rectangular
with square
ceiling plans.
andcellas
four In this
platforms
squinch sense,
and
arches. it is and
quadrangle
Indeed, ob- of
shinabuildings
cult, such
anterooms as early
for houses
the in Near
preparation
pradakshina Eastof and Anatolia,
rituals, andthe
vious
less
which lessthat
number
number
had dimension
than
stupas thanwith of
rectangular
rectangular
square plans.tended
plans.
platforms toand
InInthis get
this longer
sense,
sense,
quadrangleit itis such
isob-ob- surrounding
Nabataean
ofof
shina buildings
buildings
cult,
corridors
and suchsuch
anterooms asfor
Greco-Roman
as the houses
early
early
for the temples,
houses in in
preparationNear cult,
Indian
Near anterooms
East cave
East
of andand
rituals,
for
temples
Anatolia,
Anatolia,
and
vious
cellas that
(four
quadrangle
bigger the
plans
according dimension
meters had
to on each of
a less demands
ritual cellas
side)
number tended
with
than
over a to
domed
rectangular
time. get longer
ceiling
plans. and
and
Inand this Nabataean
elongated
preparation
and open-air and
plan
ofand Greco-Roman
for communal
rituals,
temples and
with temples,
elongated
square planIndian
rituals.
plans, Such
for cave temples
symmetrical
communal
Kizil, Dunhuang, rituals.
vious
cellasvious that
(four thatthethe
metersdimension
dimension
on each cellas
ofside)
of cellas
with tended
tended
a domedto togetget longer
ceiling longer and and Nabataean
Nabataean
elongated plan and Greco-Roman
for Greco-Roman
communal temples,
temples,
rituals. Indian
SuchIndian cavecave
symmetricaltemples
temples
bigger
four
sense, itaccording
squinch
is obvious to
arches.
thatritual
Indeed,
the demandssuch over
dimension of time.
quadrangle
cellas tended plansto had
get a
longer and
Such
etc. open-air
elongated plans
symmetrical
adopted temples
become
elongated with
elongated a
plans square
common
plans
due plans,
language
become
to the aKizil,
common
demands Dunhuang,
because
of most
language
division
bigger
four bigger according
squinch according
arches. to to
ritual
ritual
Indeed, demands
demands
such over
over
quadrangletime.
time.plans had a andandopen-air
elongated open-air
plans temples
templeswith
become a with square
common square plans,
plans,Kizil,
language Kizil,
becauseDunhuang,
Dunhuang,
most
less number
and bigger than rectangular
according to ritual demandsplans. over
In thistime.sense, it is ob- etc.
of adopted
buildings
because
rituals mostsuch
between elongatedas early
ofelongated
buildings
cooperate plans
houses
such due
and to Near
in
as due
early thehouses
individual demands
East and
in ofAnatolia,
Near
rituals, division
East and
less etc.
etc.
adopted
adopted elongated
as earlyplans plansdue intoNear
to
thethe demands
demands ofand
of the
division
division
viousnumber
that thethan rectangular
dimension plans.tended
of cellas In thisto sense,
get longer it is and ob- of buildings
rituals
Nabataean
Anatolia,
augmentationbetween
andsuch
Nabataean cooperate
Greco-Roman
of and
ritual
houses
and individual
temples,
Greco-Roman
performance
East
Indian
temples,
(I-Tsing,
and
rituals,
cave Anatolia,
and121;
temples
Indian
1970: the
cave
vious that the dimension of cellas tended to get longer and rituals
ritualsbetween
Nabataean between
and cooperate
cooperateand
Greco-Roman andindividual
temples, individual
Indian rituals,
rituals,
cave andandthethe
temples
bigger according to ritual demands over time. augmentation
and open-air
temples
Lars and open-air
Fogelin, of
temples
2003, ritualwith
temples
2006; performance
square
with
H.square plans,
square
Sarkar, (I-Tsing,
Kizil,
plans,
1966). 1970:
Dunhuang,
Kizil, 121;
Dunhuang,
bigger according to ritual demands over time. andaugmentation
augmentation
open-air ofofritual
temples ritual
with performance
performance plans, (I-Tsing,
(I-Tsing,
Kizil, 1970:
1970:121;
Dunhuang, 121;
Lars
etc.
etc. Fogelin,
adopted
adopted 2003,
elongated
elongated 2006;
plans
plans H.
due Sarkar,
dueto to the1966).
the demands demands of division
of division rituals
Lars
etc. Lars Fogelin,
adoptedFogelin, 2003,
elongated 2003, 2006;
2006;
plans H. H.
dueSarkar,
Sarkar,
to the 1966).
1966).
demands of division
rituals
betweenbetween
cooperatecooperateand individual and rituals,
individual and therituals, and the of
augmentation
rituals
augmentationbetweenofcooperate ritual and individual
performance rituals,
(I-Tsing, 1970: and121; the
ritual performance (I-Tsing, 1970: 121; Lars Fogelin, 2003, 2006; H.
augmentation
Lars Fogelin, of ritual performance (I-Tsing, 1970: 121;
Sarkar, 1966). 2003, 2006; H. Sarkar, 1966).
Lars Fogelin, 2003, 2006; H. Sarkar, 1966).

Fig. 4 Cave 38, Kizil Grottoes Fig. 5 Ladh Khan temple

Fig. 4 Cave 38, Kizil
Figure 4. Cave Grottoes
38, Kizil Grottoes Fig. 5 Ladh Khan
Figure 5. Ladh temple
Khan temple
Fig.Fig.
4 Cave
4 Cave
38,38,
Kizil
Kizil
Grottoes
Grottoes Fig.Fig.
5 Ladh
5 Ladh
Khan
Khan
temple
temple
Fig 10. Shorchuk Ming-oi Fig 11. Dandan Oilik n. 12, 13
Fig 10. Shorchuk Ming-oi Fig 11. Dandan Oilik n. 12, 13
FigFig
10.10.
Shorchuk
Shorchuk
Ming-oi
Ming-oi FigFig
11.11.
Dandan
Dandan
Oilik
Oilik
n. 12,
n. 12,
13 13
Fig. 4 Cave 38, Kizil Grottoes Fig. 5 Ladh Khan temple
Fig. 4 Cave 38, Kizil Grottoes Fig. 5 Ladh Khan temple

Fig 10. Shorchuk Ming-oi Fig 11. Dandan Oilik n. 12, 13

Figure 10. Shorchuk Ming-oi Figure 11. Dandan
Fig 11. Dandan OilikOilik
n. 12,n.
1312, 13
Fig 10. Shorchuk Ming-oi

Fig. 6 Kara Tepe Fig.7 Large Sanctuary A, Toqquz-Sarai

Fig. 12 Karadong (n.61), Bezeklik(n.9), Toqquz-Sarai
Figure 6. Kara Tepe
Fig. 6 Kara Tepe Figure 7. Large Sanctuary
Fig.7 Large Sanctuary A, Toqquz-Sarai
A, Toqquz-Sarai
Fig. 12 Karadong (n.61), Bezeklik(n.9), Toqquz-Sarai
Fig.Fig.
6 Kara
6 Kara
Tepe
Tepe Fig.7
Fig.7
Large
Large
Sanctuary
Sanctuary
A, Toqquz-Sarai
A, Toqquz-Sarai 5) KARA TEPE, 12 DANDAN
Fig.Fig. 12
Karadong
Karadong(n.61), OILIK,
(n.61), KARADONG,
Bezeklik(n.9),
Bezeklik(n.9), Toqquz-Sarai AND
Toqquz-Sarai
5) KARA
SHORCHUK TEPE, MING-OI DANDAN AT OILIK,
XINJIANG KARADONG, AND
5)5)KARA KARATEPE, TEPE,DANDAN DANDANOILIK, OILIK,KARADONG,
KARADONG,AND AND
SHORCHUK
Unlike MING-OI
centralMING-OIpillar AT
types XINJIANG
with a elongated hall, another
SHORCHUK
SHORCHUK MING-OI ATAT XINJIANG
XINJIANG
Fig. 6 Kara Tepe Fig.7 Large Sanctuary A, Toqquz-Sarai Unlike
transformed central
Fig. pillar
12 Karadong
pattern with types
(n.61),
atypeswith a elongated
Bezeklik(n.9),
sanctum hall,platform
Toqquz-Sarai another
Fig. 6 Kara Tepe Fig.7 Large Sanctuary A, Toqquz-Sarai Unlike
Unlike central
central
Figure 12. Karadongpillar
pillartypes
(n.61), withwith awith an
elongated altar
a Toqquz-Sarai
Bezeklik(n.9), elongated hall,
hall,
Toqquz-Sarai another
another
transformed
5)
and KARA
surroundingTEPE,pattern
Fig. with
DANDAN
12 Karadong
corridors a
(n.61),sanctum
began OILIK,
Bezeklik(n.9),with
in Dandan an
KARADONG, altar
Oilik, platform
AND
Karadong,
5) transformed
transformed
KARA TEPE, pattern
pattern
DANDANwithwith a sanctum
aOILIK,
sanctum with
with
KARADONG,ananaltar
altar
platform
platform
AND
and surrounding
SHORCHUK
5) KARA
Bezeklik, TEPE,
Kucha, corridors
MING-OI DANDAN
ShorchukATbeganXINJIANGin Dandan
OILIK,
Ming-oi, andOilik,
KARADONG, Karadong,
Toqquz-Sarrai AND
andand
SHORCHUK surrounding
surrounding
MING-OIcorridors
corridors
AT began began
XINJIANG in inDandan
Dandan Oilik,
Oilik, Karadong,
Karadong,
Bezeklik,
Unlike
SHORCHUK
(Tumshuk). Kucha,
central
TheMING-OI Shorchuk
pillar types
AT
above-mentioned Ming-oi,
with
XINJIANG a elongatedand
elongated Toqquz-Sarrai
hall,
halls another
were in-
Bezeklik,
Bezeklik,
Unlike Kucha,
central Kucha,
pillarShorchuk
Shorchuk
types withMing-oi,
Ming-oi,
a elongated and andhall,
Toqquz-Sarrai
Toqquz-Sarrai
another
(Tumshuk).
transformed
Unlikeforcentral
tended The
pattern
corporate above-mentioned
with
pillar types
rituals, with elongated
a sanctum
whereas a with an
elongated
the halls
altar
quadrangle were
platform
hall, in-
another
sanc-
(Tumshuk).
(Tumshuk).
transformed The Theabove-mentioned
pattern above-mentioned
with abegan
sanctum elongated
elongated
with an halls
altar hallswere
werein-in-
platform
tended
and
transformed
tum for
surrounding
wasfor corporatecorridors
patternfor
planned rituals,
withindividual whereas
in
a sanctumritualsDandan the quadrangle
Oilik,
with anbecause sanc-
Karadong,
altar platform
enclosed and
andtended
tended forcorporate
corporate rituals,
rituals, whereas
whereas thethe quadrangle
quadrangle sanc-
sanc-
Figure 8. Tapa Sardar Figure 9. Dal’verzin-tepe
Fig. 9 Dal’verzin-tepe tumsurrounding
Bezeklik,was
surrounding
walls were planned
Kucha, corridors
corridors
established forbegan began
individual
Shorchuk in Dandan
along
in
Ming-oi,
the
Dandan
rituals and
Oilik,
altar
Oilik,
because
inside
Karadong,
enclosed
Toqquz-Sarrai
Karadong,the Bezeklik,
shrine.
Fig.8 Tapa Sardar tumtumwas
Bezeklik, was planned
Kucha,planned forforindividual
Shorchuk individual
Ming-oi, rituals
rituals
and because
becauseenclosed
Toqquz-Sarraienclosed
4) CAVE
4) CAVEFig.8
38
38 AT
Tapa
AT KIZIL (Fig.
Sardar
KIZIL (Fig. 4)
4) Fig. 9 Dal’verzin-tepe walls
(Tumshuk).
Kucha,
Dandan were
Shorchuk
Oilik established
The Ming-oi,along
above-mentioned
D12(Fig.11,14) the elongated
aaltar
and Toqquz-Sarrai
has inside
square-based hallsthewere
(Tumshuk). shrine.
sanctumin-
The
Fig.8
Fig.8
Tapa
Tapa
Sardar
Sardar Fig.Fig.
9 Dal’verzin-tepe
9 Dal’verzin-tepe walls
wallswere
(Tumshuk). wereTheestablished
established
above-mentioned along
along theelongated
the altar
altarinside
inside
halls the theshrine.
were shrine.
in-
4)Cave
CAVE 383838 atAT
at38Kizil KIZIL
(the (Fig.
fourth 4)century) has
hasno noantechamber
antechamberor Dandan
tended Oilik
for
above-mentioned D12(Fig.11,14)
corporate rituals,
elongated hallshas
whereaswerea square-based
the quadrangle
intended for
pradakshina sanctum
sanc-
corporate
patha,
4)Cave
4)
CAVE
CAVE 38Kizil
ATAT (the
KIZIL
KIZIL fourth
(Fig.
(Fig.4)century)
4) with
Dandan
tended a
Dandan surrounding
for Oilik corridor
OilikD12(Fig.11,14)
corporate D12(Fig.11,14)
rituals, and a
hashasa the
whereas asquare-based
square-based
quadrangle and
sanctum
sanctum
sanc-
or Cave
vestibule, 38
vestibule,and at Kizil
the
and main
the (theroom
main fourth century)
reaches
room directly
reaches has no antechamber
through
directly the
through entrance
the with
tum
rituals,
includesa whereas
was surrounding
planned corridor
for individual
the quadrangle and of
sanctum pradakshina
arituals because
was planned patha,
meters,for enclosed and
individual
Cave
Cave 3838 at atKizil
Kizil (the(the fourth
fourth century)
century) hashas nono antechamber
antechamber tumwith
with
was aan interior
a surrounding
surrounding
planned for wall
corridorlength
corridor
individual andand a three
pradakshina
a pradakshina
rituals because which
patha,
patha,and
enclosed isand
or vestibule,
entrance Fig.8
along andaSardar
Tapa the mainaxis.
central room reaches
Notable directly
Fig. 9 Dal’verzin-tepe
is that early through
Buddhist the includes
walls
rituals
surroundedwere an
because interior
established
by enclosed
another wall length
along the of three
altar
walls were established
rectangular wall, meters,
inside
4.4 by the
along which
shrine. is
the altar
4.8meters.
ororvestibule,
vestibule, and and thethemain main room
room reaches
reaches
Fig. directly
directly
9 Dal’verzin-tepe through
through thethe includes
walls includes
were anestablished
aninterior
interiorwall walllength
along length
the of ofthree
altar three meters,
inside meters,
the which
whichis is
shrine.
entrance
7 CAVE along
4)
monasteries 38
Fig.8 AT
Tapa
such a central
KIZIL
Sardar
as axis.
(Fig.
Kara-tepe, 4)Notable
Toqquz is that early Buddhist surrounded
Dandan
inside Oilik by
the shrine. another
D12(Fig.11,14)
Dandan rectangular
Oilik has a wall, 4.4
square-based
D12(Fig.11,14) by 4.8meters.
sanctum
hasthea square-
cella
4)
Toqquz Sarai temple
entrance
entrance
CAVE along
38 along
AT ahas
KIZIL a the
central same composition
central
(Fig. axis.
axis.
4) Notable
Notable isSarai
as Gandharan
is
thatthatA,
early andBuddhist
temples
early Kara-
that have
Buddhist The narrow
surrounded
Dandan Oilikpath
surrounded by between
byanother the has
anotherrectangular
D12(Fig.11,14) enclosed
rectangular wall, wall
wall,
apradakshina and
4.44.4
square-based byby4.8meters.
4.8meters.
sanctum
monasteries
Cave
dong such
38 atwithin
built Kizilaas Kara-tepe,
(the fourth Toqquz
century) Sarai
has noby A, and
antechamber Kara- The
with
based anarrow
surrounding
sanctum pathwithbetween
corridor
a surrounding
pradakshina the
andenclosed
acorridor wall
andanda1998:the
patha, cella
and
pradakshina
38 around the fourth century didhas not have any ante- served for the (Christoph Baumer, 10).
a central stupa square court which is surrounded smaller rooms and
monasteries
monasteries
Cave atand such
such
Kizil asas
(the Kara-tepe,
Kara-tepe,
fourth Toqquz
century) Toqquz Sarai
Sarai
no A,A, and
antechamber andKara-
Kara- The
with The
a narrow
narrowpath
surrounding pathbetween
betweenthe
corridor andtheenclosed
a enclosed
pradakshina wallwallandandthethe
patha, cella
and cella
dong
or
chamber.built
vestibule,
halls, modeled around
Yet, in thethe
the main
on Takht-i-Bahi, fourth
time room
of century
reaches
course,
Thareli, did
long
Jamal-Garhi, not
directly
and have
narrow
Sahri-Bahol, any
through ante-
the
andplans
Mekha- served
includes foranthe pradakshina
interior wall (Christoph
length of Baumer,
three
patha, and includes an interior wall length of three meters, which meters, 1998:
which10). is
or dong
dong built
vestibule, built around
andaround
the thethe fourth
fourth century
century did didnotnot have have any anyante-
theante- served
served forforthe thepradakshina
pradakshina (Christoph
(Christoph Baumer,
Baumer, 1998:
1998: 10).
10).
chamber.
entrance
with
Sandhaan Yet,
along
antechamber
at Peshawar, in themain
aNimogram,
central time room
axis.
and Saidu
reaches
ofa course,
Notable
porch longdirectly
andearly
isButkara
becamethat through
narrow Buddhist
Iwidespread plansin
includes
surrounded
is surrounded
an interior
bybyanother wall length
anotherrectangular
of
rectangular wall,
three meters, which
4.4byby4.8meters.
wall, 4.4 4.8meters. is
The
chamber.
chamber.
entrance alongYet,Yet,
a incentral
in
thethe time time
axis. ofSharif
of
course,
Notable
I, and
course, long
is long
that and at
and
early
Swat,
narrow Jaulian,
narrow
Buddhist
and
plans
plans surrounded by another rectangular wall, wall
4.4 by 4.8meters.
with
Xinjiangan antechamber
monasteries
Dharmarajika atsuch
region.
Taxila,On as both
as well and
Kara-tepe, a monasteries
sides
as some porch
Toqquz
of the became
Sarai
back wall
surrounded widespread
A,of byandthe Kara-
smallermain in
rooms The narrow path between the enclosed
narrow path between the enclosed wall and the cella served and the cella
for the
with
withananantechamber
monasteries antechamber
such as and
Kara-tepe, anda aporchporchbecame
Toqquz became
Sarai widespread
A, widespread in in cella
Xinjiang
dong
to holdbuilt
room is an
statuesregion.
around
arched
or votiveOnthe both
fourth
passageway
stupas sides
at Hadda, of
century thedid
leading
Begram, back
andtonot wall
the have
rear
Fondukistan. ofandthe
any Kara-
main
ante-
chamber
The
served narrow
pradakshinafor thepath between (Christoph
pradakshina
(Christoph
the enclosed
Baumer, 1998: 10).
wall and
Baumer, 1998:the10).
Xinjiang
dong Xinjiang
built region.
region.
around On
the Onboth both
fourth sides
sides
centuryofof thethe
did backback
not wall
wall
have of
anyof
theante-
the
mainmain served for the pradakshina (Christoph Baumer, 1998: 10).
room
chamber.
which isis anYet, arched
in thepassageway
time of leading
course, long toandthe rear chamber
narrow plans
room
room
chamber. is very
is
anan
Yet, narrow
arched
inarched like
the passageway
time a corridor.
passageway
of course,leading These
leading
long to passages
tothe
and the rear
narrow rear create
chamber
chamber
plans
which
with
a whichan
squareis very
antechambernarrow
unit, calledlike
and aa
thecorridor.
porch These
became passages
widespread create
in
with which
an isantechamber
is
veryvery narrow
narrow like
and like
a a central
a porch
corridor.
corridor. pillar
These
became These (Ho Puay-
passages
passages
widespread create
create
in
apeng,1992:61).
squareregion.
Xinjiang unit,However,
Oncalled
both sides the
it the
does central
of the
not back
seem pillar
wall
that (Ho
of the
itof(Ho
does Puay-
main
have
a asquare
Xinjiang square
region. unit,
unit,
On called called
both sides the
ofcentral
thecentral
backpillar pillar
wall (Homain
the Puay-
Puay-
gh the includes an interior wall length of three meters, which is open-air courtyard and an arch gate like iwan flanked by was
ddhist surrounded by another rectangular wall, 4.4 by 4.8meters. small rooms like the hilani front between the main shrine He c
Kara- The narrow path between the enclosed wall and the cella and main stupa, in which the monastic quadrangles were the e
ante- Evolution,
served forTransformation, and (Christoph
the pradakshina Representation in Buddhist
Baumer, 1998:Architecture
10). 35 of th
situated on the both sides, holding a symmetric arrangement
plans (Kato Kyuzo,1992:35-38). The middle courtyard is also inscr
ead in (Kato Kyuzo,1992:35-38).
surrounded The middle
by small rooms and courtyard is also surrounded
I-shaped roofed and colon- porti
main bynaded
small rooms andIts
passages. I-shaped roofedfollows
arrangement and colonnaded
the similarpassages.
way in had
amber Its that
arrangement follows the
the Ak-Beshim similar way
I subsumes an inopen-air
that the courtyard
Ak-Beshimbe-I behin
create subsumes
tween anan entrance
open-air courtyard between
and a shrine. (Fig.an entrance and a shrine.
17)
Puay- (Fig. 17) 9
Ved
beginn
s have templ
can be impor
a cen- Figure 13. Shorchuk Ming-oi,
Fig 13. Shorchuk Ming-oi, F4 F4 Figure 14. Dandan Oilik,
Fig 14. Dandan Oilik, D12D12 kinds
tween In like manner, Karadong n.61 monastery near Keriya (near ple (V
In like
Khotan) on manner,
the Southern Karadong n.61 dates
Route, which monastery
to aroundneartheKeriya
second
10
The
shrine media
opular half of the fourth century, consists of a quadrangular to
(near Khotan) on the Southern Route, which dates around
cella (each towar
Fig. 17Figure 17. Fayaz
Fayaz Tepa Tepa
8.5meters) with a central square altar or stupa, but without an 11
Ac
antechamber. The cella is surrounded by a circumambulatory 3. ARCHITECTURE IN PRE-BUDDHIST PERIOD makes
templ
passage
whichand doesa rectangular
not have anouter enclosure The
antechamber. wall, type
measuring
indeedtwo oc- 8
There are significant Buddhist temples in three locales near Termez: i.e. line at
meters
curs in F4 shrine at Shorchuk Ming-oi. A mound in 12).
on each side containing the wall paintings (Fig. The
the cella 3.1Fayaz
3.VEDIC
Tepa,ALTAR
Kara Tepe, and IN
ARCHITECTURE Adzina Tepe.
PRE-BUDDHIST PERIOD
12
Die
cella
was type alsocenter
in the appearswhich
at Kara Tepebe
might onplaced
the southin aside of the
stupa main
or statue It3.1
is believed
VEDICthat ALTARthe establishment of a square-based platform in
court of Complex A, which does not have an antechamber.
(Aurel Stein, 1921: 1190) (Fig.10, 13). The F4 had a great The type BuddhistIt isarchitecture
believed that has been
the based on Vedic square
establishment altar. Indian
of a square-based
indeed
staircase on a large podium to enter inside the shrine. the
occurs in F4 shrine at Shorchuk Ming-oi. A mound in architects
platform used a number architecture
in Buddhist of ideas to build has religious
been based architecture.
on Vedic
cella On
was the
in the center which
contrary, mighttype
the basic be placed
of theinBuddhist
a stupa or temple
statue Such ideas altar.
square can beIndian
classifiedarchitects
into threeusedparts;athenumber
Indian architecture
of ideas to
(Aurel Stein, 1921: 1190) (Fig.10, 13). The F4
with surrounding corridors was represented in one of the had a great staircase hasbuild
commonly
religious used a square plan
architecture. Suchpersistently
ideas canrelated to the
be classified
onover-ground
a large podiumsections
to enter inside
of thethe shrine. monastery of Kara
Buddhists construction
into three parts;of Vedic thealtars
Indian (Stella Kramrisch,
architecture has1946:15);
commonly a grid-
used
On the contrary, the
8 basic type of the Buddhist temple with
Tepe in Termez. These surrounding corridors were va- work to weave
a square planspace and time9; related
persistently and symbolic
to theornamentations
construction oftoVed- get
surrounding
riously and corridors
repeatedlywas represented
revealed ininthis one area
of theand
over-ground
L-shaped an ic
attractive sight forKramrisch,
altars (Stella believers. Likewise,
1946:15); through a long historical
a grid-work to weave
8
sections of the Buddhists monastery of Kara Tepe
and I-shaped corridors run behind square shrines, where in Termez. These
the context
spaceofand time9;altar,
the Vedic andthe laying out
symbolic of the Hindu temple
ornamentations to gethas an
surrounding corridors were variously and repeatedly
cave sections repeated the same layout. Notable is that the revealed in been a ritual, sight
attractive and most prototypicalLikewise,
for believers. stone temple is characterized
through a long his-
thisdistance
area andbetween
L-shapedeach and I-shaped corridors run behind
of shrine and surrounding corridor square by torical
a squarecontext
plan with cardinal
of the Vedicprojections (Michael
altar, the laying outMeister, 1979:
of the Hindu
10
shrines,
was muchwhere the cave sections
deeper than otherrepeated the same layout.
monasteries. Even Notable
later, thisis 204-219)
temple has andbeena curved superstructure
a ritual, with vertical stone
and most prototypical band (latas)
temple
that the distance between each of shrine and
layout was frequently used in other monasteries such as surrounding corridor overis characterized by a square
the wall’s projections. The plan
square with
plancardinal
means projections
the Nabel
wasGuldara(Guru
much deeper than other
dara), monasteries.
Adzina Tepe Even later, this
at around layout was
Gandhara as (Michael
(nābhi) in theMeister,
Vedic rites, 1979: womb, in10theand
as the204-219) a curved
center super-
of the Uttara-
frequently used in other monasteries such
well as neighboring regions: Kucha, Sengym(Senguim- as Guldara(Guru dara), structure
Vedi. On the with vertical
altar the fire was band
laid (latas) over the
on the Ukhā, wall’s projec-
the fire-pan made
Adzina
Oriz),Tepe at around Gandhara
Karashar(Shorchuk as well Subashi,
Ming-oi), as neighboring
from the regions:
sixth tions.The
of clay. TheFiresquare
(Agni) plan means in
is carried thethe
Nabel (nābhi)
pan from theinĀhavanīyā
the Vedic
Kucha, Sengym(Senguim-Oriz),
to seventh centuries C.E. (Fig. 15, 16) Karashar(Shorchuk Ming-oi), rites,(Stella
hearth as theKramrisch,
womb, in the 1946:center of 11
26-27). theHowever,
Uttara-Vedi.
Kuwayama On the
Subashi, from the sixth to seventh centuries C.E. (Fig. 15, 16) altar the
Shoshin fire was
believed thatlaid
theon the Ukhā,
square the fire-pan
platforms made
started to appearof clay.
in
The stupas
Indian Fire (Agni)
right whenis carried in the panstupas
the wheel-shaped frombegan
the Āhavanīyā
to appear
hearth
under the(Stella
influenceKramrisch,
of Roman 1946: 26-27).11architecture
mausoleum However, Kuway in the
time of commercial contact between Roman and Indianstarted
ama Shoshin believed that the square platforms regionsto
appear inShoshin,
(Kuwayama Indian stupas right when
1978:209-210). the wheel-shaped
Kuwayama also questionedstupas
began to appear under the influence of Roman
his arguments because he could not find any historical records that mausoleum
architecture
Roman architectsinvisited
the time of commercial
in Indian contact temples
regions to construct between
Roman and Indian regions (Kuwayama
(Kuwayama,1998:506-566). An interesting point is that the altar Shoshin, 1978:209-
210). aKuwayama
includes solid platform alsowith
questioned
a series ofhisengaged
arguments because
columns inside,he
could not find any historical
providing the impression of a peristyle. records that Roman architects
visited in Indian regions to construct temples (Kuwayama,1
3.2998:506-566).
NABATEAN MONUMENTS An interesting point is thatEAST
IN NEAR the altar includes
a solid platform with a series
In Ak-Beshim I Buddhist temple (Fig.3) and Mohra of engaged columns
Maliaran inside,
at
Figure 15. Guldara(Guru
Fig.15 Guldara(Guru dara)dara) Figure 16. Adzina
Fig.16 Adzina TepeTepe providing the impression of a peristyle.
6) 6) FAYAZ
FAYAZ TEPATEPA ININ TERMEZ
TERMEZ OFOF UZBEKISTAN
UZBEKISTAN 9
Vedic rites introduce and accompany the building of the temple. At the
Dating
Dating fromfrom st
centuryB.C.E.,
thethe1 st1century B.C.E.,Fayaz
FayazTepaTepaBuddhist
Buddhist 3.2 NABATEAN MONUMENTS in NEAR EAST
beginning of the various phases in the construction and consecration of the
monastery, in the northwestern part of Termez, comprises a stupaa
monastery, in the northwestern part of Termez, comprises In Ak-Beshim I Buddhist temple (Fig.3) and Mohra Ma-
temple, the rite of the seeds and their germination (ankurārpana) is most
stupa
facing facing
a main a main
shrine and a shrine and monastery
rectangular a rectangular monastery
(117х34meters) liaran at Gandhara (Fig.36), notable is that the porch-like
important. The ploughing and sowing of the sacrificial ground with all
(117х34meters) divided into three parts along
divided into three parts along a north-south axis, with the kitchen/a north-south front is flanked by two rooms or towers, which might be
kinds of grain preceded the piling of the fire altar, the building of the temple
axis, with
refectory to thethe kitchen/refectory
south. There is an open-air to thecourtyard
south. There
and an is an
arch coined from a hilani front in Nabataean temples. Puchstein
(Vaikhānasāgama). In the Upanisads, the world is woven by Brahman.
open-air courtyard and an arch gate like iwan
gate like iwan flanked by small rooms like the hilani front between flanked by 10 was the first scholar to deal with and define the term hilani.
The Brhat Samhita prescribes rules regarding orientation toward intermediate
thesmall roomsand
main shrine likemain hilaniinfront
the stupa, whichbetween the quadrangles
the monastic main shrine He concluded the term came from the Assyrian sources of
directions are waived since the temple should always be oriented toward the
and main stupa, in which the monastic quadrangles
were situated on the both sides, holding a symmetric arrangement were the eighth and ninth centuries B.C.E., Also, from the Annals
cardinal points.
situated on the both sides, holding a symmetric arrangement 11 of the Assyrian kings who mention in their building-
According to the stipulation of the Baudhāyana Sulba sutra, the first makes a
8 (Kato
There Kyuzo,1992:35-38).
are significant Buddhist templesThe middle
in three courtyard
locales near is Fayaz
Termez: i.e. also inscriptions, Puchstein interprets the word as referring to a
square (caturaśrīkarana) delineating the outer periphery of the temple, its division
surrounded by small
Tepa, Kara Tepe, and Adzina Tepe. rooms and I-shaped roofed and colon- portico flanked by two rooms (Puchstein, 1892). Koldewey
in half, fixing of poles in the middle of the east-west line at the cardinal points.
naded passages. Its arrangement follows the similar way in had the agreement with his opinion; yet, he writes, “lying
that the Ak-Beshim I subsumes an open-air courtyard be- behind the main area toward the direction of the entrance”12
tween an entrance and a shrine. (Fig. 17)
9
Vedic rites introduce and accompany the building of the temple. At the
 36 Young Jae Kim and Dong Soo Han

Gandhara (Fig.36), notable is that the porch-like front is flanked Khawaja(Ernst E. Herzfeld, 1935). Precisely the same arrangement
by two rooms or towers, which might be coined from a hilani was used in an addition to the principal palace at Hatra, adding a
front in Nabataean temples. Puchstein was the first scholar to deal temple with a central sanctuary and a roofed passage on all four
with and define the term hilani. He concluded the term came sides (Fig.18). This temple plan was used in Iran of the Parthian
from the Assyrian sources of the eighth and ninth centuries B.C.E., time but even earlier under the Achamenids.15 There exists on
Also, from the Annals of the Assyrian kings who mention in their the Zoroastrian temple of Susa(Fig. 20), attributed to the fourth
building-inscriptions, Puchstein interprets the word as referring century B.C.E. the same feature likewise revealed in the temples of
technical
to a portico
technical term.
flanked
term. By
By contrast,
by two rooms
contrast, Weidhass
Weidhass talked
(Puchstein, about
about the
talked 1892). defi-
Koldewey
the defi- sanctuary
Nabataean
sanctuary Syria. at
at Sahr
Sahr The(all built
builtofin
temples
(all about
inBa’al
about the
the first
Shamin(Fig. century
first 20) and Dushara
century C.E.)
C.E.)
nition
had the in a
agreement philological
with his consideration,
opinion;
nition in a philological consideration, he writes, yet, he he writes,
writes, “lying “There
behind
“There atshow
Si, a
and remarkable
the sanctuary similarity
at Sahr to
(all the
built
show a remarkable similarity to the plan of the Susa temple. plan
in of
aboutthe Susa
the first temple.
century
continually
the main areaexisted
continually toward nothing
existed the direction
nothing as
as fromof the
from aa set of
of columns.
entrance”
set
12
By
By the
(R. Koldewey,
columns. the C.E.) show a remarkable similarity to the plan of the Susa temple.
way
technical
1898). it could
The term. be...
By
definition
way it could be... the the opening
contrast,
was a
opening little of
Weidhass walls
different
of walls should
talked from
should about be only
the
Puchstein.
be only defi-one
But,
one 3.3 ZOROASTRIAN
3.3
sanctuary at Sahr (all
ZOROASTRIAN PILLARED
built inHALLS
PILLARED aboutAND
HALLS the PASSAGES
AND first century
PASSAGES (I
(I // L)
C.E.)
L)
13
technical
by
nition
they only
in
had a a term.
column” By
philological
common contrast,
point
13 (Hermann Weidhass
consideration,
in that
by only a column” (Hermann Weidhaas,1939). Thus, be- they talked
Weidhaas,1939).
he
amalgamated about
writes,the the
Thus,
hilani
“There defi-
be-
to a 3.3
showsanctuary
Indeed, the role of Zoroastrian temple as a mediatorC.E.)
Indeed,
ZOROASTRIAN
a remarkable at
the Sahr
role (all
of
PILLARED built
Zoroastrian
similarity in
HALLS
to theabouttemple
AND
plan the first
as
PASSAGES
of the a century
Susamediator
(I / L)
temple. of
of
nition
cause
continually
certain in
most
type a philological
definitions
existed
of nothing
building as a consideration,
were
as from
technical
cause most definitions were not scientifically proved, not
a set
term. ofBy he
scientificallywrites,
columns.
contrast, By “There
proved,the
Weidhass show
Buddhist
Indeed, a remarkable
ideas
the role was
of similarity
significant
Zoroastrian to
templethe
because
Buddhist ideas was significant because they had been in the plan
as a of
they the
had
mediator Susa
been
of temple.
in the
Buddhist
waycontinually
Wachtsmuth,
talkedit could
about be...
Wachtsmuth, existed
the the nothing
through opening
definition
through inasaoffrom
archeological
archeological walls a set
finds
philological
findsshouldofconsideration,
at
at columns.
be only By
Sendsjirli,
Sendsjirli, con-
one
con- the
he same
3.3
ideas
same period
ZOROASTRIAN
was
period and the
and PILLARED
significant same territory
same HALLS
thebecause they had
territory AND side byin side
PASSAGES
been
side by with
the (Isame
side early
/ L) period
with early
by way
cluded
only
writes, it a could
that
“There the
column” be... 13the opening of walls should be only one
oldest
continually examples
(Hermann
existed of the hilani
Weidhaas,1939).
nothing
cluded that the oldest13 examples of the hilani type must be as from atype
set must
Thus,
of be-
columns. be 3.3 ZOROASTRIAN
Buddhist buildings PILLARED
in favor HALLS
of
Buddhist buildings in favor of the aniconism against of
andIndeed,
the same the role
territory of Zoroastrian
side by side the
with AND
temple
early PASSAGES
aniconism
as a
Buddhist mediator (I
against / L)
buildings the
thein
Bybytheonly
accepted
cause
accepted way as
most ait could
as column”
aa prototype.
definitions (Hermann
be... the
prototype. Thus,
were
Thus,not
opening Weidhaas,1939).
he
of
he said, “as
“as long
scientifically
walls
said, should Thus,
as
as it
proved,
be only
long itone be-
re-
re- by creation of images. The general identification of fire tem-of
Indeed,
creation
Buddhist
favor of of
ideas
the the
images.role
was
aniconism of
The Zoroastrian
significant
againstgeneral
thebecause
creationtemple
identification
they
of as
had
images. aofmediator
been Thefire
in tem-
the
general
cause
mained
Wachtsmuth,
only a most
refused
column” 13
definitions
through scientifically,
(Hermann were
archeological the
mained refused scientifically, the older models, i.e. thisnot older
finds
Weidhaas,1939). scientifically
at models,
Sendsjirli,
Thus, because proved,
i.e.con- this
most sameBuddhist
ples was
period
identification
ples was that
thatideas
ofthe
andthe was
most
the
fire significant
characteristic
same
temples
most territory
was that
characteristic becausetrait
side
the they
was
by
most
trait was side hadwith
the beenearly
core
characteristic
the core ofinthe
of the
trait
the
Wachtsmuth,
building
cluded thattype
definitions
building typethe from
were through
oldest
from archeological
Sendsjirli
examples
not scientifically
Sendsjirli must
of thebe
proved,
must finds
be called
hilani at type
Sendsjirli,
Wachtsmuth,
called prototype
must
prototypethrough con-
beof
of same
temple:
Buddhist
was period
aabuildings
the core
temple: and
four-columned the
of the temple:
four-columned same
in favorhall territory
of with an side
an altar
the aniconism
a four-columned
hall with by
altarhall side
surrounded
againstwith
with anthe
surrounded early
by
altar
by
14
cluded
the hilani”
accepted
archeological that
as a
14 the
(F.
finds oldest
Wachtsmuth,
prototype.
at
the hilani” (F. Wachtsmuth, 1929). examples
Thus,
Sendsjirli, 1929).
he of
concludedsaid,the hilani
“as
that long
the type
as
oldest must
it re-
examples be Buddhist
peripheral
creation
surrounded of buildings
corridors
images.
by The
peripheral in
as favor
shown
general
corridors of
in
peripheral corridors as shown in Buddhist temple complex the
Buddhistaniconism
identification
as shown intemple
of against
fire
Buddhist complex
tem- the
temple
accepted
of the hilani
mained refused as a prototype.
typescientifically,
must be acceptedThus, he
the asolder said, “as long
models,Thus,
a prototype. as it
i.e. hethis re-
said, at
plescreation
at Airtam
was at
complex
Airtam that ofandimages.
IIAirtam
and
the aamost
Ihall The
for general
monks
andcharacteristic
hall a hall
for at identification
at Adzina
for monks
monks trait was
at Adzina
Adzina of
Tepe.(Fig.23) fire
theTepe.(Fig.23)
core of the
Tepe.(Fig.23) tem-
“asmained
building
long as refused
type from scientifically,
it remained Sendsjirli must thebeolder
refused scientifically, themodels,
called prototype
older i.e. ofthis
models, i.e. ples was
temple: that the most characteristic
a four-columned hall with an trait altarwas the core of
surrounded bythe
thebuilding
thishilani”
building 14type from Sendsjirli must be called prototype of
(F. Wachtsmuth,
type from Sendsjirli 1929).
must be called a prototype of the peripheral corridors as shown in Buddhist temple complexby
temple: a four-columned hall with an altar surrounded
14
the hilani”
hilani” 14
(F. Wachtsmuth,
(F. Wachtsmuth, 1929). 1929). peripheral
at Airtam I and corridors
a hall for asmonks
shownatinAdzina Buddhist temple complex
Tepe.(Fig.23)
at Airtam I and a hall for monks at Adzina Tepe.(Fig.23)

Figure 22. Pillared Hall/Passages
22.Pillared Hall/Passages
Fig. 22.Pillared Airtam I Figure 23. Pillared
Fig. Hall at Adzina
Fig. Hall/Passages
Airtam I Airtam I Fig. 23.
23. Pillared Hall
Hall at
Pillared Tepe at Adzina
Adzina Tepe
Tepe

Fig.
Fig. 18.
18. Palace
Palace at
at Hatra
Hatra (L)
(L) and
and temple
temple (R) Fig.
(R) Fig. 19.
19. Kuh-i-Khawaja,
Kuh-i-Khawaja, Iran
Iran

Fig. 22.Pillared Hall/Passages Airtam I Fig. 23. Pillared Hall at Adzina Tepe
Fig. 22.Pillared Hall/Passages Airtam I Fig. 23. Pillared Hall at Adzina Tepe
Fig. 18. Palace at Hatra (L) and temple (R) Fig. 19. Kuh-i-Khawaja, Iran
Figure 18. Palace
Fig. 18. Palace at
at Hatra
Hatra (L)
(L) and temple (R)
and temple (R) Figure 19. Kuh-i-Khawaja, Iran
Fig. 19. Kuh-i-Khawaja, Iran

Figure 24. Fire Temple at Oxus Figure 25. pillared hall at

Fig.
Fig. 24.
24. Fire
Fire Temple
Temple at
at Oxus Fig. Ak-Beshim I
Oxus Fig. 25.
25. pillared
pillared hall
hall at
at Ak-Beshim
Ak-Beshim II
InIn Adzina
InAdzina
AdzinaTepe, Tepe,
Tepe,most most
most shrines
shrines
shrines consisted
consisted
consisted of of figured
figured
of figured walls walls
walls and
and
and pedestals,
pedestals, and there
pedestals, and
and was there
there was
was aastupa
a votive votive
votive in thestupa
stupa in
in the
center. Thecenter.
the rooms
center.
The
which
TheFig. rooms
were
rooms
24. Fireofwhich
different
which
Temple atwere
were
Oxus of
of different
sizes wereFig.
different sizes
pillared were
led25.through
sizes halliwans
were led through
ledwhich
at Ak-BeshimthroughI had
iwans
In Adzina
their
iwans which
whichTepe,
different
Fig. 24. had
modes
Fire
hadTempletheir
most
their different
shrines modes
of different
at arrangements
Oxus modes
consisted
and
Fig. 25. of arrangements
of hall
figured
offunctions.
arrangements
pillared Thewalls
at Ak-Beshim and
iwan
and I
functions.
and
led In
into
functions. Adzina
pedestals,
a room The
Theand iwan
Tepe,
iwan there
(10.25X9.5m; led
most
ledwas into
shrines
into a
a avotive
room room
consisted
XII) stupa
room (10.25X9.5m;
with of figured
itsinroof
(10.25X9.5m; the supportedroom
center. walls
room
Fig.
Fig.
Fig. 21.
21. Fire
Fire Temple
Temple at
at Susa
Susa
XII)
The and
XII)
by four with
rooms
with its
pedestals,
which
its
columns roof
roofand supported
were there
supported
(Fig.16). was
of But, by
different
byunlikeafour
four columns
votive the stupa
sizes
columns were (Fig.16).
in the
led through
(Fig.16).
four-columned But,
center.
But,hall
20. Ba’al
Fig. 20. Ba’al Shamin,
Shamin, Syria
Syria
We unlike
The
iwans
unlike
of the
rooms
which four-columned
which
had
the four-columned
fire temples, their were
the room wasdifferenthall
of of
different
modes
hallconcluded fire temples,
sizes
of
of fire temples, were the
arrangements
as thethe room
led
room place
meeting was
through
and
was
We maymay findfind it it inin aa typetype of of the
the temple
temple Herzfeld
Herzfeld excavated
excavated concluded as the meeting place (posathagara) for
in Kuh-i-Khawaja(Fig.19), which is iwans which
functions.
concluded
(posathagara) Theas forhad
iwan
the the their
led different
meeting
monastic into
place modes
acommunity,
room
(posathagara) ofalthough foritthe
arrangements
(10.25X9.5m; theroom
has mo-
mo-and
been
in Figure 20. Ba’al
Kuh-i-Khawaja(Fig.19), Shamin, Syria which is a square
a
Figure 21. Firesquare room
room
Temple
sur-
sur-
at Susa nastic
functions. community,
The iwan although
led into it a has
room been as
(10.25X9.5m;yet not sure
room
rounded on all four sides by a roofed corridors.
Fig. 21. Fire Temple atHerzfeld
Susa XII)
nastic with its
community,roof supported
although by four
it has
as yet not sure (Litvinskiĭ, Boris Anatol'evich, 1971: 221). Another columns
been as (Fig.16).
yet not But,
sure
rounded on all four sides by a roofedFig.
Fig. 20. Ba’al Shamin, Syria corridors. Herzfeld (Litvinskiĭ,
XII) the
unlike Boris
withfour-columned
its roof Anatol'evich,
supported hall of by 1971:
four
fire 221).
columns
temples, Another
the (Fig.16).
room four-
was But,I
may find20. itBa’al
itinabout
inaShamin,
atype aaofSyria
thethetemple Herzfeld 21. Fire Temple at in
SusaKuh- (Litvinskiĭ, Boris
hall Anatol'evich, 1971: 221). Another four-
had
We discovered
had may find
Fig.
discovered about type dozen
of
dozen in Iran
temple
in Iran in theexcavated
the
Herzfeld
in ten years
years fol-
tenexcavated fol- four-columned
columned hall in
in Buddhist
Buddhist
architecture
architecture
existed
existed in
in Airtam
Airtam II
We may
ini-Khawaja(Fig.19),
lowing
lowing his find itwhich
his excavation
Kuh-i-Khawaja(Fig.19),
excavation in a type isworks
works of the
a square
which of temple
of room Herzfeld
a surrounded
Kuh-i-Khawaja(Ernst
is square
Kuh-i-Khawaja(Ernst room excavated
on allsur-four
E.
E. (Fig.2). The main hall has the same shape as the cultic rooms ofwas
unlike
concluded
columned theas four-columned
hallthe in meeting
Buddhist hall
place of fire
(posathagara)
architecture temples,
existed the
forin room
the
Airtam mo- fire
(Fig.2).
concluded The main hall has the same shape as the cultic
in
sides Kuh-i-Khawaja(Fig.19),
by
Herzfeld,
rounded a roofed
on 1935).
all corridors.
four Precisely
sides Herzfeld
bythe
Herzfeld, 1935). Precisely the same arrangement was used awhich
samehad
roofed is a
discovered
arrangementsquare
corridors. room
about
was a
Herzfeld sur-
dozen
used nastic
(Fig.2).
temples inThetheas
community, the although
main
neighboring meeting hasplace
hall areas. itthe has
Then, (posathagara)
samebeen
the as yet
shape
construction as fornot
theofthesure
cultic
Airtammo-
rooms
nastic of
(Litvinskiĭ,
rooms of fire
community,
Boris
fire temples in
although
Anatol'evich,
temples in the
the neighboring
it1971:
has 221).
neighboring beenareas. as yetThen,
Another
areas. not
Then, four- the
sure
the
hadinrounded
in
in Iran
an
an in theon ten
addition
discovered
addition all to
aboutfour
toyearsthe sides
dozenbyinhis
theafollowing
principal
principal aIran
roofed
excavation
palace
palace in at corridors.
the
at works
Hatra,
ten
Hatra, years Herzfeld
of
adding
adding Kuh-i-
fol- aa Iconstruction
was completed
(Litvinskiĭ,
columned
construction hall of in the introduction
inAirtam
Boris
of Airtam II was
Anatol'evich,
Buddhist
of a regional
completed
architecture
was 1971:existed
completed in
221). theplan, but the plan
introduction
theAnother
inapplied in Airtamfour-
introduction I
temple with a central sanctuary and a roofed passage onE.fol-
had
temple
lowing discovered
with
his a about
central
excavation a dozen
sanctuary
works of in
and Iran
a in
roofed the
Kuh-i-Khawaja(Ernst ten
passage yearson all
all had
of aa
columned
(Fig.2).
of a
broad
regional
The
regional
distinction
hallplan,
main
plan,in
in
but
Buddhist
hall
but
two
the
has
the
points:
plan
the
plan
the
had
architecture
same
had
plan
a
a broad
shape existed
broad
surrounding
distinction
as in
the
distinction culticin
Airtam in I
12
lowing
four
Herzfeld,
Die sides his
Querlage excavation
(Fig.18).
1935). des PreciselyThis
möglichst works
temple
the
offenensame
four sides (Fig.18). This temple plan was used in Iran of the of
plan Kuh-i-Khawaja(Ernst
was
Vorraums used
arrangement und in Iran
was
dieselbe of
used
Lage theE.
des corridors
two points:
(Fig.2).
for the
The
the plan
circumambulation
main applied
hall has surrounding
the
behind the
same
main hall;
corridors
shape as thefor and
the
cultic
15 rooms
twotemple of
points: fire temples
thedidplan in
appliedthe neighboring
surrounding areas.
corridors Then, the
for the
Herzfeld,
Parthian time
indahinterliegenden
an addition 1935).tobut Precisely
the
Hauptraumes evenprincipal
zur
Parthian time but even earlier under the Achamenids. the
earlier same
under
palace
Eingangsrichtung. arrangement
atthe Achamenids.
Hatra, was
adding used
a15 the
circumambulation also not
behindshowthe themain perfect hall;facade
and of
the the hilani.
temple alsoThe
rooms of fire
construction
circumambulation temples
of Airtam behind inthe
I was the neighboring
completed
main hall; in
and theareas.
the Then,also
introduction
temple the
13
in
There
temple anwith
Er bestand
There addition
exists
exists on to
on
ausa nichts
central the
weiter,
the the alsprincipal
Zoroastrian
sanctuary aus einer
Zoroastrian and palace
temple
Reihea roofed
temple at
of Hatra,
Susa(Fig.
of passage
von Säulen. adding
Es konnte
Susa(Fig. all a
20),
onübrigens
20), rooms
did not might
construction show be the
of remodeled
perfect in
facade the combination
of the hilani. of other
The small
rooms
ofdida regional
not showplan, theAirtambut
perfect theI was
plancompleted
facade had of athe broad in the
hilani. introduction
distinction
The rooms in
four temple
attributed
sides withto
(Fig.18).athe central
fourth
This sanctuary
century
temple planand
B.C.E.
wasa roofed
usedthe inpassage
same
Iran on
feature
of the all might be
auch.. nur eine durch eine einzige Säule
attributed to the fourth century B.C.E. the same feature gehälftete Maueroeffnung sein.
15
two of points:
might be remodeled
a regional the planplan, applied
remodeled but in
in thethe plan combination
thesurrounding had a broad
combination of other
of distinction
corridors other forsmallthe in
small
14
four
likewise
Parthian
Solangesides
time
es der(Fig.18).
revealed but
Wissenschaft in
even This
the temple
temples
earlier
versagt plan
bleibt,
likewise revealed in the temples of Nabataean Syria. The15 of
under
älterewas
Nabataean
the used
Vorbilder in
Achamenids.
dem Iran
Syria. ofThethe
Sendschirlier rooms
15
Stronach
two points:
rooms in the
argued
in the the
circumambulation consistent
“their ground
plan applied
behind
consistent uses of
plans
the main
uses the
recall
ofsurrounding building.
thehall; those
and the
building. of The
the
corridors
The combina-
Greco-Bactrian
temple for
combina-alsothe
ThereParthian
temples
temples of
exists
Bit-Chilani time
Ba’al
on the
Ba’al but
ofentgegenzuhalten, even
Shamin(Fig.
Zoroastrian
Shamin(Fig. muss earlier
20) under
and
20)temple
dieser Gebäudetypus
and oftheSusa(Fig.
Dushara
Dushara Achamenids.
at
at Si,
aus and
Sendschirli
Si, and the
20),
theals tion notof
residence”
did
tion four
because
circumambulation
of show
four columned
thetheperfect
columned Bactrian
behind halls theand
reception
facade
halls main
and distyle
unit
of the in
in antis
andhilani.
hall;
distyle court/portico
and theThe
antis has
temple
has unitbeen
rooms atalso
been the
Therebezeichnet
attributed
Urform exists
to the onfourth
werden. the Zoroastriancentury B.C.E. templetheof same Susa(Fig.feature 20), only
did
expense
might
only shownshown
not
of the show in
inverted
be remodeled the
the‘U’ megaron-typed
perfect
of the
in the megaron-typed livingfacade
quarters
in the combination buildings
of
(D. the
Stronach,
buildingsofand and
hilani. Ba’al
The
1985:618).
other
Ba’al Sha-
rooms
small
Sha-
13attributed
likewise
13
Er bestand to
revealed
aus the
nichts in fourth
the
weiter, alscentury
temples
aus of
einer B.C.E.
Nabataean
Reihe
Er bestand aus nichts weiter, als aus einer Reihe von Säulen. Es konnte von the
Säulen.same
Syria.
Es feature
The
konnte min
might
rooms
min in
ininSyria
be so
so far
the remodeled
Syria far (Fig.31),
consistent in the
uses
(Fig.31), and
of
and has not
not yet
combination
the hasbuilding. yet Thefound
of other
found the
the same
combina- small
same
übrigens
likewise
temples auch..
of Ba’alnur
revealed eine
eine durch
nur Shamin(Fig. in the eine einzige
einetemples
20) and Säule gehälftete
ofDushara
Nabataean at Si,Syria.
and the The residential
rooms in constructions
the consistent with
uses of thethe pillared
building. halls
The as those
combina-
übrigens auch..
Maueroeffnung sein.
durch einzige Säule gehälftete tion of four columned halls and
residential constructions with the pillared halls as those distyle in antis has been
Maueroeffnung sein.
14temples of Ba’al Shamin(Fig. 20) and Dushara at Si, and the
14 Solange es der Wissenschaft versagt bleibt, ältere Vorbilder dem
excavated
onlytionshown
excavated of four in
in Central
in columned
the
Central Asia,
megaron-typed
Asia, India,
halls
India, and
andbuildings
distyle
and Near
Nearin and East.
antis
East.Ba’alNonethe-
hasSha-
Nonethe- been
Solange es der Wissenschaft versagt bleibt, ältere Vorbilder dem
 Evolution, Transformation, and Representation in Buddhist Architecture 37

in northwest
rooms India a few
in the consistent uses buildings
of the building. have Greek features. In of
The combination taean style)inthey
the reason had seenmanner
the following when they “as thefirst entered
Greek the region
architects did not
addition,
four columned halls and distyle in antis has been onlythe
the small chambers on either side of shown square
in the with
have their own prototype to imitate for the design of thealbeit
the Greek armies”(Paul Bernard, 1994:106-110), palace
in
in northwest India
four-columned
northwest India
hall aare
a few
few buildings
where
buildings the have Greek
eternal
have Greek
fire was features.
kept,
features. In
one
In taean
itat was
taean style) they had
characteristic had of seenGreek when theyplanning.
town first entered
entered
Thus, thelikeregionthe
megaron-typed
addition, the buildings
small chambers and Ba’alon Shamin
either in
side Syria of so
the far (Fig.31),
square Ay style)
Khanum, they they drew seen when
their they
inspiration first largely the
from region
the Neo-
of the
addition, compulsory,
theyetsmall and
chambersimportant components
on either constructions
side of the interior
the square with
with the Greek
Achaemenid
the Greek armies”(Paul
palace of
armies”(Paul Susa, Bernard,
the palace
Bernard, 1994:106-110),
at Ay Khanum
1994:106-110), albeit
con-
albeit
and has not
four-columned found
hall are thewhere
same the residential
eternal fire fireI is was kept,with onethe Babylonian and Achaemenid models (so-called Nabataean style)
functional structure
four-columned hall of temples.
are where the Ak-Beshim
eternal was a represent-
kept, one it wasofcharacteristic
sists characteristic of Greek
Greek town town planning.
planning. Thus, likemain the
ofpillared
thecase halls
compulsory, as those and excavated
important in Central
components Asia, of India,
the and
interiorNear it was
they hada seen
massive whenconglomeration
of
they first enteredof courtyards.
the regionThus,with Thelike the
the Greek
ative
of the about theand
compulsory, useimportant
of the pillared components hall as of anthe anteroom.
interior Achaemenid
courtyard,
Achaemenid palace
through of
palace which Susa, thethe
of1994:106-110),
Susa, the palace
palace
palace at
was Ay Khanum
entered
atitAy fromcon-con-
the of
East.
functional Nonetheless,structure it will
of be observed
temples. that neither
Ak-Beshim I is thea plan
represent-nor the armies”(Paul
sists ofhas
a massiveBernard,
massive conglomeration albeit
of wasKhanum
courtyards. characteristic
The main
In that thestructure
functional eight-columned of temples. hall Ak-Beshim
between theI is sanctuary
a represent- and north,
sists of a its imposing size
conglomeration (137 x 108
of meters)
courtyards. by the
The rows
main
elevation
ative
the caseofabout
courtyard theemployed
about firethetemples
use of ahave
of the anything
great pillared
flat ceiling in
hallcommonasand with
anaanteroom.
anteroom. a Greek
vestibule Greek townthrough
courtyard, planning. Thus,the
which likepalace
the Achaemenid
was entered
entered palace
from of the
Susa,
ative case the use the pillared hall as an of stone
courtyard, columns,
through crowned
which thewith Corinthian
palace was capitals, from whichthe
Intemple
with that except the
twocolumns
the eight-columned
columns eight-columned rows of hall
the Ionic between orderthe andsanctuary
the cella divided
and the palace at Ay Khanum consists of a massive conglomeration
Inin that
northwestthe India a fewdeep, hallthe
buildings construction
between have Greekthe sanctuary method
features.and ob-In north, has
taean style)
formed
north, its
theits
has imposing
they
façades hadofseen
imposing size
its
size (137
when
four (137 xx 108
they
porticos.108 meters)
first entered
Behind
meters) bythe
the
by the rows
region
southern
the rows
into
the
viously
addition,
a naos
courtyard rests and
the small
pronaos,
employed
on Parthian chambers a although
great flat
(Achaemenid), it
onflateither
appear
ceiling side
that
and
which a
of athe
in northwest
vestibule
also oc-
square
of stone
of courtyards.
columns, Thecrowned
main courtyard,
with through
Corinthian which
capitals, thewhich
palace
the courtyard employed a great ceiling and vestibule with
portico,
of the
stone Greek
acolumns,
vestibule armies”(Paul
with
crowned eighteen
withBernard, 1994:106-110),
Corinthian
Corinthian columns
capitals, albeit
three
which
Indiacolumns
with
curred ainfew
columns
four-columned
with thebuildingstwo
fire
two rows
temple
hall are
rows have at
whereGreek
deep,
deep,Oxus. the
the
thefeatures.
showsIn
construction
Iteternal
construction that
fire addition,
the
was method the ob-
construc-
methodkept, small
ob-
one was
formed entered from
the façades
façades the north,
ofofits
itsGreek
four has its
porticos. imposing
Behind size
the (137
southern x 108
it wasdeep.
rows
formed characteristic
the Paul argued of four town
“it isporticos. planning.
reminiscent Behind ofThus, like the
the southern
spirit of
viously
chambers
tion of rests
of the compulsory,
viously on
temples on
eitherdepend
rests on Parthian Parthian
side of
on
and importantthe (Achaemenid),
localsquare four-columned
methods
(Achaemenid), components of which
building.
which hall
of thealso alsoare oc-
where
interior
oc- meters)
portico,
Achaemenid
by
a the
vestibulerows
palace
of
with
of
stone columns,
eighteen
Susa, the
crowned
Corinthian
palace at Ay
with
columns
Khanum
Corinthian
three
con-
some
portico, Achaemenid
awhich
vestibule architectural
with compositions,” (Paul Ber-
curred
the eternal
functional
curred in the
in the firewas
fire
structure
fire temple
kept,
temple at
one
of temples.
at Oxus.
Oxus.of the It compulsory,
shows that
Ak-Beshim
It shows that the
I isthe and construc-
important
a represent-
construc- capitals,
rows deep. Paul formed
argued theeighteen
façades
“it ofCorinthian
is reminiscent
reminiscent of
columns
its four porticos. theThe Behind
spirit
threethe
of
sists of
nard,
rows a massive
1994:107)
deep. Paul conglomeration
asargued
a monumental
“it is of courtyards.
entrance. Passing
of the themain
spirit im-
of
tion
3.4
ative
tion ofcase
components temples
DWELLINGS
of temples about depend
of depend
thethe interior
IN use onoflocal
local
functional
PRE-BUDDHIST
on methods
the pillared
methods of building.
structure
TIME
hall
of building.
as an of temples.
anteroom. Ak- southern
some portico, a vestibule
Achaemenid architectural with compositions,”
eighteen Corinthian (Paul columns
Ber-
courtyard,
posing
some through
entrance,
Achaemenid which
another
architectural the
courtyard palace was
for
compositions,” entered
official from
uses
(Paul isthe
Ber- a
Beshim
1)
In EARLY
that the I is HOUSES
aeight-columned
representative IN NEAR case
hallaboutEAST
between the use theofsanctuary
the pillared and hall three rows
nard,
north, deep.
1994:107)
has its Paul
as
imposing a argued
monumental
size “it(137
is reminiscent
xentrance.
108 ofPassing
meters) theby spiritthe
the ofrows
some
im-
3.4 DWELLINGS INthat PRE-BUDDHIST TIME huge
nard, square,
1994:107) 50 meters each
as a monumental side, divided
entrance. by two
Passing the I-shaped im-
as an
the
3.4 anteroom.
courtyard
DWELLINGS InIN
employed the
a great
PRE-BUDDHIST eight-columned
flat ceiling TIME hall abetween
and vestibule the Achaemenid
posing
of entrance,
stoneentrance, architectural
columns, another
crowned compositions,
courtyard
with ”for
(Paul Bernard,
official uses1994:107)
isin-aa
1) EARLY HOUSES IN NEARNEAR EAST corridors
posing at right angles
another into twoCorinthian
courtyard pairs capitals,
forofofficial
similar units,
uses which
is
1)sanctuary
withEARLYcolumns and
HOUSES the
twocourtyard
rows IN deep, employed
the
EAST a great flatmethod
construction ceiling and ob- a as a monumental
huge
formed square,
the 50 entrance.
meters Passing
each side, thedivided
imposing byentrance,
two another
I-shaped
cluding
huge onefaçades
square, room
50 metersof each
on itseach
fourside. porticos.
side, The Behind
composition
divided by twothe I-shaped
southern
rests on
vestibulerests
viously with columns on Parthian two rows deep, the construction
(Achaemenid), which alsomethod oc- courtyard
corridors
portico, for
at official
right anglesuses is
into a huge
two square,
pairs of 50 meters
similar each
units, side,
in-
the sameaat
corridors vestibule
method as with
right angles eighteen
the hilani
into two front Corinthian
pairsoriginated
of similarcolumns
fromunits, three
Naba-in-
curred
obviously in therestsfire on temple
Parthianat(Achaemenid),
Oxus. It shows whichthat also the construc-
occurred in divided
cluding by
one two
rows architecture.
deep. I-shaped
room on corridors
each side. at right
The angles
composition into two
rests pairs ofof
on
taean
cluding one Paul roomargued(Fig.30)
on each “itside.
is reminiscent
The composition of the rests spirit on
tion
the fireof temples
temple atdepend Oxus. It onshowslocal that methods of building.of temples
the construction similar
the
some same units,
method
Achaemenid including
as the one room
hilani on
front each side.
originated The composition
from Naba-
the same method asarchitectural
the hilani front compositions,”
originated from (PaulNaba- Ber-
depend on local methods of building. rests on
taean
nard, the sameasmethod
architecture.
1994:107) (Fig.30)
a monumentalas the hilani entrance.frontPassing
originated the im-from
taean architecture. (Fig.30)
3.4
Fig. DWELLINGS
26 Ain Ghazal INFig.27PRE-BUDDHIST
Arpachiyah TIME
Fig.28 Halafian Nabataean architecture. (Fig.30)
posing entrance, another courtyard for official uses is a
1)
3.4EARLY
DWELLINGS
Closely HOUSES
packedIN IN NEARhouses
PRE-BUDDHIST
rectangular EAST at TIME Arpachiyah in Sy- huge square, 50 meters each side, divided by two I-shaped
Fig. 26 Ain Ghazal Fig.27 Arpachiyah Fig.28 Halafian
1)
Fig.EARLY
ria(Fig.26 Ain27)GhazalHOUSES
were builtFig.27 INwith NEAR theirEAST
Arpachiyah round structures
Fig.28 Halafian similar to corridors at right angles into two pairs of similar units, in-
Closely
the Closely
Halafians packed
(the 65th
packed rectangular
century houses
rectangular houses
B.C.E) at at Arpachiyah
(Fig.28)
Arpachiyah well-known in Sy-
in Sy-
cluding one room on each side. The composition rests on
ria(Fig.
for their27)
ria(Fig. 27)round were
werehomes. built
built with with
They their
their round
all round structures
have rectangular
structures similar similar
annexes to
to the same method as the hilani front originated from Naba-
the
the Halafians
attached
Halafians in a keyhole(the 65th
(the 65thpattern century
centurythat B.C.E)
resembles
B.C.E) (Fig.28)
(Fig.28) well-known
thewell-known
later tholoi taean architecture. (Fig.30)
for
of the
for their
their round Houses
Aegean.
round homes. of
homes. They
They Ainall allGhazal
have rectangular
have rectangular
(the 72nd-55th annexes
annexescen-
attached
tury B.C.E.)
attached in a keyhole
in a (Fig.26)
keyhole in pattern
Jordan
pattern that
that withresembles
closeness
resembles the later
theoflater tholoi
the tholoi
dwel- Fig.29 Dilberjin(L), Fig.30 Ay-Khanum(R)
of
lings
of the
Fig.
the Aegean.
26 Ain
Figure 26. Ain
like Ghazal Ghazal
Aegean.Arpachiyah Houses
Houses ofArpachiyah
Fig.27
were
of Ain
Figure 27. Arpachiyah Ghazal
builtGhazal
Ain (the
with rectangular
(theFig.28 72nd-55th
Halafian
Figure 28. Halafian
72nd-55th mud-brick cen-
cen-
tury
houses
tury B.C.E.)
Closely
B.C.E.)
Closely that
packed (Fig.26)
packed
accommodated
(Fig.26) rectangular in
rectangularJordan
in Jordan houses with
houses
a with
square closeness
at
at Arpachiyah Arpachiyah
main room
closeness of
of the
the and
in Syria(Fig. dwel-
in Sy-
dwel- a27) Fig.29 Dilberjin(L),
Dilberjin(L), Fig.30
Fig.30 Ay-Khanum(R)
Ay-Khanum(R)
3) MEGARON TYPE IN ANATOLIA Fig.29
lings
ria(Fig.
smaller
lings
were likelike 27)Arpachiyah
anteroom
builtArpachiyah were
with their round built
and were
with
corridor built
werestructurestheir with
with round
built withsimilar rectangular
the structures
entrance
rectangular mud-brick
at
to the Halafians similar
top
mud-brick cen-to
(the Figure 29. Dilberjin(L), Figure 30. Ay-Khanum(R)
Schliemann pointed out the term “megaron” has subse-
houses
the
ter
houses
65th (Mary that
Halafians
that
century accommodated
(the 65th
Settegast,
accommodated
B.C.E) 1986).
(Fig.28) century aasymmetrical
Awell-known square (Fig.28)
B.C.E)
square main
main
for plan room
theirroom well-known
was
round and
another
and
homes.aa 3) MEGARON
3) MEGARON
MEGARON TYPE
TYPE IN ANATOLIA
IN ANATOLIA
ANATOLIA
3)quently been notTYPE only IN augmented to include other buildings
smaller
for
feature,
smaller their anteroom
They allanteroom round
albeit they
have rectangular and
homes.had corridor
and corridor They
different
annexes with
all
with havethe
shapes entrance
rectangular
of
the entrance
attached plan:
in a keyhole at
the top cen-
annexes
square
at top pattern
cen- Schliemann
Schliemann pointed
pointed out the term “megaron” has subse-
containing
Schliemann a long hall out
pointed outthe
and a the term
porch term “megaron”
in front,
“megaron” buthas subsequently
free-standing
has subse-
ter
plan
ter (Mary
attached
that(Mary
resembles Settegast,
and inSettegast,
a keyhole
keyhole-shaped. 1986).
the later1986). pattern
tholoi A
The
A symmetrical
that
ofsymmetrical resembles
thesymmetrical
Aegean. plan
plan
Houses the was
layout
waslater
of Ain another
tholoi
of
anotherthe
Ghazal quently
been notbeenbeen
only not only
augmented augmented
to include to include
other other
buildings buildings
feature, albeit they had different shapes of plan: the square
buildings
quently withnot this
onlyalignment
augmented of to rooms;
include other containing
apsidal buildings a
of
type the Aegean.
would demand Houses the of
use Ainof Ghazal
the place (the
through 72nd-55th the cen-
proce- containing
feature, albeit they had different
(the 72nd-55th century B.C.E.) (Fig.26) in Jordan with closeness shapes of plan: the square long hall
alsoand aabeen
long
a porch hallinand
and
front,aa porch
porch in front,
front,
butInfree-standing but free-standing
buildings with this
16
have
containing long subsumed.
hall the
in same but manner, Müller
free-standing
plan
tury anda partition
keyhole-shaped. The wall, symmetrical layout ofdwel-
the
of theB.C.E.)
dure
plan of
and
dwellings (Fig.26)
like at
keyhole-shaped. in Jordan
the
Arpachiyah front
The with
were closeness
as
symmetrical
built the
withlater ofNabataean
layout
rectangulartheof the
mud- buildings
alignmentthe
indicated
buildings with
of rooms;
with this apsidal
general
this alignment
type of
alignment of Dilberjin(L),
buildings
Fig.29
megaron
of rooms;
have
rooms;is apsidal
also
the been
Fig.30
long
apsidal buildings
subsumed.
Ay-Khanum(R)
room,
buildings i.e.
16
type
lings
temple would
like demand
Arpachiyah
actually the wereuse
use builtof the withplace through
rectangular the proce-
mud-brick 16
type
brickwouldhouses thatdoes.
demand the
accommodated of athe place
square mainthroughroom the and proce-
a smaller have
aInroom
have also
thealso
same been
with manner,
been foursubsumed.
Müllerhaving
walls
subsumed. In
indicated
16
In thethe
two same
thesame
general
differentmanner,
type
manner, Müller
ofMüller
lengths megaron
and
dure
houses of aathat partitionaccommodatedat IN theCENTRAL
fronta wall, wall, ASIA as thethe laterroom Nabataean
2)
dure EARLY
anteroom of HOUSES
partition
and corridorat the front
with the square
entranceas mainatlater
top centerNabataean and(Mary a indicated
3) MEGARON
is the
thus
indicated the
longthe
differing room, general
fromTYPE
i.e.the
general type
IN
a type
room
squareofwith
ANATOLIA
of megaron
room fourwhich
megaron is the
walls
is the long
having
haslong room,
all two
four
room, i.e.
different
walls
i.e.
temple
smaller
temple The actually
anteroom
palaces
actually does.
and
does.and homes corridor in with the
Dalverzin-tepe entrance and at top
Dilberjincen- aaof room with
Schliemann four walls
pointed outhavingthe two
term different
“megaron” lengths
has and
subse-
Settegast, 1986). A symmetrical plan was another feature, albeit they lengths
room and
the same with thusfourdiffering
length; the from
walls decisive
having the square room which
characteristics
two different has all
of the
lengths long
and four
2)
2) ter
were EARLY
(Mary
EARLYlaid out HOUSES
Settegast,
HOUSES either of withIN CENTRAL
1986).
IN CENTRALA symmetrical
a central hallASIA
ASIAand and plankeyhole-shaped.
vestibule was or another
with thus differing
quently fromlength;
the square roomtowhichwhich has all four walls
had
The
different
palaces
shapes
and homes
plan: the
in
square
Dalverzin-tepe
plan
andathe Dilberjin room
thus is been
wallsdiffering
of the same not
position
from only
theofaugmented
theentrance,
the
square decisive
room include
whichhas isother
characteristics in one
all buildings
of the
four of long
the
walls
afeature,
courtyard
The albeit
palaces – they
the
and had
whole
homes different
being
in
The symmetrical layout of the type would demand the use of the shapes
surrounded
Dalverzin-tepe of plan:
byand square
corridor.
Dilberjin of the issame
containing
room
shorter same length;
the aposition
walls, long
thushall the
ofthe
the and
the decisive
a porch
entrance,
depth of thecharacteristics
inroom
front,
which but
is is
in one
longerof the
free-standing
of the
the
thanlong
shorter
its
were laid out either with with of the length; decisive characteristics of long
plan
Houses
were
placelaid and inout
through keyhole-shaped.
Dilberjin
either
the procedure employ aa central
central
The
ofa acentral hallhall
symmetrical
hall
partition
andand
and vestibule
at the layout
vestibulea colonnaded
front
orofwith
or
wall,
with
thethe
as room is
buildings
walls, is
width
room thusthe position
with
thethe
(Valentin this
depth
Müller,
position of the
alignment
ofofthe room
1944:
the entrance,
of which
rooms;
is longer
342).
entrance, is
apsidal
than is
which in
itsin one
width
one of
buildingsthe
(Valentin
of the
aaportico
courtyard
type would
courtyard with –
demand
– a the
corridor
the whole
wholethe usebeing
flanked
being of thesurrounded
by place
the
surrounded through
rectangular by
by a
a thecorridor.
massproce-
corridor. of shorter walls, thus depth16 of
the depth ofInthe
the room ismanner,
longer than than its
later Nabataean temple actually does. have
Müller,also
shorter 1944:
walls, been
342).
thussubsumed.
the theroomsameis longer Müllerits
Houses
duresanctuary
the
Houses of in in Dilberjin
a partition (Paul
Dilberjin employ
at the front
Bernard
employ aand
a central
wall,
UNESCO,
central hallthe
as
hall and
and a colonnaded
later
a colonnaded
Nabataean
1994:331-337).
2) EARLY HOUSES IN CENTRAL ASIA width (Valentin
indicated the Müller,
general
width (Valentin Müller, 1944: 342). type1944: of 342).
megaron is the long room, i.e.
portico
temple
The
portico house withalso
actually
with aaand corridor
does.
has
corridor flanked by
a courtyard
flanked by the rectangular
in front
the rectangular
of the bodymass massof theof
of
The palaces homes in Dalverzin-tepe and Dilberjin were laid a room with four walls having two different lengths and
the
2) sanctuary
EARLY
building
the sanctuary HOUSES
firmly (Paul
(Paul Bernard
centered IN
Bernard CENTRAL
aroundand
and UNESCO, ASIA
the main
UNESCO, 1994:331-337).
living-room.
1994:331-337). Athe
out either with a central hall and vestibule or with a courtyard – thus differing from the square room which has all four walls
The The house
peripheral palaces also and
corridor has set aahomes
courtyard
offa the in front
in Dalverzin-tepefront of
living-room of the theand body of
Dilberjin the
Thewhole
building
house
being also
firmlysurroundedhas
centered
courtyard
by corridor.
around
in
the Houses
main infrom body
Dilberjin
living-room.
the other.
of the
employ
A
of the same length; the decisive characteristics of the long
were
This
building laid
living out
firmly either
room with
openedaround
centered a central
out hall
into
the with and vestibule
thea front
main living-room. or
courtyard withA room is the position of the entrance, which is in one of the
a central
peripheral hall and
corridor a colonnaded
set off the portico
living-room corridor
from the flanked
other. by
a courtyard
through
peripheral –
a two-columned
corridor the whole
setthe off being
porchthe in surrounded
case
living-room ofBernard
thefrom by
houses a corridor.
ofother.
theUNESCO, Dal- shorter walls, thus the depth of the room is longer than its
the
This rectangular
living mass
room opened of
opened sanctuary
out (Paul
into hall the front and courtyard
Houses
This in Dilberjin
verzin-tepe.(Fig.29)
living room employ
Also,also Ayaout central
Khanum was and a colonnaded
constructed as
1994:331-337).
through a two-columnedThe house porch has in ainto
courtyard
case
the
of the
front
in frontcourtyard
houses ofofthe body
Dal-
width (Valentin Müller, 1944:buildings
Figure 31. megaron-type 342). in Anatolia and Greek
portico
one
through of thewith
a a
two-columned corridor
consequences flanked
of
porchthe by
conquest
in casethe of rectangular
ofthe the East
houses mass
byof King
Dal-of
of the building firmlyAlso,
verzin-tepe.(Fig.29) centered Ay around thewas
Khanum main living-room.
constructed as A The original
Fig.31 megaron-type typebuildings
is an isolated
in Anatoliarectangle,
and Greek and a number of
the sanctuary
Alexander
verzin-tepe.(Fig.29) in (Paul
the Bernard
fourthAlso, century and
Ay living-room UNESCO,
B.C.E.
Khanum was But, 1994:331-337).
the
constructed buildings as
oneperipheral
ofhouse
the corridor
consequences set offof the
the conquest of from
the the
East other.
byof KingThis The original
additions were made type tois thean simple
isolated rectangle,
original type duringand a the number
course
oneTheof
such asthetemples, also has
consequences houses, a courtyard
andthe
of palaces in frontare of ofthe
never thecharacteristic
body the
living room
Alexander
building in
firmly opened
the out into
fourth
centered centurytheconquest
around front
B.C.E.
the courtyard
main But,
East
thethrough
living-room.
by
buildings
King
a two-
A
of Fig.31
ofFig.31
the megaron-type
additions
development,
megaron-type buildings
were buildings
made
i.e. a porch in the
toin Anatolia
orsimple
Anatolia and Greek
Greek
an anteroom,
and original type posts
interior during and
of Greek
Alexander architecture.
in theinfourth Paul Bernard
century mentioned
B.C.E. the
But, the buildings reason in The original type is anan isolated
isolated rectangle, and
columned
such as
peripheral porch
temples,corridor case
houses,set ofand
off the houses
palaces
the of Dalverzin-tepe.(Fig.29)
are
living-room never fromcharacteristic
the other.
the course
The original
a partition. of
The thetype
development,
is
occurrence of thei.e. a porchinorthe
rectangle,
partition and aa number
anhouses number
anteroom, proves
the
such following
asAytemples, manner
houses, “as the
and palaces Greek architects
are never did not
characteristic of have of additions
additions were were mademade to to the the simple
simple original
original type type during
during
of Also,
ThisGreek livingKhanum roomwas
architecture. constructed
Paul
opened Bernard
out as
into one
mentionedof the
the frontconsequences
the reason in of
oftheirGreekown prototype
architecture. to imitate
Paul Bernard for the design
mentioned of the the courtyard
palace in
reason at the course of the development, i.e. a porch or an anteroom,
thethe conquest
following
through of the
manner
a two-columned East “asby King
the Alexander
Greek architectsin the didfourthnot century
have the course of
16 Schliemann
16 the development,
borrowed the term “megaron” i.e.from
a porch
Homeror to an anteroom,
explain the palaces,
Ay
the Khanum,
following they drew
manner “asporch
their
the Greek in case
inspiration of the
architects houses
largely did from not ofhave
Dal-
the Schliemann borrowed the term “megaron” from Homer to explain the
B.C.E.own
their But,prototype
verzin-tepe.(Fig.29) the buildings toAlso, suchAyasfor
imitate temples,
the
Khanum houses,
designwas andpalace
ofconstructed
the palacesat asare or the central
palaces, or the unit of the
central unitpalaces, of the late
of the palaces, Mycenaean
of the period period
late Mycenaean on the on
Greek
Neo-Babylonian
their own prototype andto Achaemenid
imitate for themodels
design (so-called
of the palaceNaba- at
Ay never
oneKhanum, characteristic
Khanum,
of the consequences they of
drew Greek architecture.
their inspiration Paul Bernard
largely mentioned
from the the Greek mainland.
mainland.
16
Schliemann borrowed the term “megaron” from Homer to explain the
Ay they drew of theirthe inspiration
conquest oflargely the Eastfrom by Kingthe 16
Schliemann
Fig.31
palaces, or
borrowedbuildings
megaron-type
the central
the termin
central unit
unit of
of the
“megaron”
Anatolia
the palaces,
palaces,
fromGreek
and
of the
the
Homer to explain the
late Mycenaean
Mycenaean period
period on
on
Neo-Babylonian
Alexander in theand
Neo-Babylonian and
fourth Achaemenid
century B.C.E.
Achaemenid modelsBut,
models (so-called
the buildings
(so-called Naba-
Naba- palaces, or the of late
the The
Greek original
mainland.
the Greek mainland. type is an isolated rectangle, and a number
such as temples, houses, and palaces are never characteristic of additions were made to the simple original type during
of Greek architecture. Paul Bernard mentioned the reason in
the course of the development, i.e. a porch or an anteroom,
types of the house appeared at Eutresis, Korakou, and Jandial temple at Taxila, which was considered to be the
ther an open or a closed anteroom, and the long central tyle in antis, which was also shown in the plans of Greco-
Thermos,
interior posts which andhad the back The
a partition. walloccurrence
curved. The front
of the is ei-
partition fire temple,
because of but
the still debatingofon
application the use,
inner columns whose planthe
along is dis-
peri-
room was flanked by the smaller rooms at the ends. The Roman temples (including the later megaron), Zoroastrian
ther
in thean houses
open or a closed
proves that the anteroom,
co-existing andagglomeration
the long central type tyle in antis,
pheral corridors. which was also shown in the plans of Greco-
well-balanced plan originated from a fusion of the long type temples (Sir John Hubert Marshall, 1921:35-39). The build-
38was not
room wasunnecessary.
flanked by In thethe smaller
following rooms at the
period, ends.with
houses Thea Roman temples (including the Young later Jae Kim and Zoroastrian
megaron), Dong Soo Han
with curvilinear walls was widespread in Greece at that ing faces south and has at its main entrance two Ionic col-
well-balanced
porch or an anteroom plan originated from a fusion
and a subdivision were of the long typein
constructed temples (Sir John Hubert
4.2 ZOROASTRIAN Marshall,IN1921:35-39).
TEMPLES THE SAME TERRITORY The build-
time (Hetty Goldman, 1931:35-37; Müller, 1944:345; Mat- umns between the front parts of an enclosing wall, thus
with
the the
that curvilinear
appearance
co-existing ofwalls was widespread
the partitions
agglomeration intype
thewas innotGreece
houses. A fewatapsidal
unnecessary. thatIn ing
which faces
1) JANDIAL south
was alsoTEMPLE and has
shown inAT at its main
theGANDHARA entrance
plans of Greco-Roman two Ionic col-
temples
tias Valmin,1939:148). (Fig.31) forming a so-called hilani façade (Fig.35). There is another
time
types
the (Hetty
of the
following Goldman,
househouses
period, 1931:35-37;
appeared with aatporch Müller,
Eutresis,
or an 1944:345;
Korakou,Mat-
anteroom anda
and umns
(including between
Jandial the temple the front
lateratmegaron), parts
Taxila, which of an
Zoroastrian enclosing
was considered wall,
temples to thus
(SirbeJohn the
pair of Ionic columns in antis beyond the vestibule.
tias Valmin,1939:148).
Thermos,
subdivision which
were had the
constructed (Fig.31)
back
in thewall curved.ofThe
appearance front is ei-
the partitions in forming
fire temple,
Hubert a so-called
Marshall, stillhilani
but 1921:35-39).
debatingfaçade
The (Fig.35).
on building
the use, faces There
whose is another
plan
south andis dis-
has
4. SQUARE PLANS IN NABATEAN, ZOROASTRIAN, Through them the faithful reach the pronaos and then
ther
the an open
houses. A feworapsidala closed typesanteroom,
of the house andappeared
the long central
at Eutresis, pair
at tyle of
its main Ionic
in antis,entrance columns
which twowasIonic incolumns
also antis
shownbeyond
between the front
in the plans vestibule.
of Greco-
parts of
AND GANDHARAN REGIONS through a doorway they reach the naos. At the back of the
4. SQUARE
room
Korakou, was PLANSbywhich
andflanked
Thermos, INtheNABATEAN,
smaller
had the back rooms ZOROASTRIAN,
wall atcurved.
the ends. The
The front Through
an Roman
enclosing themwall,the
temples thus faithful
(including
formingthe reach
a so-called pronaos
laterthemegaron),
hilani façadeand(Fig.35).
Zoroastrianthen
4.1 NABATEAN TEMPLES IN THE SAME TIME temple a small chamber is linked with a staircase. This rear
AND GANDHARAN
iswell-balanced
either an open plan REGIONS
originated
or a closed from aand
anteroom, fusion
the longof the long room
central type through
temples
There a doorway
(Sir John
is another pair of they
Hubert reach
Ionic columns the
Marshall, naos. At
in 1921:35-39). the
antis beyond the backThe of the
build-
vestibule.
1) BA’AL SHAMIN, SYRIA (Fig.20) chamber corresponds to the Greek opisthodomos. However,
4.1with
was NABATEAN
curvilinear
flanked TEMPLES
by thetemple,walls was
smaller rooms IN THE
widespread
at the SAME
ends. TIME
inTheGreece at that
well-balanced temple
Through a
ing facesthem small
south chamber
theand faithful is
has at linked
reachits main with
the pronaos a staircase.
entrance andtwo This
thenIonic rear
throughcol-
Ba’al Shamin built in the first century C.E., holds the building is surrounded by a wall which is pierced at
1) BA’AL
time (Hetty SHAMIN,
Goldman, SYRIA 1931:35-37;(Fig.20) Müller, 1944:345; Mat- achamber
umns corresponds
between the the to naos.
fronttheparts
Greek ofopisthodomos.
an enclosing However,
wall,a small
thus
the features of temples Nabataean Syria because it haswalls
plan originated from a fusion of the long type with curvilinear a doorway they reach At the
regular intervals by windows. The method does not suggest
back of the temple
Ba’al
tias
was Shaminintemple,
Valmin,1939:148).
widespread Greece built
(Fig.31)
at that intime
the first(Hetty century
Goldman, C.E.,1931:35-
holds the
chamberbuilding
forming is surrounded
isalinked
so-calledwith hilani by aThis
façade
a staircase. wallrearwhich
(Fig.35). is pierced
There
chamber is another
corresponds at
square room surrounded on all four sides by a roofed corri- the peristyle of Greek Temple because the walled peristyle
the features
37; Müller, of temples Nabataean
1944:345; Syria because it has a regular
topair intervals
of Ionic by windows.
columns However,
opisthodomos. The
in antis the method
beyond does
buildingthe not suggest
vestibule.
dor and the hilani Mattias
front asValmin,1939:148).
well as distyle (Fig.31) in antis, which the Greek
was accepted in the Parthian palaces and temples (e.g. the
is surrounded
square
4. SQUARE room surrounded
PLANS in on
INthe all four
NABATEAN, sides by a roofed corri- the aperistyle
Through of isGreek
them the Temple
faithful because
reach thethepronaos
walled peristyle
and then
was generally engaged front entranceZOROASTRIAN, of early rectan- by wall which pierced at regular
temples of Ba’al Shamīn and Dūsharā at Sî, Kasr Il-Abd,
intervals by windows. The
dor 4.and
square the hilani front as well as distyle in antis, which
AND
gular GANDHARAN
houses ofplans
Near East inREGIONS
Nabatean,
and CentralZoroastriAN, Asia. In particular, andit was
method accepted
through does notinsuggest
a doorway the Parthian
theythe reach palaces
peristyle
Temple at Edfu, and Temple at Dendhera) in Nabataean
theofnaos.and At
Greek temples
the back
Temple (e.g.ofthe
because the
the
was4.1 generally
NABATEAN engagedGandharan
TEMPLES in the front
IN THE entrance
regions SAME of early rectan-
TIME temples
temple
walled aofsmall
peristyleBa’alwas Shamīn
chamber
accepted isand Dūsharā
linked
in the with aatstaircase.
Parthian Sî, Kasr
palaces and Il-Abd,
This rear
temples
has a four-columned shrine in the same manner as the cen- Syria and Egypt, which have a solid walled structure with a
gular
1) BA’ALhousesSHAMIN,of Near East SYRIA and (Fig.20)
Central Asia. In particular, it Temple
chamber
(e.g. atcorresponds
the temples Edfu,of and Ba’al Temple
to the Greek
Shamīn at Dendhera)
and opisthodomos.
Dūsharā at in
Sî, Nabataean
However,
Kasr Il-Abd,
tral shrines of Zoroastrian temples. series of engaged columns inside. Particularly, Edfu temple
has a four-columned
Ba’al
4.1KASR-
NABATEAN Shamin temple,
TEMPLES shrine built in
INthe
inTHEthesamefirst
SAME manner
century
TIME asC.E.,
the cen-
holds Syria and
the building
Temple Egypt, which
at Edfu, isandsurrounded have a solid walled
by a wallinwhich
Temple at Dendhera) structure
Nabataean withand
is pierced
Syria aat
2) IL-ABD (Fig.32) shares many common points with Jandial temple in that the
tral
the shrines
features of Zoroastrian temples.
1) The
BA’AKasr-L SHAMIN,Il-Abd, built in the second century B.C.E., is a a
of temples
SYRIA Nabataean
(Fig.20) Syria because it has series
regular
Egypt, of
which engaged
intervals
have aby columns
windows.
solid inside. Particularly,
The method
walled structure
columns are connected by a wall in the lower part, and the
with adoes Edfu
seriesnot temple
of suggest
engaged
2)square
KASR-
Ba’alwalled roomIL-ABDsurrounded
Shaminstructuretemple, (Fig.32)
built oninall fourfirstsides by aC.E.,
roofed corri- shares many
the peristyle common Greekpoints
ofParticularly, Temple with Jandial
because temple
the walledin that the
peristyle
solid with atheseries century
of engaged holds
columns the columns inside.
cella and anteroom are enclosed by solid walls.
Edfu temple shares many common
The
dor and
featuresthus Kasr-the Il-Abd,
of templeshilani built
front in
as the
well second
as century
distyle in B.C.E.,
antis, is a
which columns
was accepted are connected
in temple by
the Parthian a wall
in that palaces in the lower
and are part,
temples and
(e.g. bythe
thea
inside, givingNabataean
the impression Syria of because
a peristyle it has to a square
one with- room points with Jandial the columns connected
solid
was walledonstructure with byaaafront
series of engaged columns
thegenerally
surrounded
in temple. A engaged
all four sides
synthesis in of the roofed
peristyleentrance and of
corridor a andearly therectan-
surrounding hilani cella
wall inand
temples theanteroom
of Ba’al
lower are
andenclosed
part,Shamīn theand by
cellaDūsharā
andsolid walls.
at Sî,are
anteroom Kasr Il-Abd,
enclosed by
inside,
gular
front in thus
houses
as well giving
of
as distyle the
Near impression
East
in antis, and
which of
Central a peristyle
Asia. In to
engagedwith-
one
particular, it Templewalls.at Edfu, and Temple at Dendhera) in Nabataean
wall Parthian period belong to awas generally
temple of Roman in the
pro- solid
in hasthe a temple.
four-columned
front entrance A synthesis shrine
of earlyisrectangular of a
in peristyle
the same and
manner a surrounding
as the cen- Syria and Egypt, which have a solid walled structure with a
vincial type. What important houses is a row of Near East andwhich
of columns Central
wall in
In Parthian
tral shrines period belong to a templeshrine of Roman in thepro-
Asia.
surround the of
particular, Zoroastrian
building it hasonlya alongtemples.
four-columned
the front of the temple same
like series of engaged columns inside. Particularly, Edfu temple
vincial type.
2)peripteros.
KASR- What
as theIL-ABD isshrines
important
(Fig.32) is a rowtemples. of columns which shares many common points with Jandial temple in that the
amanner central
But, the wayofwhich Zoroastrian these columns are con-
surround
Theby the
Kasr- building
Il-Abd, only
built along
inbythe the frontcentury of the temple like
2) KASR-
nected IL-ABD
arches (Fig.32)
supported thesecond
edges of the Ionic B.C.E., bases is a columns are connected by a wall in the lower part, and the
a solid
peripteros.
walled But, the
structure way with which
a these
series of columns
engaged are con-
columns cella and anteroom are enclosed by solid walls.
ofThe the Kasr-
columns Il-Abd,wasbuilt usedininthe thesecond
Parthian centurypalace B.C.E., is a solid
at Assur in
nected
inside,
walled bythusarches
giving supported
the impressionbyofthe edges
of of the Ionic
a peristyle onebases
toinside, with-
the firststructure
century with
C.E. awhich
series had engaged
four iwan columns
halls facing thus
four
of inthe
givingthethecolumns
temple.
impressionwas used peristyle
A synthesis in of thea Parthian
peristyle palace
and a the at Assur
surrounding in
cardinal directions ofofaa huge to one within
courtyard, subsuming temple.
a pil-A
thewallfirst
synthesis in century
Parthian C.E.period which belonghad four
to a iwan
temple halls
of facing
Roman four
pro-
lared hallof and
a peristyle
another andcolonnaded
a surrounding wall in Parthian
courtyard behindperiod the
cardinal
vincial directions ofis aimportant
huge courtyard, subsuming awhich
pil-
open
belong totype.
court. (W.What
a temple Andrae
of Roman and provincial
H. Lenzen, is a type.
row 1933).of columns
What is important is
lared hall the andbuilding
anotheronly colonnaded courtyard behind the
a surround
row of columns which surround along thethe front only
building of the temple
along like
the front Fig. 34 Locations of Zoroastrian temples excavated in Buddhist Central
open court. (W.But, Andrae the and wayH.But, Lenzen, 1933). Figure 34. Locations of Zoroastrian temples excavated in Buddhist Central
ofa the
peripteros. which the these columns theseare con- Asia and Gandhara regions (red circle)
temple like a peripteros. way which columns Asia
Fig.and
The 34 Gandhara
blueLocations regionsthe(red
of Zoroastrian
circles indicate circle)
temples
location excavated
of Adzina in Buddhist
Tepe and Centraland
Airtam I(upper),
nected by arches supported by the
are connected by arches supported by the edges of the Ionic bases edges of the Ionic bases Mohra
The blue
Asia Maliaran
circles
and (bottom),
indicate
Gandhara respectively.
the
regions location of Adzina Tepe and Airtam I(upper),
(red circle)
ofofthethecolumns
columnswas was used used in in thethe Parthian
Parthian palace
palace at Assur
at Assur in the in and
TheMohra Maliaran
blue circles (bottom),
indicate respectively.
the location of Adzina Tepe and Airtam I(upper), and
the first century C.E. which had
first century C.E. which had four iwan halls facing four cardinalfour iwan halls facing four Mohra Maliaran (bottom), respectively.

cardinal directions
directions of a huge courtyard,of a huge subsuming courtyard, asubsuming pillared hall a pil-
and
lared hall and another
another colonnaded courtyard behind theFig.open colonnaded courtyard court. behind
(W. Andrae the
open court. Fig. 32 (W. Andrae and H. Lenzen, 1933).
Kasr Il-Abd 33 Temple at Edfu
and H. Lenzen, 1933).
2) TEMPLE AT EDFU, EGYPT (Fig.33) Fig. 34 Locations of Zoroastrian temples excavated in Buddhist Central
Fig. 32 Kasr Il-Abd Fig. 33 Temple at Edfu Asia and Gandhara regions (red circle)
In Egypt during this time under the Ptolemies and then
2) TEMPLE AT EDFU, EGYPT (Fig.33) The blue circles indicate the location of Adzina Tepe and Airtam I(upper), and
later under the Romans a type of temple was built which Mohra Maliaran (bottom), respectively.
In Egypt during this time under the Ptolemies and then
corresponds to those used in Syria. Both the Edfu Temple
later under the Romans a type of temple was built which
and Dendhera Temple have a peristyle surrounding the
corresponds to those used in Syria. Both the Edfu Temple Figure 35. Zoroastrian Temples in Central Asia
sanctuary, but the pillars are linked by a wall in the lower
and Dendhera
Figure 32. Kasr Temple Il-Abd have a peristyle surrounding
Figure 33. Temple at Edfuthe 2) SUSA TEMPLE
Fig. 35 Zoroastrian AT UZBEKISTAN
Temples in Central Asia (Fig.21,35)
part, thus enclosing the cella rather than holding the open- 2)TheSUSA TEMPLE AT UZBEKISTAN (Fig.21,35)
sanctuary,
3) TEMPLE but AT the
EDFU,pillars are
Il-Abd EGYPT (Fig.33) linked by a wall in the
Edfulower
Fig. 35Susa templeTemples
consisted of a Asia
courtyard and square, raised
Fig. 33 Temple at
ness of aFig. 32 Kasr
peristyle (Earl Baldwin Smith, 1938). This exis- The Zoroastrian
Susa temple in Central
consisted of a courtyard and were
square,
part,
2) thus
InTEMPLE enclosing
AT EDFU, the cella
EGYPT rather than holding the open-
tence Egypt
of these during this time
structures in Egypt (Fig.33)
under the
andPtolemies
Syria is so andsimilar
then later
to sanctuary
2) SUSA
raised
with an antechamber.
TEMPLE
sanctuary AT
with UZBEKISTAN
an
Within the
antechamber.
sanctuary
(Fig.21,35)
Within the
four
sanctuary
ness In ofthe a Romans
Egypt peristyle
during (Earl
this Baldwin
time under Smith,
the 1938).corresponds
Ptolemies Thisand exis-
then free-standing
The Susa pillars,
templewhich must have
of asurrounded
courtyard the andcult object.
the temple at Jandial under discussion in northwest Indiato
under a type of temple was built which
were four free-standing
consisted
pillars, whichismust
square,
tence
those of
later used these
under thestructures
in Syria. Romans
Both the ina Edfu
Egypt
type Temple andtemple
of Syria is sobuilt
was
and Dendhera similarwhich
Temple to K. Erdmann
raised writes,
sanctuary “The
with an arrangement clear.have
antechamber. Within The surrounded
thesquare place
sanctuary
the temple
corresponds at Jandial
to those under
used indiscussion
Syria.
have a peristyle surrounding the sanctuary, but the pillars are linked Both in northwest
the Edfu India
Temple is
were four ateshgah,
actually therein
free-standing was the
pillars, holymust
which fire burned. The lateral
have surrounded
byanda wallDendhera
in the lower Temple part,have a peristyle
thus enclosing thesurrounding
cella rather than the areas might have contained wood and other materials necessary for
sanctuary, but the pillars are linked
holding the openness of a peristyle (Earl Baldwin Smith, 1938). by a wall in the lower theFig.
cult. To the public ceremonies, the flame was brought into the
35 Zoroastrian Temples in Central Asia
part,existence
This thus enclosing the cella inrather
of these structures Egyptthan holding
and Syria is sothe open-
similar to prostas
2) SUSA (antechamber
TEMPLE AT or vestibule)”
UZBEKISTAN
17
(K. Erdmann,1941:15-16).
(Fig.21,35)
ness of a peristyle (Earl Baldwin
the temple at Jandial under discussion in northwest India because Smith, 1938). This exis- The The
same Susa
featuretemple
has been found in the
consisted of temples of Nabataean
a courtyard Syria:
and square,
oftence of these structures
the application of inner columns in Egypt along andtheSyria is so corridors.
peripheral similar to the temples
raised of Ba’al Shamin
sanctuary with an(Fig.20) and the sanctuary
antechamber. Within the at Sahr of the
sanctuary
the temple at Jandial under discussion in northwest India were four free-standing pillars, which must have surrounded
4.2 ZOROASTRIAN TEMPLES IN THE SAME TERRITORY 17
Die Anordnung ist klar. Der quadratische Raum ist das eigentliche ateshgah, in
1) JANDIAL TEMPLE AT GANDHARA dem.. das heilige Feuer brannte. Die seitliche Räume dürften Holz und anderes
Jandial temple at Taxila, which was considered to be the fire für den Kult erforderliches Material enthalten haben. Zu den öffentlichen
temple, but still debating on the use, whose plan is distyle in antis, Zeremonien wurde die Flamme in die Prostas gebracht.
Reuther said “ultimately of Iranian origin” (Oscar Reuther, the innermost sacred area at the top by the colossal flights
1939), the Susa temple also accepted Iranian idea because of steps. Surkh Kotal also gives an interesting similarity,
the idea of isolating the cella by a surrounding corridor was which can be applied to other fire temples, with Buddhist
Evolution, Transformation, and Representation in Buddhist Architecture
applied to the same manner. There are two possible depic- sanctums with surrounding corridors such as F4 temple at39
tions for the façade of this type in two different locales; Shorchuk Ming-oi, Airtam, and Ak-Beshim. (F.R. Allchin
first century
both are derivedC.E. The from twoSyria,
examples present
or the origina remarkable
of the Nabataeansimilarity Airtam, and Ak-Beshim.
and N. Hammond, 1978:(F.R. Allchin
chapter 5). and N. Hammond, 1978:
to the plan
temples wasof from
the Susa temple.
Persia. Indeed,
Indeed, de Villard
Oelmann also saidtalked
in the chapter 5).
about the possibility
observation of the Jandial that both“itthe
temple, Nabataean
is not difficult toand findPersian
the plans 4.3 GANDHARAN BUDDHIST TEMPLES IN THE SAME TIME
architecture
of building inhad theiridea,
Iranian common
through origin
whichlike thethecellahilani front inby
was isolated 4.3 GANDHARAN BUDDHIST TEMPLES IN THE SAME TIME
the ancient
a covered building
corridor thatofseparate
Syria and Egypt respectively
it definitely from the outer (Franz
world”
Oelmann,
(Ugo Monneret 1921:de 273-88).
Villard, 1938). Thus, as Osaca Reuther said
“ultimately of Iranian origin” (Oscar Reuther, 1939), the Susa temple
3)
alsoOXUS
accepted TEMPLE
Iranian AT ideaTAJIKISTAN
because the idea (Fig.24,35)
of isolating the cella by
Temple of Oxus at Bactria,
a surrounding corridor was applied to the same unlike other Buddhist
manner. monas-
There are
teries,
two possible depictions for the façade of this typeits
had the central four-columned hall in core,different
in two with Fig. Figure 36. square shrinesBuddhist
36 square shrines among among Buddhist
Temples Temples in Gandhara
in Gandhara
extant walls close to twelve meters in height
locales; both are derived from Syria, or the origin of the Nabataean and three mo- Thesquare
The square shrines
shrines of Gandharan
of Gandharan monasteries
monasteries were cha-
were characteristic
numental
temples was from Persia. Indeed, Oelmann also talked aboutA.
doorways: three meters in width and depth (B. the of those surrounded by circumambulation passages and pas-
racteristic of those surrounded by circumambulation outer
Litvinskii,1994:13-25).
possibility that both the Nabataean The main and entrance
Persian onarchitecture
the east side had sages and walls:
enclosure outer enclosure
e.g. Butkara walls:
I (GB)e.g.atButkara
Swat, and I (GB) at Swat,
Dharmarajika
leads into the eight-columned iwan; the direction of the gate and atDharmarajika (H)shrine
at Taxila. The GB shrine at Butkara I
their common origin like the hilani front in the ancient building of (H) Taxila. The GB at Butkara I was placed on a raised
has similar orientation of the typical Indian and Greco- was placed on a raised plinth, more than two meters, on
Syria and Egypt respectively (Franz Oelmann, 1921: 273-88). plinth, more than two meters, on which the traces of chisel marks
Roman temples. The southern doorway leads into the first whichthe thefacade
tracesbase of chisel
3) OXUS TEMPLE AT TAJIKISTAN (Fig.24,35) along of themarks
building along
(GB).theThey
facade base that
indicate of
corridor. This in turn connects through the second doorway, the building (GB). They indicate that sculpture was ar-
Temple
which of Oxus at Bactria,
is perpendicular to theunlike
first other Buddhist
corridor, running monasteries,
behind sculpture was arranged there, along the side of stairs on the front.
ranged there, along the side of stairs on the front. The GB
the west wall of the central hall. Taken together, extant
had the central four-columned hall in its core, with the corri-walls The GB also consists of a main cella and an anteroom. The cella
also consists of a main cella and an anteroom. The cella has
close to twelve meters in height and
dor-like two L-shaped rooms are the same as those of athree monumental doorways: has enclosed walls with a surrounding corridor behind the walls
enclosed walls with a surrounding corridor behind the walls
three meters
temple in width
at Airtam andand thedepth
cave(B.hallA. Litvinskii,1994:13-25).
of Complex C at Kara The of cella:
of cella:thethe GBGB is theis only
the massive exampleexample
only massive of a two-celled shrine
of a two-
main entrance on
Tepe.(Fig.2,6) the hall
The east side
and leads into the eight-columned
its peripheral corridors keep iwan;
a (Daniel
celled shrine (Daniel Schlumberger, 1952: 240-4, 433-53).is
Schlumberger, 1952: 240-4, 433-53). The shrine also
the direction
square (32 by of 32meters).
the gate has similar
On theorientation
east side this of the
is typical
abuttedIndianby flanked
The shrine by one alsoroom on eachbyside
is flanked oneofroom
the front-like
on each porch.
side ofThisthe is
aand Greco-Roman
long, temples. The
centered rectangle (51southern
by 17meters)doorwaydividedleads into intothe the same structure to the shrines of Dharmarajika
front-like porch. This is the same structure to the shrines of (H) and Kalawan
first corridor.
three units ofThis almost in turn connects
identical sizethrough
of 17 bythe second doorway,
17meters. In the (A5). In particular,
Dharmarajika (H) the and HKalawan
shrine of(A5).
Dharmarajika is flanked
In particular, the Hby
18
which isisperpendicular
middle the eight-columned to the firstiwan,
corridor, flanked
running bybehind
a north the two
shrinerooms on both sides (Fig.36).
of Dharmarajika is flankedThough
by two thisrooms
had been on among
both
and southof wing
west wall symmetrically.
the central The eight-columned
hall. Taken together, the corridor-like hall
two the
sidesearliest remains
(Fig.36). Thoughof Indian
this area, such manner
had been among was the shown
earliestin
appeared
L-shaped rooms in the are Ak-Beshim
the same as I Buddhist
those of a temple
temple at asAirtam
an ante- and aremains
sanctuary of Bactrian
of Indian area,AysuchKhanum,
mannerfounded
was shown in theinearlier
a sanct-date
room.(Fig.24,25)
the cave hall of Complex This templeC at KarawasTepe.(Fig.2,6)
influence byThe three
halltradi-
and its uary Gandharan
than of Bactrianmonasteries.
Ay Khanum, founded itinisthe
Accordingly, earlier
evident thatdate
such
tions
peripheralof Achaemenid,
corridors keep aGreek, square (32and byNabataean
32meters). On tradition.
the east than isGandharan
type originated monasteries.
from Nabataean Accordingly, it is evident
Syria as mentioned that
previously,
Firstly, the structure of iwan and separated
side this is abutted by a long, centered rectangle (51 by 17meters) surrounding pas- such type
rather thanisAnatolian
originatedorigin.
from Nabataean
The type of Syria
shrineas mentioned
surrounded
sages follows the traditional Achaemenid standard
divided into three units of almost identical size of 17 by 17meters. (U. Scer- previously,
by rather thanpassages
circumambulation Anatolian andorigin.
outerThe type ofwalls
enclosure shrine has
rato,
In the1977:713-30; Roman Ghirshman,1962:32).
middle is the eight-columned iwan,18 flanked byThe order
a north and surrounded
appeared by circumambulation
in most of Hindu Temples passages
for similarand outer of
purposes enclo-
image
south wing symmetrically. The eight-columned hall appeared in sure walls has and
enshrinements appeared in most of Hindu
circumambulatory Temples
practices forinsimi-
as seen Ladh
17
theDie Anordnung IistBuddhist
Ak-Beshim klar. Der quadratische
temple as an Raum ist das eigentliche This
anteroom.(Fig.24,25) lar purposes of image enshrinements and
Khan (the fifth century), Durga temple (the sixth century) at circumambulatory
ateshgah, in dem.. das heilige Feuer brannte. Die seitliche Räume dürften
temple was influence by three traditions of Achaemenid, Greek, and practices
Aihole, as seen inTemple
Kailasanatha Ladh Khan (the fifth
(the seventh century),
century) Durga
and Vaikunta
Holz und anderes für den Kult erforderliches Material enthalten haben. Zu
temple (the sixth century) at Aihole, Kailasanatha Temple
Nabataean
den tradition.
öffentlichen Zeremonien Firstly,
wurde the
diestructure
Flamme inof dieiwan and
Prostas separated
gebracht. Perumal (the eighth century) at Kanchipuram, and Virupaksha at
18
surrounding passagesalways
Parthian architecture follows the traditional
maintained links with Achaemenid standard
the nomadic habit. It (the seventh
Pattadakal (thecentury) and Vaikunta
eighth century). (Fig.5) Perumal (the eighth cen-
would seem that the iwan derived from the tent, one
(U. Scerrato, 1977:713-30; Roman Ghirshman,1962:32). The order side of which con- tury) at Kanchipuram, and Virupaksha at Pattadakal (the
tained an opening, in the central courtyard of the Square House with its eighth century). (Fig.5)
and iwans.
four materials of the columns (Ionic order) and monumental altars 5. the characteristics of five types in central asia
demonstrate that there was Greek influence. Likewise, the porch- (See Table 1 and 2)
like façade is flanked by two rooms, and it is called the hilani front
which was influenced by Nabataean Syrian architecture. The table 2 illustrates how the Buddhist temples in Central Asia
4) SURKH KOTAL TEMPLE AT GANDHARA (Fig. 35) were represented responding to building elements dwelling upon
Surkh Kotal temple consists of two parts. At the top of the hill early houses, palaces, and religious temples which were constructed
the ground-plan of a sanctuary and square cella with four internal in Gandhara, Central Asia, Near East, and Anatolia. The main
pillars and surrounding corridors observe the usual principles of shrines of Buddhist temples in Central Asia can be classified into
Zoroastrian temples; i.e. it succeeds to the architectural traditions five kinds: a square shrine surrounded by circumambulation
of fire temples derived from Persian and Nabataean culture: at passages and outer enclosure walls; shrine with a central altar
Susa, Oxus, and Persepolis. On the contrary, on the east side of the surrounded by circumambulation passages and outer enclosure
hill the great platforms for access were divided into four terraces, walls; single-celled shrine with a central altar; single-celled shrine
reaching the innermost sacred area at the top by the colossal flights without any altar; lastly, four-columned shrine. Also, the square
of steps. Surkh Kotal also gives an interesting similarity, which shrines of these temples depending on five major types were built
can be applied to other fire temples, with Buddhist sanctums with resting on eight elements for the composition of these temples,
surrounding corridors such as F4 temple at Shorchuk Ming-oi, which were significant for functional purposes. The ingredients
are composed of the anterooms(i), distyle in antis (columned
18
Parthian architecture always maintained links with the nomadic habit. It would entrances)(ii), the hilani front(iii), I/L-shaped corridors(iv),
seem that the iwan derived from the tent, one side of which contained an opening, elongated hall(v), iwan hall(vi), colonnaded passages(vii), enclosed
in the central courtyard of the Square House with its four iwans. courtyards(vii) between the main shrine and entrance, which came
 types were built resting on eight elements for the composi- Buddhist and Buddhist period. Either the two-celled (I and
tion of these temples, which were significant for functional II) or single-celled shrine (III and IV) with “entire enclo-
purposes. The ingredients are composed of the anterooms(i), sure” was an important plan useful to the faithful who want
40distyle in antis (columned entrances)(ii), the hilani front(iii), to gain solemn environments Youngfor ritual
Jae Kim andperformances
Dong Soo Han
I/L-shaped corridors(iv), elongated hall(v), iwan hall(vi), whether the loci were used for the pradakshina path or reli-
colonnaded
from passages(vii),
local residential, imperial,enclosed courtyards(vii)
and religious architecture. between gious the
around assembly.
fourth century such as Kizil n.38, Toqquz Sarai, and
the main shrine and entrance, which came from local resi- The type III subsumes Kara Tepe (I+III), Dal’verzin-tepe,
Table 1. Square Shrines of Buddhist Temples in Central Asia and the relationship Kara Tepe do not have it. On the contrary, the type IV manages
dential, imperial, and religious architecture. and such cave monasteries as Kizil, Toqquz Sarai, etc. at
between pre-Buddhist architecture and contemporary architecture in the same area. Fayaz Tapa, Gul dara(Guru dara), Tapa Sardar, and Airtam II,
Xinjiang, which are characteristic of elongated shrine(v),
which have the features of anteroom(i), hilani(iii), I/L-shaped
I/L-shaped corridors(iv), and enclosed courtyard(viii). The
corridors(iv),
type furtherelongatedcan readshrine(v),
a processand of enclosed
development courtyard(viii).
about the
Inanteroom(i)
particular, itbecauseis not hard monasteries built around type
to understand that the the III has
fourth
compositional elements in common with
century such as Kizil n.38, Toqquz Sarai, and Kara Tepe do the type IV because they
allnot
camehavefrom it. early
On the vernacular
contrary,housesthe type withIV elongated
managesplans(v) Fayaz
and I andGul
Tapa, L-shaped
dara(Gurucorridors(iv),
dara), Tapa courtyardsSardar, in Central
and Airtam Asia and II,
Near
which East,have
in comparison
the features with such other types as hilani(iii),
of anteroom(i), I and II. Indeed,I/L-
notable
shapedis that the cases from
corridors(iv), the type Ishrine(v),
elongated to the typeand IV commonly
enclosed
accept the hilani front
courtyard(viii). (iii) and iwan
In particular, it is hall(vi),
not hardoriginatedto understandfrom
Nabataean
that the type and Achaemenid monuments,
III has compositional respectively.
elements Lastly,
in common
with the type
responding IV because
to Table 2, the typetheyVall of came
squarefrom shrines early vernacu-
occurred in
larcombination
the houses withofelongated
the type I, plans(v)
and showed andthe I and
featureL-shaped cor-
of the four-
ridors(iv),
columned hallcourtyards
of fire temples. in Central Asia and
On the contrary, the Near East,also
fire temple in
comparison
adopted the court withand such otherunit
portico types
of theas inverted
I and II.‘U’ Indeed, nota-
of the living
Based on Table 2, likewise, through the qualitative analysis ble is that
quarters the cases from
in residences the type
of Central AsianI toregions
the typeplus IV the
common-
hilani
Table. 1 Square Shrines of Buddhist Temples in Central Asia and the
between all between
relationship of Central Asian Buddhist
pre-Buddhist temples
architecture with perfect
and contemporary archi-line
ly accept the hilani front (iii) and iwan hall(vi),
front(iii) and distyle in antis(ii), albeit Buddhist monasteries of the originated
drawings andsame
tecture in the otherarea.religious, residential, public architecture from Nabataean
territory did not adopt andtheAchaemenid monuments, respectively.
vernacular methods.
Based
founded on Table
in the 2, likewise,
same period through
and locales which theare
qualitative
dealt withanaly-
in this Lastly, responding to Table 2, the type V of square shrines
sis between all of Central Asian Buddhist
study, the major elements for the construction of Buddhist temples withmain
per- occurred in the combination 6. CONCLUSIONof the type I, and showed the
fect line drawings and other religious, residential,
shrines in Central Asia are unveiled as five ingredients. In other public feature of the four-columned hall of fire temples. On the
architecture
words, they arefounded in the same
mainly composed of sixperiod and locales
components: which
anteroom(i), contrary,
It should be thenoted
fire temple also adopted
that organized religion theand court its and portico
rituals were
unit of the inverted ‘U’ of the living quarters in residences
hilani(iii), I/L-shaped passages(iv), elongated hall(v), iwan(vi),con-
are dealt with in this study, the major elements for the and regarded as pools of social cohesion that enabled to reduce
struction of Buddhist main shrines in Central of Central Asian regions plus the hilani front(iii) and distyle
courtyard(viii). Also, Central Asian Buddhist templesAsia were are un-
in close conflicts between individuals in society. When the Buddhism
veiled as five ingredients. In other words, they are mainly in antis(ii), albeit Buddhist monasteries of the territory did
rapports with early houses and temples of Central Asia (Bactrian) was introduced in Central Asia, thus, the building methods of
composed of six components: anteroom(i), hilani(iii), I/L- not adopt the vernacular methods.
and Near East (Nabataean and Achaemenid), rather than Anatolian construction and the notions of entire layouts were dependent on
shaped passages(iv), elongated hall(v), iwan(vi), and cour-
and Greek monuments.(Table 1) early residences, palaces, and temples in Nabataean and Parthian
tyard(viii). Also, Central Asian Buddhist temples were in 6. CONCLUSION
The type I appeared in Kara Tepe, Airtam I, Ak-Beshim II, Dadan NearItEast, Bactrian
should Central
be noted thatAsia as the means
organized religion of social
and its solidarity.
rituals
close rapports with early houses and temples of Central
Oilik(D12),
Asia (Bactrian) Shorchuk(F4).
and NearSuch East type has already
(Nabataean and taken place in
Achaemenid), Aswere
Schaefer pointed out, “it appears that
regarded as pools of social cohesion that enabled in the last two centuriesto
the
rather than Anatolian and Greek monuments.(Table 1) C.E.)
palatial and religious buildings at Hatra (the first century before
reduce Christ a considerable
conflicts between trade was carried
individuals on between
in society. WhenIndiathe
and The
Ay Khanum, in addition
type I appeared in to houses
Kara of Central
Tepe, AirtamAsia (the fourth
I, Ak-Beshim and Rome, but
Buddhism wastheintroduced
regions that actually Asia,
in Central established
thus, the thebuilding
contact
century
II, Dadan Oilik(D12), Shorchuk(F4). Such type hasenclosed
B.C.E.). The building type was also applied to already were Syria and
methods Egypt”(Herwin
of construction andSchaefer,1942:67).
the notions of In like manner,
entire layouts
shrines
taken embedded
place in the on palatial
each walland withreligious
the sculpture or painting,
buildings at Hatra or Paul
were Bernard
dependentconcluded
on early theresidences,
constructions of Ay and
palaces, Khanum temples“drewin
sculpture
(the firstincentury
the center C.E.)without
and Ay a plinth.
Khanum, Theinsquare
additionshrine type I
to hous- their inspiration
Nabataean andlargely fromNear
Parthian the Neo-Babylonian
East, Bactrian and Achaemenid
Central Asia as
appeared in the Asia
es of Central early (the
houses of Central
fourth centuryAsia and theThe
B.C.E.). Zoroastrian
building models,
the means” albeit of he believed
social that Greek
solidarity. builderspointed
As Schaefer participated in
out, “it
temples
type was of also
pre-Buddhist period, and
applied to enclosed frequently
shrines embedded in intimate
on each appears
making thethat
city in theBernard,
(Paul last two1994:107).
centuries before Christ a consi-
wall with of
connections thethe sculpture
type II and or V.painting, or sculpture in the cen- derable
Likewise,trade was carried
the square shrines onofbetween
Buddhist India and Rome,
temples in Centralbut
ter
Also,without
the typea II plinth.
belongsThe square II,
to Airtam shrine type I appeared
Ak-Beshim I, Karadonginn.61 the the as
Asia, regions
discussedthat soactually established
far, were established thethrough
contactthe were Syria
selective
early houses
constructed of Central
around Asia century
the fourth and the C.E.,
Zoroastrian
and Dandan temples of
Oilik and Egypt”(Herwin
application Schaefer,1942:67).
of the construction methodsInand likecompositional
manner, Paul
pre-Buddhist
D12 built after the period,
sixth and frequently
century C.E. Theintype intimate
(II) was connections
considered Bernard concluded the constructions
elements employed in the pre-Buddhist period or the Buddhist of Ay Khanum “drew
asofIndian
the typeoriginII and V. Hindu temples had used the type since
because their inspiration largely from the
period, which came from Bactrian Central Asia, Nabataean Syria,Neo-Babylonian and
Also, the type
the early Buddhist period. II belongs to Airtam II,
The Ak-Beshim I, asAk-Beshim
above-mentioned,I, Ka- Achaemenid models,” albeit he believed
Parthian Iran, and Gandhara (Table 1). In particular, the Buddhist that Greek builders
accommodated the local method of architectural compositionand
radong n.61 constructed around the fourth century C.E., in participated
temples followed in making the city (Paul
the architectural Bernard,of1994:107).
composition early houses
DandanCentral
Bactrian Oilik D12 Asia: built after enclosed
i.e. hilani, the sixthcourtyard,
century C.E. The
elongated Likewise, the square shrines of
in Central Asia such as anteroom(i), hilani front(iii), Buddhist temples in Cen-
I/L-shaped
typedistyle
plan, (II) was considered
in antis as Indian
(eight pillared hall),origin
and iwan, because
all of Hindu
which tral Asia, as discussed so far, were established
passages(iv), iwan(vi), and enclosed courtyard(viii). Indeed, the through the
temples had used the type since the early
came from local methods popular in the territory in pre-Buddhist Buddhist period. selective application of the construction
shape of these temples in Central Asian Buddhism delivered the methods and com-
TheBuddhist
Ak-Beshim I, as above-mentioned, positional elements employed in the pre-Buddhist period or
and period. Either the two-celled accommodated
(I and II) or single- the building methods of Nabataean temples such as anteroom(i), distyle
local method of architectural composition in Bactrian Cen- the Buddhist period, which came from Bactrian Central
celled shrine (III and IV) with “entire enclosure” was an important in antis(ii), the hilani front(iii), elongated plan(v), and colonnaded
tral Asia: i.e. hilani, enclosed courtyard, elongated plan, Asia, Nabataean Syria, Parthian Iran, and Gandhara (Table
plan useful to the faithful who want to gain solemn environments passages(vii) as above-discussed through temples of Kasr Il-Abd
distyle in antis (eight pillared hall), and iwan, all of which 1). In particular, the Buddhist temples followed the archi-
for ritual performances whether the loci were used for the and Ba’al Shamin. The Buddhist square shrines in Central Asia then
pradakshina path or religious assembly. were completed in the adoptions of anteroom(i), distyle in antis(ii),
The type III subsumes Kara Tepe (I+III), Dal’verzin-tepe, and the hilani front(iii), I/L-shaped corridor(iv), elongated plan(v), and
such cave monasteries as Kizil, Toqquz Sarai, etc. at Xinjiang, which enclosed courtyard(viii).
are characteristic of elongated shrine(v), I/L-shaped corridors(iv), Accordingly, this study concludes that the Buddhist square
and enclosed courtyard(viii). The type further can read a process shrines in Central Asia primarily adopted anteroom(i),
of development about the anteroom(i) because monasteries built hilani(iii), I/L-shaped passages(iv), elongated hall(v), iwan(vi),
Evolution, Transformation, and Representation in Buddhist Architecture
and courtyard(viii). Additionally, this thesis confirms that the
compositional elements in the Buddhist monument of Central Asia
were applied according to local choices and ritual purposes because
they, in comparison with other religious temples (particularly
Zoroastrian temples), handled with different adoptions for their
constructions such as a four-columned shrine(V) and single-celled
shrine(III) with a central altar respectively, albeit they all used
vernacular methods for the constructions in the same territory (See
Table 1 and 2). Consequently, the monasteries were represented as a
cosmopolitan complex by both the adoption of vernacular building
forms and the adaptation of universal notions for the Buddhist
construction.
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42 Young Jae Kim and Dong Soo Han

Table 2. The five types of Buddhist temples in Central Asia and its neighboring areas, vis-à-vis eight elements for the constructions
Sites / Types DATE I II III IV V i ii iii iv v vi vii viii
Five types in square plans
Eight elements for the composition of Buddhist monaster-
in Buddhist monasteries  ies in Central Asia, vis-à-vis its neighboring areas
Early Syria Houses in Near East
Halafian 60c. BCE ● ● ------- ------- ------- ●
Arpachiyah 27c. BCE ● ● ------- ------- ------- ●
Ain Ghazal 72/55BCE ● ● ●
Palace at Hatra 1c. CE ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ------- ●
Early Houses in Anatolia/Greek
Megaron, Mycenae 15-12c. BCE ● === === ● ● ● ------- ------- ●
Houses, Minor Asia 15-12c. BCE ● ● ------- ------- ------- ●
Early Houses in Central Asia
Houses, Dilberjin ●==== ======== ======== === ● ● ------- ● ● ------- ● ------- ●
Ay Khanum 4c. BCE ●==== ======== ======== === ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
Nabataean temples in Near East
Ba’al Shamin, Syria 1c. CE ● ● ● ● ------- ------- ------- ------- ●
Kasr Il-Abd, Syria 2c. BCE ● ● ● ● ------- ● ------- ●
Edfu Temple, Egypt 3-1c. BCE ● ● ------- ------- ------- ● ------- ●
Zoroastrian temples in Central Asia
Surkh Kotal 1-2c. CE ●==== ======== ======== ===●=== === ● ● ------- ● ------- ------- ------- ------- ●
Oxus temple 2c. BCE ●==== ======== ======== ======== === ● ● ● ● ● ●
Kuh-i-Khawaja, Iran 1c. CE ● ● ● ● ●
Jandial temple 2-1c. BCE ● ● ● ● ● ● ------- ●
Susa temple 5-4c. BCE ●==== ======== ======== ======== ● ● ● ● ● ● ------- ------- ●

Buddhist Monasteries in Central Asia Eight elements for the composition of Buddhist monas-
teries in Central Asia
Fayaz Tapa 1c. BCE ● ● ------- ● ● ------- ● ● ●
Guldara(Gurudara) 4-6c. CE ● ● ------- ------- ● ------- ------- ------- ●
Kara Tepe 4-5c. CE ●==== ======== === ● ● ● ● ------- ● ●
Tapa Sardar 4-6c. CE ● ●
Dal’verzin-tepe 4-6c. CE ● ● ------- ------- ------- ------- ●
Adzina Tepe 4-6c. CE ●=== ======== === ● ● ------- ------- ● ● ● ------- ●
Airtam I 4-6c. CE ●==== ======== ======== ======== === ● ● ● ------- ●
Airtam II 4-6c. CE ● === ======== ====● ● ------- ● ------- ● ●
Ak-Beshim I 6-7c. CE ● ● ● ● ------- ● ● ------- ●
Ak-Beshim II 6-7c. CE ● ● ------- ------- ● ● ●
Krasnorechensk I 8-9c. CE ● ● ------- ------- ------- ------- ●
Krasnorechensk II 8-9c. CE ● ● ------- ------- ------- ------- ●
Karadong, n.61 4c. CE ●
Dadan Oilik, D12 5-6c. CE ● === === ● ●
Kizil n.38 cave 4c. CE ● ●
Shorchuk F4 5-6c. CE ● ●
Toqquz Sarai, A 4-5c. CE ● ● ● ------- ●
Bezeklik Temple 9 5-6c. CE ● ● ------- ● ------- ● ●

Gandharan Buddhist Monasteries in N. India/S. Pakistan

Butkara, GB 2c. CE ● ● ------- ●
Mohra, Taxila 2c. CE ● === ======== ======== ======== ===● ● ● ● ------- ●
Kalawan, A5 2c. CE ● ● ------- ------- ------- ●
Dharmarajika, H 2c. CE ● ● ------- ●
Ellora n.10 cave 6-7c. CE ● ● ● ● ------- ● ------- ●
Hindu temples in India
Temple 17, Sanchi 5-6c. CE ● ● ● ------- ------- ●
Ladh Khan 5c. CE ● ● ● ------- ------- ●

I. SQUARE SHRINE SURROUNDED BY CIRCUMAMBULATION i. ANTEROOMS vii. COLONNADE

PASSAGES / OUTER ENCLOSURE WALLS ii. DISTYLE IN ANTIS viii. ENCLOSED COURTYARD (front/center)
II. SQUARE SHRINE WITH A CENTRAL ALTAR SURROUNDED BY iii. HILANI(small rooms on both sides) ----- combination of each element (●)
CIRCUMAMBULATION PASSAGES/OUTER ENCLOSURE WALLS iv. I or L-SHAPED CORRIDOR ===== combination of each plan type (●)
III. SINGLE-CELLED SQUARE SHRINE WITH A CENTRAL ALTAR v. ELONGATED HALL grey: major elements that consist of temples
IV. SINGLE-CELLED SQUARE SHINE vi. IWAN
V. FOUR-COLUMNED SQUARE SHRINE
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