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Chapter 4
BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE -
A GENERAL OUTLINE

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M the 0L>udd/i^ym mowed(/imug/iout S’Ida

— idfiowu P/a/iedcAed/cey
 Chapter 4

BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE - A GENERAL OUTLINE

4.1. The Stupa

The stupa is infact a mound. It is a monument, generally raised on

the site of the funeral pyre or the chitT Hence, it is known as a chaitya.

Generally stupas were raised, where the mortal remains of a great being were

either cremated or buried. A wooden post was generally associated with the

stupas. These posts are known as Chaitya-yupas. Such of the Chaitya-yupas

are known from the burial mounds of Laurya Nandangarh.

The Atharvaveda (10:7:7), the Aeitareya Brahmana (7:3) and the

Asvalayana Grihya Sutra refer to a range of architectural forms, which included

houses, vedic alters, monumental stones, memorial coloumns, different types

of smasanas and sacrificial pillars (Yupas). It was after the Mahaparinirvana

of Taihagata that the stupa architecture was introduced, enlarged and decorated

at a later time. It is possible that the stupa architecture had its evolution out of

the samadhi referred to in the Vedic literature (Pant, Sushila, 2004: p.114).

/ ^
The Satapada Brahmana suggests that square smasanas were meant

for Gods and circular ones for Asuras. There was a tradition that at the four

comers of the smasana certain pegs were fixed according to the Aranyaparva

of the Mahabharata. These pegs in course of time have taken the form of

pillars in imitation of the Smasana-yupas.

 This practice in course of time was modified as erecting a pillar or a

wooden post indicating the place of the burial of a Mahapurusha (Pant, Sushila,

1976: p. 17). In other sectarian classes, the wooden post was intended for

tying the sacrificial animal. We also come across the ancestor worship in the

form of a Bull-pillar. Yupas were also associated with sacrifices symbolizing

the manifest Cosmos and the unmanifest Divine (Mukharjee, Radha Kamal,

1964: p. 47).

Probably the sacrificial posts of the vedic times, which represented

Prajapati Brahma were later on got associated with Smasana-yupa or Chaitya-

yupas. It is known from the folklore that the standing wooden or stone pillars

associated with village deities had a magico religious purpose. A number of

inscriptions speak of details regarding the installation of a pillar or yupa

associated with events like victory, sacrifice, donation, charity etc. Indian art

is full of examples where in Chakra-stambha, Vriksha-stambha, Garuda-

stambha etc., were planted close to religious structures. The instance of the

Garuda-pillar by Heleodorous at Vidisha is one such example.

It is also held that a yupa represents a link between the Earth and the

Heaven (Pant, Sushila, 2004: p!19, fn. 24)

Alice Boner (1986) considers a yupa as a solar symbol that stands for

the religiomystic phenomena. When associated with Prajapati and Vishnu

the yupa symbolizes the creative and protective aspects of human nature. The

yupa, thus symbolizes also purusha representing the inseparable relation

between spiritual and material world (Pant, Sushila, 2004: p.118).

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 Initially mounds of Earth are taken to form the core of the stupa. In

due course of time, the earthen mound is encased in bricks. The brick encasing

is some times superimposed by a cover of stones. The process of encasing the

stupa with dressed stones is known as Sila-achhadana. The stone cover thus

prepared is known as Sila-kanchuka. At Barhut, the stupa was covered with

bricks and these bricks were plastered. Similar is the case with the Dharmarajika

and other stupas of Saranath. The stupa at Sanchi was encased in dressed

stone followed by a thick coating of plaster.

The stupa at Amaravatf was initially encased in bricks and later on

covered by carved limestone slabs. The railing and the gateways were built

around the principal structure in due course of time as in the case of Sanchi

and Amaravatf Among these stupas, there is a gradual evolution from the

simplest form to the most complicated one.

In the ground plan spoked stupas, stupas with two concentric circles

of walls separated by brick built spokes have comeup. Usually, the empty

spaces were filled with earth. However, there are solid stupas built totally of

bricks as in the case of Bhattiprolu. In the history of Indian art great significance

is attached to the stupa both in the religious and the architectural aspects.

4.2. Traditions and Symbolism

The monumental stupa has its origin in the religious spirit of the

Buddhists primarily. Many epigraphs are known, which speak of the erection

and worship of stupa by the devotees of the Buddha.

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 It appears that the great being, Buddha himself has given consent to

his devotee Ananda, to worship him in the form of a stupa.

“How should we honour the Body of the Tathagata?” asked Ananda.

“O! Ananda, you need not engage yourself in worshipping the body of the

Tathagata. But you dedicate yourself to the right meaning expounded by the

Tathagata as so many Kshatriyas, Brahmanas and house holders are doing”.

But Ananda seems to have been not satisfied with the answer and

again put the same question. Then Buddha was much pleased and replied.

“As they do for the remains of a Chakravartin king, so Ananda

they should do for the remains of the Tathagata. As the four
cross-roads, similar to the stupa they raise for the Chakravartin,
should they raise a stupa for the Tathagata” (Davids,T.W.R.,
trans,1969a: p. 91).

Thus the stupa has come to become the commemorative symbol for

Buddha, with the personal consent of the Tathagata Himself.

The stupa adopted in the Buddhist monuments must have had a much

earlier origin in the megalithic burials of Iron Age in India. It is not surprising

that at places like AmaravatTbelow the earliest phase of the Mahastupa. Iron

Age levels were encounted during the excavations (Sarkar, H and Nainar, S.

R, 1992: p. 26).

Even in the Rigveda the flaming pile of Agni is considered as a stupa.

Further, a full grown tree also looks like a stupa (Vriksha-chaifya). It is justified

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that Buddha, the enlightened one was worshipped in the form or symbol of a

stupa. It is said that the sacred ashes of the Buddha were divided into eight

parts and a stupa was erected on each part in the fond memory and respect to

the enlightened one.

On the death of the great being Mahakasyapa, the celebrated disciple

of Buddha, attended to the last rites. The relics of the Body were taken to

Kusfnagara by the Mallas for enshrining them in stupas. There was however,

a dispute for the share of the relics. Ajatasatru of Rajagriha, the Lichchavis of

VaisalF, the Bulis of Alakappa, the Sakyas of Kapilavastu, the Koliyas of

Ramagrama, the Mallas of Pava, and a Brahmin presented their claim for the

relics, from the Mallas of Kusfnagara. With a view to avoiding the dispute,

Drona, a brahmana appealed to them for peace and divided the relics into

eight shares. On these portions of the eight shares stupas were erected in due

course of time. Emperor Asoka opened all the stupas excepting the one at

Ramagrama and further divided the relics and caused the construction of a

number of stupas (Patil, D.R.,1981: pp. 7-8).

According to the Mahaparinibbana Sutta, Lord Buddha himself has

indicated to Ananda the names of four places, which are closely associated

with his life.

It is ordained by Buddha that a believer should visit these four places

with reverence. The four places included Lumbini in the Nepali tarai, where

Buddha was born; Bodhgaya near Gaya in south Bihar where Buddha
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obtained his Enlightenment; Saranath near Varanasi, where the Buddha turned

the wheel of Dharma and finally Kusihagara, in Utter Pradesh where Buddha

attained his Parinirvana. In addition to the above four places of significance,

the Buddhist tradition identified four more places which are closely associated

with the life of Buddha as important places of Buddhist pilgrimage. These

included Sravastf, where the Buddha performed the great miracle, Rajagriha,

where he tamed a mad elephant, VaisalC where a monkey offered honey to

Buddha and Sankasya, where the Buddha descended from Heaven. SravastT

is also important on account of the Jetavana uihara where Anadhapindika

dedicated Jetavana which was purchased with a layer of Gold pieces. Also

the Jetavana consisted of Gandhakutf and Kausambakutf in addition to

Karerakutf associated with the stay of Buddha at that place. Prasenajit was

converted to Buddhism at Jetavana. A panel representing Jetavana scene is

available at Amaravaifon a stele (Venkataramayya, M.,1981: p. 3)

According to Stella Kramrisch (1976: R148, Fn.50), chaitya is a

derivative of citi and in the Buddhist context it refers to a man made form of

a stupa. It is also the resting place or the abode of divinity. A chaitya can also

be called as B uddha-ayatanam. Stella Kramrisch is of the opinion that the

shape of the stupa recalls the pile of the altar which evokes that of the World

Egg (1987: p. 22)

The learned people of the ages considered the stupa as a metaphysical

symbol, while for the common people it is the visible symbol of great being.

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 The spherical or cylindrical drum crowned by Harmika is considered to be the

true representation of the Mahapurusha.

The Buddhists have selected the wheel and the stupa as the symbols

for the great being as well as for the Cosmos. The wheel becomes the symbol

of Dharma, which in turn is the foundation and the support for the Cosmos.

While erecting the stupas the Buddhists placed emphasis an round or globular

shape. While choosing the round shape the Buddhists were perhaps actuated

by a desire to symbolize the Sun, the radiating sources of all energy. A great

Being like the Budha, radiates like the Sun, the same Cosmic energy.

Any stupa not only houses the relics of Buddha or a Mahapurusha

but by itself represents symbolically the geometric image of the Buddhist

Cosmology (Kameswara Rao, N., 1995: p. 866).

It is further stated that the stupas with the four entrances are oriented

as precisely as possible towards the four cardinal points. ‘The measurements

are based on the elements derived from the Solar symbolism that set the circle

of railing in motion as the course of the Sun or the infinite Cosmos’ (Volwashen,

A.,1969).

While studying the astronomical aspects of the Mahastupa at Sanchi

it has been noted that the present orientation of the eastern gate and the

western gate is deliberately done to align towards the moon rise and the

sunset on the Buddhapurnima day, which is highly auspicious to the Buddhists

(Kameswara Rao, N., 1995: p. 868).

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4.3. General Characteristics of a Stupa

Stupas are usually built on a foundation laid with blocks of stone or

bricks. If it is stone built it is called the Pashana-kuttima. On this foundation

a Hemispherical dome, which is known as the'anda' of the stupa, was raised.

The earlier stupas had a diameter than those of the later period. The Drum of

the earlier stupas is described as the bell shape or Ghantakara. In later years,

the drum of the stupa became more elongated and elevated. Almost it took

the form of a cylindrical vessel. It is described as a giant water bubble (probably

indicating the transient nature of life) (PLATE -1).

On the truncated top of the hemisphere a harmika is placed,

surrounded by a railing. At the centre of the harmika, a post was fixed and

surmounted by parasols. In some cases we find two posts with parasols.

The stupa is enclosed by a vedika. At Barhut, Sanchi and Amaravatf

the vedika consisted of upright pillars with three transverse bars known as the

suchi. The railing is provided with four gateways.

A path of circumambulation runs round the stupa at the ground level

within the railing. About the middle of the dome another Pradakshinapatha is

provided in the case of large stupas.

The ground railings at Barhut and Sanchi are decorated with sculptured

panels. At Amaravatf and Nagarjunakonda the stupa itself is encased in

limestone panels of sculptures.

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 In the vicinity of the Mahachaityas, votive stupas are also erected which

were dedicated by lay-worshippers. In the vicinity of rock-cut caves of the

Buddhists, the votive stupas are carved out of the living rock as at Sankaram.

Infront of the gateways of the Mahastupa usually long columns of stone are

erected which are crowned by a Dharmachakra or such other motives. At

Sanchi and Saranath, the crowning members are carved as the lion capitals.

4.4. The Chaitya-halls and Chaitya-grihas

The word chaitya and its significance has already been discussed in

the preceding pages. In any place of worship of the Buddhist creed the presence

of stupa as the centre of dedication has become an essential feature. The

chapels or temples that housed the stupes have come to become the Chaitya-

grihas and Chaitya-halls. Normally, Chaitya-grihas do not contain cells for the

residence of the monks. However, an exemption to this can be seen at locations

like cave no.8 of Shelarwad, 3 km south-west of Talegaon on the Poona-

Bombay line. These particular class of temples have been referred to as

Chettyaghara cum Lena (Nagaraju.S., 1981: p. 295, fig. 59, no.8)

At Nagarjunakonda, the monastic units at site no. 2-N, XII site no.

23- N, XI, site no. 38-N, III, we find structural stupes associated with the vihara

complexes (Soundara Rajan, K.V., 2006: MASI no-75, Vol.II, p.161 fig-38,

p.179 fig- 50, p.187 fig- 54)

The earliest form of such a chaitya contains an oblong room. Its length

is almost double the width. The chaitya is entered from one end and at the

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other end a small stupa is situated. The stupa is generally surmounted by a

harmika and chhatra. These early chaityas are apsidal in plan. The exemption

to this is cave no.9 at Ajanta, which is square ended (Nagaraju, S., 1981: fig-

17). A Pradakshinapatha is left around the stupa for circumambulation.

The square ended chaitya halls are also referred to as quadrilateral

chapels. The later Buddhist temples at Buddhagaya (Bodhgaya), Nalanda,

Ellora, Ajanta, Kuda, Shelarwadi, Karad etc., consist of a square or oblong

ground plan (Sarkar, H., 1993: pp. 42-44, fig-14).

As the Chaitya-griha underwent enlargement for accommodating more

and more devotees, there arose a need for admitting sufficient light for the

interior of the cave. Thus a chaitya window pierced in the facade has come

into existence. In due course of time the chaitya window has become an

ornament to the facade, sometimes surmounted by a rail pattern. At

Nagatjunakonda, though a number of vihara complexes have come to light,

only the ground plans are available and the superstructures are lost. Therefore,

it is hard to decide whether in the structural examples the super structure is

flat or domical.

4.5. The Vihara

Viharas are constructed for the residence of the monks. In the early

examples they contained only one or more cells with a varandah in the front.

The cells so constructed were also small. In the later examples some of the

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cells contained stone benches or beds for the monks. In the brick built examples

of Nagarjunakonda also we find such provision for beds as at the Bahusruifya

monastery.

All the viharas in the Rock-cut examples had provision for water in

the form of cisterns cut into rock. In the case of structural examples however,

we have brick built troughs and probably portable water pots.

In the early viharas, as they were small in their size there were no

pillars, but in the later examples pillars are introduced to support the roof as

the size of the vihara became large. These pillars separate the central square

area from the side aisles. One such arrangement can be seen in cave no. 11 at

Ajanta. Pillared halls surrounded by cells, in structural examples have a pattern

similar to the one at MahTsasaka vihara of Nagarjunakonda (Soundara Rajan,

K.V., 2006: MASI no-75, p.168 fig-43). Cave no.6 of Ajanta is a monastery

with two-storeys. Similar examples can also be seen at Ellora (Brown, Percy,

1956: p. 59). To what extent the vihara complexes of structural nature contained

top floors is hard to determine as superstructures in all these cases have

collapsed with the passage of time.

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