Guía Práctica Inglés Técnico 2017 B

Guía práctica de Inglés Técnico / Prof.
Sheila Navas
UNIVERSIDAD DE ORIENTE
NÚCLEO BOLÍVAR
ESCUELA DE CIENCIAS DE LA TIERRA
DEPARTAMENTO DE GEOLOGÍA
Guía
Práctica
Inglés Técnico
Compiled by:
Dra. Sheila Navas
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Guía práctica de Inglés Técnico / Prof. Sheila Navas
Ejercicios prácticos
1.- Extrae del siguiente párrafo una lista de nombres y di a qué clase cada uno de ellos pertenece
A main determining factor in the formation of minerals in a rock mass is the chemical composition of the mass,
for a certain mineral can be formed only when the necessary elements are present in the rock. Calcite is most
common in limestones, as these consist essentially of carbonate of lime; quartz in sandstones and in certain
igneous rocks which contain a high percentage of silica. Other factors are of equal importance in determining the
natural association or paragenesis of rock-making minerals, principally the mode of origin of the rock and the
stages through which it has passed in attaining its present condition. Two rock masses may have very much the
same bulk composition and yet consist of entirely different assemblages of minerals. The tendency is always for
those compounds to be formed which are stable under the conditions under which the rock mass originated. A
granite arises by the consolidation of a molten magma (a fused rock mass) at high temperatures and great
pressures and its component minerals are such as are formed in such circumstances.
NOMBRE CLASE
2.- Traduce el párrafo anterior
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1.- Subraya los pronombres presentes en el siguiente párrafo
The Earth's story, as scientists now tell it, begins back when the sun was in its infancy. Recycled star dust and
gas spun around the sun in the form of a flattened disk. After perhaps 10,000 years of debris randomly bumping
into one another and sticking, some of the dust grains managed to grow into strong and solid objects. By means
of a mysterious process (which is still poorly understood), the objects eventually glommed together to form
"planetesimals" of about 100 meters in size -- at which point their gravitational force began pulling them into
each other. They collided. While some fragmented, the big ones became bigger, using their expanded
gravitational pull to capture nearby space stuff. This process -- known as collisional accumulation -- went on for
a span of about 100 million years, until the Earth was fully formed (although far different from the planet we call
home today).
1.- Subraya los adjetivos presentes en el siguiente párrafo
The Earth's internal structure influences plate tectonics. The upper part of the mantle is cooler and more rigid
than the deep mantle; in many ways, it behaves like the overlying crust. Together they form a rigid layer of rock
called the lithosphere (from lithos, Greek for stone). The lithosphere tends to be thinnest under the oceans and
in volcanically active continental areas, such as the Western United States. Averaging at least 80 km in thickness
over much of the Earth, the lithosphere has been broken up into the moving plates that contain the world's
continents and oceans. Scientists believe that below the lithosphere is a relatively narrow, mobile zone in the
mantle called the asthenosphere (from asthenes, Greek for weak). This zone is composed of hot, semi-solid
material, which can soften and flow after being subjected to high temperature.
2.- Traduce las siguientes oraciones tomando en consideración el orden real de los adjetivos en una serie
a.- Slow convective movements within the solid interior break the cooler, brittle, outer shell of the Earth into
large segments, or plates, which are in constant motion relative to each other.
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b.- Molten rock material that reaches the Earth´ s surface through volcanic vents and fissures: Lava.
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c.- The sediment accumulation rates in the oceans vary depending on sediment type and region.
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d.- . Each mineral has its peculiar atomic structure, which under ideal conditions is expressed in crystal form but
when a substance crystallizes in bulk, crowding of grains growing from neighboring centers prevents formation
of recognizable crystals
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1.- Subraya los adverbios presentes en el siguiente párrafo
Pick up any rock at the Earth´ s surface and look at it closely more than likely you will find that it is composed
of a number of different mineral grains that differ in color, luster, grains size, grains shape, and so on. Because
the mineral grains in most rocks are relatively tiny, many of the properties of the various minerals are hard to
assess. For example, it is difficult to determine how many cleavages there are and at what angles they meet, when
the crystal in question is no larger than a grain of rice. In time, however, if you are persistent you will be able to
identify nearly all of the minerals in any common rock. And when that time comes, you will realize that all
common rocks are almost entirely composed of the relatively few minerals just described. You will also become
aware that rocks differ not only in the number and proportions of their constituent minerals but also in texture,
which pertains to grain size, both absolute and relative, and how the grains fit together.
2.- Haz una lista de los adverbios presentes en el siguiente párrafo y clasifícalos
Sedimentary rocks occur in layers, which may be known as beds. When a layer of rock allows water to move
through it easily, it is known as an aquifer. Aquifers are very important, since they are the source for much of the
world's fresh water supply, that is used for drinking and irrigation. Water wells may be drilled into a water aquifer
(water-bearing rock). For this reason, it is very important that areas that are used to collect water for an aquifer
be left in their natural state, or the aquifer can go dry. For example, if construction is allowed on a large scale,
and areas where water can seep into the ground are covered by structures such as parking lots or buildings, there
may not be enough surface area left to replenish the aquifer with water. Also, if chemicals are dumped into an
aquifer's recharge zone, they may end up in a water supply. Often, after a heavy rain, you can drive by large road
cuts that are through sedimentary rocks and see water seeping out of the rocks. These rocks are aquifers.
Metamorphic and igneous rocks lack true layering; however, metamorphic rocks sometimes have a layered look
to them that is known as foliation. Foliation is actually a texture in the metamorphic rock, not true layering.
ADVERBIO CLASE
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3.- Traduce las siguientes oraciones tomando en cuenta el orden real de los adverbios en una serie
a.- Geology is generally defined as the study of the solid rock Earth.
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b.- Very large movements reaching several feet can occur where large volumes of water, oil, or gas are removed
from underground.
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c.- The terms solid and rigid here relate to the elastic behavior under stresses of limited duration.
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d.- Fossils can be an important tool in dating a rock formation, since many organisms lived for a relatively
specific geological time frame.
1.- Subraya los verbos presentes en los siguientes párrafos
Sedimentary rocks are formed from weathered and eroded particles of other rocks that become cemented
together. Sedimentary rocks are formed at the surface of the Earth, either in water or on land. They are layered
accumulations of sediments-fragments of rocks, minerals, or animal or plant material. Temperatures and
pressures are low at the Earth's surface, and sedimentary rocks show this fact by their appearance and the minerals
they contain. Most sedimentary rocks become cemented together by minerals and chemicals or are held together
by electrical attraction; some, however, remain loose and unconsolidated. The layers are normally parallel or
nearly parallel to the Earth's surface; if they are at high angles to the surface or are twisted or broken, some kind
of Earth movement has occurred since the rock was formed.
Sedimentary rocks are forming around us all the time. Sand and gravel on beaches or in river bars look like the
sandstone and conglomerate they will become. Compacted and dried mud flats harden into shale. Scuba divers
who have seen mud and shells settling on the floors of lagoons find it easy to understand how sedimentary rocks
form. For example, a large exposure of quartz may eventually erode and get carried by rivers into the ocean, then
get redistributed along the shoreline as beach sand. Through time, the shoreline changes, and the original beach
may be buried by other material. The beach sand becomes compacted. Water percolating through the rock carries
minerals with it that may be deposited between the grains of sand, and act as 'glue' to hold the rock together.
Sedimentary rocks are formed in layers, known as beds. They are typically deposited in flat layers, with one bed
being deposited on top of another as time progresses.
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2.- Traduce las siguientes oraciones

a.- A mineral is something that occurs naturally, and is formed through inorganic (non-living) processes.
b.- A mineral has a definite atomic structure and composition- minerals are made up on one or more elements.
c.- Some minerals are composed of only one element, such as gold or sulfur, but most are composed of two or
more elements, such as Silicon and Oxygen to compose quartz.
d.- The atoms in a mineral are arranged in a definite pattern, and when the mineral has the room and correct
conditions to grow, it will have a distinct crystal structure.
e.- Some minerals can even be broken up, and the pieces will display the proper crystal structure- for example, a
big piece of Galena can be broken up into many smaller pieces, and most will display a beautiful cubic structure.
3.- Subraya los verbos auxiliares y / o modales presentes en el siguiente párrafo

The sun and its system of circling planets, including the earth, are believed to have formed from a single rotating
cloud of gas and dust, starting nearly 5 billion years ago. Most of the mass coalesced at the center of the cloud,
or nebula, to form what would eventually become the sun. Like the rest of the universe, the early sun consisted
mostly of hydrogen, the principal product of the “big bang”. The inner parts of this enormous ball of gas were so
compressed that they became hot and dense enough to initiate nuclear reactions. The ball of gas became a star,
radiating light and other forms of energy. Our sun is now a middle aged star, having consumed about half of its
nuclear fuel over the past 4.5 to 5 billion years. It should continue to shine for about 5 billion years more before
it has used up so much of its fuel that it collapsed to a cold dwarf and turns off the earth´s solar energy. While
the proto-sun developed, the remaining matter settled into a rotating disk around it. Dust began to condense from
the gas, and the dust gradually formed planets that continued to circle the sun as they formed. Modern methods
of dating rock material have shown the oldest fragments of meteorites and moon rocks to be close to 4.6 billion
years old. Formation of the solar system is thus believed to have been substantially complete more than 4.5 billion
years ago.
1.- Subraya las conjunciones presentes en los siguientes párrafos

One widely recognized soil type is sufficiently distinctive and important, especially to many less-developed
nations, to justify special consideration. This is lateritic soil. A laterite may be regarded as an extreme kind of
pedalfer. Lateritic soils develop in tropical climates with high temperatures and heavy rainfall, and so they are
extensively leached. Even quartz may have been dissolved out of the soil under these conditions. Lateritic soil
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often contains very little besides insoluble aluminum and iron oxides compounds. Very aluminous laterite is
termed bauxite and is the major ore of aluminum. Soils of lush tropical rain forests are commonly lateritic, which
seems to suggest that lateritic soils have great potential as farmland. Surprisingly, however, the opposite is true,
for two reasons.
The highly leached character of lateritic soils is one reason. Even where the vegetation is dense, the soils itself
has few soluble nutrients left in it. The forest holds a huge reserve of nutrients, but there is no corresponding
reserve in the soil. Further growth is supported by the decay of earlier vegetation. As one plant dies and
decomposes, the nutrients it contained are quickly either taken up by other plants or leached away. If the rain
forest is cleared to plants crops, most of the nutrients are cleared away with it, leaving little in the soil to nourish
the crops. Many natives of tropical climates practice a “slash-and-burn” agriculture, cutting and burning the
jungle to clear the land. Some of the nutrients in the burned vegetation do settle into the topsoil temporarily, but
relentless leaching by the warm rains makes the soil nutrients-poor and infertile within a few growing seasons.
1.- Lee el siguiente párrafo y rodea las preposiciones presentes en él
The size of the Earth -- about 12,750 kilometers (km) in diameter-was known by the ancient Greeks, but it was
not until the turn of the 20th century that scientists determined that our planet is made up of three main layers:
crust, mantle, and core. This layered structure can be compared to that of a boiled egg. The crust, the outermost
layer, is rigid and very thin compared with the other two. Beneath the oceans, the crust varies little in thickness,
generally extending only to about 5 km. The thickness of the crust beneath continents is much more variable but
averages about 30 km; under large mountain ranges, such as the Alps or the Sierra Nevada, however, the base of
the crust can be as deep as 100 km.
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1.- GEOLOGY
Geology is the study of the earth and the processes that shape it. Physical geology, in particular, is Concerned
with the materials and physical features of the earth, changes in those features, and the processes that bring the
changes about. Intellectual curiosity about the way the earth works is one reason for the study of geology.
GEOLOGY AS A DISCIPLINE
In some sense, geology is a particularly broad-based discipline, for it draws on many other sciences. Knowledge
of physics contributes to an understanding of rock structures and deformation, and supplies tools with which to
investigate the earth´s deep interior indirectly. The chemistry of geologic materials provides clues to their origins
and history. Modern biological principles are important in studying ancient life forms. Mathematics provides a
quantitative framework within which geologic processes can be described and analyzed. Physical geographers
study the earth´s surface features much as some geologists do. What makes geology a distinctive discipline is, in
part, that it focuses all these approaches, and others, on the study of the earth.
THE EARTH WITHIN THE UNIVERSE

In recent decades, scientists have been able to construct a picture of the origins of the solar system and of the
universe itself. From observations that the stars are all moving apart from each other came the recognition of an
expanding universe. Clearly, that expansion cannot have been going on forever: if one extrapolates the stars
movements backward, a point is reached at which all matter was apparently together in one place.
Most astronomers now accept a cataclysmic explosion, or “big bang”, as the origin of the modern universe. At
that time, enormous quantities of matter were synthesized and flung violently apart across an ever-larger volume
of space. The time of the so called big bang can be estimated in several ways. Perhaps the most direct is the back
calculation of the universe´s expansion to its apparent beginning by extrapolating the present motions of the stars
backward in time until they converge. Various age estimates of the modern universe overlap in the range of 15
to 20 billion years.
Responde las siguientes preguntas:
1.- What Does Geology deal with?
2.- Geology is a particularly broad-based discipline, what are the most useful for it?
3.- How are scientists constructing the picture of the origins of the solar system and the universe?
4.- What does the term Big Bang refer?
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2.- THE SOLAR SYSTEM

The sun and its system of circling planets, including the earth, are believed to have formed from a single rotating
cloud of gas and dust, starting nearly 5 billion years ago. Most of the mass coalesced at the center of the cloud,
or nebula, to form what would eventually become the sun. Like the rest of the universe, the early sun consisted
mostly of hydrogen, the principal product of the “big bang”. The inner parts of this enormous ball of gas were so
compressed that they became hot and dense enough to initiate nuclear reactions. The ball of gas became a star,
radiating light and other forms of energy.
Our sun is now a middle aged star, having consumed about half of its nuclear fuel over the past 4.5 to 5 billion
years. It should continue to shine for about 5 billion years more before it has used up so much of its fuel that it
collapsed to a cold dwarf and turns off the earth´s solar energy. While the proto-sun developed, the remaining
matter settled into a rotating disk around it. Dust began to condense from the gas, and the dust gradually formed
planets that continued to circle the sun as they formed. Modern methods of dating rock material have shown the
oldest fragments of meteorites and moon rocks to be close to 4.6 billion years old. Formation of the solar system
is thus believed to have been substantially complete more than 4.5 billion years ago.
Topic:____________________________________________________________________________
Principal idea:
Secondary ideas:
Graphic organizer.
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3.- THE PLANETS

The composition of each planet depended strongly on how near it was to the hot young sun. Very close to the
sun, temperatures were so high that, at first, nothing solid could exist at all. As cooling progressed, the solids that
condensed nearest the sun contained mainly high temperature materials: metallic iron and a few others minerals
with very high melting temperatures. The planets nearest to the sun, then, consist mostly of these materials.
Somewhat farther out, where temperatures were lower, the developing planets incorporated much larger amounts
of lower temperature materials, including some that contain water locked within their crystal structures. (This
eventually made it possible for the earth to have liquid water at its surface). Still farther from the sun,
temperatures were so low that nearly all of the materials in the original gas cloud condensed even materials like
methane and ammonia, which are gases at normal earth surface temperatures and pressures. Each planet, then,
formed from an accumulation of bits of these condensed materials drawn together by gravity. Uncondensed gases
were swept out of the interplanetary spaces by streams of matter and energy radiating from the young sun.
These solar system forming processes led to a series of planets with a variety of compositions, most quite different
from that of earth. This is something to keep in mind when considering the possibility of someday mining other
planets for needed minerals. Both the basic chemistry of these other bodies and the kinds of ore-forming or other
resource-forming processes that might occur on them would differ considerably from those on earth and might
not lead to products we would find useful. In addition, principal current energy sources required living organisms
to form, and so far, no life has been found on other planets or moons.
THE ATMOSPHERE AND OCEANS
The heating and subsequent differentiation of the early earth led to another important result: formation of the
atmosphere and oceans. Many minerals that had contained water or gases locked in their crystals released them
during the heating and melting. The early earth was much hotter than at present and subject to more extensive
volcanic activity, with water among the gases thus released. As the earth´s surface cooled, the water could
condense to form the oceans. Without this abundant surface water, which in the solar system is unique to earth,
most life as we know it could not exist.
1.- What Does the composition of each planet depend on?
2.- How is each planet formed?
3.- What did the solar system forming processes lead?
4.- Compare the early Earth with the present Earth, talk about surface and climate?
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4.- INSIDE THE EARTH

The size of the Earth -- about 12,750 kilometers (km) in diameter-was known by the ancient Greeks, but it was
not until the turn of the 20th century that scientists determined that our planet is made up of three main layers:
crust, mantle, and core. This layered structure can be compared to that of a boiled egg. The crust, the outermost
layer, is rigid and very thin compared with the other two. Beneath the oceans, the crust varies little in thickness,
generally extending only to about 5 km. The thickness of the crust beneath continents is much more variable but
averages about 30 km; under large mountain ranges, such as the Alps or the Sierra Nevada, however, the base of
the crust can be as deep as 100 km. Like the shell of an egg, the Earth's crust is brittle and can break.
Below the crust is the mantle, a dense, hot layer of semi-solid rock approximately 2,900 km thick. The mantle,
which contains more iron, magnesium, and calcium than the crust, is hotter and denser because temperature and
pressure inside the Earth increase with depth. As a comparison, the mantle might be thought of as the white of a
boiled egg. At the center of the Earth lies the core, which is nearly twice as dense as the mantle because its
composition is metallic (iron-nickel alloy) rather than stony. Unlike the yolk of an egg, however, the Earth's core
is actually made up of two distinct parts: a 2,200 km-thick liquid outer core and a 1,250 km-thick solid inner
core. As the Earth rotates, the liquid outer core spins, creating the Earth's magnetic field.
Not surprisingly, the Earth's internal structure influences plate tectonics. The upper part of the mantle is cooler
and more rigid than the deep mantle; in many ways, it behaves like the overlying crust. Together they form a
rigid layer of rock called the lithosphere. The lithosphere tends to be thinnest under the oceans and in volcanically
active continental areas, such as the Western United States. Averaging at least 80 km in thickness over much of
the Earth, the lithosphere has been broken up into the moving plates that contain the world's continents and
oceans.
Scientists believe that below the lithosphere is a relatively narrow, mobile zone in the mantle called the
asthenosphere. This zone is composed of hot, semi-solid material, which can soften and flow after being
subjected to high temperature and pressure over geologic time. The rigid lithosphere is thought to "float" or move
about on the slowly flowing asthenosphere.
1.- What is the size of the Earth?
2.- Describe the Earth`s crust
3.- Describe the Earth`s core and the mantle
4.- How does the Earth`s internal structure influence Plate Tectonics?
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5.- TECTONIC PLATES

In geologic terms, a plate is a large, rigid slab of solid rock. The word tectonics comes from the Greek root "to
build." Putting these two words together, we get the term plate tectonics, which refers to how the Earth's surface
is built of plates. The theory of tectonic plates states that the Earth's outermost layer is fragmented into a dozen
or more large and small plates that are moving relative to one another as they ride atop hotter, more mobile
material. Before the advent of plate tectonics, however, some people already believed that the present-day
continents were the fragmented pieces of preexisting larger landmasses ("supercontinents"). According to the
continental drift theory, the supercontinent Pangaea began to break up about 225-200 million years ago,
eventually fragmenting into the continents as we know them today.
Plate tectonics is a relatively new scientific concept, introduced some 30 years ago. The theory has unified the
study of the Earth by drawing together many branches of the earth sciences, from paleontology (the study of
fossils) to seismology (the study of earthquakes). It has provided explanations to questions that scientists had
speculated upon for centuries -- such as why earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur in very specific areas
around the world, and how and why great mountain ranges like the Alps and Himalayas formed.
THE MODERN DYNAMIC EARTH
Although it has been cooling for billions of years, the earth still retains enough internal heat to drive large-scale
mountain-building processes, to cause volcanic eruptions, to make continents mobile, and indirectly to trigger
earthquakes. At the same time, the continual supply of solar energy to the earth´s surface drives many of the
surface processes: water is evaporated from the oceans to descend again as rain and snow to feed the rivers and
glaciers that sculpture the surface; differential heating of the surface leads to formation of warmer and colder air
masses above it, which, in turn, produces atmospheric instability and wind.
DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM IN GEOLOGIC PROCESSES
Natural systems tend toward a balance or equilibrium among opposing forces. As new dissolved minerals are
washed into the sea by rivers, sediments are deposited in the ocean basins, removing dissolved chemicals from
solution. Internal forces push up a mountain; gravity, wind, water, and ice collectively act to tear it down again.
When one factor changes, other compensating changes occur in response. If the disruption of a system is
relatively small and temporary, the system may in time return to its original condition, and evidence of the
disturbance is erased. A coastal storm may wash away beach vegetation and destroy colonies of marine organisms
living in a tidal flat, but when the storm has passed, new organisms start to move back into the area, new grasses
begin to establish roots in the dunes. The violent eruption of a volcano like Krakatoa or Mount St. Helens may
spew ash high into the atmosphere, partially blocking sunlight and causing the earth to cool, but within a few
years, the ash settles back to the ground and normal temperatures are restored.
1.- What Does the Tectonics Plate Theory state?
2.- What may happen in case of Earth retains internal heat?
3.- What may happen if the disruption of a system is merely small and temporary?
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6.- THE MAJOR ROCK TYPES

IGNEOUS ROCKS
Igneous rocks have a most spectacular origin, for the very name means 'fire formed'. When a volcano erupts, it
forms igneous rocks. However, igneous rocks are also formed from molten material (magma) deep in the earth
that cools (not all igneous rocks are 'volcanic' in origin). Igneous rocks are described on two axies: 1) Rocks that
are quartz rich (felsic) to magnesium rich (mafic) and 2) fast cooling (small crystals) to slow cooling (large
crystals). When a magma cools rapidly, mineral crystals do not have time to grow very large. When a magma
cools slowly crystals grow to several millimeters or more in size. Granite and basalt are opposites on these axies
for the description of igneous rocks - granite is a slow cooled quartz rich rock, basalt a rapidly cooled mafic rock.
Basalt is the stuff of the ocean floor. Basalts are extrusive igneous rocks rich in minerals containing magnesium
and other similar metallic atoms. Most of these minerals have a dark color. Basalts are thus dark in color. Basalt
cools rapidly as volcanic eruptions dump magma out into the air, water or inject it in little intrusions into cold
rocks, crystals never have chance to grow large. A magma with at basaltic composition that cooled slowly and
had a chance to grow large mineral crystals would form an intrusive igneous rock that we would call a gabbro.
Granite, on the other hand, is the stuff of continents. At subduction zones, basalt and other rocks are recycled
and are fractionated, producing new magmas that concentrating the felsic minerals - quartz and k-feldspar. These
magmas cool to produce granitic igneous rocks. Quartz and feldspar are light in color. Since they make up the
bulk of a granite, granites are light colored. Granite cools slowly in large bodies of magma that are trapped
underground, thus large crystals of quartz, feldspar, mica, and hornblende have a chance to grow. The slower the
cooling, the larger the mineral grains grow.
A granitic composition magma that was erupted at the earth's surface and cooled rapidly would not grow large
crystals, and would form an extrusive igneous rock that we would call a rhyolite. A similar magma that cooled
very rapidly would form volcanic glass - obsidian.
Examples of igneous rocks are gabbro, diorite, rhyolite, pumice, obsidian, granite, and andesite. Granite for
example, can be fine-grained if it cools more rapidly, and can have large crystals if it cools slowly. When a
granite cools very very slowly, it can even form huge crystals- in which case, the granite is known as a pegmatite.
Most granites are composed of crystals of the following minerals; quartz, hornblende, and feldspar.
Magma is a molten rock that is in the earth (not at the surface), and it includes any dissolved liquids, gasses, and
crystals. When a magma comes to the surface, it is referred to as lava.
1.- Igneous rocks are described in two axies, write about each one?
2.- How is basalt formed?
3.- How are most granites composited?
4.- What is magma?

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7.- METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Metamorphic rocks are formed from any other rock that has been exposed to great pressure and/or heat, or in
changes of composition. This may also cause minerals to exchange atoms with surrounding minerals to make
new minerals or bigger minerals. Examples of this transformation are limestone to marble, shale to slate, and
granite to gneiss.
Sometimes sedimentary and igneous rocks are subjected to pressures so intense or heat so high that they are
completely changed. They become metamorphic rocks, which form while deeply buried within the Earth's crust.
The process of metamorphism does not melt the rocks, but instead transforms them into denser, more compact
rocks. New minerals are created either by rearrangement of mineral components or by reactions with fluids that
enter the rocks.
Contact Metamorphism refers to rocks that became metamorphic due to the heat of a nearby magma body or
intrusion. For example, if a magma body intrudes into a limestone, the surrounding limestone may be transformed
due to the tremendous heat into the metamorphic rock marble.
Regional Metamorphism refers to large-scale metamorphic activity that can affect an entire region, such as
what happens when mountains are forming.
Topic:____________________________________________________________________________
Principal idea:
Secondary ideas:
Graphic organizer.
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8.- SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Sedimentary rocks are formed from weathered and eroded particles of other rocks that become cemented
together. Sedimentary rocks are formed at the surface of the Earth, either in water or on land. They are layered
accumulations of sediments-fragments of rocks, minerals, or animal or plant material. Temperatures and
pressures are low at the Earth's surface, and sedimentary rocks show this fact by their appearance and the minerals
they contain. Most sedimentary rocks become cemented together by minerals and chemicals or are held together
by electrical attraction; some, however, remain loose and unconsolidated. The layers are normally parallel or
nearly parallel to the Earth's surface.
Sedimentary rocks are forming around us all the time. Sand and gravel on beaches or in river bars look like the
sandstone and conglomerate they will become. Scuba divers who have seen mud and shells settling on the floors
of lagoons find it easy to understand how sedimentary rocks form. For example, a large exposure of quartz may
eventually erode and get carried by rivers into the ocean, then get redistributed along the shoreline as beach sand.
Through time, the shoreline changes, and the original beach may be buried by other material. The beach sand
becomes compacted. Water percolating through the rock carries minerals with it that may be deposited between
the grains of sand, and act as 'glue' to hold the rock together. Sedimentary rocks are formed in layers, known as
beds. They are typically deposited in flat layers, with one bed being deposited on top of another as time
progresses.
Weathering is the process of 'wearing' down a rock, for example by repeated exposure to rain, floods, plant roots
breaking apart fractures, etc.
Strata refers to layers of sedimentary rocks, that are typically parallel.
Erosion can help transport weathered rock particles to a new location, where they can become incorporated into
a new type of rock. Rock particles may be incorporated and transported by erosion in water (rain, floods, streams),
ice (glaciers, snow melt), and wind (sand dunes).
Topic:___________________________________________________________________________
Principal idea:
Secondary ideas:
Graphic organizer.
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9.- LARGE-SCALE ROCK FORMATIONS

Rock formations occur in all sorts of shapes, known as structures. One of the more common shapes in an
'anticline'. An anticline results when sedimentary rock layers have been folded into an uplift, that resembles an
arch. Economically, anticlines are very important because they are a primary trap for oil and gas. The oil and gas
migrates upward, and are often trapped in the top of an anticline. The opposite of an anticline is a syncline. A
syncline is a downward fold in sedimentary rocks, that resembles a valley.
ROCK LAYERS AND AQUIFERS
Sedimentary rocks occur in layers, which may be known as beds. When a layer of rock allows water to move
through it easily, it is known as an aquifer. Aquifers are very important, since they are the source for much of
the world's fresh water supply, that is used for drinking and irrigation. Water wells may be drilled into a water
aquifer (water-bearing rock). For this reason, it is very important that areas that are used to collect water for an
aquifer be left in their natural state, or the aquifer can go dry. For example, if construction is allowed on a large
scale, and areas where water can seep into the ground are covered by structures such as parking lots or buildings,
there may not be enough surface area left to replenish the aquifer with water. Also, if chemicals are dumped into
an aquifer's recharge zone, they may end up in a water supply.
Rocks are recycled - they form a big rock cycle, and each type can become one of the other types given the right
circumstances. Sedimentary rocks may be formed from sediments that have eroded and weathered from igneous
and metamorphic rocks. With additional heat and pressure, sedimentary rocks can become metamorphic rocks,
and metamorphic rocks could melt completely to become igneous rocks.
Fossils Fossils are the remains or traces of organisms that have been preserved from the geologic past; there are
huge numbers of fossils. Plant remains such as imprints of fern leaves may be found as a fossil, insects may be
found, animal remains such as dinosaur bones and sharks teeth, or fossils of marine organisms such as ammonites.
Fossils can be a very important tool in dating a rock formation, since many organisms lived for a relatively
specific geological time frame.
Ore An ore is a metallic mineral that generally has economic significance- that is, it can be mined profitably and
metal extracted from it. Some non-metals may be considered an ore- such as sulfur and fluorite.
Veins Veins typically refer to minerals that fill a fracture or fault in a host rock. Vein deposits typically have a
sheet-like form, and the vein may be followed by miners in order to mine the mineral.
Topic:____________________________________________________________________________
Principal idea:
Secondary ideas:
Graphic organizer.
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PATRONES ACTIVOS Y SUS EQUIVALENTES PASIVOS
PATRONES DE LA VOZ ACTIVA
1.- PRESENTE SIMPLE
SUJETO + VERBO (PRESENTE) + COMPLEMENTO
2.- PASADO SIMPLE
SUJETO + VERBO (PASADO) + COMPLEMENTO
3.- FUTURO
SUJETO + WILL + VERBO (PRESENTE) + COMPLEMENTO
4.- PRESENTE CONTINUO O PROGRESIVO
SUJETO + TO BE (AM/IS/ARE)+ VERBO ING + COMPLEMENTO
5.- PASADO CONTINUO O PROGRESIVO
SUJETO +TO BE (WAS/WERE)+ VERBO ING+ +COMPLEMENTO
6.- PRESENTE PERFECTO
SUJETO + HAVE / HAS + PART. PDO. VERBO + COMPLEMENTO
7.- PASADO PERFECTO
SUJETO + HAD + PARTICIPIO PASADO VERBO + COMPLEMENTO
8.- FUTURO PERFECTO
SUJETO + WILL + HAVE + PARTICIPIO PASADO VERBO + COMPLEMENTO
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PATRONES DE LA VOZ PASIVA
1.- PRESENTE SIMPLE
OBJ. DIRECTO + TO BE (IS / ARE) + PARTICIPIO PASADO VERBO + (BY) + COMPLEMENTO
2.- PASADO SIMPLE
OBJ DIRECTO + TO BE (WAS / WERE) + PARTIC. PASADO VERBO + (BY) + COMPLEMENTO
3.- FUTURO
OBJETO DIRECTO + WILL + BE + PARTIC. PASADO VERBO + (BY) + COMPLEMENTO
4.- PRESENTE CONTINUO O PROGRESIVO
OBJ. DIRECTO + TO BE (IS/ARE) +BEING + PARTIC. PDO VERBO + (BY) + COMPLEMENTO
5.- PASADO CONTINUO O PROGRESIVO
OBJ. DIRECTO+TO BE (WAS/WERE)+BEING+ PARTIC. PDO VERBO + (BY) + COMPLEMENTO
6.- PRESENTE PERFECTO
OBJ. DIRECTO + HAVE / HAS + BEEN + PARTIC. PDO VERBO + (BY) + COMPLEMENTO
7.- PASADO PERFECTO
OBJ. DIRECTO+ HAD + BEEN + PARTIC. PDO VERBO +( BY) + COMPLEMENTO
8.- FUTURO PERFECTO
OBJ. DIRECTO+ WILL HAVE + BEEN + PARTIC. PDO VERBO + (BY) + COMPLEMENTO
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EJERCICIO
1.- Cambia el siguiente grupo de oraciones de voz activa a voz pasiva; o de voz pasiva a voz activa según
sea el caso
1.- Magma includes any dissolved liquid, gasses and crystals
_________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
2.- Metamorphic rocks have been exposed to great pressure and / or heat, or in changes of composition
_________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
3.- Rock particles will be incorporated and transported by erosion in water, ice and wind
_________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
4.- The precise determination of specific gravity required specialized equipment
_________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
5.- The ultraviolet light is being absorbed by the fluorescent minerals
_________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
6.- Pressure or temperature had changed previously metamorphosed rocks
_________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
7.- A big piece of galena was broken up into many smaller pieces that displayed a beautiful crystal structure
_________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
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8.- The rearrangement of mineral components and the reactions with fluids that enter in the rocks created new
minerals
_________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
9.- Some fractured rocks carry liquids and gasses such as water, oil and gas from one rock formation to another
_________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
10.- Piles of sand that contains the mineral quartz have been formed by rock being eroded
_________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
11.- The cleavage will be tested on irregular chunks of minerals that show no well developed crystals
_________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
12.- Nonspecialists had used specific gravity for identifying those minerals of unusually high or low density
_________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
13.- The mineral sample is showing the true color of the pure mineral due to the presence of many chemical
impurities
_________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
14.- The rocks, in the world, are grouped into only three classes based on how they were formed
_________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
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10.- ABOUT ROCKS AND MINERALS

MINERALS
All rocks are made up of minerals. A mineral is something that occurs naturally, and is formed through inorganic
(non-living) processes. A mineral has a definite atomic structure and composition- minerals are made up on one
or more elements. Some minerals are composed of only one element, such as gold or sulfur, but most are
composed of two or more elements, such as Silicon and Oxygen to compose quartz. Some minerals can have
slight variations in their composition- an additional trace element for example, may be added to calcite - and it
is still calcite. These variations can cause a mineral to occur in different colors, for example, calcite may be red,
yellow, green, blue, or white. The atoms in a mineral are arranged in a definite pattern, and when the mineral has
the room and correct conditions to grow, it will have a distinct crystal structure.
There are 6 basic crystal structures. A mineral may not show the crystal structure on the outside, but it will still
have that structure on the inside. Some minerals can even be broken up, and the pieces will display the proper
crystal structure- for example, a big piece of Galena can be broken up into many smaller pieces, and most will
display a beautiful cubic structure.
ROCKS
Although there are thousands of types of minerals, and likewise huge numbers of rocks in the world, the rocks
are grouped into only three classes, based on how they were formed. A rock is simply a mixture of minerals that
has been consolidated- that is, formed together. For example, on the beach you find piles of nice sand that
contains the mineral quartz that has formed by rocks being eroded. But the sand is not a rock- it is simply sand.
Over millions of years the beach sand can become a sandstone rock. In the field, rocks and minerals can be
difficult for the amateur to identify - for several reasons. First of all, without an understanding of the geology of
the area, it is difficult to know which group the rocks belong in. Secondly, there are huge variations in the
appearance of rocks, and many look very similar. The field guides generally show only a handful of rocks, and
their pictures show crystals at their 'best' with perfectly formed crystal structure, not what you normally encounter
in the field.
Topic:____________________________________________________________________________
Principal idea:
Secondary ideas:
Graphic organizer.
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11.- COMMON ROCK AND MINERAL PROPERTIES

Cleavage is the tendency of a mineral to break along planes of weakness that are a result of their atomic (and
hence crystalline) structure. In other words, It is the tendency of minerals to break preferentially in certain
directions, corresponding to zones of weakness in the crystal structure. These are related to the nature of the
bonding in the mineral. Cleavage can be investigated simply by striking a mineral sample with a hammer. It can
be tested even on irregular chunks of minerals that show no well-developed crystals. In some cases, the prominent
cleavage directions are the same as the prominent faces of well-formed crystals. Sodium chloride cleaves well in
three mutually perpendicular directions that correspond to the faces of its cubic crystals. The cleavage fragments
of other minerals do not necessarily resemble their well-grown crystals. Invariably, however, cleavage directions
are directly related to the arrangement of atoms/ions in the crystal structure.
Color is often used to identify rocks and minerals. The most immediately obvious characteristic of most mineral
samples is color. Variation in color is usually due to the presence of small amounts of chemical impurities in the
mineral that have nothing to do with the mineral´s basic, characteristic composition. Such color variation is
especially common when the pure mineral is light colored or colorless. The mineral quartz, for instance, is
colorless in its pure form. However, quartz also occurs in other colors, among them rose pink, golden yellow,
smoky brown, purple, and commonly, milky white. Clearly, quartz cannot always be recognized by its color (or
lack of it). Even when the color shown by a mineral sample is the true color of the pure mineral, it is probably
not unique. With several thousand minerals known to occur on earth, there are usually many of any one particular
color.
Many minerals have a distinctive color, however, many minerals can occur in several colors. For example, calcite
may be green, yellow, blue, and red. Quartz comes in a large variety of colors, and each one is generally referred
to by a different name- for example purple is amethyst, pink is rose quartz, and yellow-brown is citrine.
Density refers to the weight for a given volume of mineral. For example, a similar sized piece of quartz will feel
(and in fact be) much lighter than the same size of hematite. The hematite is a very dense mineral- it has a high
weight per volume.
Fluorescence is a unique property of some rocks and minerals that can only be observed in ultraviolet light. The
fluorescent minerals and rocks can absorb ultraviolet light, and re-emit that as visible light. Interestingly, the
fluorescent minerals often have a very ordinary 'boring' appearance in regular light, and only come alive when
under a fluorescent light.
Fracture a fracture is a break in a rock, or a rupture that has occurred in the rock. The rock will not have moved
along a fracture. When a rock is fractured, it can help conduct liquids and gasses, such as water, oil, and gas from
one rock formation to another. Fractures may also actually store liquids. When rocks begin to move along a
fracture, they are then referred to as a fault. Fractures are very common in most rocks and minerals, as they are
caused by the tremendous pressure that can be present due to the weight of the overlaying rocks, movement of
nearby rocks, etc.
Hardness is a property that is commonly used to describe how resistant a mineral is to scratching. There is a
well established hardness scale for minerals known as the Mohs' hardness scale- with 1 being assigned to the
softest minerals and 10 for the hardest. Hardness is another physical property that can be of help in mineral
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identification. Classically, hardness is measured using the Mohs hardness scale, on which ten minerals are
arranged in order of hardness, from talc (the softest, assigned a hardness of 1) to diamond (10). Unknown
minerals are assigned hardness on the basis of which minerals they can scratch and which minerals scratch them.
A mineral that scratches gypsum but is scratched by calcite has a hardness of 21/2 (the hardness of an average
fingernail). Because diamond is the hardest natural substance known, and corundum (aluminum oxide) is the
second hardest mineral, these might be readily identified by their hardness. However, among the thousands of
softer (more easily scratched) minerals, there are many of any particular hardness, just as there are many of any
particular color. The very softest can be scratched by a fingernail, harder minerals by a nail and knife.
The Mohs' scale is: 1-Talc, 2- Gypsum, 3-Calcite, 4-Fluorite, 5-Apatite, 6- Orthoclase, 7- Quartz, 8-
Topaz, 9 - Corundum, and 10- Diamond.
Luster refers to the appearance of light that is reflected from the surface of a mineral. The surface sheen, or
luster, of minerals is another diagnostic property. Very few terms are used to describe this quality, and they are,
for the most part, self-explanatory. Examples include metallic (bright and shiny like metal), vitreous (glassy),
pearly (softly iridescent, like pearl), and earthy. Some minerals look 'dull' in luster, and some look 'shiny', for
example.
Permeability is the ability of a rock or mineral to transmit fluids. It is closely related to porosity, or how much
open space is in-between particles of a rock. However, for a rock to be permeable, the pore spaces must be
connected so that fluids can move through the rock. For example, sandstone is generally a very permeable rock-
it allows water to flow through, which makes it a very good water aquifer. Deep in the earth, sandstone may
contain hydrocarbons (oil and gas), which are able to be produced from a large area of rock from one well due
to the rocks permeability.
Porosity is the volume of open spaces in a rock. In a sense, rocks are like sponges- some can 'hold' more liquids
(or air) inside than others. Obsidian, for example, is glassy- it forms very quickly and has very little porosity. On
the other hand, sandstone, which is formed by individual sand grains compacting together, generally has a high
degree of porosity.
Specific Gravity refers to how much something weights in comparison to an equal volume of water. A mineral´s
specific gravity is related to its density. Specific gravity is the ratio of the mass of a given volume of the mineral
to the mass of an equal volume of water. By definition, a mineral having the same density as liquid water has a
specific gravity of 1. The higher the specific gravity, the denser the mineral. For comparison, sodium chloride
has a specific gravity of about 2.16; garnet, 3.1 to 4.2, depending on its exact composition; metallic copper, 8.9;
and gold, 19.3. Specific gravity is related to the atomic weights of the elements in the mineral; for example, gold
is one of the heaviest elements and has a very high specific gravity. The precise determination of specific gravity
requires specialized equipment, and many of the most common minerals fall in a narrow range of specific gravity,
from about 2.5 to 4. For the nonspecialist, specific gravity is a qualitative tool, most useful for identifying those
minerals of unusually high or low specific gravity (density).
Streak refers to the color that a mineral gives off when it is in powered form. The streak is usually determined
by scraping a mineral along a ceramic white plate, known as a 'streak plate'. The streak is considered a much
better method of identification of minerals than color.
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Texture refers to the size, shape, and distribution of particles that make up a rock. Terms used to classify texture
are, for example, grainy, amorphous (glassy), course, etc.
Transparency refers to the degree that light can pass through a mineral. If a mineral is opaque, light cannot pass
through. If it is translucent, light can pass through, at least to some degree.
Topic:___________________________________________________________________________
Graphic organizer.
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FORMAS DE LAS ORACIONES
a.- Simple: es una cláusula independiente. Es un tipo de oración que contiene un sujeto y un predicado. Ej. The
engineers work hardly. Este tipo de oración expresa un pensamiento completo. El sujeto o el verbo pueden ser
compuestos.
b.- Compuesta, doble o múltiple: contiene dos o más cláusulas independientes; y puede expresar más de un
pensamiento completo. Este tipo de oraciones son unidas por conjunciones coordinadas (and, but, or, nor, for,
yet, so), o por un punto y coma (;) cuando las conjunciones coordinadas no están presentes. Ej.
The student asked a question and the teacher answer it.
c.- Compleja: contiene una cláusula independiente y una o más dependiente. Ej.
Although the aquifer is now 45 years old, it still supplies fresh water.
d.- Compuesta-Compleja: contiene al menos dos cláusulas independientes y al menos una cláusula dependiente.
Ej. If you are going to walk, be sure to stay on the path; you won´t get lost.
CLÁUSULAS
Existen 3 tipos básicos de cláusulas dependientes, categorizadas de acuerdo a su función en la oración.
1.- Nominal: son utilizadas como sustantivos. Este tipo de cláusula es introducida por: that, what, when, where,
why, how, who, which, whatever, whoever, whichever, etc.
2.- Adjetival o relativa: es utilizada para describir cualquier sustantivo o pronombre en la oración. Un pronombre
relativo (who, whom, whose, which, that) siempre introduce una cláusula adjectival.
3.- Adverbial: son utilizadas como adverbios. Este tipo de cláusula son introducidas por conjunciones
subordinadas (after, although, as, as if, because, before, if, since, so that, that, unless, until, when, where, while,
etc.).Cuando la cláusula adverbial está al comienzo de una oración, esta es separada por una coma.
Tipo de cláusulas adverbiales.-
- Tiempo: son introducidas por un número limitado de palabras o frases: when, while, before, as, until,
since, after, as soon as, etc.
- Manera: “As” introduce cláusulas de manera.
- Lugar: no son muy frecuentes, desde que la idea de lugar es usualmente expresada por frases
preposicionales. (Where)
- Comparación: utiliza las terminaciones “-er” y “-est”. Ej. Fast, faster, fastest (John drives fastest of all).
El conector “than”, utilizado con los comparativos es una conjunción, y las palabras que le siguen son
una cláusula.
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- Condición: son introducidas por: if, unless, as if, as though, etc.
- Causa: es introducida por: because, since, as, for, etc.
EJERCICIOS
1.- Traduce las siguientes oraciones y di a qué tipo cada una de ellas pertenece; además, subraya el sujeto
y el predicado
a.- The engineers were exhausted but they arrived in time for the meeting
b.- Interaction and assimilation or meeting of the plate by rising magma can modify the magma composition
before it reaches the surface
c.- Basaltic lavas, relatively low in silica and high in iron and magnesium, are comparatively fluid, so they can
flow very freely and far when erupted
d.- Earthquakes whose hypocentre is more than 400 km deep occur where the rocks are very hot and soft, and
they deform slowly when stress is applied
e.- Modern seismologists use better instruments than Richter had and distinguished between earthquakes
magnitudes and surface waves
f.- Shallow earthquakes are most liable to cause damage because the large motions are close to the surface where
people live.
g.- The amplitude of earth vibrations in millimeters can be computed from seismograms if the mechanism is
correctly calibrated.
h.- The engineer wanted to write a book because he had so much to say about the minerals
i.- The great majority of earthquakes are shallow, with hypocentral depth less than 30 km below the surface,
where the rocks are relatively cold and brittle
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- Definición
- Clasificación: nominal, verbal, adjetival, adverbial, preposicional
DEFINICIÓN
Es un grupo de palabras relacionadas que no incluye sujeto y verbo. Toda frase debe estar compuesta por al
menos dos palabras.
CLASIFICACIÓN:
a.) Nominal: Este tipo de frase comienza con los artículos: a, an, the; los demostrativos: this, that, these y
those, los cuantificadores: some, any, a lot of, lots of, etc.
b.) Verbal: están compuestas de los verbos de la oración y cualquier material que modifique a los verbos,
incluyendo adverbios, frases preposicionales, objetos, etc. Las frases verbales sirven como el predicado
de la oración. Este tipo de frase también se considera verbal cuando el verbo está compuesto de dos o
más palabras.
c.) Adjetival: está compuesta de los adjetivos que modifican a un sustantivo, y de cualquier adverbio o
elemento que modifica esos adjetivos.. Este tipo de frase comienza con un adjetivo.
d.) Adverbial: está compuesta de los adverbios que modifican a los verbos, adjetivos o cláusulas. Este tipo
de frase es introducida por un adverbio: tiempo, lugar, modo, frecuencia, etc. Algunos intensificadores
son: very, really, almost, absolutely, etc.
e.) Preposicional: es un grupo de palabras formadas por una preposición seguida por su objeto.
EJERCICIO
1.- Identifica y traduce las siguientes frases
a.- That slow accumulation of stress with subsequent slippage on a fault surface ( )
b.- Long crack in the lithosphere, rather than from a single pipe or vent ( )
c.- Usually, the effect of the water table in surrounding rocks ( )
d.- Have studied the universe for many centuries ( )
e.- A column of stone ( )
f.- Very symmetric cone - shaped heap ( )
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12.- EARTHQUAKES
An earthquake is a sudden motion or trembling in the earth caused by the sudden release of slowly accumulated
strain. Synonyms: seismic event, shock, quake, temblor. Earthquakes usually involve a sudden and violent
movement on a pre-existing fault. Friction normally prevents rock on both sides of a fault from slipping but when
the force acting on the rock exceeds the frictional resistance, the sides move suddenly. Earthquakes may also be
associated with volcanic activity, and sometimes with landslides.
AFTERSHOCKS
Aftershocks are small earthquakes that occur after a large earthquake has occurred. After an earthquake, the main
stress in the ground is relieved, but there may be some local areas where stress remains or has actually increased
because of the large failure on the nearby fault. Smaller earthquakes often occur in the immediate area of the
main earthquake until the entire fault surface has reached an equilibrium of stress. Aftershocks are very common.
Seismologists map aftershocks to define the total area of the fault surface that failed.
FORESHOCKS
A foreshock is an earthquake that occurs prior to a larger earthquake. Foreshocks sometimes occur before a larger
earthquake as stress builds up in the rock. Attempts to use foreshocks as a predictor of a large earthquake have
been mostly unsuccessful. Foreshocks are not very common, and when they do occur it is not easy to tell if they
are indeed a foreshock or the main event.
EPICENTRE
The epicentre is the place on the surface of the earth under which an earthquake rupture originates, often given
in degrees of latitude (north-south) and longitude (east-west). The epicentre is directly above the hypocentre.
HYPOCENTRE AND DEPTH
The hypocentre of an earthquake is its location in three dimensions: latitude, longitude, and depth. In the case of
large earthquakes, the hypocentre is only the place where rupture of the fault begins, and the movement may
spread for 10s, or even 100s of kilometres along the fault.
Earthquake depths are classified into:
• Shallow: 0 km to 70 km
• Intermediate: 70 km to 300 km
• Deep: 300 km to 700 km
The great majority of earthquakes are shallow, with hypocentral depth less than 30 km below the surface, where
the rocks are relatively cold and brittle. Often, shallow earthquakes rupture rocks on the surface of the earth,
permitting geologists to identify the fault and measure the displacements. Shallow earthquakes are most liable to
cause damage because the large motions are close to the surface where people live.
Some earthquakes are characterized by shaking from the seismic waves, but there is no apparent rupture at the
surface of the earth. Analysis of seismograms shows that the hypocentre of some earthquakes may be hundreds
of kilometres below the surface. Ground shaking from such earthquakes is less than it is for shallow earthquakes
because the fault movement is far down in the earth and remote from observers.
Earthquakes whose hypocentre is more than 400 km deep occur where the rocks are very hot and soft, and they
deform slowly when stress is applied. Seismologists think that slow accumulation of stress with subsequent
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slippage on a fault surface is not possible in such conditions, so deep earthquakes may be due to some other
physical process, perhaps a chemical phase change.
EARTHQUAKE WAVES
Motions detected on the surface of the earth are called earthquake waves. Earthquake waves are of two main
types:
• 1) Body waves that travel deep within the earth

• 2) surface waves that travel only near the surface of the earth.
Body waves
Body waves can travel through the body and deep interior of the earth. Body waves are divided into
compressional waves and shear waves:
A) P waves
Compressional or "P" waves travel fastest. Speed depends on the kind of rock and its depth but shallow
earthquake waves travel at about 6000 metre/second. In comparison, speed of sound in air is pokey at a slow 340
metres/second. Particle motion in P waves is in the direction of propagation. P waves can travel in solids, liquids
or gases. The name P wave comes from the fact that they travel fastest and are the first or 'Primary' waves to be
detected at a seismograph.
B) S waves
Shear or "S" waves travel slower, at a little more than half the speed of P waves, about 3500 metre/second in
crustal rock. Particle motion in S waves is perpendicular to the direction of propagation. S waves travel only in
solids because liquids and gasses lack shear strength. The name S wave comes from the fact that these slower
waves arrive 'Secondary' after the P wave.
SEISMOGRAPH
A seismograph is an instrument that detects, magnifies, and records vibrations of the earth, especially
earthquakes. The resulting record is a seismogram. A seismometer is the sensitive transducer part of a
seismograph that senses ground motion and converts it to an electrical signal. The amplitude of earth vibrations
in millimetres can be computed from seismograms if the mechanism is correctly calibrated. Seismographs are
capable of detecting extremely small ground motion that no one can feel. Seismographs are the main source of
accurate earthquake information.
MAGNITUDE
The magnitude of an earthquake is a measure of its size. It is calculated from the ground motion recorded by a
seismograph and corrected for distance from the earthquake epicentre to the seismograph. A magnitude scale is
a mathematical formula used to calculate earthquake magnitudes from seismograph data.
RICHTER MAGNITUDE
In 1932 C.F. Richter developed the first earthquake magnitude scale for California earthquakes using a Milne-
Shaw seismograph, which was widely used in California at that time. Richter originally thought his magnitude
scale would provide only a rough guide to the size of earthquakes, an order of magnitude, but the concept has
turned out to be quite accurate.
In the Richter scale the maximum amplitude of ground motion, regardless of wave type, is measured as the
maximum pen deflection in millimetres on the seismogram. The logarithm of the amplitude is corrected for the
distance from the seismometer to the epicentre and the resulting number is the Richter Local magnitude, ML.
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SURFACE, BODY, AND MOMENT MAGNITUDE SCALES
Modern seismologists use better instruments than Richter had, and they distinguish between earthquake
magnitudes estimated from the maximum amplitude of body waves, Mb, and surface waves, Ms. Since body
waves and surface waves travel in different paths, there are some differences in the corresponding magnitudes.
All magnitudes are expressed in the logarithmic form, so the ground shaking from a magnitude 6 earthquake, for
example, is 10 times greater than the ground shaking due to a magnitude 5 earthquake at the same distance, and
100 times greater than a magnitude 4 event. This rule of 10 is valid for regions far from the epicentre of an
earthquake. In the immediate vicinity of large earthquakes the ground shaking increases with magnitude, but at
a rate less than 10 times.
The most reliable method of estimating earthquake size is to measure all the energy in the earthquake wave, not
just the maximum amplitude, and compute the Seismic Moment of the earthquake. Then a Moment Magnitude,
Mw, is calculated. The formula for the moment magnitude scale is adjusted so that it agrees with the original
Richter magnitude scale as much as possible.
LARGEST MAGNITUDE
The largest known earthquakes are around magnitude 9. The largest earthquakes are caused by fault ruptures that
are hundreds of kilometres in length and extend down through the entire thickness of the crust of the earth. A
large earthquake may cause many deaths and enormous damage if it hits a crowded city, but if it occurs in an
uninhabited area there may be little damage.
The maximum amplitude of ground motion is reached at about a magnitude 8 earthquake. For earthquakes larger
than M8 the amplitude of ground motion does not increase any more, but the shaking goes on for a longer time
and the area of violent shaking is larger. This is because ground shaking is affected mostly by nearby fault
movement, but in large earthquakes some of the fault movement occurs hundreds of kilometres away. Earthquake
surface waves travel 100 km in about 1/2 minute. By the time the shaking from distant parts of the fault reaches
an observer, the local shaking may have slowed down or stopped. The old Richter scale uses only the maximum
amplitude, so Richter magnitudes become saturated and do not go higher than about 8. The Moment Magnitude
takes into account the duration and rate as well as the amplitude of shaking. Magnitudes of 9 and more can be
measured with the moment magnitude scale, and this is one reason why moment magnitude is preferred.
SMALLEST MAGNITUDE
Earthquakes smaller than about magnitude 4 do not usually cause damage, but even small earthquakes may cause
damage if they occur close to sensitive features, for example, inside a mine. Because of the logarithm scale, very
small earthquakes can have zero or negative magnitudes. A magnitude 0 earthquake produces ground motion
only 1/10 as large as a magnitude 1, a magnitude -1 earthquake causes ground motion only 1/100 as large as a
magnitude 1, and so on. Small earthquakes represent fractures of small volumes of rock, on a scale of a few
meters or even centimeters.
INDUCED EARTHQUAKES
Some earthquakes are caused or triggered by human activity. Large, high dams may cause cause earthquakes,
especially in seismically active regions. The main cause of dam-induced seismicity is the effect of raising the
water table in surrounding rocks. Increased water pressure in the pore spaces reduces the rocks effective strength
and the rock may fail under the existing stress level, causing an earthquake. In addition, the weight of water in
large dams may increase the total stress on the nearby rock, adding to the probability of failure. In areas that are
already seismically active, the resulting earthquakes may be larger than if the dam did not exist.
TRANSLATION:
30
13.- VOLCANOES
KINDS OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
Much volcanic activity is a consequence of the eruption of lava (magma that reaches the Earth´s surface. Lava is
only one product of volcanic eruptions, however. Nor are all volcanic rocks produced by individual volcanic
cones.
FISSURE ERUPTIONS
The outpouring of magma at spreading ridges is an example of fissure eruptions, the eruption of magma out of a
long crack in the lithosphere, rather than from a single pipe or vent. There are also examples of fissure eruptions
on the continents, in which many layers of lava are erupted in succession. One example in the United States is
the Columbia Plateau, an area of about 50,000 square kilometers in Washington, Oregon, and Idaho, covered by
layer upon layer of basalt, piled up over 11/2 kilometers deep in places. This area may represent the ancient
beginning of a continental rift that ultimately stopped spreading apart; it is no longer active. Even larger examples
of such flood basalts are found in India and Brazil.
SHIELD VOLCANOES
Basaltic lavas, relatively low in silica and high in iron and magnesium, are comparatively fluid, so they can flow
very freely and far when erupted. Consequently, the kind of volcano they build is very flat and low in relation to
its diameter. This low, shieldlike shape has led to the use of the term shield volcano for such a structure. Though
the individual lava flows may be thin (perhaps less than a meter in thickness) the buildup of hundreds or
thousands of flows over time can produce quite large volcanic structure. The Hawaiian Islands are all shield
volcanoes. Mauna Loa, the largest peak on the still-active island of Hawaii, rises about 10 kilometers from the
sea floor, with a base diameter of 100 kilometers. It stands taller above the sea floor than does Mount Everest
above sea level.
VOLCANIC DOMES
The less mafic, more silicic lavas, andesitic and rhyolitic in composition, tend to be more viscous and flow less
readily. They ooze out at the surface like thick toothpaste from an upright tube, piling up close to the volcanic
vent, rather than spreading freely. The resulting structure is a more compact and steep-sided volcanic dome.
Modern eruptions of Mount St. Helens are characterized by this kind of stiff, viscous lava, and a volcanic dome
has formed in the crater left by the 1980 explosion. Such thick, slowly flowing lavas also seem to solidify and
stop up the vent from which they are erupted before much material has emerged. Volcanic domes, then, tend to
be relatively small in areal extent compared to shield volcanoes, although through repeated eruptions over time,
such volcanoes can build quite high peaks.
CINDER CONES AND PYROCLASTIC ERUPTIONS

As noted previously, magmas consist not only of melted silicates, but also contain dissolved water and gases,
which are trapped under great pressure while the magma is deep in the lithosphere. As the magma wells up
toward the surface, the pressure on it is reduced, and the dissolved gases try to bubble out of it and escape. The
effect is much like popping the cap off a soda bottle: The soda contains carbon dioxide gas under pressure is
released by removal of the cap, the gas comes bubbling out.
Sometimes, the built-up gas pressure in a rising magma is released suddenly and forcefully by an explosion that
flings bits of magma and rock out of the volcano. The magma may freeze into solid pieces before falling to earth.
31
The bits of violently erupted volcanic material are described collectively as pyroclastic, from the Greek words
for “fire” (pyros) and “broken (klastos). The most energetic pyroclastic eruptions are more typical of volcanoes
with the more viscous andesitic or rhyolitic lavas because the thicker lavas tend to trap more gases.
The fragments of pyroclastic materials can vary considerably in size. The very finest, which make up volcanic
ash, range from a flourlike dust up to about 2 millimeters in diameter. Cinders are glassy, bubbly rock fragments
that fall to the ground as solid pieces. The largest chunks, the volcanic blocks, can be the size of a house. Block-
sized blobs of liquid lava may also thrown from a volcano; these volcanic bombs commonly develop a
streamlined shape as they deform in flight before solidifying completely. A rock formed predominantly from
ash-sized pyroclastic fragments is a tuff; the fragments may be so hot as they accumulate that they fuse together
to form a welded tuff. A coarser rock containing large, angular blocks is a volcanic breccia. When pyroclastic
fall close to the vent from which they were thrown, they may pile up into a very symmetric cone-shaped heap
known as a cinder cone.
COMPOSITE VOLCANOES
Many volcanoes, andesitic ones especially, erupt different materials at different times. They may emit some
pyroclastic, then some lava, then more pyroclastic, and so on. Volcanoes built up in this layer-cake fashion are
called stratovolcanoes, or alternatively, composite volcanoes, because they are built up of more than one kind of
material. Most of the potentially dangerous volcanoes of the western United States, in the Cascade Range, are
composite volcanoes. They typically have fairly stiff, gas-charged lavas that sometimes flow and sometimes trap
enough gases to erupt explosively with a rain of pyroclastic material.
CALDERAS
An eruption from a volcanic vent is fed from a magma chamber below, sometimes a very large one. When much
of the magma has erupted, or, perhaps, has drained back down to deeper levels, the volcano is left partially
unsupported. If the rocks are too weak, they may collapse into the hole, forming a depressed caldera much larger
than the original summit crater from which the lava emerged. Alternatively, a caldera may be formed by a violent
explosion, like that of Mount St. Helens, which greatly enlarges the vent. Major calderas can cover tens or even
hundreds of square kilometers.
SUBDUCTION – ZONE VOLCANISM

The complexity of a subduction zone leads to a variety of possible magma sources. The down-going plate
typically comprises seafloor basalt, mafic to ultramafic upper-mantle rocks, and some seafloor sediments. Any
or all of these can melt, wholly or in part. Where the overriding place is continental, the subducted sediments
are, in part, material weathered from the continents. Those sediments are relatively more silicic and tend to melt
before appreciable melting of the more mafic rocks has occurred. During the subduction, the water is released
and rises into the portion of the upper mantle between the subducted plate and the overriding plate. This
dewatering lowers the melting temperature of the mantle material and induces magma formation. The
composition of the resulting magma is andesitic to basaltic, depending on the extent of melting. Interaction and
assimilation or melting of the overriding plate by rising magma can further modify the magma composition
before it reaches the surface.
32
PYROCLASTICS
Pyroclastic are often more dangerous than lava flows. They may erupt more suddenly, explosively, and spread
faster and farther. The largest blocks and volcanic bombs present an obvious danger because of their size and
weight. For the same reasons, however, they usually fall quite close to the volcanic vent, so they affect a relatively
small area. The sheer volume of the finer ash and dust particles can make them as severe a problem, and they can
be carried over a much larger area. Also, ash falls are not confined to valleys and low places. Cinders and ash
are examples of free-falling pyroclastics.
TOXIC GASES
In addition to lava and pyroclastics, volcanoes emit a variety of gases. Many of these, such as water vapor and
carbon dioxide, are harmless. Others, including carbon monoxide, various sulfur gases, and hydrochloric and
hydrofluoric acids, are poisonous. Many people have been killed by volcanic gases even before they realized the
danger.
TRANSLATION:
33
PALABRA SIGNIFICADO PALABRA SIGNIFICADO PALABRA SIGNIFICADO

Earth Earthquake Streak
Sun Waves Hardness
Heating Source Limestone
Melting Brittle Bed
Shell Slippage Wells
Crust Fault Body
Plate Crack Mixture
Grain Features Ore
Shape Framework Landslide
River Star Field
Basin Cloud Drift
Sea Dust Ranges
Mountain Fuel Branches
Soil Oil Ground
Water Aquifer Marble
Beach Moon Mud
Room Stream Floor
Mantle Bit Weathering
Layer Chunk Strata
Surface Vein Flow
Iron Mine Sandstone
Gold Core Degrees
Sulfur Sand Stress
Slate Tool Side
Shale Weight Spread
Quartz Copper Ash
Pressure Level Boundaries
34
Busca el significado de los siguientes verbos y escribe las formas correctas de ellos
BASE FORM MEANING PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE

Become
Get
Throw
Find
Make
Provide
Supply
Begin
Grow
Break
Drive
Know
Involve
Build
Do
Come
Bring
Give
Show
Take
Rise
Develop
Spin
Lead
Carry
35
Pronombres
Person. Object. Possess. Demost. Relat. Reflex. Interrog. Distrib. Indefinit.

I Me Mine This Who Myself Who Each Some
You You Yours These Whom Yourself Whose Either Any
He Him His That Whose Himself Which Neither All
She Her Hers Those Which Herself What Each other None
It It Its That Itself One another Nobody
We Us Ours What Ourselves Something
You You Yours When Yourselves Several
They Them Theirs How… Themselves Much…
Conjunciones Subordinadas comunes
Conjunciones Coordinadas If
after if only Though
and but or yet for nor so although in order that till
as now that unless
as if once until
Conjunciones Correlativas as long as rather than when
as though since whenever
both . . . and neither . . . nor because so that where
not only . . . but before such whereas
also whether . . . or even if Such as wherever
not . . . but as . . . as even though than while
either . . . or that
Conjunciones Adverbiales
however moreover nevertheless consequently as a result accordingly furthermore
Preposiciones Más Comunes
about By outside according to

above Down over because of
across During since by way of
after Except through in addition to
against For throughout in front of
around From till in place of
at In to in regard to
before Inside toward in spite of
behind Into under instead of
below Like until on account of
beneath Near up out of
beside of upon out
beyond off with
between on without
36

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Guía práctica de Inglés Técnico / Prof.

2.- Traduce el párrafo anterior

specific geological time frame.

2.- Traduce las siguientes oraciones

3.- Subraya los verbos auxiliares y / o modales presentes en el siguiente párrafo

1.- Subraya las conjunciones presentes en los siguientes párrafos

1.- Lee el siguiente párrafo y rodea las preposiciones presentes en él

THE EARTH WITHIN THE UNIVERSE

Responde las siguientes preguntas:

1.- What Does Geology deal with?

4.- What does the term Big Bang refer?

2.- THE SOLAR SYSTEM

3.- THE PLANETS

THE ATMOSPHERE AND OCEANS

Responde las siguientes preguntas:

1.- What Does the composition of each planet depend on?

2.- How is each planet formed?

3.- What did the solar system forming processes lead?

4.- INSIDE THE EARTH

Responde las siguientes preguntas:

1.- What is the size of the Earth?

2.- Describe the Earth`s crust

3.- Describe the Earth`s core and the mantle

5.- TECTONIC PLATES

Responde las siguientes preguntas:

1.- What Does the Tectonics Plate Theory state?

2.- What may happen in case of Earth retains internal heat?

6.- THE MAJOR ROCK TYPES

Responde las siguientes preguntas:

2.- How is basalt formed?

3.- How are most granites composited?

4.- What is magma?

7.- METAMORPHIC ROCKS

8.- SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Strata refers to layers of sedimentary rocks, that are typically parallel.

9.- LARGE-SCALE ROCK FORMATIONS

PATRONES ACTIVOS Y SUS EQUIVALENTES PASIVOS

PATRONES DE LA VOZ ACTIVA

1.- PRESENTE SIMPLE

SUJETO + VERBO (PRESENTE) + COMPLEMENTO

2.- PASADO SIMPLE

SUJETO + VERBO (PASADO) + COMPLEMENTO

SUJETO + WILL + VERBO (PRESENTE) + COMPLEMENTO

4.- PRESENTE CONTINUO O PROGRESIVO

SUJETO + TO BE (AM/IS/ARE)+ VERBO ING + COMPLEMENTO

5.- PASADO CONTINUO O PROGRESIVO

SUJETO +TO BE (WAS/WERE)+ VERBO ING+ +COMPLEMENTO

6.- PRESENTE PERFECTO

SUJETO + HAVE / HAS + PART. PDO. VERBO + COMPLEMENTO

7.- PASADO PERFECTO

SUJETO + HAD + PARTICIPIO PASADO VERBO + COMPLEMENTO

8.- FUTURO PERFECTO

SUJETO + WILL + HAVE + PARTICIPIO PASADO VERBO + COMPLEMENTO

PATRONES DE LA VOZ PASIVA

1.- PRESENTE SIMPLE

OBJ. DIRECTO + TO BE (IS / ARE) + PARTICIPIO PASADO VERBO + (BY) + COMPLEMENTO

2.- PASADO SIMPLE

OBJ DIRECTO + TO BE (WAS / WERE) + PARTIC. PASADO VERBO + (BY) + COMPLEMENTO

OBJETO DIRECTO + WILL + BE + PARTIC. PASADO VERBO + (BY) + COMPLEMENTO

4.- PRESENTE CONTINUO O PROGRESIVO

OBJ. DIRECTO + TO BE (IS/ARE) +BEING + PARTIC. PDO VERBO + (BY) + COMPLEMENTO

5.- PASADO CONTINUO O PROGRESIVO

OBJ. DIRECTO+TO BE (WAS/WERE)+BEING+ PARTIC. PDO VERBO + (BY) + COMPLEMENTO