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LESSON 8: ROCK FORMATION
TYPES OF ROCKS
Rocks & Minerals
-It is a natural substance composed of solid crystals of
different minerals that have been fused together into a
solid lump. They help us to develop new technologies and
are used in our everyday lives. Our use of rocks and
minerals includes building material, cosmetics, cars,
roads, and appliances.
1.IGNEOUS ROCKS – formed through solidified
molten rock. It can be classified into extrusive (volcanic)
formed at surface of the Earth and intrusive (Plutonic)
formed deep on Earth
Example: Basalt, Pumice, Granite, Gabbro, Obsidian.
2.SEDIMENTARY ROCKS – formed when
a pieces. They can also carry rock pieces to another place.
combinations of rock fragments, seashells, fossils, and
chemicals are compressed in layers and hardened.
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Example: Conglomerate, sandstone, limestone, shale,
dolomite.
Mountains made of metamorphic rocks can be broken up
and washed away by streams. New sediments from these
mountains can make new sedimentary rock.
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3. METAMORPHIC ROCKS – formed when other
rocks are changed by heat, pressure, and chemical
reaction.
Example: Marble, Slate, Gneiss, Schist, Phyllite
Stratification– Process in which sedimentary rocks are
arranged in layers due to crystal movement, displacement
of soils, and distortion of terrain. The layers of stratified
rocks differ from one another depending on the kind, size,
and color of their sediments.
The layers (strata) are formed from the accumulation,
compaction, and cementation of sediments over a period
of time. Most fossils are found in these layers. Young
rock layers are found at the surface and older layers
below.
Rock Cycle- is a group of changes. Igneous rock >
sedimentary rock/ metamorphic rock. Sedimentary rock >
metamorphic rock/igneous rock. Metamorphic rock
> igneous or sedimentary rock.
PROCESS:
Igneous Rocks form when magma cools and makes
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crystals. Magma is a hot liquid made of melted minerals.
It can form underground, (cools slowly) or it can form
above ground. (cools quickly).When it pours out on
Earth's surface, magma is called lava.
On Earth's surface, wind and water can break rock into
Usually, the rock pieces drop from the wind or water to
make a layer. After a long time, the sediments can be
cemented together to make sedimentary rock. [igneous >
sedimentary]
Baked rock does not melt, but it does change. If it has
crystals already, it forms larger crystals. Remember that a
caterpillar changes to become a butterfly. That change is
called metamorphosis. Metamorphosis can occur in rock
when they are heated to 300-700 degrees Celsius.
Mountains made of metamorphic rocks can be broken up
and washed away by streams. New sediments from these
mountains can make new sedimentary rock.
Sedimentary rock layers contain information about the
relative ages of events and objects in Earth's history.
Rocks form from sediments that fall to the bottom of
lakes, rivers and seas. Over time, the sediments pile up to
form horizontal layers of sedimentary rocks. Bottom layer
older, top layer youngest.
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LESSON 9: EARTH MATERIALS & PROCESS
Geologists determine the relative ages of rocks and other
structures by examining their places during a sequence. If
a layer of rock is offset by a fault, which may be a break
in the Earth’s surface, you recognize that the layers had to
be there before a fault could cut through them.
Relative dating employed to arrange geological events,
and the rocks they leave
behind, during a sequence. The reading is called
stratigraphy (layers of rock is called
strata). Relative dating doesn't provide actual numerical
dates for the rocks.
PRINCIPLES IN DETERMINING THE AGE OF
ROCKS
• The Principle of Superposition: sedimentary rocks are
laid down in a sequence, one on the top of another, with
a known as numerical dating, to offer rocks an actual date,
the youngest being at the top.
• The Principle of Horizontality: sedimentary rocks are
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laid down in flat
(horizontal) layers, although these can later tilt and fold.
• The Principle of Lateral Continuity:
layers of rock extend sideways within the same order. A
later event, like a river cutting, may form a gap, but you
can still connect the strata.
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PRINCIPLE OF LATERAL CONTINUITY
Unconformity- a gap in the rock record caused by
erosion or pause in deposition.
3 major kinds of unconformities:
1.Nonconformity- horizontal layers of sedimentary rocks
overlie older igneous or metamorphic rocks. When
horizontal rock layers are exposed and eroded, and new
horizontal layers of rock are deposited on the eroded
surface it develops disconformity.
2.Angular unconformity- when new horizontal layers of
rock form on top of older rock layers that are folded by
compression.
3.Disconformity- when horizontal rock layers are
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exposed and eroded, and new horizontal layers of rocks
are deposited on the eroded surface.
• Absolute Dating- achieved using historical records and
through the analysis of biological and geological patterns
resulting from annual climatic variations. It is also
or date range, in the number of years.
Scientists prefer the term chronemic/calendar dating
because using “Absolute” implies unwarranted certainty
of accuracy.
Isotopes- important in all techniques for absolute dating,
these are atoms with chemical elements having different
forms.
Different elements are used for dating because they have
different decay rates. The process of the breakdown is
called Radioactive Decay and involves atoms breaking
down into their atomic or molecular particles.
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LESSON 10: INTRODUCTION TO LIFE SCIENCE
Life-Any system capable of performing functions like
eating, metabolizing, excreting, moving, growing,
reproducing and corresponding to stimuli.
THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE
CONCEPT OF LIFE
1920
Alexander Ivanovich Oparin (Russian)
● March 2,1984 - April 21, 1980
● A soviet biochemist notable for his theories about
the origin of life.
● Studied biochemistry of material processing by
plants and enzyme reaction in the plant cell.
John Scott Haldane (Scottish)
● May 2 1860 - March 14/15, 1936
a ● Hydroxyl acid
● A psychologist famous for intrepid self
experimentation which led to many important
discoveries about the human body and the nature
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of gasses.
OPARIN-HALDANE HYPOTHESIS
PRIMORDIAL SOUP THEORY
-This hypothesis suggested that if the primitive
atmosphere was reduced ( as opposed to oxygen rich),
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and if there was an appropriate supply of energy, such as
lightning of ultraviolet, then a wide range of organic
compound might be synthesized.
1953
Harold Clayton Urcy (American)
● April 29, 1893 - January 5, 1981
● A physical biochemist played a significant role in
the development of the atom bomb; but may be
most prominent for his contribution to theories on
the development of organic life from non-living
matter.
Stanley Lloyd Miller ( American)
● March 7, 1930 - May 20, 2007
● A chemist who made landmark experiments in the
origin of life by demonstrating that a wide range
of vital organic compounds can be synthesized by
fairly simple chemical processes from inorganic
substances.
MILLER-URCY SUBSTANCES
From the result of their experiment, they found that 15%
of the carbon in the system was inorganic compounds that
had formed in the system. This conclusion proved that
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inorganic molecules could be formed from inorganic
molecules.
● 25 amino acids ( the main ones being glycines,
alanine, and aspartic acid)
● Several fatty acids
● Amide products
The common ancestors of all life Prokaryotes:
-Most assume that this common ancestor was prokaryotic,
meaning it did not have a nucleus. There was a scarcity of
oxygen during the early Earth so the ancestral cell must
also have been anaerobic which means capable of living
without oxygen.
Evidence on the first form of life:
1. Fossils
- One of the strongest piece of evidence that shows
many life form existed in Earth in the past 3.5
billion years.
Exp: bone, shell, plant and footprint fossils.
Rise of Eukaryotes
-Nucleus is not often preserved during fossilization; the
cell was eukaryotic. These eukaryotic cells are generally
larger than the prokaryotic cells. A cell wall with complex
patterns, spines, or spikes probably belonged to a
eukaryote.
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PROKARYOTIC CELL EUKARYOTIC CELL LESSON 11: UNIFYING THEMES IN STUDYING LIFE

Pro = Pre Eu = True LEVELS OF BIOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION:

Karyon = Nucleus
Originated about 3.5
billion years ago
Primitive forms
Unicellular
Developing Nucleus
Karyon = Nucleus 1.Molecules- Chemical structures that are composed of 2 or
more atoms.
Originated around 1.2
billion years ago
2.Organelles- These are parts of the cell which are responsible
Advance forms for function & integrity. Some are membrane bound while
others are not.
Multicellular
3.Cells- The basic working and structural unit of an organism.
True nucleus present Different cells work in different organs. They are structured

Small in size
Non-bounded membrane
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according to function. Organisms can either be single-celled or
Large in size
multicellular in nature.
Membrane-bounded
4.Tissues- Cells grouped together and perform specialized
functions.

7 basic characteristics of life: 5.Organ- This is a body part or a part of an organism which is
1. Nutrition
a made up of a group of tissues. An organ functions specifically
2. Reproduction in a body.
3. Excretion
4. Growth 6.Organism- The individual living species. Each thriving
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5. Movement plant/animal is an organism.
6. Respiration
7. Sensitivity 7.Populations- Group of species living in a specific area.
Exp: Crabs living in a coastal area.

8.Communities- Variety of species inhabiting a specific

area.This is the combination of different populations.
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9.Ecosystems- The biotic & abiotic factors in an area. This

includes not only the interaction between living things but also
between living and nonliving.

10. Biosphere- livable parts of the earth.

(spaces in land, water, and air.)

(1665) Robert Hooke published Micrographia, a book

describing organisms viewed under the microscope. The
invention of the microscope led him to the discovery of the cell
. While looking at cork, He observed box-shaped structures,
which he called "cells". This discovery led to the development
of classical cell theory.
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The generally accepted portions of the modern Cell
Theory are as follows:
• The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and
function in living things.
• All organisms are made up of one or more cells.
• Cells arise from other cells through cellular division.
PARTS/FUNCTIONS OF A CELL:
NUCLEUS-Regulates all cell activities
CELL MEMBRANE-Is made out of phospholipids and
proteins
MITOCHONDRION- Site of cellular respiration "power
house"
LYSOSOME-Suicide Sacks that contain digestive enzymes
ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM-Contains
a (1800s,The Father of Evolution) Charles Darwin
Ribosomes, transports proteins and other materials
SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM- Contains no
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ribosomes, stores proteins
GOGI COMPLEX (APPARATUS)- Processes and packages
proteins
NUCLEOLUS- Dark spot of chromatin in the nucleus where
ribosomes are produced
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CYTOPLASM- Colloid that contains water and nutrients and
supports the organelles
ORGANELLES- The parts of a cell with a particular
function
PROKARYOTIC- Cells with no true nucleus and no
membrane bound organelles
EUKARYOTIC-Cells that contain a true nucleus and
membrane bound organelles
CENTRIOLES-Only in animal cells, aid in cell division
RIBOSOMES- Produce Proteins
CHLOROPLAST-Found only in plants, site of
photosynthesis
VACUOLES- Large storage sacks found mainly in
plants
CELL WALL-Structure in plants made of cellulose that
is outside of the cell membrane
CYTOSKELETON- Long protein filaments in the
cytosol that support the cell.
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Evolution- scientific thought that would explain or make
sense of all the organisms now. Fossil records show that
organisms have been evolving for billions of years now,
and that this accounts for the vast diversity and variation
of organisms in the past and present.
published the book, "The Origin of Species", which
expressed two main points.
1) "contemporary species arose from a succession of
ancestors that differed from them". This is what we call
descent with modification and accounts for the dual
nature of life's unity and diversity.
2)Second, that “natural selection is the primary reason
for descent with modification”.
Natural selection
Darwin's theory of evolution states that species with
inherited traits are more likely to survive and reproduce
than those who are not. This is because the environment
constantly selects for the production of traits from
random variant traits naturally occurring within a
population.
This is a requirement for organisms to perform life
processes like growing, reproducing, moving, and other
intracellular processes. A characteristic common to all
forms of life is the need for energy - this is how an
organism spends its energy.
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Sun- primary source of energy in the environment. All
organisms rely on the sun's energy input to survive.
Autotrophs or producers are photosynthetic organisms. These
organisms are able to harvest sunlight to create their own food.
This process is called photosynthesis.
The chemical energy in the form of food molecules will then be
passed by plants and other photosynthetic organisms to other
organisms that are not able to produce their own food. The
organisms receiving the energy from producers are called
consumers, while the organisms receiving it are called
producers.
LESSON 12: GENETIC ENGINEERING & GMOS
Genetic Engineering- ( aka Genetic Modification) - process of
changing an organism's genome using biotechnology, discusses
basic concepts of GE and identifying some of the Genetically
Modified Organisms/GMOs.
Biotechnology- use of biological techniques and engineered
organisms to make products/plants and animals that have
desired traits.
a Established and emerging biotechnology in animal
DIFFERENT PROCESSES
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• Restriction Enzymes
Cutting of the DNA strands into fragments. Creates DNA
fragments with sticky/blunt ends that can join with other DNA
fragments.
• Gel Electrophoresis
Separates DNA fragments by size; studies DNA fragments of
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various sizes.
• Recombinant DNA Technology Combination of a DNA
fragment with the DNA from another source also called
exogenous DNA.
• Gene Cloning
Production of large numbers of identical recombinant DNA
molecules. Create large amounts of recombinant DNA to be
used in genetically engineered organisms.
• DNA Sequencing
is used to identify the DNA sequence of cloned recombinant
DNA molecule to further study and errors in the DNA
sequences to predict the function of a particular gene and to
compare to other genes with similar sequences
from different organisms.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) makes copies of specific
regions of sequenced DNA for any scientific investigation
including forensic analysis and medical testing.
3 TYPES OF GENETIC MODIFICATION
1. Plant Genetic Modification
Easiest method of plant genetic modification used by our
wandering ancestors and until today, is simple selection. That
is, a genetically heterogeneous population of plants is
inspected, and "superior" individuals. Plants with the most
desired traits are selected for continued propagation.
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ex. Production of pest-resistant plants
ex. Increase of crop production
2. Animal Genetic Modification
Modern breeds of livestock differ from their ancestors as a
result of breeding strategies.
agriculture include:
assisted reproductive technologies;
use of naturally occurring hormones, such as recombinants, and
biotechnologies to enhance reproductive efficiency without
affecting the genome; and biotechnologies to enhance
expression of desirable genes.
ex. Increase of milk production per cow
ex. Double production of eggs in chickens
3.Genetic Modification of Microbes
Food, wine, bread and cheese are common examples of ancient
foods that depend on microbial ingredients and activities.
Microorganisms play an important role in food production and
can produce enzymes and other metabolites used in the
production and processing of food. They are also involved in
food spoilage and decomposition.
ex. Increase microbe-dependent-food production
ex. Increase human immunity/ resistance to
microbe-caused-diseases
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ADVANTAGE: LESSON 13: ORGAN SYSTEM
-One of the main reasons why scientists conduct Genetic
Engineering (GE) is to provide and sustain humans with a Organ system-a group of organs that work together to perform
better quality of life. a certain function in an
organism’s body.
1. Makes agricultural practices much safer by reducing, if not
totally eliminating the use of pesticides. Disorders of the Organ Systems

Purpose:This creates greater yields since farmers will no • Skeletal System

longer spend extra money for pesticides leading to improved Osteoporosis – This disorder is prevalent in the elderly. The
growth rate of crops and consequently create better food bone loses calcium and becomes
products. GE allows specific traits to be developed for plants thinner, resulting in the loss of bone tissue.
and animals.

2. Improve resistance to diseases and even stop genetic
diseases in humans. We already have genetic testing in place to
test for certain cancers.
Purpose: (GE) could be used to help treat or cure people who
are born with genetic disorders. Different tools of genetic
engineering could produce novel medical treatments like
vaccines, insulin, and even hormone treatment. It also allows
a Pneumonia – is an infection that inflames the air sacs in one or
us to be proactive more often against pathogens that can have
life-threatening characteristics.
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DISADVANTAGE:
1. Amount of diversity that is available is limited. The industry
will focus on the product or organism that performs well.
2. Prone to technological abuse. Currently, we have laws and
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C.
• Nervous System
Alzheimer’s Disease – This disorder impacts mental functions
and memory. It is an irreversible, progressive brain disorder
that slowly destroys memory and thinking skills and,
eventually, the ability to carry out the simplest tasks.
• Respiratory System
both lungs. The air sacs may fill with fluid or pus (purulent
material), causing cough with phlegm or pus, fever, chills, and
difficulty breathing. A variety of organisms, including bacteria,
viruses and fungi, can cause pneumonia.
• Circulatory System
Stroke – A stroke occurs when the blood supply to part of
your brain is interrupted or reduced,preventing brain
tissue from getting oxygen and nutrients. Brain cells
begin to die in minutes.

treaties in place to prevent genetic engineering abuse but that
doesn't mean abuse on its use will not occur
3. The GE process can only be copyrighted in the US. That
makes the rule more profitable for
organizations to study DNA manipulation instead of working
for the good of humanity.
• Urinary System
Kidney Disease – This is a disease of the kidneys where
they are damaged and can’t filter blood properly. Kidney
disease can cause waste to build up in the body, leading to
sepsis.

4. It can bring difficult legal liabilities with unintended

consequences/ Seeds and crops also can be patented. (GE)
create a barrier against disease and harsh environmental
conditions, but they also extend the resilience of plants and
animals. The changes made are not permanent and more
modifications are required over time because nature eventually
adapts. This brings issues for farmers who encounter GMOs on
their land due to unintentional spread.
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ORGAN SYSTEM PARTS/ ORGAN
Circulatory System Heart, Blood Vessels &
Blood
Digestive System Mouth, Esophagus, Stomach,
Liver, Gallbladder, Pancreas,
Small & large intestine.
Lymphatic System Spleen, Lymph Nodes and
Vessels, White Blood Cells, t
and B cells.
Muscular/Skeletal System Skeletal Structure ( Bones &
Cartilage) and Muscles
Control physiological
processes such as digestion,
circulation etc.
Reproductive/Endocrine Manufactures cells that
System create and support new life.
Regulates hormones and
relays chemical messages
throughout the body.
Respiratory System Provides oxygen and gas
exchange between the blood
and the environment.
Urinary System Filters wastes, toxins, excess
water and nutrients from the

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Nervous System Brain, Spinal Cord and circulatory system
Peripheral Nerves.

Reproductive System Reproductive organs &

Endocrine Glands such as Mechanical digestion- Chunks of food are broken into
the Hypothalamus, Pineal, smaller pieces.
Thyroid, Pancreas and
Chemical digestion- Large molecules like proteins and
Adrenals.
starches are broken into simpler units that can readily be
a
Respiratory System

Urinary System
Nose, Trachea, Lungs and
skin

Kidney, Bladder, Ureters and

absorbed.

Mouth > stomach > (liver & pancreas adjacent to

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Urethra stomach) > small intestines > large intestine

Small intestine- major site of chemical digestion, carried

ORGAN SYSTEM FUNCTIONS
Circulatory System Transports nutrients, gasses
(oxygen and carbon dioxide)
hormones, and wastes
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out by enzymes released from the pancreas and liver. The
small intestine is also the main site of nutrient absorption;
molecules like sugars and amino acids are taken up by
cells and transported into the bloodstream for use.

throughout the body.

Digestive System Convert air, food and water

into building materials for
living tissue. Breaks down
food, absorbs nutrients and
eliminates wastes.

Lymphatic System Destroys and removes

invalidating microbes and
viruses. Removes fat and
excess fluids from the body.

Muscular/Skeletal System Provides structure and

mobility and even controls
the movement of materials
through some organs.

Nervous System Relays electric signals,

directs behaviour and
movement, and helps