Kernel of a linear transformation
Dr. Hugo Villanueva Méndez
Universidad de las Américas Puebla
Escuela de Ciencias
Departamento de Actuarı́a, Fı́sica y Matemáticas
Otoño 2021
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
Kernel
Definition
Let T : V W be a linear transformation. Then the set of all vectors
v V that satisfy T v 0 is called the kernel of T
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
Kernel
Example
Let T : M2,3 M3,2 defined by T A AT .
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
Kernel
Example
The kernel of the zero transformation T : V W is
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
Kernel
Example
The kernel of the zero transformation T : V W is ker T V.
The kernel of the identity transformation T : V V is ker T
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
Kernel
Example
Let T : R3 R2 be defined as T x, y, z x, y .
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
Kernel
Example
Let T : R3 R2 be defined as T x, y, z x, y .
ker T 0, 0, z : z R .
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
Kernel
Example
Let T : R2 R3 defined as T x1 , x2 x1 2x2 , 0, x1 .
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
Kernel
Example
Let T : R2 R3 defined as T x1 , x2 x1 2x2 , 0, x1 .
ker T 0 .
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
Kernel
Theorem
The kernel of a linear transformation T : V W is a subspace of V .
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
Kernel
Theorem
The kernel of a linear transformation T : V W is a subspace of V .
Proof
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
Definition
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
Definition
Theorem
If A is an m n matrix, then the set of all solutions of the homogeneous
system of linear equations Ax 0 is a subspace of Rn called the
nullspace of A and it is denoted by N A .
N A x Rn : Ax 0 .
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
Definition
Theorem
If A is an m n matrix, then the set of all solutions of the homogeneous
system of linear equations Ax 0 is a subspace of Rn called the
nullspace of A and it is denoted by N A .
N A x Rn : Ax 0 .
The dimension of N A is called the nullity of A, denoted by null A .
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
Kernel
Corollary
Let T : Rn Rm be the linear transformation T x Ax. Then the
kernel of T is equal to the nullspace of A.
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
The nullspace
Example
Find the nullspace of
1 2 2 1 1 2 0 3
A 3 6 5 4 0 0 1 1
1 2 0 3 0 0 0 0
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
The nullspace
Example
Find the nullspace of
1 2 2 1 1 2 0 3
A 3 6 5 4 0 0 1 1
1 2 0 3 0 0 0 0
The system corresponding is
x1 2x2 3x4 0
x3 x4 0
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
The nullspace
The solutions in parametric form is
x1 2s 3t, x2 s, x3 t, x4 t, t R.
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
The nullspace
The solutions in parametric form is
x1 2s 3t, x2 s, x3 t, x4 t, t R. Thus, the nullspace of A
consists of all vectors of the form
x1 2s 3t 2 3
x2 s 1 0
x s t
x3 t 0 1
x4 t 0 1
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
The nullspace
A basis for the nullspace is
2 3
1 0
S ,
0 1
0 1
All solutions are linear combinations of these two vectors.
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
Kernel
Example
Let T : R3 R2 defined by T v Av where
1 1 2
A
1 2 3
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
Kernel
Example
Let T : R3 R2 defined by T v Av where
1 1 2 1 0 1
A
1 2 3 0 1 1
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
Kernel
Example
Let T : R3 R2 defined by T v Av where
1 1 2 1 0 1
A
1 2 3 0 1 1
ker T t 1, 1, 1 : t R span 1, 1, 1 .
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
Kernel
Example
Let T : R5 R4 be defined by T x Ax, where
1 2 0 1 1 1 0 2 0 1
2 1 3 1 0 0 1 1 0 2
A
1 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 4
0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 0 0
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
Kernel
Example
Let T : R5 R4 be defined by T x Ax, where
1 2 0 1 1 1 0 2 0 1
2 1 3 1 0 0 1 1 0 2
A
1 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 4
0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 0 0
Find a basis for ker T .
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
Kernel
Example
Let T : R5 R4 be defined by T x Ax, where
1 2 0 1 1 1 0 2 0 1
2 1 3 1 0 0 1 1 0 2
A
1 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 4
0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 0 0
Find a basis for ker T .
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
Kernel
Example
Let T : R5 R4 be defined by T x Ax, where
1 2 0 1 1 1 0 2 0 1
2 1 3 1 0 0 1 1 0 2
A
1 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 4
0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 0 0
Find a basis for ker T .
Solution
B 2, 1, 1, 0, 0 , 1, 2, 0, 4, 1 .
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
Dimension of the nullspace
Theorem
If A is an m n matrix of rank r, then the dimension of the solution set
of Ax 0 (the nullspace) is n r. That is, n rank A null A .
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
The nullspace
Example
Find (a) the rank and the nullity of A, and (b) a subset of the column
vectors of A that form a basis for the column space of A and a basis for
the row space of A, if
1 0 2 1 0 1 0 2 0 1
0 1 3 1 3 0 1 3 0 4
A
2 1 1 1 3 0 0 0 1 1
0 3 9 0 12 0 0 0 0 0
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
Nullity
Definition
Let T : V W be a linear transformation. The dimension of ker T is
called the nullity of T and is denoted by null T .
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
Rank and nullity
Theorem
Let T : V W be a linear transformation from an n-dimensional vector
space V into a vector space W . Then
rank T null T n.
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
SLE
Question
Is x Rn : Ax b a subspace of Rn ?
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
SLE
Question
Is x Rn : Ax b a subspace of Rn ?
Observation
0 x Rn : Ax b .
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
SLE
Theorem
If xp is a particular solution of the nonhomogeneous system Ax b, then
every solution of this system can be written in the form x xp xh ,
where xh is a solution of the corresponding homogeneous system Ax 0.
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
SLE
Example
Find the solution set of the system
x1 2x3 x4 5
3x1 x2 5x3 8
x1 2x2 5x4 9
Solution
1 0 2 1 5 1 0 2 1 5
3 1 5 0 8 0 1 1 3 7
1 2 0 5 9 0 0 0 0 0
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
SLE
Example
Find the solution set of the system
x1 2x3 x4 5
3x1 x2 5x3 8
x1 2x2 5x4 9
Solution
1 0 2 1 5 1 0 2 1 5
3 1 5 0 8 0 1 1 3 7
1 2 0 5 9 0 0 0 0 0
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
SLE
The corresponding system is
x1 2x3 x4 5
x2 x3 3x4 7
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
SLE
The corresponding system is
x1 2x3 x4 5
x2 x3 3x4 7
The parametric form of the solution set is
x1 2s t 5 2 1 5
x2 s 3t 7 1 3 7
x s t
x3 s 1 0 0
x4 t 0 1 0
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
SLE
Then
5
7
xp is a particular solution of the system Ax b and
0
0
2 1
1 3
xh su1 tu2 s t represents a solution of
1 0
0 1
Ax 0.
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
SLE
(Big) Theorem
If A is an n n matrix, then the following are equivalent:
1 A is invertible.
2 Ax b has a unique solution for any n 1 matrix b.
3 Ax 0 has only the trivial solution.
4 A is row-equivalent to In .
5 det A 0.
6 rank A n.
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
SLE
(Big) Theorem
If A is an n n matrix, then the following are equivalent:
1 A is invertible.
2 Ax b has a unique solution for any n 1 matrix b.
3 Ax 0 has only the trivial solution.
4 A is row-equivalent to In .
5 det A 0.
6 rank A n.
7 The n row vectors of A are linearly independent.
8 The n column vectors of A are linearly independent.
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
One-to-one linear transformations
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
One-to-one linear transformations
Theorem
Let T : V W be a linear transformation. Then T is one-to-one if and
only if ker T 0 .
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
One-to-one linear transformations
Theorem
Let T : V W be a linear transformation. Then T is one-to-one if and
only if ker T 0 .
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
One-to-one linear transformation
Example
T : Mm,n Mn,m , defined by T A AT is
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
One-to-one linear transformation
Example
T : Mm,n Mn,m , defined by T A AT is one-to-one.
The zero transformation is
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
Onto transformation
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
Onto transformation
Theorem
Let T : V W be a linear transformation, where W is finite dimensional.
Then T is onto if and only if the rank of T is equal to the dimension of W .
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
Onto transformation
Theorem
Let T : V W be a linear transformation, where W is finite dimensional.
Then T is onto if and only if the rank of T is equal to the dimension of W .
Theorem
Let T : V W be a linear transformation with vector spaces V and W ,
both of dimension n. Then T is one-to-one if and only if T is onto.
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
Isomorphisms
Definition
A linear transformation T : V W is called a isomorphism if it is
one-to-one and onto.
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
Isomorphisms
Definition
A linear transformation T : V W is called a isomorphism if it is
one-to-one and onto. Moreover, if V and W are vector spaces such that
there exists an isomorphism from V to W , then V and W are isomorphic
to each other.
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
Isomorphisms
Definition
A linear transformation T : V W is called a isomorphism if it is
one-to-one and onto. Moreover, if V and W are vector spaces such that
there exists an isomorphism from V to W , then V and W are isomorphic
to each other.
Theorem
Two finite-dimensional vector spaces V and W are isomorphic if and only
if they are of the same dimension.
Villanueva (UDLAP) Kernel of a linear transformation Otoño 2021
