Professional Documents
Culture Documents
• Forward z-transform
EN5101 Digital Control Systems
• Inverse z transform methods
z-Transforms – Power series, Recursive, Partial Fraction expansion
• z-transform Applications
• Applications of z-transform
– Pole-zero description of discrete-time systems
Prof. Rohan Munasinghe – Stability consideration
Dept of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering – Difference Equations
University of Moratuwa
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The z-transform
Region of convergence (ROC) of Z- transform
• The z-transform of a sequence, x(n), which is valid for all
n, is defined as power series • The region of convergence (ROC) of X(z) is the set of all
∞
values of z for which X(z) attains a finite value.
X ( z) = x ( n) z
n = −∞
−n
• The region where the z-transform converges is known as
the region of convergence (ROC) and in this region, the
where X(z) = Z{x(n)} and z=rejω is a complex variable
values of X(z) are finite.
• In causal system x(n) = 0 for n < 0, x(n) may be nonzero • Thus, any time we cite a z-transform we should also
value only in the interval 0< n< ∞, so one sided z-transform indicate its ROC.
can be written as follow. ∞
X ( z ) = x ( n) z − n
n =0
Example Solution
x1(n) = [1,2,5,7,0,1]
Determine the z-transform of the following finite-duration x1(n) is finite length sequence. It is causal case and having
signals. n = 0 to 5. Therefore,
• (a) x1(n) = [1,2,5,7,0,1] x1(0)=1, x1(1)=2, x1(2)=5, x1(3)=7, x1(4)=0, x1(5)=1
• (b) x2(n) = [1,2,5,7,0,1]
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↑ X 1 ( z ) = x1 (n) z − n
• (c) x3(n) = [0,0,1,2,5,7,0,1] n =0
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X2(n) = [1,2, 5,7,0,1] (e) x5(n) = δ(n)
X2(n) is finite length sequence and double sided (non- By definition,
causal case) having n=-2 to 3. Therefore, 1 for n = 0
δ ( n) =
x2(-2)=1, x2(-1)=2, x2(0)=5, x2(1)=7, x2(2)=0, x2(3)=1 0 else
3 By using general formula,
X2 (z) = x2 (n)z−n
∞
n=−2
−1 −2 −3
=1z + 2z + 5z + 7z + 0z +1z
2 1 0 ∞
= z + 2z + 5 + 7z + z
2 −1 −3
= δ ( n) z
n = −∞
−n
= δ (0) z −0
= 1× 1 = 1
The ROC is entire z-plane except at z = 0 and z = ∞.
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1 for n > 0
u (n ) =
0 for n < 0
The signal x(n) consists of an infinite number of non-zero
samples for n> 0.
x(n) = [1, (1/2), (1/2)2, (1/2)3,…………, (1/2)n,….]
The z-transform of the x(n) is the infinite power series
X(z) = 1 + ½ z-1 + (1/2)2 z -2 + ……(1/2)n z -n +….
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Example
∞ n ∞
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X ( z ) = z − n = ( z −1 ) n Find the z-transform
and the region of
n=0 2 n =0 2
convergence for
• This is an infinite geometric series, we recall that each of the discrete-
time sequence
1
1 + a + a 2 + a 3 + ......... = if | a |< 1
1− a
where ‘a’ is the common ratio of the series. Consequently,
1
X (z) = if (1 / 2 ) z − 1 < 1
1 − (1 / 2 ) z − 1
ROC : | z |> 1 / 2
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Fig 1 sample sequences
X ( z) = x (n) z
n = −∞
−n
= x ( n) z
n = −7
−n
= x ( n) z
n = −6
−n
n = −∞ n = −4 n = −3
− ( −3) − ( −2 )
X 1( z ) = (−6) z −( −6 ) + x(−5) z −( −5) + x(−4) z −( −4 ) + x(−3) z −( −3)
X 2( z ) = x(−3).z + x(−2).z + x(−1).z −( −1) + x(0).z −( 0 )
............... + x(−2) z −( −2) + x(−1) z −( −1) + x(0) z 0 ............. + x(1) z −1 + x(2).z − 2 + x(3) Z −3
X 1( z ) = 0 z −( −6 ) + 1z −( −5) + 3 z −( −4) + 5 z −( −3) + 3 z −( −2 ) + 1z −( −1) + 0 z 0 X 2 ( z ) = 0.z 3 + 1.z 2 + 3.z 1 + 5 z 0 + 3.z −1 + 1.z − 2 + 0.z −3
X 1 ( z ) = z 5 + 3z 4 + 5 z 3 + 3 z 2 + z1 X 2 ( z ) = z 2 + 3z + 5 + 3z −1 + z − 2
• It is readily verified that the value of X(z) becomes It is evident that the value of X(z) is infinite if z =0 or if
infinite when z = ∞. Thus the ROC is everywhere in z = ∞. So ROC is everywhere except z =0 and z = ∞.
the z- plane except at z = ∞.
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(d) It is a causal sequence of infinite duration. The z-transform of the • Thus, power series of X4(z) converges if
sequence is given by:
∞
z − 1 < 1 and equivalent ly if z > 1 .
X ( z) = x ( n) z
n = −∞
−n
X 4 ( z ) = 1 + z + z − 2 + ......
−1 X ( z ) = 1 + z −1 + z −2 + ......
• This is a geometric series with a common ratio of Z-1. 1 z
X ( z) = =
• Generally, geometric series with a common ratio of ‘a’ can be
expressed as ∞ n
(1 − z −1 ) z − 1
1
n =0
a =
1 − a a < 1. • In this case, the z-transform is valid everywhere outside a circle of
• Which is a closed form of power series with common ratio ‘a’ and unit radius (ie |z| =1) whose centre is at the origin. The exterior of
the series converges if the circle is the region of convergence.
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Unit Circle
The Unit Circle in the Complex The ROC of sequence (d), the
z- Plane shaded area is ROC
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• Symbolically, the inverse z-transform may be defined X 3( z ) = x(0) + x(1) z −1 + x(2) z − 2 + x(3) z −3 + x(4) z − 4 + ......
as:
x(n) = Z -1 [X(z)] • It is seen that the values of x(n) are the coefficients of
z –n ( for n= 0, 1,2, ……) and so can be obtained
directly by inspection.
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Power Series Method
• In practice, X (z) is often expressed as a ratio of two
polynomials in z -1 or equivalently in z, • Given the z-transform X(z) of a causal sequence, it can
be expanded into an infinite series in z -1 or z by long
division ( sometimes called synthetic division):
a0 + a1 z −1 + a2 z −2 + ...... + a N z − N
X ( z) = ........(4.1)
b0 + b1 z −1 + b2 z − 2 + ...... + bN z − M a0 + a1 z −1 + a2 z −2 + ...... + a N z − N
X ( z) =
b0 + b1 z −1 + b2 z − 2 + ...... + bN z − M
• In this form, the inverse z-transform, x (n), may be
obtained using one of several methods including the X ( z ) = x(0) + x(1) z −1 + x(2) z − 2 + x(3) z −3 + .......
following three:
(a) Power series expansion method • In this method, the numerator and denominator of X(z)
are first expressed in either descending powers of z or
(b) Recursive method
ascending powers of z -1 and the quotient is then
(c) Partial fraction expansion method obtained by long division.
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Example
• Given the following z-transform of a causal LTI system,
obtain its IZT (Inverse Z- Transform) by expanding it into
a power series using long division:
1 + 2 z −1 + z −2
X ( z) =
1 − z −1 + 0.3561z − 2
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Recursive Method
a0 + a1 z −1 + a2 z −2 + ...... + a N z − N
X ( z) =
b0 + b1 z −1 + b2 z − 2 + ...... + bN z − M
x(0) = a0/b0
x(1) = [a1-x(0)b1]/b0
x(2)=[a2 – x(1)b1 – x(0)b2 ]/b0
Generally,
n
x(n) = an − x(n − i )bi / b0 ,...n = 1,2,3...
i =1
where x(0) = a0/b0
We will repeat the previous example to illustrate the
recursive approach.
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• Case 1: If N ≤ M ie the order of the numerator is less • Case 3: If X(z) contains one or more multiple-order
than that of the denominator in X(z) expression, then B0 poles ( that is poles that are coincident) then extra
will be zero. terms are required in the partial fraction equation.
• Case 2: If N>M, then X(z) must be reduced first to make • For example, if X(z) contains an mth-order pole at
N ≤ M by long division.
z = pk the partial fraction expansion must include
• The coefficient, Ck, associated with the pole pk may be
terms of the form
obtained by multiplying both sides of the equation by (z -
pk) /z and then letting z = pk.
X ( z)
Ck = ( z − pk )
z z= pk
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Example
The coefficients, Di, may be obtained from the relationship Find the inverse z-transform of the following transfer
function H(z).
(1 − z −1 )
H ( z) =
(1 − z −1 − 6 z − 2 )
Solution:
Since N < M, case 1.
Evaluation of inverse z-transforms by the partial fraction First, H(z) is converted for positive power of z.
expansion method is best illustrated by examples.
A B
H ( z) = +
(1 − 3 z ) (1 + 2 z −1 )
−1
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To find A
2/5 3/ 5
A = H ( z )(1 − 3 z −1 ) | z −1 =1/ 3 H ( z) = +
(1 − 3 z ) (1 + 2 z −1 )
−1
1 − z −1 1 − z −1
A=
( −1 −1
1 − 3z (1 + 2 z )
1 − 3z −1
) ( ) =
(1 + 2 z −1 )
x ( n) = α n u ( n)
−1
z =1 / 3 −1
z =1 / 3 By comparing to the z transform
1
1−1/ 3 2/3 2 X ( z) =
A= = = 1 − αz −1
(1 + 2 ×1 / 3) 5 / 3 5
To find B The unit sample response of given system is:
B = H ( z )(1 + 2 z −1 ) | z −1 = −1/ 2 h(n) = (2/5)(3)nu(n) + 3/5 (-2)nu(n)
1 − z −1 1 − z −1 = [(2/5)(3)n + 3/5 (-2)n]u(n)
B=
( −1
) −1
1 − 3 z (1 + 2 z )
(
1 + 2 z −1 ) =
(1 − 3z −1 ) z −1 = −1/ 2
z −1 = −1/ 2
1 − ( −1 / 2) 1+1/ 2 3 / 2
B= = = = 3/ 5
1 − 3 × (−1 / 2) 1 + 3 / 2 5 / 2 43 44
Example • To change positive power of z by multiplying all terms
with z2 we get,
z
Find the inverse z-transform of the following X(z): X ( z) =
z − 0.25 z − 0.375
2
z −1
X ( z) = z
1 − 0.25 z −1 − 0.375 z − 2 X ( z) =
( z − 0.75)( z + 0.5)
To find C1 Then
Example
To obtain D2,
( z − 1) 2 X ( z ) z 1
D2 = = = =2
z z =1
z − 0.5 z =1 1 − 0.5
Combining the results, X(z) becomes,
2z 2z 2z
X ( z) = − +
( z − 0.5) ( z − 1) ( z − 1) 2
The inverse z-transform of each term on the right hand
side is obtained from table 1 and summed to give x(n) as
follows.
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Properties of the z-transform Shifting Property
(1) Linearity Shifting a sequence (delaying or advancing) multiplies
the z-transform by a power of z, that is to say, if x(n)
If the sequences x1(n) and x2(n) have a z-transform X1(z) has a z-transform X(z)
and X2(z), then the z-transform of their linear combination
x(n – k) ⇔ z-kX(z)
is:
ax1(n) + bx2(n) ⇔ aX1(z) + bX2(z)
Shifting does not change the region of convergence.
Therefore, the z-transform of x(n) and x(n – k) have the same
and the ROC will include the intersection of Rx and Ry, that region of convergence.
is Rx ∩ Ry..
Eg. x(n-2) ⇔ z-2X(z)
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Properties: Convolution Theorem
Multiplication by an Exponential
Perhaps the most important z-transform property is the
convolution theorem, which states that convolution in the time
If a sequence x(n) is multiplied by a complex exponential αn, domain is mapped into multiplication in the frequency domain,
αnx(n) ⇔ X(α-1z) that is,
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Generalized
for any n
For a given n -
convolution
length
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Example Properties: Derivative
Consider the two sequences
x(n) = αnu(n) and If X(z) is the z-transform of x(n), the z-transform of nx(n) is
h(n) = δ(n) - αδ(n – 1)
If y(n) is convolution of x(n) and h(n), find the sequence y(n)
Repeated application of this property allows for the evaluation of
Solution:
the z-transform of nkx(n) for any integer k.
The z-transform of x(n) is
X(z) = 1/(1 - αz-1) |z| > |α| and
the z-transform of h(n) is
H(z) = 1 - αz-1 |z| > 0
x (0 ) = lim X ( z )
Convolution x(n) ∗ y(n) X(z) Y(z) Contains Rx ∩ Ry z→ ∞
dX ( z )
Derivative nx(n) −z Rx
dz
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Example
Example
Let x(n) be a left-sided sequence that is equal to zero for n > 0.
If X(z) = (3z-1 + 2z-2)/(3 – z-1 + z-2), find x(0). Generalize the initial value theorem to find the value of
a causal sequence x(n) at n = 1, and find x(1) when
Solution: X(z) = (2 + 6z-1)/(4 – 2z-2 + 13z -3).
For a left-sided sequence that is zero for n>0, the
z-transform is X(z) = x(0) + x(-1)z + x(-2)z2 + ……….. Solution:
Therefore, it follows that If x(n) is causal,
x (0) = lim X ( z ) X(z) = x(0) + x(1)z-1 + x(2)z-2 + …
z →0
Therefore, note that if we subtract x(0) from X(z),
For the given z-transform, we see that X(z) – x(0) = x(1)z-1 + x(2)z-2 + …
3z −1 + 2z −2 z 2 3z + 2
x(0) = lim X (z) = lim −1 −2
× 2 = lim 2 =2 By multiplying both sides of this equation by z, we have,
z→0 z →0 3− z + z z z →0 3z − z + 1 z[X(z) – x(0)] = x(1) + x(2)z-1 + …
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