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Environmental Management in the

Oil, Gas and related Energy Industries
in Ghana
Eric Danso-Boateng

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April 2013, Volume 4, No.2
International Journal of Chemical and Environmental Engineering

Environmental Management in the Oil, Gas and

related Energy Industries in Ghana
O-W. Achawa,* , E. Danso-Boatengb
a
Department of Chemical Engineering ,Kumasi Polytechnic, Kumasi, Ghana
b
Department of Chemical Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK

*Corresponding AuthorE-mail:owach@hotmail.com

Abstract:
In view of the past experiences with the oil, gas and related energy industries in the West African sub-region, there is increased
apprehension among Ghanaians on how the recent oil find would impact the environment and whether the nation has the requisite
expertise and capacity to manage the oil in an environmentally friendly manner. The apprehension is further heightened by the
generally perceived weak environmental regulatory regime in the country. The study used plant and institutional visits, interviews and
questionnaires to investigate the waste management practices of four major companies in the oil, gas and related energy industries in
Ghana. It sought to find out among others the nature of waste generated by these entities, how the waste they generate are handled, to
what extent their activities impact on the environment, the sort of uses to which the waste are put, and the regulatory regime within
which they operate. The study revealed that the activities of all the companies impacted on water bodies in their catchment area. Only
two (2) out of the four (4) industries studied have comprehensive waste treatment facilities at their plants. The study further revealed
that the Environmental Protection Agency of Ghana (EPA-Ghana) has not been able to sanction those companies violating its
regulations. Unless EPA-Ghana and other relevant regulatory bodies rigorously enforce the environmental regulations of the country,
the environment of Ghana will continue suffer degradation as a result of the activities of the oil, gas and related energy industries.

Keywords: Ghana; environment; oil waste; regulatory bodies; waste management; Environmental Protection Agency

and carbon among others. These waste materials have

1. Introduction
The oil, gas and related energy industries, as a result of
the huge volumes of products they churn out, also
generate significant waste which when not properly
handled are known to cause a lot of damage to the
environment [1-3]. Right from the well head where the
crude oil is produced, through the refinery processes,
down to the final point of utility, potential threats to the
environment exist. At the well head, the degradation of
flora and fauna as a result of movement and activities of
heavy duty equipment is imminent [4]. Flaring of
associated gas releases combustion gases into the
atmosphere; these gases have been established to
contribute to acid rain and climate change. Also, leakages
and spillage of oil as a result of equipment failure can
sometimes lead to catastrophe onto the environment. The
much publicized April 2010 oil spillage in the Gulf of
Mexico by BP Oil Company is a case in point [5]. During
transportation and storage of crude oil and natural gas
similar hazards lurk. The 1985 Exxon Vadez accident
provides an example in this regard. Crude refinery and
natural gas processing activities produce, among others,
huge quantities of oily wastewater, lower molecular
weight hydrocarbons, heavy metals, organic and
inorganic compounds of sulfur, and the oxides of nitrogen
adverse implications on the environment when they are
released without treatment. The combustion of natural gas
and oil products to produce energy either for electricity
generation, operation of internal combustion engines, or
for other commercial uses results in the production of
large volumes of combustion gases. These gases
inevitably enter into the environment and contribute to
climate change. More often than not, these materials also
directly affect human health when they come into contact
with the body.
In order to control, manage or eliminate the
environmental hazards associated with the oil, gas and
related energy industries, technology and regulations are
often the preferred instruments of choice. Technology can
help minimize the occurrence of accidents and hence
damage to the environment. For instance, double hulled
ocean going tankers have mitigated the high incidence of
oil spillage into the oceans as a result of collision or
grounding [6]. Technology is also used to foster rapid
response when a threat to the environment is imminent
[7]. When pollution of the environment finally occurs,
technology is often used to restore the environment or
mitigate the impact of pollution on the environment.
Regulatory bodies on the other hand provide guidelines,
monitoring and sanctions regimes that check the industry
 Environmental Management in the Oil, Gas and related Energy Industries in Ghana
and thus encourage, advice or compel players in the
industry to adopt measures and technologies that
minimize or eliminate threat to the environment.
In Ghana, the recent discovery of oil and gas in
commercial quantities has suddenly heightened public
awareness of the potential dangers to the environment that
the production, processing and utility of oil products can
pose. The recent spillage of toxic drilling mud [8] into the
maritime boundaries of Ghana by Kosmos Energy, an oil
exploration company, and earlier ones by Tema Oil
Refinery (a local refinery company) into the Gulf of
Guinea [9] have awakened the nation to what it stands to
lose if care is not taken even as it celebrates its oil find.
The experiences of other oil producing nations in the
West African sub-region, particularly, the Niger delta of
Nigeria, provide useful lessons in this regard [10, 11]. It
is, for instance, estimated that between 1976 and 1996, a
total of 4,835 incidents resulted in the spillage of at least
2.4 million barrels of oil, of which an estimated 1.89
million barrels were lost to the environment in the Niger
Delta of Nigeria alone.
1.1 Objectives
This study used industrial visits, interviews, and
questionnaires to investigate the potential threats to the
environment of the anticipated exploitation of the recent
oil find in Ghana. Specifically, it sought to identify the
specific wastes produced by industries working in the
crude production, crude oil refinery, petroleum and
related products storage, and thermal power plant
facilities that utilize hydrocarbons as the main fuel. It also
sought to study the technologies available at these
industries to treat the crude oil and related products
wastes, the potential uses for the waste as well as the
regulatory regimes within which the industries operate in
Ghana in order to assess the extent of compliance of these
companies. It is anticipated that the results of this study
will inform the development of measures to curb the
potential threat to the environment that will inevitably
accompany the exploitation of crude oil and related
products in commercial quantities in Ghana.
2. Methods and Materials
Only those industries that responded to an invitation to
participate in the exercise were included in the study. The
industries covered included those in crude oil and natural
gas production, crude oil processing, petroleum and
related products storage, and thermal power production.
The national regulatory agencies, namely, the EPA-Ghana
and the Factories Inspectorate Department of the Ministry
of Employment and Social Welfare, Ghana (FID-Ghana)
were also included. The study employed industrial and
institutional visits, interviews, questionnaires, and
desktop studies for the investigation. Planned visits to the
plants were also undertaken during which a walkthrough
of the facilities were carried out with guidance from
technical personnel. During the visits, observations were
117
made of equipment, waste generation and handling, and
the general operations and organization of the plants. Unit
managers of the plants and departmental officers were
interviewed wherever necessary. Lastly, literature on
environmental and waste management in the crude oil
exploitation and related industries and the legislative
regime regarding environmental practices in the Ghana
were also reviewed. The results of the study were
qualitatively analyzed.
3. Results and Discussions
The list of companies and institutions that participated in
the study is shown in Table 1. The choice of plants and
institutions was dictated by the extent of their presence in
Ghana, but also so that a holistic view of the industry with
regard to the impact on the environment would be
achieved. The crude oil production company operates an
offshore facility in Ghana and its main product is crude
oil. The refinery company operates a complex facility that
includes a crude distillation unit, a residual catalytic
cracking unit, a Merox unit, a sulfur production facility,
an array of waste treatment units, and storage depots for
crude oil, liquefied petroleum gas, and refinery products.
The thermal power plant produces electricity from
Table 1. Relevant companies and institutions studied
Percentage
Company/I Number in Number Visited/
Coverage
nstitution Ghana Interviewed
(%)
Crude Oil
2 1 50
Production
Crude
Processing
1 1 100
Bulk Oil
8 1 12.5
Storage
Thermal
4 1 25
Power Plant
Monitoring
Agencies
4 2 50
hydrocarbons (petroleum and natural gas). Its facilities
include combustors, gas and steam turbines, generators,
process water treatment units and an array of waste
treatment entities. All petroleum and related products
storage facilities in Ghana are currently owned and
operated by the government. Nationwide, eight such
facilities exist whose main functions are the reception and
storage of petroleum products and distribution of same to
retailers scattered across the country. They also stock and
oversee the strategic oil reserves of the country. Also, on
Table 1 are the environmental regulatory bodies in the
country. EPA-Ghana is the main regulatory body which
by an Act of the Parliament of Ghana is mandated to
among others, monitor and enforce environmental
regulations in the country. Others bodies who play a
complementary role, especially, where environmental and
waste management in the crude oil and related industries
is concerned are the Ghana National Petroleum Company,
the Ministry responsible for shipping, and the FID-Ghana.
EPA-Ghana and FID-Ghana were included in the study.
 Environmental Management in the Oil, Gas and related Energy Industries in Ghana

3.1 Waste generated by the companies Table 2. Types of wastes generated by companies
All the companies studied generated waste as shown in
Table 2. The types of waste generated by these companies Industry Waste Generated
include solids, liquid effluents and gaseous emissions.
The crude processing company generated the widest array Crude Spent chemical solutions, waste oil, plastics, toxic
Production drilling mud, empty drums, office and domestic
of waste followed by the thermal power plant. waste.
Understandably, the bulk oil storage company generated
the least amount of waste as its activities do not Crude Process effluents (oily wastewater, sour water,
Processing desalter wastewater, spent amine solution, spent
necessitate the processing or conversion of materials. The cuastic), oil free wastewater, metal scraps, spent
core of oil waste from this industry stemmed mostly from catalyst, charcoal bags, drums, oil sludge, sewage,
leakages and occasional spillage that occur during the CO, CO2, H2S, SOx, NOx, NH3, off-gas, office and
discharge and loading of crude oil products. Each type of domestic waste.
waste generated by the industries has the potential to Bulk Oil Waste oil, domestic and office waste.
impact negatively on the environment if not treated before Storage
disposal into the environment. The potential effects of the
Thermal NOx, SOx, CO, CO2, particulate matter, oily
waste generated by the industries studied on the Power Plant wastewater, oil free wastewater, oil-contaminated
environment are summarized in Table 3. The effects of solids, oil sludge, empty drums, office and domestic
these waste are numerous and varied. Some have very waste.
serious consequences on the environment if not checked.
Gaseous emissions like carbon dioxide and methane (off-
gas) have serious implications on climate change [12],
while others like sulfur dioxide and the oxides of nitrogen
are known to cause acid rain [13] which affects forest
cover. Oily wastewater if not treated before discharge can
affect aquatic life if it enters water bodies, or flora and
fauna if disposed onto the land. On the land the oil can
seep into aquifers and thereby adversely affect their use
for domestic purposes. The oil can also stagnate on the
land for years and render it useless for agricultural
purposes. Evaporation of hydrocarbons and other compounds
from leaked or spilled oil pollute the air and can cause
respiratory and other diseases when inhaled [14].

The location of these industries further complicates the

possible effect of the wastes they generate on the
environment. For instance, all the plants in this study are
located close to water bodies and urban centers. Thus, the
effluents from the plants if not properly managed, could
flow into the water bodies and affect aquatic life with
implications to the health and economic life of adjoining
communities. Similarly, gaseous and particulate
emissions from these plants have direct consequences on
the health of the urban population in the catchment areas
of the plants.

3.2 Waste handling by the companies

The manner the companies involved in the study manage
the waste they generate is shown in Table 4. The waste
management approaches can be grouped into three,
namely, waste reuse, direct waste dumping and waste
treatment prior to disposal. Mostly, the solid wastes are
not treated in any of the plants studied. They are either
sold for reuse or dumped to disposal sites. The gases and
liquid effluents however receive some treatment before
disposal in some cases. Wastes that are reused or recycled
are metal scraps, empty drums, treated oil sludge and
recovered oil. While the companies sell the metal scraps

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 Environmental Management in the Oil, Gas and related Energy Industries in Ghana

Table 3. Potential effects of wastes generated on the environment

Waste Type Potential Effect

Scraps Litter the landscape and limit land usage.

Empty drums Litter the environment and obstruct movement; serves as breeding grounds for mosquitoes; leaks residual
chemicals into environment.

Sludge Hurts aquatic life and limits surface water usage; destroys flora and fauna on land; renders land unfit for
agricultural use; disrupts economic activities such as fishing and recreation if it occurs in the sea.
Spent catalysts
If not disposed properly become nuisance to land and water bodies; associated heavy metals are poisonous.

Plastics Litter the landscape, limit land usage and choke drainage systems.

Charcoal bags Litter the landscape.

Particulate matter Pollutes the air and causes respiratory diseases.

Office waste Litters the landscape and limits land usage; could be source of fire.

Food waste Gives bad odor and serves as breeding ground for microbial agents.

Process effluents Pollute water bodies, aquifers, and gives bad odor; they can be sources of microbial breeding, pollution of flora
and fauna; renders land unfit for agricultural and domestic use.

Oil free wastewater Pollutes water bodies and aquifers; are source of microbial growth.

Oily wastewater Pollutes water bodies, adversely affects flora and fauna; affects land use and human health; disruptive of
economic activities such as agriculture, fishing and recreation.

Off-gas Causes climate change, pollutes surrounding air, affects human health

H2S Has very bad odor, pollutes air; is poisonous to human health.

Sour water Has very bad odor, affects flora and fauna, pollutes water bodies and affects land use.

Sewage Bad odor and sources of municipal diseases.

NOx/SOx Has bad odor; causes acid rain and hence adversely affects flora, fauna and land use.

Oil-contaminated solids Litter the landscape, can be source of fire.

Drilling mud Pollutes water bodies and land; affects aquatic life and land usage.

and empty drums to dealers, the recovered oil is either
recycled for use in the plant or sold to secondary users.
For instance, the refinery company recycles recovered oil
to its catalytic cracking unit. On the other hand, the
thermal power plant sells the recovered oil to secondary
users. All other solid wastes are dumped at land filling
sites or collected by municipal waste agencies. The
wastes in this category include office wastes, spent
catalysts, food waste, plastics and charcoal bags.
It is only the crude refinery and the thermal power plants
that were found to treat the process wastes prior to
disposal. The bulk oil storage facility has no waste
treatment facility neither has the crude oil production
company. The bulk oil storage facility in particular
generates relatively little oily waste which is either
collected in waste ponds or allowed to drain off or
washed into a nearby stream. The crude oil production
company on the other hand collects and ships off its oily
waste, mostly oily mud and production chemicals to
secondary agents for treatment or disposal. Associated
gas generated by the latter company is however flared on
site. All liquid effluents and gaseous emissions except
fugitive emissions receive one kind of treatment or
another prior to disposal in those companies that treat
their wastes. In these companies, elaborate waste
treatments facilities exist to treat liquid and gaseous
waste. Table 4 shows the facilities available for waste
treatment at these plants. These include comprehensive
wastewater treatment plants that deal with both oily and
non-oily wastewater, and some process effluents. The
wastewater treatment unit of the crude oil refinery plant,
for instance, combines physical, chemical and biological
processes. The corresponding facility in the thermal
power plant uses physical and chemical methods to treat
mainly oily wastewater. Other wastewater treatment.

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 Environmental Management in the Oil, Gas and related Energy Industries in Ghana

functioning or only partly functioning. Out of the six

Table 4. Waste treatment methods employed by the companies
independent waste treatment facilities in the plant three
do not function at all. Only two are fully functioning. The
Waste Types Treatment Methods wastewater treatment plant that treated most of the
process effluents only functions partly. It presupposes that
Scraps Sold for reuse the company disposes off its effluents and gaseous
emissions without any treatment at all or only partly
Empty drums Sold for reuse
treated. Given that the plant is situated in an urban setting
Sludge Landfill, sold for use as fuel or used to and close to water bodies, this situation has serious
make concrete
adverse implications for the surface water, surrounding
Spent catalysts Landfill flora and fauna, and the health of inhabitants in the
surrounding communities.
Plastics Municipal collection The specific effects of the wastes generated by these
plants on the environment are shown in Table 6. Wastes
Charcoal bags Municipal collection
from each of the plants affect water bodies. The oil
Particulate matter Electromagnetic separators (EPS) production company’s activities directly affected the open
sea, and for that matter aquatic life. Additionally, its
Office waste Municipal collection operations impacted negatively on fishing activities of the
local community. The bulk storage company leaked oil
Food waste Municipal collection
into an adjoining stream and a marshy land and thereby
polluting these entities. This situation has on several
Process effluents Multi-stage wastewater treatment
(physical, chemical and/or biotreatment) occasions elicited complaints from the adjoining
communities. Leaked and spilled oil evaporated and
Oil free wastewater pH adjustment followed by disposal polluted the surrounding air. Oily wastewater and process
effluents from the crude processing company were
Oily wastewater Gravity separation or wastewater plant
disposed off into a nearby lagoon and treated wastewater
Off-gas Flared from the thermal power company was disposed off into a
nearby marshy land which drains into a stream that flows
H2S Stripping unit into the sea. Again, both the crude oil refinery and
thermal power companies emitted carbon dioxide and the
Sour water Stripping unit
oxides of nitrogen and sulfur into the environment.
Spent caustic solution pH adjustment and discharge in drain These gases have been established to contribute to climate
change and acid rain. Besides, spilled or leaked petroleum
Sewage Oxidation ponds (stabilization and
degradation by natural processes) products from these plants emitted volatile organic
compounds that polluted the air. Hydrogen sulfide,
NOx/SOx Not treated ammonia and sulfur dioxide emissions in the crude oil
processing plant polluted the air of the plant and nearby
Oil-contaminated solids Landfill or municipal waste collection communities and thereby affected the health of employees
and inhabitants of the communities.
Drilling chemical mud Sent to secondary party for handling

units in these plants include gravity separators, chemical 3.3 Compliance with environmental regulations
ponds, sour water stripping units, and neutralization All the companies studied are aware and apparently
sumps among others. Gaseous emission treatments units operated according to the EPA-Ghana guidelines. This
in the crude refinery plant include a stripping unit, and a means that effluents, emissions, and disposal of wastes
sulfur recovery unit that treats H2S, SO2, and NH3 laden from these plants supposedly meet EPA-Ghana approved
effluents. Also, a flaring unit exists to combust gaseous guidelines. Furthermore, the environmental performances
hydrocarbons. In both plants electrostatic particle of the companies are evaluated on regular basis by EPA-
separating units are available to separate particulates from Ghana. EPA-Ghana has recently introduced an evaluation
gaseous streams. scheme dubbed AKOBEN [15] to check environmental
The specific waste handling methods in the various plants pollution by industry. The AKOBEN program is an
studied and the state of these units are listed on Table 5. environmental performance rating and disclosure
All the waste treatment units in the thermal power plant
function and most are in use. Only the incinerator was not
in use at the time of the study and this is because the
company sells its recovered oil instead of incinerating it.
The company therefore had no use for the incinerator as
of the time of the visit. On the other hand most of the
waste treatment plants in the refinery plant are either non-
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 Environmental Management in the Oil, Gas and related Energy Industries in Ghana

Table 5. Observed effects of wastes generated by the plants away with environmental abuses without any sanction.
The weakness stems in part from of a generally weak
Industries Waste types Effect on environment regulatory regime in Ghana. Another important factor that
Waste crude oil Aquatic life of the sea
restrains the EPA-Ghana from enforcing its regulations is
Affected fishing activities economics, specifically, the monopoly enjoyed by some
Crude production Spent chemicals of the companies in the Ghanaian market. For instance,
Aquatic life of the sea
the oil processing company is the only one in the country
Combustion Climate change, acid rain that processes and supplies crude oil products. Thus, if it
gases were made to shut down for non-compliance of
Oily water Affected nearby lagoon environmental regulations, it could lead to a sudden
NOx, SOx Acid rain
shortage of certain petroleum products in the country- a
situation which would have serious economic and
Crude refinery CO2 Climate change political ramifications in the country. Consequently, such
Spent caustic Nearby lagoon companies are able to flout environmental regulations
Process effluents Nearby lagoon
with impunity. Indeed, in this study, the crude oil
processing company was found to have flouted the EPA-
Leaked/spilled Ghana regulations on emissions and effluent discharge
Polluted surrounding air
oil
levels, yet it had not been cited by the EPA-Ghana for
Bulk oil storage Waste oil Marshy land/stream violation of its regulations. Thus, in order to make up for
Leaked/spilled its inability to enforce its rules, EPA-Ghana is seeking to
Polluted surrounding air
oil use public opinion through the AKOBEN disclosure
Wastewater Drained into a marshland
schemes to bring pressure to bear on the companies to
and a stream comply with its regulations. The performance of the
Thermal plant companies investigated in this study, on the basis of a
CO2 Climate change
number of regulatory variables of the EPA-Ghana, is
NOx, SOx Acid rain shown on Table 7. Significantly, none of the companies
Leaked/spilled had been cited for violation of environmental regulations
Polluted surrounding air
oil by the EPA-Ghana as of the time of the study. However
data from the companies themselves indicated that two of
initiative that assesses the environmental performance of them had actually violated EPA-Ghana rules on gaseous
mining and manufacturing companies in the country using emissions and effluent discharge levels. It is noteworthy
a five-color rating scheme. Every year the results are in this regard that the refinery company, for instance,
disclosed to the public with the objective to strengthen operated its Residual Fluid Catalytic Unit (RFCU), even
public awareness and participation in pollution and though its wastewater treatment unit was not fully
environmental issues. The scheme relies on public functioning. This meant that process effluents from
ridicule to get companies to engage in good practices. It
was introduced in part to address EPA-Ghana’s inability
to strictly enforce its regulations. This weakness has
resulted in a situation where violating companies got
Table 6. Performance of companies as per some regulatory guidelines

Monitoring Parameter Industry

Crude Production Crude Refinery Bulk Oil Storage Plant Thermal Power

Standards used EPA & ISO1400 EPA & Insurance EPA EPA & World Bank

Monitoring Agency EPA EPA EPA EPA

Frequency of monitoring by EPA Monthly Quarterly Regularly Regularly

Environmental permit Yes Yes Yes Yes

Recent accidents None Yes None None

Breach of regulations Yes Yes Yes None

Community Complaints Yes Yes Yes None

Environmental Officer Yes Yes Yes Yes

Regular Reports to EPA-Ghana Yes Yes Yes Yes

121
 Environmental Management in the Oil, Gas and related Energy Industries in Ghana
the RFCU were only partially treated before discharge
into the environment. Indeed, a condition for the
operation of the RFCU is that the wastewater treatment
plant be functional. Yet, in spite of the quarterly visits by
the EPA-Ghana, the company had not been cited for
violation of the environment as of the time of the study.
Among the companies studied, only one, namely the
refinery plant, had had a major accident that impacted
significantly on the environment. All the companies have
internal personnel in the form of environmental officers
who monitor the internal activities and advised
management on environmental compliance and waste
management related issues. These officers also prepare
and submit regular environmental reports to the EPA-
Ghana and the company management. Records from the
companies showed that the FID-Ghana had not visited
any of the companies as of the time of the study. FID-
Ghana, on the other hand complained that lack of logistics
hindered its ability to deliver on its mandate. This has created a
situation where some companies are violating environmental
regulations without been being brought to book..
4. Conclusion
Waste management practices of the oil, gas and related
energy industries in Ghana were examined in this study.
Results of the study reveal that the operations of all the
companies involved in the study negatively affected the
environment. The activities of the oil production
company, the crude oil refinery company and the
petroleum products storage company have already had
adverse impact on water bodies. Only two of the
companies had facilities in place to treat the waste they
generate. It was observed that only the thermal power
plant managed its operations such that it did not elicit any
complaints from communities in its catchment area. Only
one out of the four (4) companies studied had had a major
oil spillage that had significant adverse effect on
environment. Among the regulatory agencies only the
EPA-Ghana monitored the activities of the companies on
regular basis. The activities of two (2) of the industries
were found to consistently violate the environmental
regulations of Ghana. Therefore, unless the EPA-Ghana
rigorously enforces its environmental regulations the
activities of these industries will continue to degrade the
environment of Ghana.
122
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