Chapter 2

Space
Segment

Prof. N. J. Balur, EXTC Department ,

RGIT
Chapter 2 Syllabus

Prof. N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

 Satellite sub-systems

Different types of transponders

Types of antennas used in satellite

What is Attitude and orbit control system

(AOCS)
covered? Telemetry, Tracking, Command and
monitoring

Power systems

Equipment reliability and space

qualification

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT
 Satellite subsystems
• Communication system
– Receives and transmits signals in microwave frequencies
• Antenna system
– Produce beams with shape tailored to coverage area
• Power system
– Generates and distributes power derived from solar cells
• Telemetry, tracking and command system (TT&C)
– Measures health of satellite and supports AOCS
• Attitude and orbit control system (AOCS)
– Corrects and maintains the satellite position in orbit with rocket
motors
• Thermal system
– Maintains thermal balance in the satellite
• Satellite structure
– Supports all subsystems

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

Satellite
configuration

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

 Space
Segment

• A Satellite communications system can

be broadly divided into two segments:
• Space segment
• Ground segment

• The equipment carried aboard the

satellite also can be classified according
to function:
• Payload (Transponder)
• Bus (which carry payload, various
subsystems which provide the power,
attitude control, orbit control, thermal
control, command & telemetry functions
required to service the payload)
Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT
 Satellite
Transponders

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

 Satellite Transponders
Types
• Transparent or bent pipe (only amplitude and frequency
is altered )

• Regenerative (improve the throughput and error

performance )

•Single Conversion Transponder

•Double Conversion Transponder
Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT
 Single Conversion
Transponder
Down
converter

LNA IF BPF
4 GHz HPA

Receiver RF Pre Amp. Transmit

antenna (GaAs, FET or antenna
6GHz TWT 4 GHz

L.O.
2.225
GHz

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

 Single Conversion Transponder:
(TWT)
Equalizer
HPA

Down
BPF converter IF BPF
6 GHz 4 GHz
HPA F
LNA F
M
D
RF Pre U
Rx 6 GHz M Tx 4
Amp. X GHz
(GaAs,
L.O. FET or
2.225 TWT HPA
GHz

Multiple Transponder

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

 Double Conversion Transponder:

Down
converter IF BPF
1 GHz

LNA

Receiver
antenna
14 GHz L.O.
13 GHz

Up
IF BPF
converter
12 GHz

HPA
IF Amp.
(GaAs, Transmit
FET or antenna
TWT 12GHz
1GHz L.O.
11 GHz
Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT
Double Conversion Transponder:
Up
Equalizer Converter BPF

HPA

Down
BPF converter IF BPF
14 1 GHz
GHz
HPA F
LNA F M
D U
RF Pre M
Amp. X
(GaAs,
L.O. FET or
13GHz
TWT HPA
1GHz

L.O.
10 GHz

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

Typical bent pipe Transponder

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

Attitude Control

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

 Attitude Control

• It refers to orientation of satellite in the space.

Disturbance torque are generated in a no. of ways:

• External: Solar radiation, Gravitation gradients & Meteorites

• Internal: Motor bearing friction & The moment of satellite elements

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

 Attitude Control
• Corrective Action:
• Impulse type thrusters
• Jet thrusters
Necessity:
• Direction of antenna
• Direction of solar panel
• Must cover the required region of the Earth (the earth sensing instrument)
• Against disturbing torques ie. Gravitation forces of earth, moon, solar radiation &
meteorite impacts .
Measures:
• Infrared sensors or horizon detectors (four sensors which find center of the earth as a
reference point) are used to detect the rim of the earth against the background of space.
• Control process takes place aboard satellite or control from earth station.

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

Types of Attitude
Control

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

 Types of Attitude Control

Passive
• Spin Stabilization,
• Gravity gradient stabilization (depends on the interaction of the satellite
with the gravitational field of the central body)

Active
• Momentum wheels,
• Electromagnetic coil,
• Mass expulsion devices such as gas jets & ion thrusters

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

 Active Attitude Control

RPY axis

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

 Spin
stabilization

 Entire body is rotated at

30-100 rpm providing
gyroscopic action
 Satellite is a cylindrical
drum covered with solar
cells
 Antenna platform is
despun

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT
 Spin
stabilization

ES

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

 Spin
stabilization
•Mechanically balanced about one axis & then set spinning around this axis
Spin rate is typically in the range of 50-100 rev/min

Disturbance torque are generated in a no. of ways:

•External: Solar radiation, Gravitation gradients & Meteorites
•Internal: Motor bearing friction & The moment of satellite elements

Corrective Action:
• Impulse type thrusters
• Jet thrusters Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT
Body stabilized satellite

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

 Three axis stabilization
Roll: Spin of the satellite around tangent to the orbit
Pitch: Spin of the satellite around the axis normal to the
orbit
Yaw: Spin of the satellite around the line joining the
satellite to the center of the earth

North
Pitch
Normal to
orbit plane One pair of gas jets used
Yaw
in each axis to control
the rotation required for
Rol correction
l plane
In orbit
(tangential to orbit)
Orbital path
Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT
Power system in 3-axes stabilized satellite

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

 Power system
• Power is derived from solar cells and batteries
used for backup
• Solar radiation intensity at geo orbit is 1.39
kW/m2 and conversion efficiency is 10-15%
• Three-axis stabilized satellites generate more
power than spin stabilized satellite –even
when they have same solar cell area
• Some communication subsystems are
switched off during eclipse as less power is
generated

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

 • Solar panels:
• Cylindrical solar panel (940-760 W)
• Rectangular solar sail ( 2-6kW)
Power
Supply: • Long life batteries:
• Nickel-Cadmium battery (830 W)
• Nickel-Hydrogen battery

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

 Spin-stabilized vsThree-axis Stabilized Satellites

• Three-axis stabilized satellites have more power generation

capability and more additional mounting area available for
complex antennae structures.

• Spin-stabilized satellites are simpler in design and less

expensive than three-axis stabilized satellites.

• Three-axis stabilized satellites have the disadvantage that the

extendible solar array used in these satellites are unable to
provide power when the satellite is in the transfer orbit.

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

 Station Keeping

• To keep satellite in its correct orbital slot.

• Due to the equatorial ellipticity of the earth causes GEO

satellite to drift at 75E & 105W.

• East-West station keeping maneuvers are used.

• Due to the gravitational force of Sun & Moon cause cyclic drift
of 0.85/year.

• North-South station keeping maneuvers are used.

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

 Telemetry, Tracking and Command
(TT&C) system

• TT&C system tasks are distributed between the spacecraft and earth station
• Major tasks of TT&C
– To control the attitude and orbit of the satellite
– To monitor the status of all sensors and subsystems on the spacecraft
– Switch on or off, sections of the communication system

• Telemetry system
– Collect data from many (more than 100) sensors in the spacecraft and
transmit to control earth station
– Use low power FSK or PSK modulated PCM-TDM carriers
– Small Omni-directional antenna is used.

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

 TT&C :
Tracking – Earth station tracks the position of the
spacecraft using range and range rate
system measurements
– Data from velocity and accelerator sensors is
used to find the change in orbit
– Spacecraft range is obtained by measuring the
delay between a transmitted signal (pulse, tone
or PN sequence) to the spacecraft and received
signal at the earth station (Radar principle)

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

 • Controls the satellite operation through all phases of the
mission (Launch, operation and end of life)
• Receives and decodes commands from ground stations
TT&C: • During launch
Command – Fires apogee kick motor
– Starts spinning of spin stabilized satellite
system – Extends solar sails in three-axis stabilized satellite
• During operation
– Change the attitude
– Correct the orbit
– Control/configure communication subsystem
• At the end of life
– Ejects the satellite from geo orbit and switches off comm
systems
• Commands are decoded and retransmitted through telemetry
channel for confirmation and executed after receiving it

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

 Block
Diagram
of TT&C

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

Reliability & Space
Qualification

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

 • Reliability: It is defined by the probability of correct
operation of the system during a given lifetime.
• It mainly govern by the reliability of its critical
spacecraft components

• Need to calculate reliability for two reasons:

• to know the probability that the part or the sub-system
Reliability & will be working after a given time period.
Space • to add redundancy where the probability of failure is
large.
Qualification
• For complex equipment of a satellite two types of
breakdown occurs:
• Coincidental breakdown
• Breakdown resulting from usage (mechanical devices
& TWT) & exhaustion of energy sources (propellant
required)

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

 Reliability & Space
Qualification
The instantaneous failure rate λ(t) of a given piece of equipment

 (t) t 0
the no. of pieces of equipment which fail in the time interval concerned
the no. of pieces of equipment in a correct operating state at the start of the time interval

During the period of useful time , most of the electronic & mechanical equipment
has a constant failure rate.

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

Bathtub Curve:

Probability of failure λ(t)

Burn in End of life

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

Bathtub Curve:

Probability of failure λ(t)

Burn in End of life

Mathematically the reliability of a device or sub-system is defined as

R(t )  N (t )s

No. of surviving components at time t
N No. of components at start of test procedure
o

If a piece of equipment has a failure rate λ(t), its probability from time 0 to t or reliability
R(t) is given by t

R(t )  e 0
  ( u ) du

If failure rate λ is constant  t

R(t ) e Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT
Reliability Vs time for constant
failure rate

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

© All rights reserved. Oxford University Press 2016
Sub-system reliability: ( Redundancy)

Elements are in series:

R1 R2 RN

Reliability Rs= R1R2R3……Rn

Elements are in parallel:

R1

R2

Reliability of ensemble is R=1-F

Where- F=F1F2F3F4…..Fn

Elements are in series/parallel:

R1 R2

R3 R4
Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT
Space Qualification:
•Electronic components can operates safely between −20 ◦C to +75 ◦C .
•Heat radiated by the Sun on the exposed surface of the spacecraft at a rate of
1.4 k W/m2
•Surface in shadow, temperature fall toward absolute zero
•Thermal control system maintain the temperature constant
•The selection of components should go through a quality control process
•Three prototype models are used to test the system:
1. Mechanical model
2. Thermal model
3. Electrical model
•A backup or redundant unit will be provided to avoid the failure of different
components

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

 Thermal Control:

Purpose:
•maintains the satellite platform within its operating temperature limits
for the type of equipment on board.
•also ensures the desired temperature distribution throughout the
satellite structure.
Operating Temperature:
•the majority of electronic equipment has range of −20 ◦C to +75 ◦C.
•the batteries used on board the satellite have range of 0 ◦C to + 40 ◦C.
•the solar cells have range of −190 ◦C to +60 ◦C.
•energy dissipating components such as power amplifiers have limits
of −10 ◦C to +80 ◦C

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

 Types of Thermal Control:

Thermal control systems are either passive or active.

Passive: this techniques include having

• multilayer insulation surfaces, which either absorb or reflect radiation that is

produced internally or generated by an external source, they have no moving parts or
electrical power input.

•These techniques include a good layout plan for the equipment, careful selection of
materials for structure, use of thermal blankets, coatings, reflectors, insulators, heat
sinks and so on.
•Thermal blankets are usually golden in colour (gold is a good IR reflector) and are
used to shade the satellite from excessive heating due to sunlight or to retain internal
satellite heat to prevent too much cooling.

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

 Types of Thermal Control:

Active: this techniques are usually employed to cope with sudden changes in temperature of
relatively larger magnitude such as those encountered during an eclipse
.
• Active systems include remote heat pipes, controlled heaters and mechanical refrigerators.
•The heaters and refrigerators are controlled either by sensors on board or activated by ground
commands.

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

1dB
Compression
Point
&
AM/PM
Conversion

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

1dB
Compression
Point
&
AM/PM
Conversion

Prof.N.J.Balur , EXTC, RGIT

Intermodulation Noise
REFERENCES

• PROF. N.J.BALUR, EXTC DEPARTMENT

 • 1.slide share PPTS
• 2.Wikipedia
• 3.isro.gov.in
• 4.Google images

WEBSITE
REFERENCE
PROF. N.J.BALUR, EXTC DEPARTMENT