LITERATURE REVIEW

Being dated back to 1000 BC, ayurveda along with teaching of natural medicine also covers the
whole aspect of life including physical and mental aspects. It describes the purpose of being born
and the dietary requirements. According to ‘Ayurveda’ our body is made up of three elements as
vatta, pitta and kappa (fire, air and water) and imbalance in these elements is the major cause for
any disease. Ayurveda has classified Indian food taste into six tastes viz. sweet, salty, pungent,
bitter, astringent and sour. As per ‘ayurvedic beliefs’ this classification of food is essential for a
balanced diet and any deviation of these six tastes will bring about the imbalance of body and
each element is responsible for certain diseases. This is the basic thought behind the concept of
‘thali’ being offered and served by most off the Indian restaurants.
Another famous Indian tradition includes eating with Hands. Which is in itself is a sensory
experience and evokes emotion and passion. According to Veda’s, hands are the most valuable
organs of action and Ayurvedic texts reveals, every finger as an extension of the five elements
for example; thumb represents space, forefinger represents air, the middle finger is fire, the ring
finer is water and the little finger represents the earth. It is further stated that eating with five
fingers stimulates all the five elements and helps in digestion of food.
Similarly one another Indian tradition advocates the serving of food on leaves (banana, banyan
tree etc.). There is scientific theory as well as Vedic wisdom behind the concepts as placing food
on leaves emanates a number of nutrients that enrich the food.
Historically, India reflects that this land has been invaded by many conquerors and rulers viz.
Arabs, Central Asians, Mughals, Greeks, Chinese, Portuguese, and British etc. The major
attraction to them was the Indian heritage, culture and art. It is well understood that they were
not able to sustain without food and it was their necessity to intervene in the Indian traditional
culinary practices. According to ancient Indian literature, available in the religious texts, viz.
Manusmriti, Mahabharata, Ramayana, Bhagavadgita, and every community; what so ever lived in India
had a different food belief system. The Buddhists and Jains literature depicts the extensive use of
rice and its gruel. During the Jain period, cloth was soaked in milk and dried to yield a
reconstituted product Buurrow & Emeneau, (1961). However, most of these have been influenced by
Aryans those believes that, food was a source of strength and was a gift from God (Achaya, 1994). The
Aryans were also known for introducing the spices such as cumin and coriander including black
pepper. It should be noted that, Greeks brought saffron, and Chinese introduced tea in Indian
land. The credit to introduce red chili, potato and cauliflower goes to the Portuguese and British
after 1700 A.D. It is further reflected from the available literature that Muslims from Persia
(present day Turkey) were the most significant contributors to the Indian culinary heritage
around 1200 AD. At later stages during 1500 to 1800 AD these were known as Mughals and they
depicted ‘food as an art’. Today Mughal dishes consist of at least 25 or more spices, rose water,
cashews, raisins and almonds.
It is quite surprising that being invaded by so many invaders and being a land of multiple
cultures & tastes no documentation of food and its recipes held in India expect a few. With the
pace of globalization and the recipe innovations, till date very rare documents have been
produced to reflect traditional Indian culinary practices.
However in the international context multiple authors have advocated the food heritage and its
linkage with tourism. For example; Reynolds (1993) advocates that if a culture is to prove
sustainable in the face of tourism, then traditional and ethnic foods must be preserved along with
other art forms (Reynolds, 1993). Similarly Bessière (1998) examined the case of the Haut
Plateau de l’Aubrac (Central France), where the local development process was closely linked to
the valorization and the re-creation of gastronomic knowledge and skill. Author analysed the
transformation and redefinition of local identity in rural France from the perspective of heritage
especially from the perspective of food and gastronomy – and local rural tourism.
Van, (1999) stressed that gastronomy, heritage and tourism are old friends; the relationship
between them is mutually parasitic. Author opined that gastronomy's role as a cultural force in
developing and sustaining heritage acts as a catalyst in enhancing the quality of the tourist
experience. It is argued that gastronomy brings culture and cultures together. Finally author
concluded that place and setting enhance the food experience and arguably vice‐versa.
Long, (2004) in a book on culinary tourism reveled thatculinary tourism raises questions of
intellectual property rights connected to intangible cultural heritage. Similarly, Cohen and Avieli,
(2004) discussed the various ways in which culinary establishments mediate between the tourists
and the local cuisine. They considered the authenticity of dishes in such establishments and the
varieties of culinary experience. However, the Hygiene standards, health considerations,
communication gaps, and the limited knowledge of tourists concerning the local cuisine, role of
ethnic restaurants at home in preparing tourists for the food abroad is questioned.
Whereas Fuller (2005) opined that Cuisine is like language – it can be adopted, adapted or
modified through time.
Krishnaswamy (2008) highlighted the scientific study of Indian spices and their medicinal
merits and opined that India has worldwide recognition for the spices and medicinal plants
because of their physiological and pharmacological properties. Recently biomedical efforts are
focusing to provide science-based evidence for the traditional uses and to development of
functional foods. For example the ancient Indian food provokes the use of turmeric for wound
healing, rheumatic disorders, gastrointestinal symptoms, deform, rhinitis and as a cosmetic.
Being scientifically proved, both turmeric and curcumin were found to increase detoxifying
enzymes, prevent DNA damage, improve DNA repair, decrease mutations and tumour formation
and exhibit antioxidative potential in animals (Krishnaswamy, 2008).
Montanari & Staniscia (2009) stressed that food is not merely a source of nourishment:
depending on production methods, food can also become a cultural reference point, an element
of regional development and a tourist resource. This occurs with “local” food, representing a
model of production and consumption which suggests a strong link with the region in which the
food is produced.
Amira, 2009). study evaluates the role of local food in tourism promotion. It also focuses on
economic development, exploring the potential for creating linkages between local food and
tourism in the context of sustainable tourism practices. The research is based on a case study of
the Republic of Maldives, a country which has gained success in the international tourism market
by promoting the natural beauty of its tropical islands.
From research methodological point of view Gyimóthy and Mykletun,(2009) portrayed the
changing status and use of a traditional Norwegian meal, Smalahove, in designing tourist
experience through a mixed-method case study approach. Authors found that entrepreneurs in
the Voss region had developed a new commodification approach to a culinary heritage.
Henderson (2010) shows that food hawking in Singapore, just as in many other countries, serves
a number of purposes, including meeting local food needs and providing food experiences for
tourists. Her research indicates that the government promotes food hawkers as “unique icons of
Singapore”, but at the same time threatens the authenticity of hawking through regulation and
control.
Guy (2010) argues that the French response to this vast colonial marketplace was to embrace the
local or terroir, the connection with place and history, as an antidote. Notions of terroir
complicated the story of colonial culinary competition and dependence – in the period of empire
and the post-colonial period – raising questions of identity, belonging, and the legacy of empire.
The consequence was the creation of a sense of a gastronomic “us” and “them” between France
and the colonies with implications that continue to play out in contemporary French politics.
Sengupta, (2010) examines themes related to cooking, food, nutrition, and the relationship
between dietary practice and health in late-nineteenth century and early-twentieth century
Bengal, and argues that food and cuisine represented a vibrant site on which a complex rhetorical
struggle between colonialism and nationalism was played out.
Tamang et. al.(2010) study stressed on the importance of ethnic food. They opined that ethnic
foods possess protective properties, antioxidant, antimicrobial, probiotics, bio-nutrients,
including other health-benefits. They stressed that due to rapid urbanisation, other developments,
especially introduction of fast foods have adverse effects on production as well as consumption
patterns of ethnic foods. Therefore people should be ascertained about the worth indigenous
knowledge they possess, and biological significance of their traditional foods.
Mohanram (2011) examines the relationship between feast and famine, the logic of modernity
and imperial rule. It juxtaposes two different ‘texts’ of British imperialism – the 1878 cookbook
Culinary Jottings of Madras and the Madras famine of 1875–1878 – to examine the dynamics
between feast and famine, not only under imperial rule, but also in the present
Fernandes, C. (2011) suggests that Viana do Castelo strengthened its creative spaces, and thus its
creative energy, by preserving heritage buildings as well as constructing a cultural
transformation through better building design to showcase the uniqueness of the destination. The
objective of this paper is to identify creativity strategies developed in Viana do Castelo for
building the necessary infrastructure and environment in which creative tourism can flourish and
to create awareness and share best practices with destinations facing similar challenges.
Hillel & Shani (2013) study incorporates examples which illustrate its theoretical proposition
regarding the need to substantiate authenticity by offering gastronomic products and experiences
that faithfully communicate an intimate link between food, place and the local community.
Furthermore, Bessière,(2013) proposed the use of food to investigate the process of heritage
construction or ‘heritagisation’ as an important issue for rural tourism promotion. The objective
of this discussion was twofold as it treated the notion of heritage as a social construct and as a
resource for action as well.
Bali, (2014) advocates that despite of multiple religions existence in India, the Hindu and the
Muslim traditions have influenced Indian cooking and food habits as per their own culinary
practices. Each and every invader came up with culinary innovations and it really took the shape
of super specialty while mixed with Indian traditional practices if not fully at least a part. With
colonization, Indian food lost its glory and all kinds of changes came in which is apparently
visible from the modern recipes. No qualm the ‘kababs’ and biryanis’ were brought by Mughal
emperors to India from Persia and Iran but still the strongest influence on Indian food is from
ayurveda as it deals with areas concerning the healthy and long life of human being.
Sarkaret. al. (2015) reveled that lentils and rice were the combinations of complementary
nutritional elements consumed by Aryans (Sen, 2004). However, The study conducted by
Sarkaret. al. further concluded that there is so much diversity in traditional health foods of India
because the regional health foods have evolved according to the climate, culture, and cropping
practices of a particular region. In order to preserve the food heritage authors’ recommended a
national survey to document the existing food heritage.
As described earlier, Indian Food can be divided as per directions viz., North Indian food, South
Indian Food, East Indian Food, West Indian Food. Other characteristic of Indian food is that it
does not only differ in taste but also in its preparation technique from the rest of world. The
Indian food reflects the perfect blend of different culture and ages. However, as per new world
encyclopedia, the staples of Indian cuisine are rice, atta (whole wheat flour), and a variety of
pulses, the most important of which are masoor (most often red lentil), chana (bengal
gram), toor (pigeon pea or yellow gram), urad (black gram) and mung (green gram). Pulses may
be used whole, dehusked, for example dhulimoong or dhuliurad,or split. Pulses are used
extensively in the form of dal (split). Some of the pulses like chana and "Mung" are also
processed into flour (besan).
Here it is argued that mere survey of different types of cuisine and its nomenclature may not be
sufficient to justify the food heritage but we also need to look into history how from a simple diet
any food becomes a cuisine and finally a food heritage, which is not possible without paying
equal attention to the traditional culinary practices.
Therefore as a departure point, this study intended to document the available food heritage of
northern part of India along with the traditional culinary practices which are still being practiced
in Indian kitchens (especially while preparing food in bulk).
While visiting any Indian restaurant, it’s common to assume that the dishes there will have some
commonalities of taste which is different from Italian or French cuisine. Thus it can be said that
regional cuisines are closely associated with cultural identities, either as a part of product of the
available food resources of a given region, or a choices about what local community will want to
grow (Fuller, 2005). Such a common thinking by group of people/ community later or sooner
becomes the tradition to which we shall cal culture.
With the extensive review of available literature, it is evident that most commonly noted identity
relationship between food and heritage is that gastronomical traditions which help to establish or
reinforce regional or national character (Bessie`re, 1998; Cusack, 2000; Holtzman, 2006; Pilcher,
1996; Timothy & Ron, 2013).
However it is argued that, the relationships between heritage cuisines and tourism are manifold
and complex. As established by scientific principles that food is one of tourism’s most important
components, however, with the slow food movement, the recent stress placed on empowerment
through indigenous knowledge, the current emphasis on the crossover between the local and the
global, the importance of healthy eating, and the urgency to preserve the intangible past, there
are years of research work waiting to be done on the legacy of food (Timothy & Ron, 2013).
Therefore this research do not only focus on the food as a heritage but also the on the traditional
culinary practices as well.