If Cuisine Is Local, How Cuisine Be Termed as National?

Jitendra Sharma1, Lochan Nagar2 and Nikhil Chaurasia3

1
Professor and Head, LNCT School of Hotel Management, LNCT University, India
2
Assistant Professor, LNCT School of Hotel Management, LNCT University, India
3
Assistant Professor, LNCT School of Hotel Management, LNCT University, India

Abstract

If cuisine develops at local level, include the inhabitants of local area, produce grown in
particular area, their uses and way to use, preparation of meal by using local ingredients,
serving of food in local style, eating, sharing of food in area bound way, etc. All the activities
related to food of one particular area, group or community can be termed as cuisine. Same way
food practices of any region are termed as regional cuisine, it not only confined to food, eating
and serving but in all activities also include social and cultural norms of region. In continuation
to study cuisine and regional cuisine, study focuses on national cuisine, any cuisine can be
called as national cuisine, a large geographical and demographical set-up, traditional and
cultural practices of food, consumption, serving and sharing can be summarized in term
‘National cuisine’ only, requiring broader nomenclature to cover nations’ cuisine, culture and
food enjoyment with following gastronomical norms. This paper raises the question regarding
understanding of cuisine, regional cuisine and national cuisine term, attempt to review and
present these words in broader, specified and culturally sound way. The paper will also present
food image in not only in tourist perspective but also in real gastronomic manners.

Keywords: Cuisine, Regional Cuisine, National Cuisine, Food Culture and Gastronomy.

1. Introduction

Cuisine exist in culinary world from ancient time, still touches all civilizations, born and
developed at local level in home, groups, communities and societies. Understanding of cuisine,
requiring efforts to decode words like cooking, culture and gastronomy. Connection of cuisine
to gastronomic tourism, culinary tourism and food tourism is universal topic of research in
most countries. The studies conducted on food and tourism mostly aiming tourist perception
towards food choices, broadly covering international tourist. The given explanation limited to
international tourist perception never included cooking, culture and food consumed at local
level, either in village or home of local inhabitants. Pufall et al., has stated “the public, who are
the indigenous people, has positive feedback on local traditional food in the aspects of
wholesomeness, safety and value for both communal and cultural practice” (2011). Food never
consumed as food only, it’s always consumed with social and cultural norms of area or region.
It is apparently clear in various food studies that local food develops with various traditions,
rituals, shopping, storing, and preparation practices, becomes the undistinguished part of
cuisine. Cuisine includes eating and serving of etiquette of food, eating, and serving patterns
in local group and communities. In addition, “the way the local people eat, the food preparation
process and the taste of the local food cause the local culture to differentiate. So, food
consumption of different ethnicities may be lead to experience other cultures” (Jang et al.,
2009). “Cuisine is inextricably linked to the destination in terms of its cultural heritage,
political, social, and economic identity. As such, cuisine plays an important role in establishing
the destination’s overall tourism image” (Crofts, 2010; Everett & Aitchison, 2008; Kivela &
Crotts, 2005; Lockie, 2001). Cuisine cover-up geography of that particular region, when this
cuisine is followed by food preferences of local inhabitant which are adhered with the cultural
norms of local community, rule to accept food on ritual grounds, belief about edibleness and
in- edibleness of food, can be more suitably termed as food culture of province or region.
Regional cuisine term is based on cuisine word that limit to the geographical food practices,
locality and seasonality but regional cuisine is beyond limit of locality. Here essential to
understand national cuisine from tourist and as well as local residents’ point of view. National
cuisine is to know what individual see in food and what he seeks from food. If food enjoyment
with little inclination to cultural norms, traditions, ritual and even without acknowledging
taboos related to food preparation and consumption, consumption to serving, all can be broadly
grouped as cuisine of country but in actual individual exposed to that what is available and
suggested to him whether in hotel, restaurants, food festival, cultural fair and tourism package
/tour. On the basis of observation and literature analysis nomenclature require review and more
appropriate term that is Gastronomy of country, it may be French Gastronomy or Indian
Gastronomy including all parts of country with regional and local influence, including too
behavioral psychology, community practice with short term or little involvement with cultural
and national identity. “The term 'gastronomy tourism' can be recognized as 'food tourism',
'tasting tourism', or 'culinary tourism” (Wang, 2015). Gillespie stated “that the study of
gastronomy is the understanding of the scope of production and preparation of food and drink
as well as how, where, when and why they are consumed” (2002).
2. Literature Review

Food never start with cooking in food and cultural studies, it begins with agricultural practices
and last by food consumption activity either by native or tourist. Same way cuisine originates
with food and ends up with socio-cultural practices, “Cuisine comprises an intrinsic part of
people’s culture and profile. Apart from material and meal cuisine is closely associated with
agricultural practices, storing of food, local harvesting and cultivation practices” (Kaplan
Uğurlu, 2015). Food as cultural heritage, symbol of identity and connection to local, “[t]he
trend of preserving and strengthening the national identity and of appreciating the cultural
heritage emerges to ensure their transfer to next generations, stressing the role of cultural
heritage in preserving the local identity” (Rizva et al.,2017). Jones& Jenkins mentioned that
food has been regarded as not only being a basic necessity for tourist consumption but also an
essential element of regional culture (2002, P. 115).

2.2 Cooking
Cooking is never just about the preparation of food, but in its purpose and expression reveals
relations of power, geography, time, and so on (Valgenti, 2014). Cooking is process bonding
nature and culture, “Cooking is a moral process, transferring raw matter from 'nature' to the
state of 'culture', and thereby taming and domesticating it . . . Food is therefore 'civilised' by
cooking, not simply at the level of practice, but at the level of the imagination” (Lupton 1996,
2). “The experience of cooking brings us in touch with ourselves and our surroundings—those
who might eat our food, those who made it possible, and of course, the ingredients themselves.
Successful cooking is sensitive to the needs of those who will eat, formed and shaped by the
quality and availability of ingredients, and even influenced by the power and type of cooking
instruments at hand” (Valgenti, 2014). Culture are the way that moves cooking into cuisine and
justify it as culture and symbolic process.
In history of human evolution, it clearly found that discovery of fire was revolutionary point,
specially in the field of cooking and developments of cuisine. Discovery of fire “for the first-
time human had a tremendous tool with which to control the environment. It kept night terror
and animals away. It was also sacred substance which can kill and revive at will” (Klien &
Edgar, 2002).

2.3 Cuisine
“Cuisines are frequently named after their region or place of origin. Cuisines are primarily
influenced by ingredients that are available locally or through local trade” (Kaplan Uğurlu,
2015). Similarly, it is still most common to identify cuisines through place names, implying
that culinary traditions remain largely place-based. Name of cuisines is based on nations’,
cuisines are based on place, city or country but it is confusing concept because most of cuisines
arises much before the nation’s existence. “The only cuisine can be defined worth of the name
is thus not the national one but the regional one, because it has territorial root so to be known
by the most of local population”. Most of national cuisine is haute cuisines of particular area,
regions or communities, only possessed by aristocratic and noble people as social power or
status symbol. The man started eating metabolically changed food, the process he used to
acquire change the state of food is cooking, in best way the person clarified the concept is
Michel freeman “Cuisine is self-conscious tradition of cooking and eating……… with a sub-
set of attitudes about the food and its place in the life of man”. “So, cuisine requires not just a
style of cooking, but an awareness about how the food is prepared and consumed. It must also
involve a wide variety of ingredients, more than are locally available, and cooks and diners
willing to experiment, which means they are not constricted by tradition” (Civitello, 2008).
Cuisine is place based and tradition based so replication of that cuisine is not possible anywhere
else “it is still most common to identify cuisines through place names, implying that culinary
traditions remain largely place-based”. James farrer describe connection between local
tradition and cuisine and found strong evidence of local traditions and local culinary
innovations. Cuisine contribution extends to communication, relation and symbolism, “cuisine
is symbolic communication, the “code that brings food into the social order” (Ferguson, 2006)
or a “particular way of talking about cooking” (Ray, 2008). To borrow from Foucault (1978),
cuisine is a type of discourse, a way of labeling and organizing the various bodily pleasures
and sensations associated with food consumption and food preparation. By extension, the
symbolism of cuisine is also a field of power relations exercised through discourse”.
 Figure 1. Gastronomical model showing relation to Cuisine’s locality, Food Culture of
regions and Nation Gastronomy
2.4 Cuisine Culture
“Human food is mediated by culture, and cultural tradition plays a crucial part in food
production”. Cultural role start from food production to food preferences in communities,
“Cultural traditions are significant in the production of food. This is also true in restaurants,
where history and culture is as relevant as the taste of food” (Cheung & Chee-Beng, 2007).
Culture is defined by many cultural anthropologist researcher, two definitions are found most
suitable to explain in best way, “Culture or Civilization, taken in its wide ethnographic sense,
is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any
other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society” (Tylor, 1871). “Culture
characterizes people in terms of language, customs, values, norms, rituals, technologies,
product, organisations and institutions”. It is confirmed by Anthropologist and Socio-cultural
experts, food is having cultural value too apart from its nutritional value. “An essential
symbolic function of food is cultural identity. Beyond self-identification, incorporation can
signify collective association” (Kittler and Sucher, 2008, 2004). Connectivity between cuisine
and culture is more integrated and complex and based on major activities performed by group
members to live happy and be the part of group member. The activity may include eating or
other social activity. “Culture is largely determining the food we eat, while the food available
in the environment are themselves important as building block of culture and tradition of
people” (Samuel & Makhani, 2016). Cuisine and culture truly limited to area till certain time
limit, start diffusing to next area due to uniqueness’, innovativeness, or nutritional value, the
procees can be termed as cultural diffusion, Culture diffusion by simple meaning is a social
process through which elements of cultural and social activities spread from one society or
social group to another, or it is a process of social change. Ideas, values, concepts, knowledge,
practices, behaviors, materials, and symbols are things that are spread through the diffusion.

2.5 Regional Cuisine vs Food Culture

Till year 2000, food studies were not clearly and specifically divided, anthropologist divided
all food studies in two parts, as functionalism, approach of food studies and structuralism.
Major attention given to functionalism because it was representing function of food and was
easy to understand. Later on, involvement of nutritionist and chefs confined the approach to
preparation, presentation, this approach used by many to connect amateur, professional and
food lovers. Same way involvement of nutritionist made this area of study as science of
fulfilling the body needs and metabolic action of food and its reaction on the body.
“Functionalism emphasizes the utilitarian nature of food and gives primacy to its physical
qualities. This whole approach has been criticized for analysing patterns and processes within
a static framework, and allowing little room for the explanation or even recognition of the
importance of origins, change and conflict. It has also been attacked for the claim that we can
identify the functional needs of a social system from its customs and institutional structures
without entering into a circular argument” (Beardsworth & Keil, 1997). Structuralism approach
captured more wide area of food with food habits importance in community and development
of taste. “Food consumption is strongly influenced by factors such as the natural environment
(Mennell, Murcott & Van Otterloo, 1992) and culture of a place” (Harrington & Herzog, 2007,
pp.4-5). If cuisine is local the influential effect will be available in certain geographical area.
The impact will have intense role of local ingredients only to certain place, out of place,
experience duplication will find difficult. If one areas places are possessing difference in all
environmental factor, quality of water, agricultural practices, same cuisine wouldn’t be
available at different places of same area, so its analytically true cuisine experience cannot be
availed or repeated at a different place in different environmental conditions. In case of the
regional cuisine practice are same in one area or region due to diffusion of culture, culture
always diffuses and makes the “Sense of food integrity”, namely its expected palatability,
safety and healthfulness (nutritional value) (Wahlqvist, 2007).

According to Counihan and Van Esterik (2012), “food culture is associated with what we
consume, how we gather it, who prepares it and who’s at the table”. Food culture takes up
individual to be identification mark of community but, “[f]ood culture is constantly connected
with the ethnic, belief, religion and habits which form cultural identity and it is not only dealing
with one ethnic or community, but also a group of people who are footing their interest” (Kittler,
Sucher, & Nelms, 2012). The root of food and food culture in community and society can be
understood by “Food culture involves the ways in which humans use food, including how food
is obtained and stored, how it is prepared, how it is served and to whom, how it is consumed,
and how people celebrate special occasions with special foods” (Samuel & Makhani, 2016).
“Food culture, however, is a living thing which evolves and subjected to alteration,
modification and creating some new things and this is, in fact, occurring in the communities,
ethnics or groups that hold the culture. This is related to the types of foods, methods of cooking,
ingredients, eating decorum and consumption pattern” (Zahari et al. 2011; 2008). To confirm
the fact that regional cuisine is the food culture of the region not regional cuisine or province
bound cuisine, because the factors; covered by the food culture are more close to the
preparation of food with other associated food practices. Food culture and food ways are
intersecting terms, both are formed in groups, communities refer to cooking of food, eating,
consumption and its pattern, the only hairline difference is found of norms to follow, ethic to
buy and beliefs to admit in daily life, knowingly or unknowingly in every activities related to
food and social behavior.

So many definitions are available to justify food ways and specify the difference between the
food ways and food culture. ‘Foodways are the production and consumption of food
characterized by individualism, group or society” (Gutierrez, 1999; Freeman, 2002; Cusak,
2003; Gold, 2007; Williams, 2007).

2.6 National Cuisine vs Gastronomy

Cooking, pre-preparation, preparation, eating, service, sharing of food, belief of the groups or
community, traditions, rituals, taboos all related to food preparations, sharing of food and
overall enjoyment of meal whether by the citizen of country or international tourists makes, all
activities as ‘national cuisine’, in both cases individual only involves in others culture.
According 18th century French epicure Jean-Anthelme Brillat-Savarin, author of La
Physiologie du goût (The physiology of Taste), “Gastronomy is the knowledge and
understanding of all that relates to man as he eats. Its purpose is to ensure the conservation of
men, using the best food possible’’ (Brillat-Savarin J, 2009). The local products and ingredients
have their own value in the context of globalization. “The modern gastronomy has a strong
local vocation: creative global chefs, in their pursuit of quality, encourage and commonly use
fresh, local, non-industrialized and organic ingredients. But they do not feel bound to the area
where they work because local has been redefined in nowadays” (Scarpato & Daniele, 2003).
In perspective to tourism activities, all the tourism promotion nations presenting and promoting
food image and destination, it means local food, its image and cuisine. All relates to local food,
food image, preparation, consumption and complete image of foodways to the tourist, to
provide an opportunity to, get indulge and enjoy others food and culture. As Boyne et al. (2002)
suggested that “where food and beverages have increased tourists' interests in local cuisine,
more and more tourist destinations promote their local cuisine as a main core tourism product.
For example, authentic and interesting food can attract visitors to a destination. The main
reasons for most people desiring to visit Italy is due to its cuisine”. “The intentional,
exploratory participation in the foodways of another participation including the consumption,
preparation, and presentation of a food item, cuisine, meal system, or eating style not one's
own" (Long, 2004). Gastronomy is more closely associated with tourism whether experiencing
by inbound tourist or international tourist, Gastronomy tourism is related to food and eating
experiences that occur when people travel. Tourists may look for types of food similar to those
that they eat at home or to try exotic flavours. They might make assumptions like there would
be nothing to eat there (Cohen & Avalli, 2004), and what should they do. It can be seen that
food and beverages play an essential role while traveling. Its sure by all these fact and citation
that a nation is always presenting its gastronomy not the cuisine, it may be endorsed by this
definition, although “gastronomy” is defined as the art of eating and drinking in many sources,
it in fact is an inter-related branch of art and science that has a direct relation with chemistry,
literature, biology, geology, history, music, philosophy, psychology, sociology, medicine,
nutrition, and agriculture (Kivela & Crotts, 2006).
“Gastronomic tourism explains the bigger picture of food tourism. Gastronomic tourism can
be defined as a form of tourism focuses on food and drink, gastronomic specialties, which
consist of food and drinks particular to a country, a region, a restaurant or a particular cook”
(Santich, 2004). Santich (2004) also said that gastronomic tourism, or food and wine tourism,
refers to travel and tourism motivations, at least in part, by the interest in particular food and
drinks, eating and drinking. With that statement, it can be defined as ‘travel to search for, enjoy,
prepared food and drinks’ that includes ‘all memorable and unique gastronomic experience’
(Wolf, 2002: Santich, 2004).
The relativity of culture and gastronomy is more clearly explained in by (Moira et al., 2015).
Gastronomy is considered an important cultural product, not only being by itself very attractive
for visitors, but also constituting a valuable complement to the conventional portfolio of
cultural products offered by destinations, which includes the monuments, museums, local
architecture, etc.
If we consider cuisine and regional cuisine is only and major part to present food and food
image then in national cuisine we only presenting food, description given by (Antonioli
Corigliano, Viganò, 2004) clarifies what cuisine and traditions is and how it is connected
to food and wine tourism, He also presented enogastronomy as gastronomy of country,
all can be summed up with following fact to the term as national gastronomy. Gastronomy
provide the given experience-

a. Physical: the pleasure of good eating and drinking;

b. Cultural: experiencing a food and wine holiday it is possible to come in contact with a
new culture – this is the case of older tourists, who have already had some typical cultural
vacation and are looking for new destinations;
c. Interpersonal: considering that the social function of food has a value comparable to
the quality of what you drink and eat, the table gives you the opportunity to meet new
people, to reinforce existing relationships, to defined social roles. Recently it has been
discovered that food and wine tourism can also be a way to establish relations between the
host and the local community;
d. Status: the ability to eat certain foods and to choose certain places has always been a
distinguishing factor of social status, and today it has become the expression of a specific
lifestyle and taste.

3. Methodology
This study is a descriptive research in nature. It is basically qualitative research, the study
technique is purely analysing of authors work done of cuisine, regional cuisine- food culture,
national cuisine- gastronomy. Beside that journals, research publications, articles, book
chapters and online materials also referred in collecting information to justify the latest trends
in the field of gastronomy and presenting cuisine, regional cuisine, and national cuisine. A
gastronomical model is prepared to clear, the sociocultural approach to define the study.

4. Conclusion
By this approach tourists should be able to understand all three words, cuisine, regional cuisine-
food culture, national cuisine – Gastronomy of tourism. The findings after research review
specify, cuisine can only be tasted, enjoyed, and culturally felt at the place of origin, to
understand cuisine locality ‘sense of place’ cannot be ignored. Quan & Wang (2004)
“explained cuisine experience in the context of one’s feelings toward local cuisine and dining
habits which are learned through food consumption”. Tourist are generally getting the different
experiences apparently visible in classification. Hjalager (2003) in his research argued that
there are four types of tourist cuisine experiences: existential— trying the local meals to
understand and feel the local culture; experimental—in order to have up to date dining
information experiencing new dishes and new restaurants; recreational—looking for similar
types of food which they have in their home destination and diversionary—trying new meals
to get away from the daily habits and routine. Really it is difficult to divide cuisine as local,
regional cuisine as food culture and national cuisine as gastronomy of country because the
borders between local, national and global cuisine not demarcated properly, neat distinctions
are possible only on paper, because each single regional cuisine is undergoing endless changes
and transformation. In regional contexts, today or in the future, any possible cuisines will never
again be limited to local ingredients, as in the past (Scarpato & Daniele, 2003). Gastronomy
always promotes local product and help local agriculturalist and producers to spread the use of
local food and ingredients and as matter of tourist attraction, these all facts may be considered
to see national cuisine, regional cuisine and cuisine from new gastronomical perspective.
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