Journal of Australian Strength and Conditioning

The effects of depth-jumping on vertical leap performance of high-performance volleyball players: An examination of the transfer of increased
stretch-load tolerance to spike jump performance. J. Aust. Strength Cond. 24(1)20-30. 2016 © ASCA

THE EFFECTS OF DEPTH-JUMPING ON VERTICAL LEAP PERFORMANCE OF HIGH-PERFORMANCE

VOLLEYBALL PLAYERS: AN EXAMINATION OF THE TRANSFER OF INCREASED STRETCH-LOAD
TOLERANCE TO SPIKE JUMP PERFORMANCE

Jeremy Sheppard

ABSTRACT

Depth-jump training has been widely used to develop general jumping ability. The purpose of this investigation was two-
fold: to examine the effects of depth-jumping on volleyball specific jumping ability (such as spike jumping) and to
examine whether depth-jumping as a training method is superior to other forms of jump training. Sixteen male national
volleyball program athletes were assessed on vertical jumping ability (depth-jump from 0.35 m - DJ35, counter-
movement vertical jump – CMVJ, spike jump – SPJ, and spike jump contribution quotient) and loaded and unloaded
jump squat assessments before and after a 12 week training period. From the jump squat assessments, force, velocity,
power, and stiffness values were determined. The athletes were divided into two groups; Training and Control. All
athletes performed normal training activities (72 court training sessions, 36 strength and conditioning sessions). The
Training Group performed 2 depth-jump training sessions as part of their strength and conditioning programs. The
Control Group had total jumping load equated by performing an equal volume of CMVJ to that of the total depth-jump
load. The Control group improved significantly (p<0.05) on CMVJ and SPJ with low to moderate effect (ES 0.40 and
0.17 respectively). The training group improved significantly (p<0.05) on all of the jumping variables with large effect
(ES 0.61, 0.73, 0.85 and 1.24 for spike jump contribution quotient, SPJ, CMVJ, and DJ35, respectively). Between group
comparisons reveal significant (p<0.05) differences between depth-jump, spike jump, and spike jump contribution, with
large effect (ES 1.28, 1.40, 1.12 respectively), favouring the depth-jump intervention. The results of this study
demonstrate that there are some compelling improvements that can be gained in jumping performance with elite
volleyball players using strength and conditioning combined with depth jump training, more so than strength and
conditioning combined with other jump training methods.

INTRODUCTION

Volleyball involves a great deal of defensive and offensive jumping activities (12, 22, 27). Depending on position, jumping
activity can involve 100-250 jumps per match (24), and national team training can involve as many as 5000 jumps in a
week, of which half may be maximal (Sheppard, unpublished data). These jumping activities can include both horizontal
approach movements (spike jumps), as well as movements without an approach (jump setting, jousts, blocking) (25,
31, 32). Considering the tactical nature of these jumping activities, and the frequency that they occur in a typical match,
both counter-movement jump ability (i.e. jump and reach height) and approach jump ability (i.e. spike jump height) are
considered critical performance indicators in volleyball (24, 25, 27, 30).

Several studies have shown moderate to strong relationships (r: 0.40 – 0.80) between strength and power measures
and VJ performance (1, 21, 29, 33, 34), suggesting that to some extent, strength and power qualities influence
performance in vertical jumping. Importantly, several training studies have supported increases in vertical jump ability
with strength and power training (8, 4, 19, 20), and as such, the association between increases in strength and power
and increases in vertical jump is well accepted.

Recently, depth-jumping ability has been shown to have a particularly strong relationship between counter-movement
vertical jump (CMVJ) and also spike jump (SPJ) performance in elite male volleyball players (24). However, the
correlation analysis and regression equations used in this study do not demonstrate cause and effect, thereby limiting
our ability to interpret this information.

Several training studies have shown increases in vertical jump ability as a result of depth-jump training in untrained
persons and novice athletes (3, 9, 18, 28). However, caution must be taken in interpreting these results and applying
this finding to skilled jumpers, as for the most part, the participants in these studies were unskilled jumpers. In addition,
the majority of depth-jump training studies did not compare depth-jump training with other forms of jump training (18,
23). One study that did compare depth-jumps with other forms of jump training found similar improvements associated
with both the depth-jump group and the group that performed other forms of jump training (9), and as such, the potential
benefit of depth-jump training over other forms of jump training cannot be assumed by these studies. Although it is
unclear whether depth-jump training is superior to other forms of jump training for increasing jumping ability, it appears
as though the effect of combining training modalities is additive, as evidenced by authors who have observed a
synergistic effect of combining weight-training with depth-jumping (6, 8) and loaded jump training with depth-jumping
(7).

A precise understanding of the acquisition of depth jumping ability and the improvement of vertical jump performance in
volleyball players is unknown for elite jumping populations. Although several studies outlined previously have improved
counter-movement vertical jump ability after a depth-jumping training intervention, one cannot assert that this improves

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jumping ability that is specific to the sport. In addition, from these previous studies, we cannot assert whether depth-
jumping is superior to other forms of jump training. Although a previous study has demonstrated that an increase in
sport-specific jumping ability in figures skaters can be obtained with a depth-jump training intervention (18), no previous
studies have examined this potential phenomenon with spike jumping in high-performance volleyball players.

The strong association (r= 0.85, p<0.01) between spike-jump performance and depth jump ability observed by Sheppard
et al. (24) is a unique finding that is in contrast with biomechanical studies that suggest vertical jump and spike jump
performance and depth jumping are highly distinct activities, questioning the utility of performing depth jumps to improve
spike jump performance (15, 17). Not only are there kinematic disparities between depth-jumping and spike jumping in
volleyball, there exists several important kinetic differences that have led previous authors to suggest that the depth-
jump is not an important exercise for developing spike jump ability (17).

Despite the aforementioned biomechanical differences between depth-jumping and spike jumping, and the confusion
within the training literature in regards to depth-jump training and improving jump ability, the results of Sheppard et al.
(24) demonstrate a very strong association between depth-jump ability and both counter-movement vertical jump ability
and spike jump ability. The author in the present study hypothesized that with depth-jumping training, general jump
qualities would improve, but in particular, that SPJ performance would improve to a large effect, due to increased stretch
shortening cycle ability and tolerance to stretch loads that is a component of the transfer of horizontal to vertical
propulsion involved in spike jumping. Therefore, the purpose of this investigation was to examine the effects of an
extensive training period involving depth jumping, on improvement in jumping ability with a particular focus on transfer
to improved spike jump ability in elite male volleyball players.

METHODS

Experimental Approach to the Problem

To evaluate the effects of depth jump training on performance of elite male volleyball players, a 12 week training study
was conducted. Assessment of depth jumping off of a 35 cm box (DJ35), counter-movement vertical jump (CMVJ), and
spike jump (SPJ) were conducted 1 week before and after the study. In addition, the kinetic and kinematic qualities of
the leg extensors were assessed with an unloaded and loaded jump squat prior to and at the conclusion of the study to
assess for specific strength-power changes in the leg extensors, induced by the training regimen.

Subjects
Sixteen subjects, whose mean age, height, and mass were 20.8 ± 3.9 years, 201.3 ± 7.0 cm, and 93.0 ± 8.1 kg
respectively, participated in this investigation. All subjects were scholarship holders within the Australian national
volleyball program which includes high-performance developmental athletes as well as senior international players
(Olympic Team). All subjects received a clear explanation of the study, including the risks and benefits of participation.
Testing was in accordance with and approved by institutional ethics, and written consent for testing was obtained in the
athlete’s scholarship holder’s agreement.

Testing Protocols
All testing was conducted in accordance with current National Sport Science Quality Assurance program (NSSQA)
protocols. These protocols stipulate that all testing be administered by a strength and conditioning coach or sport
scientist who is currently certified by the NSSQA program, and that all equipment and testing methodology used is in
accordance with the accepted protocols specific to that test or assessment.

In the 24 hour period prior to performing the tests, the subjects did not engage in activity that was considered unduly
fatiguing in regards to the maximal strength, vertical jump, or power testing. Because the subjects involved in this study
were ‘full time’ athletes, typically training >25 hours per week, this was accomplished by testing the athletes the day
after a complete rest day, over a 2 week block. For half of the group, the first day of testing involved Anthropometry,
and Vertical Jumping, whilst the following week involved the unloaded and loaded jump squats. The other half of the
subject pool performed the testing in the reverse sequence.

All of the subjects were national program scholarship holders with at least 1 year of previous experience in the program.
Therefore, all subjects had multiple exposures to the tests involved in this study in advance of data collection, and the
group-specific repeatability of measures was established. Subjects were given up to 4 trials on each performance test,
with 1 minute between jump test trials, and 3-5 minutes rest between trials of the jump squats.

As per the normal testing protocol for this group, the subjects completed their typical practice warm-up prior to testing
sessions. In brief, this warm-up includes 10 minutes of general activity (walk, jog, light stretching), followed by 10 minutes
of dynamic activity that increased in speed and intensity (skips, leg swings, arm swings), 10 minutes of 2-person
volleyball skill rally (i.e. ‘pepper drill’), followed by 3-5 minutes of rest prior to commencing the testing session. Subjects
were re-familiarized with the testing protocol via 2-5 sub-maximal practice attempts.

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Vertical Jump Assessments

Subjects were tested on their standing reach height, before they performed a maximum effort counter-movement vertical
jump (CMVJ), depth jump from a 0.35 m box (DJ35), as well as a spike jump (with approach)(SPJ) using a vaned jump
and reach apparatus which allowed for recording of the maximum height reached to the nearest centimetre (Yardstick,
Swift Systems, Lismore, Australia). The measurement of the standing reach height allowed for a calculation of their
relative jump heights on each of the jumping tasks (absolute jump height (cm) – standing reach height (cm) = relative
jump height). In the CMVJ no horizontal approach was allowed, whilst in the SPJ an approach ranging from 3-4 steps
was used based on the athlete’s preference. For the DJ35, subjects stepped off of the box, and upon landing, attempted
to jump as high as possible. During pilot testing with this athlete population, using these instructions and this drop height,
ground contact times ranged from 175-240 ms, suggesting that this methodology assessed ‘fast’ stretch shortening
cycle activity. The population-specific intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) (% Technical Error in parenthesis) of the
height of the CMVJ, DJ35, SPJ was 0.98 (2.5%), 0.97 (3.0%), and 0.97 (3.2%) respectively. These high correlations
and low technical error demonstrate the reliable nature of these jumping tests.

A 4th jump variable, termed the ‘spike jump contribution’ was calculated using the results of the relative jump height of
the CMVJ and the relative jump height of the SPJ. This variable was calculated to reflect the additional contribution that
the horizontal approach had on vertical jumping abilities, based on the premise that differences in horizontal power
production and technique would be reflected between subjects with this variable. The formula used was:

Spike Jump Contribution % = (Relative SPJ/Relative CMVJ) – 1) X 100

Jump Squat Assessments

Subjects performed a maximum effort countermovement jump at body-mass and body-mass + 50%, with the intent to
jump as explosively as possible. Jumps were conducted with the subjects standing on a commercially available force
plate (400 Series Performance Force Plate, Fitness Technology, Adelaide, Australia). A position transducer (PT5A,
Fitness Technology, Adelaide, Australia) was connected to a fibreglass pole (bodyweight jumps) or Olympic weightlifting
bar and Olympic lifting plates (body-mass plus 50%) held across the shoulders (Figure 1). Both the force plate and
position transducer were interfaced with computer software (Ballistic Measurement System, Fitness Technology,
Adelaide, Australia) that allowed direct measurement of force-time characteristics (force plate) and displacement-time
and velocity-time (position transducer) variables as outlined by Dugan et al. (11). In addition, stiffness values were
reflected by assessing the total dip length (distance from standing erect to the lowest position in the counter-movement)
and the force at the lowest position of counter-movement in the unloaded vertical jump, as performed in previous
research (13). The stiffness value was thought to in part reflect the athletes’ ability to develop tension, as stiffness can
broadly be seen as the force change per unit of elongation. The calculation of this value, to reflect stiffness qualities, is
as follows:

Stiffness (K) = Force at maximum dip (N)/Total distance of dip(m)

Prior to all data collection procedures, the force plate was calibrated using a spectrum of known loads, and then
assessed against 3 criterion masses. The position transducer was calibrated using a known distance of 1 m. The ICC
and % Technical Error of the force, velocity, and power measures used in the assessment methodology, with this
population group, was 0.95-0.97 (3.1-4.0%), 0.71-0.83 (3.3-7.3%) and 0.80-0.98 (3.0-9.5%) respectively.

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Figure 1 - Set-up for the jump squat assessment.

Training
The volleyball players in this study were engaged in full-time training with the national program. During the 12 week
training study, this involved 36 strength training sessions (3 sessions/week) generally of 70 minutes duration, 72 full-
team training sessions (5-7 sessions/week) generally lasting 150 minutes, and 12 individual skill sessions (1
session/week) of 60 minutes (serving practice session). The pool of 16 athletes were randomly assigned to either the
depth-jump training group (n=8) or the control group (n=8). The training group performed 2 depth-jump training sessions
per week, as part of their strength training session (2 of 3 strength training sessions involved depth jumps). The depth-
jumps were performed after the warm-up, but prior to the general strength training session.

Although it was not methodologically possible to perfectly equate for load between the control and training groups in
regards to the depth-jump intervention, both groups performed the same strength, technical, and tactical training load
and the control group had absolute jumping load equated by performing an equal volume of CMVJ to that of the total
depth-jump load. In other words, the control group performed the same amount of CMVJ (jumping as high as possible)
as the training group performed with depth-jumps, for each session.

The general strength-training activities included 1-2 weightlifting exercises or a derivative (e.g. clean/snatch, power
clean, clean pull, push-press), squat, dead-lift or derivative (e.g. back squat, front squat, single leg squat, Romanian
dead-lift), and 1-3 assisting exercises (e.g. upper body pushes and pulls, lunges, rotational movements) during each
session. Set and rep schemes varied throughout the study period, but generally involved 3-5 sets of 2-4 repetitions for
weightlifting, 3-6 repetitions for major strength exercises (e.g. squat, dead-lift, bench press, pull-ups) and (4-10
repetitions for assisting exercises).

The depth-jump training program is detailed in table 1. During the course of the study, 3 different drop heights were
utilized; 0.20, 0.35, and 0.50 m. Because drop height is an important, population-specific aspect of program design (2),
a pilot study was conducted, revealing that in general, this group of volleyball players produced greatest jump heights
from 0.35 and 0.50 m when a comparison was made between 0.20, 0.35, 0.50, and 0.70 m.

Three types of drop jumps were used in the training aspect of this study; a ‘bounce depth-jump’, depth-jump, and a
depth-jump with reach (arm swing). The bounce depth-jump emphasised a short ground contact time and very fast force

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production (4). The coaching cue in this case was ‘bounce like a ball off of the ground’. The traditional depth-jump is
performed with the hands on the hips, and the emphasis in this exercise was to ‘jump as high as possible’. This is
achieved with a somewhat compliant landing and observable counter-movement prior to the propulsive phase of the
jump. The third type of depth-jump simply involved the addition of jumping to the vaned jump and reach apparatus,
thereby allowing contribution of the arm-swing and a quantifiable method of assessing performance throughout the
training. A thorough discussion of depth-jump styles is outlined in a review by Bobbert (4). The type of jump performed
in the training is included in the instructions column of Table 1.

No injuries related to training (jumping, strength and conditioning) occurred during the course of the study.

Table 1 - Depth jump training program.

Week 1 & 2 sets reps instructions rest/rep (s) rest/set (s)

Drop Jump 20 cm 3 5 minimum contact 5 90
Drop Jump 35 cm 3 5 Jump to Vertec-high 5 90 30 reps total
Week 3 & 4 sets reps instructions rest/rep (s) rest/set (s)
Drop Jump 20 cm 4 4 minimum contact 5 90
Drop Jump 35 cm 4 4 Jump to Vertec-high! 5 90 32 reps total
Week 5 & 6 sets reps instructions rest/rep (s) rest/set (s)
Drop Jump 35 cm 3 5 minimum contact 5 90
Drop Jump 35 cm 3 4 Jump to Vertec-high 5 90 27 reps total
Week 7 & 8 sets reps instructions rest/rep (s) rest/set (s)
Drop Jump 50 cm 2 4 jump high 5 90
Drop Jump 35 cm 3 4 Jump to Vertec-high 5 90 20 reps total
Week 9 & 10 sets reps instructions rest/rep (s) rest/set (s)
Drop Jump 50 cm 2 4 jump high 5 90
Drop Jump 35 cm 4 4 Jump to Vertec-high 5 90 24 reps total
Week 11 & 12 sets reps instructions rest/rep (s) rest/set (s)
Drop Jump 35 cm 2 4 minimum contact 5 90
Drop Jump 50 cm 2 4 jump high 5 90
Drop Jump 35 cm 3 4 Jump to Vertec-high 5 90 28 reps total

Statistical Analysis
Within-group differences between the pre and post study measures were assessed using paired T-tests, whilst between
group differences were assessed using independent T-tests. Differences were considered significant when values of
p<0.05 were observed. Cohen’s effect size statistics (ES) were calculated for the magnitude of difference observed
within and between groups, using the following descriptors: >.5, large; .1 - .3 moderate; <.1 small (10). ES differences
between two tests are calculated by dividing the difference between the two test results by the pooled standard deviation
of the test results.

RESULTS

The pre-training and post-training results for the Control and Depth-jump group are outlined in table 2 and table 3,
respectively, whilst the changes observed after the training intervention between groups is outlined in Table 4.

The Control group improved significantly (p<0.05) on CMVJ and SPJ with low to moderate effect (ES 0.40 and 0.17
respectively), as well as in peak displacement and peak power in the unloaded jump squat, and peak power in the
loaded jump squat.

The training group improved significantly (p<0.05) on all of the jumping variables with large effect (ES 0.61, 0.73, 0.85,
and 1.24 for spike jump contribution, SPJ, CMVJ, and depth-jump, respectively). In the unloaded jump squat, the training
group improved significantly (p<0.05) on displacement, force, and stiffness qualities. In the loaded jump squat, the
training group improved significantly (p<0.05) on peak force and peak power.

Between group comparisons reveal significant (p<0.05) differences in depth-jump, spike jump, and spike jump
contribution, with large effect (ES 1.28, 1.40, 1.12 respectively), favouring the depth-jump intervention. Counter-
movement vertical jump was not significantly different between groups (p=0.34), but with a large effect (ES 0.50).
Although no statistically significant changes were observed between groups in regards to the variables obtained from
the unloaded and loaded jump squat, some trends were noted, tending to indicate a better results for the experimental
group in regards to a number of measures, with moderate to large ES statistics (Table 4).

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Table 2 - Mean ± SD, p-value, and Effect Size for pre-training and post-training of the control group.

Variable Pre-training Post-training p-value Effect Size

Unloaded Jump Squat
Displacement (m) 0.47 ± 0.07 0.50 ± 0.07 0.00 0.47
Peak Force (N) 2155 ± 187 2155 ± 137 0.49 0.00
Peak Velocity (m/s) 3.48 ±0.30 3.65 ±0.49 0.06 0.42
Peak Power (W/kg) 75.63 ±10.80 78.50 ± 10.35 0.00 0.27
Stiffness (kN/m) 3393 ± 960 3686 ± 695 0.10 0.35
Loaded Jump Squat
Displacement (m) 0.34 ± 0.05 0.36 ± 0.06 0.07 0.36
Peak Force (N) 2589 ± 251 2598 ± 242 0.37 0.04
Peak Velocity (m/s) 2.50 ± 0.14 2.50 ± 0.21 0.49 0.00
Peak Power (W/kg) 54.88 ± 6.40 59.50 ± 3.34 0.02 0.91
Jump and Reach (cm)
Depth Jump 63.25 ± 7.38 64.5 ± 10.49 0.26 0.14
Counter-movement 61.38 ± 6.21 64.38 ± 8.58 0.04 0.40
Spike Jump 76.00 ± 8.57 77.38 ± 7.78 0.04 0.17
Spike Jump Contribution (%) 21.38 ± 4.78 21.13 ± 3.56 0.34 0.00

Table 3 - Mean ± SD, p-value, and Effect Size for pre-training and post-training of the training group.

After 12 weeks of depth-jump training

Variable Pre-training Post-training p-value Effect Size

Unloaded Jump Squat
Displacement (m) 0.41 ± 0.03 0.44 ± 0.03 0.03 1.00
Peak Force (N) 2026 ± 234 2089 ± 203 0.05 0.29
Peak Velocity (m/s) 3.15 ± 0.20 3.22 ± 0.23 0.18 0.32
Peak Power (W/kg) 67.13 ± 5.62 69.00 ± 3.25 0.17 0.44
Stiffness (kN/m) 3131 ± 597 4172 ± 1410 0.02 0.96
Loaded Jump Squat
Displacement (m) 0.30 ± 0.07 0.31 ± 0.02 0.37 0.19
Peak Force (N) 2414 ± 222 2535 ± 225 0.04 0.54
Peak Velocity (m/s) 2.25 ± 0.18 2.30 ± 0.17 0.08 0.29
Peak Power (W/kg) 54.88 ± 6.40 59.50 ± 3.34 0.02 0.91
Jump and Reach (cm)
Depth Jump 56.50 ± 4.66 63.38 ± 6.28 0.00 1.24
Counter-movement 57.75 ± 4.92 62.25 ± 5.65 0.00 0.85
Spike Jump 70.50 ± 6.21 75.13 ± 6.40 0.00 0.73
Spike Jump Contribution (%) 19.63 ± 5.13 22.63 ± 4.69 0.03 0.61

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Table 4 - Mean ± SD, p-value, and Effect Size for difference between the training and control group.

After 12 weeks of depth-jump training

Control
Variable Group Training Group p-value Effect Size
Changes Changes
Unloaded Jump Squat
Displacement (m) 0.03 ± 0.03 0.03 ± 0.03 0.77 0.00
Peak Force (N) 0.63 ± 124.41 63.00 ± 94.71 0.28 0.32
Peak Velocity (m/s) 0.16 ± 0.26 0.07 ± 0.21 0.45 0.38
Peak Power (W) 2.88 ± 2.17 1.88 ± 5.30 0.63 0.25
Stiffness (kN/m) 292 ± 592 1040 ± 1157 0.13 0.81
Loaded Jump Squat
Displacement (m) 0.02 ± 0.03 0.01 ± 0.07 0.78 0.19
Peak Force (N) 9.50 ± 76.68 121.88 ± 163.65 0.10 0.88
Peak Velocity (m/s) 0.00 ± 0.13 0.06 ± 0.10 0.37 0.52
Peak Power (W) 1.13 ± 3.87 4.63 ± 5.07 0.14 0.78
Jump and Reach (cm)
Depth Jump 1.25 ± 5.28 6.88 ± 3.27 0.02 1.28
Counter-movement 3.00 ± 4.00 4.50 ± 1.51 0.34 0.50
Spike Jump 1.38 ± 1.85 4.63 ± 2.72 0.01 1.40
Spike Jump Contribution (%) -0.25 ± 1.67 3.00 ± 3.74 0.04 1.12

DISCUSSION

The present study examined the effects of depth jump training on vertical jump tests that are considered critical to
success in elite volleyball. The results of this study demonstrate that there are some compelling improvements that can
be gained in jumping performance with elite volleyball players using strength and conditioning combined with depth
jump training, more so than strength and conditioning combined with other jump training methods. Furthermore, the
results of this study demonstrate that improvements in depth jump ability can contribute to greater CMVJ height, but
even more so to greater SPJ height.

Although there exists kinematic and kinetic disparities between the depth jump and the CMVJ and SPJ (17), it could be
reasoned that the depth jump is a unique overload of ‘fast’ stretch shortening cycle activity, that emphasizes a short
contact time (<250 ms), fast force production, and high power outputs (2,3,5,15), all of which are considered important
to jumping performance as demonstrated by the findings of the present study and those of others (21,24,26,29,34).
Training the neuromuscular system to generate as much tension as possible, under conditions where the golgi tendon
organ (GTO) reflexes are driving reduced neural activation, will improve the ground reaction force in jumping. This will
result in greater upwards acceleration, shorter contact time, and higher vertical jump heights.

In support of this contention, several studies involving depth jump training have demonstrated an increase in CMVJ
performance (for a review, see Bobbert, 4). In addition, previous researchers have reported a significant and meaningful
increase in depth jump performance in a ballistic resistance training intervention group, with a concomitant increase in
CMVJ performance in elite volleyball players (14,19,20).

However, as suggested by Bobbert (4), many of the previous training studies cannot assert that improvements in
jumping ability can be accounted for specifically by depth-jumping, as the participants in the majority of studies are non-
athletes (and not performing additional regular jumping) or the jumping load was not properly equated in any way
between groups. In other words, few previous studies have provided strong evidence that depth-jumping as a training
mode is superior to other types of jumping. As one might expect, the results of the present study support the use of
depth-jump training in improving counter-movement jump ability. The findings of the present study are particularly novel
in that the results suggest that increasing depth-jump ability results in an increase in spike jumping ability. Moreover,
this increase was superior to strength and conditioning combined with counter-movement jump training. The control
group demonstrated significant (p<0.05) improvements in counter-movement jump ability and spike jump ability, with
low to moderate effects (ES 0.40 and 0.17 respectively), but with no improvement in depth-jump ability.

The training group demonstrated significant (p<0.05) improvements in counter-movement jump, depth-jump, and spike
jump ability, with large effects (ES 0.85, 1.24, and 0.73, respectively). In the present study, when comparing the
improvements between the control and training group, the difference in spike jump improvement was of a large
magnitude (ES 1.40), in favour of depth-jump training. It could be suggested that in part, underpinning this improvement
was the increase in stiffness qualities - an important regulatory aspect of depth-jumping (16). This is demonstrated by

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the increased stiffness qualities in the training group (p=0.02, ES 0.96) and the magnitude of change observed between
groups (ES 0.81). Increasing stiffness, in effect, increasing the force increase associated with a length change or
decreasing the length change needed to produce a given force, would promote greater initial acceleration in the
concentric action of the vertical jump. This greater acceleration in turn would lead to higher velocities and greater jump
heights.

Consistent with the authors’ hypothesis, it is believed that the depth-jump training improved the ability of the athletes to
tolerate high stretch loads, which in turn assisted in the ability of the athletes in the training group to transfer horizontal
movement to vertical propulsion in the spike jump approach. This contention is supported by the significant (p<0.05)
and large (ES 0.61) improvement in the spike jump contribution variable in the training group, whilst no improvement
was observed in the control group for this variable. Additionally, the difference between the improvement in spike jump
contribution of the training group, compared to control, was significant (p<0.05) and of a large magnitude (ES 1.12).
This data provides strong support for the role that depth-jump ability plays in not only improving general jumping ability,
but particularly the ability to develop tolerance to high stretch loads and utilize the stretch-shortening cycle, which is an
underpinning component of the transfer from horizontal approach to vertical propulsion in the spike jump in volleyball.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

It stands to reason that no single strength and power characteristic is necessarily ‘most important’ in the development
of volleyball players, and that the strength and conditioning emphasis would logically change and progress throughout
the training phases and over the span of the players’ multi-year development (please see Appendix 1). The results of
this study demonstrate the importance of recognizing the major influence of tolerance to high stretch loads, as developed
by depth jump training, on improving spike jump performance in high-performance male volleyball players. The results
of this analysis strongly support the contention that the ability to produce high force and tolerate high tendon tension in
rapid SSC movements is very important to jump performance in volleyball, with particular effect on spike jump ability.
This is likely developed best by depth jump training as part of a comprehensive strength and conditioning program.

Appendix 1 (Example Athlete) Notes:

A testing battery that I developed for national team volleyball is provided. The intention of this testing battery is to provide
a basis of rationale for individual training program interventions (see Appendix 2).

Specific Comments
General: This athlete is not very tall for this sport, and as such must maximize physical development to make it at the
elite level. In addition, the athlete is not particularly lean for this sport, and must be diligent with nutrition and lifestyle
habits to have reasonable fat levels (we desire a ratio of Mass/Sum of 7 to be ~1.8-2.0).

January 2006
Vertical jumps score, on all jump types, very poor. DJ score is 6 cm greater than CMVJ score, suggesting that current
jump limitations are likely muscle force and power qualities, rather than SSC ability/tolerance to stretch load. Jump squat
analysis confirms this contention, as evidenced by the extreme drop-off in power qualities in the loaded jumps compared
to the unloaded jump (the unloaded power, as W/kg, is respectable). Bar velocity at low and moderate load jumps is
very poor.

January Training Outline:

Jumping: no additional/special jumping (players jump 1000-4000 X/week in regular training)

Strength and Power: Increase maximal force capabilities, primarily through heavy strength training, and heavy power
training, progressing to include low load power training. Example lifts: Squats/squat derivates, deadlift, uni-lateral
presses/squats, clean & power clean, snatch & power snatch, heavy jump squats (50-80 kg). Progressing to include
jerks, jump squats (15-40 kg), vest work (Jumps, bounds). 70% maximal efforts, 15% ballistic efforts, 15% repeated
efforts.

Other: Nutrition analysed with particular attention to CHO sources (and overall macro-nutrient volumes). Reduction in
skin-folds and/or increase in lean mass required.

July 2006
Large increase in power qualities, across several loads. Vertical jump scores improved, with a big increase in spike
jump. An initial reduction in skinfolds, (Jan-March), but returned to January levels by May. DJ score now lower than
CMVJ score, with the increase in CMVJ. Athlete would benefit from DJ training at this time, considering recent large
improvements in strength-power, and the apparent trainability of the SSC (as evidenced by DJ score being lower than
CMVJ score).

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July Training Outline:

Jumping: 2x/week, progressing to 3X/week, DJ training using 35 cm and 50 cm drop heights. 25-35 jumps/workout
maximum, as typical on-court jumping load for this time period is 2500-4000 jumps per week.

Strength-Power: 50% maximal efforts, 40% ballistic efforts, 10% repeated efforts.

Other: Skin-fold target set for <50 mm by the end of International season (August) and detailed diet set out by Nutrition.
End of year target of 100 cm for spike jump, 78 cm for CMVJ and 82 cm for DJ.

Appendix 2.

Example Athlete

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank Russell Borgeaud and Andrew Strugnell of the National Volleyball Team.

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 Journal of Australian Strength and Conditioning
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