25

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A Study of relevant literature is an inevitable and essential step to get a clear

idea and foundation with regard to the problem under study. The investigator has

gone through available literature related to the present study from dissertations,

journals, magazines, books and articles relevant to Sports and Physical Education.

The review of related literature has been presented under the following headings;

1. Studies on sand and offshore training

2. Studies on motor fitness variables

3. Studies on physiological variables

4. Studies on performance variables

2.1 STUDIES ON SAND AND OFFSHORE TRAINING

Amrinder singh (2013) conducted a study to find out the effect of plyometric

training on sand versus grass on muscle soreness and selected sport-specific

performance variables in national level hockey players. For this purpose, 40 national

level hockey players were randomly selected and they were divided into two groups

namely grass training group and sand training group. Pre tests were conducted on

selected dependent variables such as strength, endurance, balance and agility. Four

weeks of plyometric training was given to both groups. The training consisted of three

sessions per week. Muscle soreness was assessed at the end of each training session

on a seven point scale. After four weeks of training, post tests were conducted on
 26

above said dependent variables. The study revealed that players in the sand group

experienced less muscle soreness (P<0.05) than grass group. The study was concluded

that short term plyometric training on sand surface induced similar improvements in

strength, endurance, balance and agility as on firm surface but induced significantly

less muscle soreness.

Binnie, M. J. (2013) conducted a study to find out the effect of surface-

specific training on 20m sprint performance on sand and grass surfaces. Twelve team

sport athletes were attended one hour training of three sessions per week, including

two surface-specific sessions (Sand; six subjects , Grass; six subjects) and one group

session conducted on grass. Throughout the training period of eight weeks , 20m

sprint times of all athletes were recorded on both sand and grass surfaces at the end of

week one, four and eight. Results showed a significant improvement on 20m sand

time in the sand group only (p<0.05), whereas 20m grass time improved equally in

both training groups (p<0.05). The study was concluded that surface-specificity was

essential for 20m speed improvements on sand and also there was no detriment to

grass speed gains when incorporating sand surfaces into a pre-season program.

Gortsila, Eugenia (2013) conducted a study to find out the effect of training

surface on agility and passing skills of prepubescent female volleyball players. To

achieve this purpose, 45 prepubescent girls aged between 11 and 12 years were

selected at random and they were divided into three equal groups namely Group S,

Group I and Group C of 15 subjects each. Group S and I consisted of volleyball

players and Group C (control group) consisted of girls that had no volleyball training

experience. All the three groups participated in 10weeks ( three days/a week) of

volleyball training programme that included of technical and passing skill exercises.
 27

Along with this training, Group S underwent special training included of jumping and

sprinting exercises on sand surface, Group I underwent the same training on hard

surface and Group C had no special training. Pre tests were conducted on agility and

passing skill for all the three groups. After 10 weeks of training, post tests were

conducted. Pre and post tests data were statistically analysed by using two-way

ANOVA. The study was concluded that sand training group (Group S) significantly

improved agility and passing skills than other groups. Training on sand surface might

be a useful and effective method for improving agility and passing skills in

prepubescent female volleyball players.

Pradeep, C.S. (2013) conducted a study to find out the effect of sand running

for endurance development among athletes. To achieve this purpose, 40 male athletes

aged between 18 and 25 years were selected from Kerala University. They were

divided into two equal groups namely experimental group and control group. Pre test

was conducted on cardio respiratory endurance by using 12 minute Cooper’s run\walk

test .Experimental group underwent eight weeks of sand running training in

alternative days and control group underwent only the regular general physical

activities training of athletics. After eight weeks of training, post test was conducted.

Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) statistical technique was used to test the

significant differences among the groups. The study was conducted that the sand

running was significantly improved the endurance among college men athletes.

Sharma, Rajkumar (2013) conducted a study to find out the effect of sand training

on jumping abilities of junior volleyball players. For this purpose, 30 volleyball players

aged between 16 and 19 years from S.A.I. training centre, Rajnandgaon, Chhattisgarh

were selected and they were divided into two equal groups
 28

of 15 subjects each. Groups-A underwent six weeks of sand training and Group-B

acted as control groups. Control group only practised technical and tactical skills of

volleyball. Pre and post tests were conducted on selected dependent variables such as

block jump (BJ), Spike Jump (SJ)and standing broad jump (SBJ) prior and

immediately after the training respectively. Mean, standard Deviation and ‘t’ test were

used as a statistical techniques and significant was set at 0.05 level of confidence. The

study was concluded that six weeks of sand training would significantly improve on

vertical block jump, spike jump and standing broad jump among junior volleyball

players.

Karver, Alical Anne (2012) conducted a study on sand jump training versus

ground jump training for volleyball players. For this purpose, 21 volleyball players

aged between 14 and 18 years were selected from Northern California Volleyball club

(NCVC), Rocklin, California. The subjects randomly assigned into two groups

namely sand training group and ground training group. Sand training group underwent

six weeks (two session/a week) training of various jumping exercises on sand court

along with a grass surface. Ground training group underwent the same training on

ground surface. Pre test and post test were taken on vertical jump prior and

immediately after the six weeks of training. Two-tailed independent t-test was used to

compare differences between the groups and two-tailed paired t-test was used to

compare differences within the group. The study was concluded that six weeks of

jump training programme significantly improved the vertical jump of participants in

both sand and ground training groups and there were no significant differences

between the groups.

 29

Alcaraz, P.E., et. al. (2011) conducted a study to find out the effects of a sand

running surface on the kinematics of sprinting at maximum velocity. The aim of this

study was to compare the kinematics of sprinting at maximum velocity on a dry sand

surface to the kinematics of sprinting on an athletics track. To achieve this purpose,

five men and five women athletes participated as subjects and they underwent 30m

flying sprints on different surfaces such as synthetic athletics track and beach sand

surface. All the sprints were recorded by using a video camera and biomechanical

analysis software was used to analyse the video images at the trails. The study

revealed that sprinting on a sand surface was substantially different to sprinting on an

athletics track. This action was characterized by a lower centre of mass, a greater

forward lean in the trunk and an incomplete extension of the hip joint at take-off. The

study was concluded that sprinting on a dry sand surface may not be an appropriate

method for training the maximum velocity phase in sprinting. Although this training

method exerts a substantial overload on the athlete, as indicated by reductions in

running velocity and stride length, it also induced detrimental changes to the athlete’s

running technique which may transfer to competition sprinting.

Sathishkumar, S. (2011) conducted a study to find out the effect of sand and

offshore training on selected physical and physiological variables among inter

engineering college level football players. To achieve the purpose of the study, 45

engineering college football players were selected and they were divided into three

groups of 15 subjects each. Experimental group I assigned as sand training group,

experimental group II assigned as offshore training group and group III assigned as

control group. Pre tests were conducted on selected physical fitness and physiological

variables such as speed, agility, endurance, resting pulse rate, breath holding time and
 30

blood pressure. After a period of six weeks of sand and offshore training to the

respective experimental groups, post tests were conducted. Analysis of covariance

(ANCOVA) and Scheffe’s post-hoc test were used to test the significant mean

differences among the experimental groups. The study was concluded that six weeks

of sand training significantly improved the selected dependent variables such as

speed, agility, endurance, resting pulse rate, breath holding time and blood pressure

than offshore training among inter engineering college football players.

Jacob S. (2010) conducted a study to find out the effect of sand training and

seashore training on selected physical fitness variables such as speed, endurance,

power, flexibility, cardiovascular endurance, agility and performance variables among

school level volleyball players. For this purpose, 30 school level volleyball players

were selected from different schools in Chennai and they were randomly divided into

three groups. Pre tests were conducted for all the three groups. Group I participated in

sand training exercises, Group II participated in seashore training and Group III acted

as control group. Post tests were conducted after six weeks of sand and seashore

training. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) and Scheffe’s post-hoc tests were used

as statistical technique. The study was concluded that significant improvement on

speed, endurance, agility and flexibility due to the influence of six weeks of sand and

seashore training. It was also concluded that there was no significant improvement on

volleyball playing ability due to six weeks of sand and seashore training.

Karve, Rajkumar (2010) conducted a study on the running training on different

surfaces had different effects on the performance of athletes. To achieve this purpose,

120 college athletes from different colleges of Gulbarga District were selected as

subjects by random sampling method and divided into four equal groups
 31

of 30 athletes in each group. Experimental Group I underwent running training on

sand, Experimental Group II underwent running training on red mud track,

Experimental Group III underwent running training on cinder track and Group IV

served as control group. Before the training on different running surfaces, the

performances of 12 min run/walk test , vertical jump and also calf and thigh

circumference of each athlete were measured as pre test results. Eight weeks training

programme on different surfaces were conducted to all the three groups

simultaneously and no training was given to control group. After the training the calf

and thigh circumference of each athlete were measured as post test results, further

vertical jump test was administered and also Cooper's 12 min run/walk test was

conducted on the cinder track. There was a significant effect of running training on

different surfaces on the performances of all three experimental groups. The study

was concluded that sand running group had significant improvement on vertical jump,

12 min run/walk test, increased circumference of calf and thigh muscles as compared

to other groups.

Kondapalli, Sreenivasa Rao (2010) conducted a study to find out the effect of

sand running on speed and cardio respiratory endurance of university male students.

To achieve this purpose, 30 male students studying in the Department of Physical

Education and Sports Sciences, Acharya Nagarjuana University, Nagarjuna Nagar,

Andhra Pradesh, India were selected as subjects at random. The age of the subjects

ranged from 18 to 24 years. The selected subjects were divided into two equal groups

of 15 subjects each, such as sand running group and control group. Group I underwent

sand running programme for three days/ a week for 12 weeks. Group II acted as

control group and did not participate in any special training programme apart from
 32

their regular physical education activities. All the subjects were tested on selected

criterion variables such as speed and cardio respiratory endurance prior to and

immediately after the training programme by using 50m run and Cooper's 12 min

run/walk test respectively. The Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) statistical

technique was used to test the significant mean differences among the groups. The

level of significance was fixed at 0.05 level. The results of the study revealed that

sand running group showed significant improvement on speed and cardio respiratory

endurance than control group.

Impellizzeri, F. M., et. al. (2008) conducted a study to find out the effect of

plyometric training on sand versus grass on muscle soreness, vertical jump height and

sprinting ability in soccer players. For this purpose, 37 soccer players were selected at

random. They were divided into two groups namely grass group and sand group. Pre

tests were conducted on 10m, 20m sprint time, squat jump (SJ), countermovement

jump (CMJ) and eccentric utilization ratio (CMJ/SJ). Muscle soreness was measured

by using a likert scale. Group I (n=18) underwent four weeks of plyometric training

on grass and group II (n=19) underwent four weeks of plyometric training on sand.

After four weeks of plyometric training, post tests were conducted for both groups on

the above said dependent variables. The results showed that no training surface with

time interactions were found for sprint time (p>0.87) and both groups showed

improvements on squat jump (SJ) (p= 0.08). On the other hand, the grass group

improved their counter movement jump (CMJ) (P=0.033) and CMJ/SJ (P=0.005)

more than players in the sand group. In contrast, players in the sand group

experienced less muscle soreness than those in the grass group (p<0.001). The study

was concluded that plyometric training on sand improved both jumping and sprinting
 33

ability and induced less muscle soreness. A grass surface seems to be superior in

enhancing countermovement jump (CMJ) performance while the sand surface showed

a greater improvement in squat jump.

Pandey, Sarika (2008) conducted a study to find out the comparative effect of

training on different playing surfaces on selected physical, physiological and

anthropometric variables namely explosive strength, speed, agility, cardiovascular

endurance, resting pulse rate, blood pressure, vital capacity, respiratory rate, weight,

height, calf girth and thigh girth among female players. To achieve the purpose of the

study, 100 female players were selected from different schools of BHEL, Haridwar

and their age was between 14 and 16 years. They were divided into five groups and

Group A underwent training on grassy surface, Group B underwent training on non-

grassy surface, Group C underwent training on wooden surface, Group D underwent

training on sand surface, Group E assigned as control group. Pre tests were conducted

on physical, physiological and anthropometric variables such as explosive strength,

speed, agility, cardiovascular endurance, resting pulse rate, blood pressure, vital

capacity, respiratory rate, weight, height, calf grith and thigh grith. After a period of

ten weeks training to the respective groups, post tests were conducted. Analysis of

covariance and LSD test (post-hoc test) were used to test the significant mean

differences among the groups. The study was concluded that ten weeks of training on

sand surface significantly improved the selected dependent variables namely

explosive strength, speed, agility, cardiovascular endurance, resting pulse rate,

reduction of weight than the other groups among female players.

Lobo, Francis Xavier (2002) conducted a study to find out the comparative

effects of training on dry sand and wet sand on physical and physiological variables
 34

such as speed, explosive power, endurance, agility, pulse rate, blood pressure, vital

capacity and respiratory rate of female Goan soccer players. For this purpose, 90 girls

football players from different Goan school were selected at random from the age

group of 14 to 16 years. They were divided into three equal groups of 30 subjects

each. Group A underwent wet sand training, Group B underwent dry sand training

and Group C acted as control group. Pre tests were conducted on selected dependent

variables before commencement of training. After 10 weeks of training with five days

in a week, post tests were conducted on selected dependent variables. The Analysis of

covariance (ANCOVA) statistical technique was applied for this study. The study was

concluded that the wet sand group performance on speed and pulse rate were best

among the three groups. Wet sand group and dry sand group were showed better

results on explosive strength and endurance than control group. There was no change

in blood pressure, vital capacity and respiratory rate among all the three groups.

Bandyopadhyay, Sunil Kumar (1994) conducted a study to find out the

comparative effects of training on dry sand, wet sand and natural turf on speed, strength,

endurance and agility of soccer players. To achieve the purpose of this study, 120 senior

division soccer players were selected at random from Bankura District sports clubs

belonging to the age group of 19 to 24 years. They were divided into four equal groups of

30 subjects each and pre tests were contacted before the training. Group A served as a

control group, Group B underwent training on dry sand surface, Group C underwent

training on wet sand surface and Group D underwent training on natural turf. After eight

weeks of training with six days in a week, post tests were conducted for all the four

groups. One way analysis of variance (F-ratio ) and Schefee’s post-hoc test were

employed to find out the significant results. The study

 35

was concluded that wet sand surface training group would significantly improve the

selected dependent variables such as speed, explosive strength and endurance than

other two groups. It was also concluded that natural turf training group significantly

improve the speed and agility than dry sand group and dry sand surface group

significantly improve the explosive strength than natural turf group.

2.2 STUDIES ON MOTOR FITNESS VARIABLES

Moorthy, A. Eswara, et. al. (2013) conducted a study to find out the effect of

swissball training on selected motor fitness variables among football players. To

achieve the purpose, 30 male football players from Selvam Group of Institutions,

Namakkal, Tamil Nadu were randomly selected and their age was between 18 and 25

years. They were divided into two groups of fifteen subjects in each group and group

A underwent swissball training and group B was not exposed to any training and acted

as control group. Pre tests were conducted on selected motor fitness variables such as

speed and agility. Speed and agility were measured by using 50 meters dash and

shuttle run tests. Post tests were conducted after a period of 12 weeks of training.

Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) statistical technique was used to test the

significant differences among the groups. The study was concluded that 12 weeks of

swissball training significantly improved the selected motor fitness variables namely

speed and agility among football players.

Chandrasekaran, S., et. al. (2012) conducted a study on selective motor fitness

components empowers on playing ability among low and high performers of state

level football players. To achieve the purpose, 150 men football players were

randomly selected as subjects from Tamil Nadu State level men Football tournament
 36

held at Chennai in the year 2008-2009 and their age was between 20 and 25 years.

They were divided into three groups of 50 subjects in each group and group I served

as Chennai team, group II served as Salem and Coimbatore team and group III serves

as Trichy and Madurai team. All the subjects were oriented the purpose and procedure

of conducting this test. Regular activities and training were given aplomb to the

player’s ability to perform the game. Data was collected through questionnaire and

tests were conducted on selected motor fitness components such as cardiovascular

endurance, speed, agility and explosive power before and after the competition. The

collected data were statistically analysed by using ANOVA and the group means were

compared by using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT). The study was concluded

that playing ability mainly depends on the physical fitness components and stress free

mind among state level football players.

Rajesh, E. Jesudin (2012) conducted a study to find out the influence of

endurance training, yogic practice and combination of training on selected physical

and physiological variables of soccer players. To achieve this purpose, 60 college men

football players aged between 17 and 22 years from Scott Christian College,

Nagercoil, Tamil Nadu were randomly selected as subjects and they were divided into

four equal groups of 15 subjects each. Experimental group I was exposed to

endurance training, Experimental group II was exposed to yogic practices,

Experimental group III was exposed to combined endurance and yogic practices

training and Group IV was acted as control group which was not exposed to any

experimental training other than their regular daily activities. The duration of

experimental period was 12 weeks. Pre and post tests were conducted prior and after

the 12weeks of training for all the subjects on selected physical variables such as
 37

cardiovascular endurance, flexibility, muscular endurance and physiological variables

such as resting heart rate, blood pressure and breath holding time. Analysis of

Covariance (ANCOVA) statistical technique was administered to find out the

significance among the mean differences. If the adjusted post test result was

significant, the scheffe’s post hoc test was used. The results of the study was revealed

that 12 weeks of endurance training, yogic practice and combined training of

endurance and yogic practices significantly improved the selected physical and

physiological variables namely cardiovascular endurance, flexibility, muscular

endurance, resting heart rate, blood pressure and breath holding time among college

men soccer players.

Joel, M Palani (2011) conducted a study to find out the effects of varied

packages of plyometric training on selected motor ability components and

physiological variables among college men students. To achieve this purpose, 120

college men students aged between 18 and 23 years from MGR Arts and Science

college, Hosur, Tamil Nadu were randomly selected as subjects and they were divided

into four equal groups of 30 subjects each. Experimental group A was exposed to low

intensity plyometric training, Experimental group B was exposed to medium intensity

plyometric training, Experimental group C was exposed to high intensity plyometric

training and group D was acted as control group and they were not exposed to any

experimental training other than their regular daily activities. The duration of

experimental period was 12 weeks. Pre and post tests were conducted prior and after

the 12weeks of training for all the subjects on selected physical variables such as

speed, leg explosive power, muscular endurance and physiological variables such as

resting pulse rate, Vo2 Max and anaerobic power. Analysis of Covariance
 38

(ANCOVA) Statistical technique was administered to find out the significance among

the mean differences. If the adjusted post test results were significant, the Scheffe’s

post hoc test was used. The study was concluded that 12 weeks of varied packages of

plyometric training significantly improved the selected motor ability components and

physiological variables among college men students.

Trzaskoma, L., et. al. (2010) conducted a study to find out the effect of a short-

term combined conditioning training for the development of leg strength and power.

The aim of the study was to compare the effect of combined weight and pendulum

training exercises with those isolated ones on muscle strength and vertical jump

performance. A total of 38 young active men were divided into four groups

performing different combinations of strength and power training and measured

directly and two weeks after the training program. Weight training and pendulum

swing exercises, involving lower body during dynamic bounces, were used. Results of

one repetition maximum (1RM) in full squat and squat jump with the barbell,

maximal force measured during countermovement jump (CMJ) and hip and knee

flexor and extensor isometric strength were analyzed. Significant differences (p<or=

0.05) in strength test (1RM squat, hip and knee flexor and extensor strength) were

found when performing weight training (1RM-10.2%; maximal torques-23.2%).

Positive significant increase (p <or= 0.05) in all strength and power parameters such

as maximal torques, One RM squat, CMJ power, CMJ height after the training

program was found when combined training was used. Seated safety position during

the pendulum swing was responsible for significant training effect with reduced loads.

Plyometric pendulum swing training combined with traditional training can be an

 39

alternative, effective method to increase muscle strength and power during short pre

or in-season mesocycles.

Castagna, C., et. al. (2008) conducted a study to find out the effect of recovery

mode on repeated sprint ability in young basketball players. To achieve this purpose,

16 basketball players aged between 15 and 18 years were selected. They performed

two repeated sprint ability protocols consisting of 10x30m shuttle run and sprints with

30 seconds of passive or active (running at 50% of maximal aerobic speed) recovery

in random order over two separate occasions . Results showed that fatigue index (FI)

during the active protocol was significantly greater than in the passive condition (5.05

+/2.4, and 3.39 +/- 2.3, respectively, p<0.001). No significant association was found

between VO2 peak and FI and Sprint Total Time (TT) in either repeated sprint

protocols. Blood lactate concentration at three minutes post exercise was not

significantly different between the two recovery conditions. The results of this study

showed that passive recovery enabled better performance and reduced fatigue during

repeated sprinting. Consequently, the use of passive recovery was advisable during

competition in order to limit fatigue as a consequence of repeated high intensity

exercise.

Chutara, M., et. al. (2008) conducted a study to find out the effect of

concurrent endurance and circuit resistance training sequence on muscular strength

and power development. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of

the sequence order of high intensity endurance training and circuit training on changes

in muscular strength and anaerobic power. Forty eight physical education students

aged between 20 and 23years were assigned as subjects and they were divided into

five groups. First group underwent endurance training (E, n=10), second group
 40

underwent circuit training (S, n=9), third group underwent endurance before circuit

training in the same session( E+S, n=10), forth group underwent circuit before

endurance training in the same session (S+E, n=10) and fifth group acted as control

group (C, n =9). Training consisted of two sessions per week for 12 weeks. Resistance

type circuit training targeted strength endurance (Weeks one to six) and explosive

strength and power (weeks 7 to 12). Endurance training sessions included five

repetition run at the velocity associated with VO2 Max, for duration equal to 50 % of

the time to exhaustion at VO2 Max; recovery was for an equal period at 60 % VO2

Max. The study was concluded that 12 weeks of concurrent endurance and circuit

resistance training sequence significantly improved the muscular strength and

anaerobic power.

De Villarreal ES., et. al. (2008) conducted a study on the low and moderate

plyometric training frequency produces greater jumping and sprinting gains compared

with high frequency. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of three

different plyometric training frequencies (one day per week, two days per week, four

days per week) associated with three different plyometric training volumes on

maximal strength, vertical jump performance and sprinting ability. Forty two students

were randomly assigned into four groups and first group underwent seven sessions of

drop jump (DJ) training, (n= 10, one day per week, 420 DJs), second group underwent

14 sessions of DJ training (n=12, two days per week, 840 DJs), third group underwent

28 sessions of DJ training (n = nine, four days per week, 1680 DJs) and forth group

acted as control group. The training protocols included DJ from three different heights

20, 40, and 60 cm. Maximal strength (one repetition maximum (1RM) and maximal

isometric strength), vertical height in countermovement jumps and DJs and 20-m
 41

sprint time tests were carried out before and after seven weeks of plyometric training.

No significant difference was observed among the groups in pre training in any of the

variables tested. No significant changes were observed in the control group in any of

the variables tested at any point. Short-term plyometric training using moderate

training frequency and volume of jumps (two days per week, 840 jumps) produces

similar enhancements in jumping performance, but greater training efficiency

(approximately 12% and 0.014% per jump) compared with high jumping (four days

per week, 1680 jumps) training frequency (approximately 18% and 0.011% per

jump). In addition, similar enhancements in 20m sprint time, jumping contact times

and maximal strength were observed in both a moderate and a low number of training

sessions per week compared with high training frequencies, despite the fact that the

average number of jumps accomplished in 7S (420 jumps) and 14S (840 jumps) was

25 and 50% of that performed in 28S (1680 jumps). These observations may have

considerable practical relevance for the optimal design of plyometric training

programs for athletes, given that a moderate volume was more efficient than a higher

plyometric training volume.

Marques, M. C., et. al. (2008) conducted a study to find out the changes in

strength and power performance in elite senior female professional volleyball players

during the in-season. The purpose of this case report is to describe the changes in

physical performance after an in-season training regimen in professional female

volleyball players in order to determine whether muscular strength and power might

be improved. Apart from normal practice sessions, 10 elite female volleyball players

completed two training sessions per week which included both resistance training and

plyometric exercises. Over the 12 weeks season, the athletes performed three to four
 42

sets of three to eight repetitions for resistance and plyometric exercises during each

training session. Muscular strength and power were assessed before and after the 12

weeks training program using four repetition maximum bench press and parallel squat

tests, an overhead medicine ball throw (BTd), as well as unloaded and loaded

countermovement jumps (CMJs). Strength improved by 15% and 11.5% in the bench

press and parallel squat, respectively (p < 0.0001). Distance in the BTd improved by

11.8% (p < 0.0001), whereas unloaded and loaded CMJ height increased between 3.8

and 11.2%. The study was suggested that elite female volleyball players can improve

strength and power during the competition season by implementing a well designed

training program that includes both resistance and plyometric exercises.

Herrero,J.A., et. al. (2006) conducted a study on electromyostimulation and

plyometric training effects on jumping and sprint time. This study compared the

effects of four week training periods of eclectromyostimulateion (EMS), plyomctric

training (P) and combined EMS and P training of the knee extendsor muscles on 20 M

sprint time (ST), squat jump (SJ), countermovement jump (CMJ), maximal isometric

strength (MVC) and muscle cross sectional area ( CSA). To achieve this purpose, 40

subjects were randomly assigned into four groups. First group (EG) underwent

electromyostmulation training, second group (PG) underwent plyometric training ,

third group underwent combined electromyostmulation and plyometric training (EPG)

for a period of four weeks and forth group acted as control group. The subjects were

tested before and after the training program, as well as once more after two weeks of

detraining. A significant improvement (P <0.05) in ST was observed after training

(2.4%) in EG, while a significant slowing (P<0.05) was observed (-2.3%) in EPG.

Significant increases in EPG (P<0.05) were observed in SJ (7.5%) and CMJ (7.3%)
 43

after training, while no significant changes in both jumps were observed after training

and detraining for EG . A significant increase (P <0.05) in MVC was observed after

training (9.1%) and after detraining (8.1%) in EG. A significant increase (p< 0.05) in

MVC was observed after training (16.3% ) in EPG. A significant increase (p < 0.01)

in CSA was observed after training in EG (9.0%) and in EPG (7.1%). EMS combined

with plyometric training increased the jumping height and sprint run in physically

active men. In addition, EMS alone or EMS combined with plyometric training leads

to increase maximal Strength and to some hypertrophy of trained muscles. However,

EMS training alone did not result in any improvement in jumping explosive strength

development or even interfered in sprint run.

Myer GD., et al. (2006) conducted a study to find out the effects of plyometric

vs. dynamic stabilization and balance training on power, balance, and landing force in

female athletes. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of plyometrics

(PLYO) versus dynamic stabilization and balance training (BAL) on power, balance,

strength, and landing force in female athletes. Nineteen high school female athletes

participated in training three times a week for seven weeks. The PLYO (n= eight)

group did not receive any dynamic balance exercises and the BAL (n=11) group did

not receive any maximum effort jumps during training. Pre training vs. post training

measures of impact force and standard deviation of center of pressure (COP) were

recorded during a single leg hop and hold. Subjects were also tested for training

effects in strength (isokinetic and isoinertial) and power (vertical jump). The percent

change from pre test to post test in vertical ground reaction force was significantly

different between the BAL and PLYO groups on the dominant side (p< 0.05). Both

groups decreased their standard deviation of center of pressure (COP)

 44

during hop landings in the medial/lateral direction on their dominant side, which

equalized pre test side to side differences. Both groups increased hamstrings strength

and vertical jump. The results of this study suggest that both plyometrics (PLYO) and

dynamic stabilization and balance training (BAL) were effective at increasing

measures of neuromuscular power and control. A combination plyometrics and

dynamic stabilization and balance training may further maximize the effectiveness of

pre season training for female athletes.

Russell, S. Deane, et. al. (2005) conducted a study to find out the effects of hip

flexor training on sprint, shuttle run and vertical jump performance. This study aimed

to determine whether a hip flexor resistance training programme could improve

performance on a variety of tasks. To achieve the purpose, 13 men and 11women

served as experimental group and they underwent eight weeks of hip flexion

resistance training and 11 men and 13 women served as control group. Isometric hip

flexion strength, 40-yd dash time and the time for the first 10-yds, 4 x 5.8-m shuttle

run time and vertical jump height were evaluated at the beginning and end of the

training period. Improvements were observed in the training group but not in the

control group. The training group improved hip flexion strength by 12.2% and

decreased their 40-yd dash and shuttle run times by 3.8% and 9.0%, respectively. An

increase in hip flexion strength could help to improve sprint and agility performance.

2.3 STUDIES ON PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIABLES

Sharma, Hari Om (2013) conducted a study to find out the effect of stair

climbing and sand dune running on selected physiological variables among football

players. To achieve the purpose of the study, 30 football players from different
 45

colleges of Chennai were randomly selected and their age was between 18 and 23

years. They were divided into three groups of 10 players in each group. Group I

underwent stair climbing training, group II underwent sand dune running for a period

of six weeks and group III assigned as control group. Pre tests were conducted on

selected physiological variables namely vital capacity and tidal volume. Post tests

were conducted after a period of six weeks of training. Analysis of covariance

(ANCOVA) and Scheffe’s post-hoc test was used to test the significant mean

differences among the experimental groups. The study was concluded that six weeks

of stair climbing significantly improved the selected dependent variables namely vital

capacity and tidal volume than sand dune running among football players.

Jacob, S. (2013) conducted a study to find out the effect of selected drill

practice and aerobic exercises on VO2 Max and Hemoglobin among college men

football players. To achieve the purpose of the study, 45 football players from

different colleges of Chennai were randomly selected and their age was between 18

and 21 years. They were divided into three groups of 15 subjects each. Group I

assigned as experimental group I, Group II assigned as experimental group II and

Group III assigned as control group. Experimental group I underwent drill practices,

experimental group II underwent aerobic exercises for a period of six weeks and

control group was not assigned to any experimental training. Pre tests and post tests

were conducted prior and after a period of six weeks of training on selected dependent

variables namely VO2 Max and hemoglobin. Analysis of covariance and Scheffe’s

post-hoc test were used to test the significant mean differences among the

experimental groups. The study was concluded that six weeks of selected drill
 46

practice and aerobic exercises significantly improved the selected dependent variables

namely VO2 Max and hemoglobin among college men football player.

Manna, Indranil, et. al. (2013) conducted a study to find out the effect of

training on morphological, physiological and biochemical variables of under 23 years

soccer players. To achieve this purpose, 30 Indian male soccer players aged below 23

years were selected as subjects. The training sessions were divided into two phases

namely preparatory phase (PP, eight weeks) and competitive phase (CP, four weeks).

After taking the baseline data at (BD) at zero level(pre tests) on selected

morphological, physiological and biochemical variables such as stature, body mass,

lean body mass, grip and back strength, VO2 Max, anaerobic power, maximal heart

rate, present body fat, urea, uric acid, hemoglobin, total cholesterol, high density

lipoprotein cholesterol, low density lipoprotein cholesterol and triglyceride. After that,

the players underwent a training programme consisted of aerobic, anaerobic and skill

development training. Post tests were conducted for all the subjects on the selected

morphological, physiological and biochemical variables immediately after preparatory

and competitive phases. The study was concluded that a significant increase (P<0.05)

in VO2 Max, anaerobic power, grip and back strength, urea, uric acid levels and a

decrease (P<0.05) in present body fat, hemoglobin, total cholesterol and triglyceride

levels due to the training. However, no significant change was found in stature, body

mass, lean body mass, maximal heart rate, high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-

C) and low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) among under 23 years soccer

players.

Sunder, K. (2011) conducted a study to find out the isolated and combined

effect of aerobic and anaerobic training on selected physical, physiological and

 47

performance variables of college men boxers. To achieve this purpose, 80 college

men boxers aged between 18 and 25 years were randomly selected from various

colleges in Tamil Nadu and they were divided into four equal groups of 20 subjects

each. Experimental group I was exposed to aerobic training, Experimental group II

was exposed to anaerobic training, Experimental group III was exposed to combined

aerobic and anaerobic training and the control group was not exposed to any

experimental training other than their regular daily activities. The duration of

experimental period was 12 weeks. Pre and post tests were conducted prior and after

the 12weeks of training for all the subjects on selected physical variables such as

speed, agility, muscular endurance and arm explosive power and physiological

variables such as resting heart rate, breath holding time, vital capacity and

cardiovascular endurance and performance variables such as punches, defensive skills

and overall boxing ability. Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) statistical technique

was administered to find out the significance among the mean differences. If the

adjusted post test results were significant, the Scheffe’s post-hoc test was used. The

results of the study revealed that 12 weeks of isolated and combined aerobic and

anaerobic training would significantly improved the selected physical, physiological

and performance variables of college men boxers.

Thiyagachanthan, N.V. (2010) conducted a study to find out the isolated and

combined effects of yogic practices and physical exercises on selected physical,

physiological and anthropometric variables among college men football players. To

achieve the purpose of the study, 120 men football players from different colleges of

Vellore District, Tamil Nadu were randomly selected and their age was between 18

and 25 years. They were divided into four groups namely isolated yogic group,
 48

isolated physical exercise group, combined yogic and physical exercise group and

control group. Pre tests were conducted on selected physical, physiological and

anthropometric variables such as speed, leg explosive power, agility, resting pulse

rate, blood hemoglobin, anaerobic power, chest girth, thigh girth and calf girth. Post

tests were conducted after a period of 12 weeks of training. Analysis of covariance

(ANCOVA) and Scheffe’s post-hoc test were used to test the significant mean

differences among the experimental groups. The study was concluded that the 12

weeks of isolated and combined effects of yogic practices and physical exercises

significantly improved the selected dependent variables among college men football

players.

Brown, G. A., et. al. (2010) conducted a study on the oxygen consumption,

heart rate, and blood lactate responses to an acute bout of plyometric depth jumps in

college-aged men and women. The purpose of this study was to investigate the

oxygen consumption, heart rate and blood lactate responses to a single session of

plyometric depth jumps. Twenty recreationally trained college-aged subjects (10 men,

10 women) participated in a single session of eight sets of 10 box depth jumps from a

height of 0.8 m with three minutes of passive recovery between each set. Plyometric

depth jumping elicited 82.5 +/- 3.1% and 77.8 +/- 3.1% of the measured maximal

oxygen consumption (O2 Max) for women and men respectively, with no difference

in oxygen consumption in ml/kg/min or percent O2 Max between sexes or sets. Heart

rate significantly increased (p < 0.05) from 68.1 +/2.9 beats/min at rest to 169.6 +/-1.2

beats/min during depth jumping. Sets five to eight elicited a higher (p < 0.05) heart

rate (173.3 +/- 1.3 beats/min) than sets one to four (164.6 +/- 1.8 beats/min). Women

exhibited a higher heart rate (p < 0.05) during sets one and two (169.9 +/- 2.8
 49

beats/min) than men (150.7 +/- 4.4 beats/min). The blood lactate concentrations were

significantly (p < 0.05) increased above resting throughout all sets (1.0 +/- 0.2

mmol/L compared with 2.9 +/- 0.1 mmol/L), with no differences between sexes or

sets. The study was concluded that plyometric depth jumping significantly increased

oxygen consumption, heart rate, and blood lactate in both men and women, but no

significant difference was found between the sexes.

Paul, C. Godwin (2010) conducted a study to find out effect of weight training

and resistance training on selected bio motor, physiological and skill variables among

Tamil Nadu state hockey players. To achieve this purpose, 60 state level men hockey

players aged between 18 and 25 years from different colleges in Tamil Nadu were

randomly selected and they were assigned into three equal groups of 20 subjects each.

Experimental group I underwent weight training, Experimental group II underwent

resistance training and group III acted as control group. Pre and Post tests were

conducted prior and after 12 weeks of training for all the subject on selected bio

motor, physiological and skill variables such as speed, leg strength, shoulder strength,

cardiovascular endurance, resting pulse rate, breath holding time, vital capacity,

dribbling, passing, hitting and scooping. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) and

scheffe’s post-hoc test were employed as statistical technique. The study was

concluded that 12 weeks of weight training and resistance training significantly

improved the selected bio motor, physiological, skill variables among state level

hockey players.

Chatra, et. al. (2005) conducted a study to find out the effects of intra-session

concurrent endurance and strength training sequence on aerobic performance and

capacity. To achieve this purpose, 48 male sport students aged between 20 and 23
 50

years were selected as subjects and they were divided into five homogeneous groups

according to their maximal aerobic speeds (VO2 Max). Group I ( E, n=10) underwent

running endurance training, group II (S, n=9) underwent strength circuit training,

group III underwent(E+S, n = 10) combined running endurance and strength circuit

training, group IV (S+E, n=10) underwent combined strength circuit and running

endurance training in a different order for a period of 12 weeks and group

V(C, n= nine) served as a control group. All the subjects were evaluated before (T0)

and after (T1) the training period using four tests such as a four km time trial running

test, an incremental track test to estimate VO2 Max, a time to exhaustion test (tlim) at

100% VO2 Max and a maximal cycling laboratory test to assess VO2 Max. Training

produced significant improvements in performance and aerobic capacity in the four

km time trial with interaction effect (p<0.001). The study was concluded that circuit

training immediately after individualized endurance training in the same session

(E+S) produced greater improvement in the four km time trail and aerobic capacity

than the other groups.

Caputo, F., et. al. (2004) conducted a study to find out the effects of aerobic

endurance training status and specificity on oxygen uptake kinetics during maximal

exercise. The main purpose of this study was to analyze the effects of exercise mode,

training status and specificity on the oxygen uptake (VO2) kinetics during maximal

exercise performed in treadmill running and cycle ergometry. Seven runners (R), nine

cyclists (C), nine triathletes (T) and 11 untrained subjects (U), performed the tests on

different days on a motorized treadmill and on a cycle erogometer. The U group

showed the lowest values for V02 Max, regardless of exercise mode. Differences in

effective time constant of the VO2 response ( tau VO2 , in seconds) were found only
 51

for the U group in relation to the trained groups; no effects of exercise mode were

found in any of the groups. It was concluded that tau VO2 during the exercise

performed at VO2 Max was dependent on the training status, but not dependent on the

exercise mode and specificity of training. Moreover, the transfer of the training effects

on tau VO2 between both exercise modes may be higher compared with VO2 Max.

Millet, G. P., et. al. (2002) conducted a study to find out the effects of

concurrent endurance and strength training on running economy and VO(2) kinetics,

The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of a concurrent heavy weight

training (HWT) along with endurance training on running economy (CR) and the

VO(2) kinetics in endurance athletes. Fifteen triathletes were assigned to endurance

with strength (ES) training and endurance only (E) training for 14 weeks. The training

programme was similar, except ES performed two NWT sessions a week. Before and

after the training period, the subjects performed the tests such as an incremental field

running test for determination of VO(2 Max) and the velocity associated (V(VO2

Max)), the second ventilatory threshold (VT(2)), a 3000 -m run at constant velocity,

calculated to require 25% of the difference between VO(2 Max) and VT(2) to

determine CR and the characteristics of the VO(2) kinetics, maximal hopping tests to

determine maximal mechanical power and lower-limb stiffness, maximal concentric

lower-limb strength measurements. Results showed that after the training period,

maximal strength were increased (P<0.01) in ES but remained unchanged in E.

Hopping power decreased in E (P<0.05). After training, economy (P<0.05) and

hopping power (P<0.001) were greater in ES than in E. VO(2 Max), leg hoping

stiffness and the VO(2) Kinetics were not significantly affected by training either in

ES or E. The study was concluded that additional heavy weight training (HWT) led to
 52

improved maximal strength and running economy with no significant effects on the

VO(2) kinetics pattern in heavy exercise.

Yamamoto, K., et. al.(2001) conducted a study to find out the effects of

endurance training on resting and post-exercise cardiac autonomic control. To achieve

the purpose, the subjects were divided into two groups namely endurance training

group (N=seven ) and control group (N=five). Training group underwent endurance

training for a period of six weeks and control group was not exposed to any training.

Endurance training induces reductions in both resting and post exercise heart rate

(HR). If adaptation in cardiac autonomic regulation was a contributing factor in these

reductions, changes in cardiac autonomic nervous system (ANS) should correspond to

those in HR during an endurance training programme and the changes in resting and

post exercise HR variabilities over a six weeks training programme were noted. HR

variability was measured five times in an endurance training group (N =seven) and

four times in a control group (N =five) during the course of study. Endurance training

decreased HR and increased indices of parasympathetic modulation measured both at

rest and during post exercise recovery periods. The study was concluded that six

weeks of endurance training made changes in cardiac ANS modulation partly

contribute to a decrease in HR at rest and during post exercise recovery period and

that adaptation of the cardiac autonomic control occurs sooner in immediate post

exercise periods than at rest.

2.4 STUDIES ON PERFORMANCE VARIABLES

Manojkumar, A. (2012) conducted a study to find out the efficacy of specific

packages of football drills with and without psych up strategies on selected physical
 53

fitness, game skill variables and playing ability among inter collegiate football

players. To achieve this purpose, 45 college men football players aged between 21

and 24 years were randomly selected and they were divided into three equal groups of

15 subjects each. Experimental group I was exposed to specific packages of football

drills with psych up strategies, Experimental group II was exposed to specific football

drills without psych up strategies and the control group was not exposed to any

experimental training other than their regular daily activities. The duration of

experimental period was 12 weeks. Pre and post tests were conducted prior and after

the 12weeks of training for all the subjects on selected physical fitness variables such

as speed, agility, explosive power, flexibility and cardiovascular endurance and game

skill variables such as passing shooting, dribbling, kicking for distance in right leg

and kicking for distance in left leg. Playing ability was measured by experts rating.

Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) statistical technique was administered to find out

the significance among the mean differences. If the adjusted post test result was

significant, the Scheffe’s post-hoc test was used. The results of the study revealed that

12 weeks of specific foot ball drills with psych up strategies significantly improved

the selected physical fitness and game skill variables and playing ability among inter

collegiate football players.

Suthar Singh J., Jackson (2012) conducted a study to find out the influences of

physical training package with and without psych up strategies on selected bio-motor,

physiological, psychological variables and playing abilities among college men

football players. To achieve this purpose, 90 college men football players aged

between 18 and 25 years from Chennai City Colleges were randomly selected and

they were assigned into three equal of 30 players each. Experimental group I

underwent physical training packages with psych up strategies, Experimental group II

 54

underwent physical training packages without psych up strategies and group III acted

as control group. Pre and Post tests were conducted prior and after 12 weeks of

training for all the subject on selected bio-motor variables namely spaced,

cardiovascular endurance, agility and flexibility and physiological variables namely

VO2 Max, anaerobic power and resting pulse rate and psychological variables namely

sports achievement motivation, self concept, anxiety and playing ability. Analysis of

covariance (ANCOVA) and scheffe’s post- hoc test were employed as statistical

technique. The study was concluded that 12 weeks of physical training packages with

psych up strategies significantly improved the selected bio-motor, physiological,

psychological variables and playing abilities among college men football players.

Madhankumar T. (2012) conducted a study to find out the effect of continuous

running and fartlek training on selected physical, physiological and skill related

variables of football players. To achieve the purpose of the study, 45 football players

from Cheyyar, Thiruvannamalai District were randomly selected as subjects and their

age was between 18 and 23 years. They were divided into three groups of 15 players

in each group. Experimental group I underwent continuous running , Experimental

group II underwent fartlek training for a period of twelve weeks and group III

assigned as control group. Pre tests were conducted on selected physical,

physiological and skill related variables namely speed, agility, muscular endurance,

cardio respiratory endurance, forced vital capacity, forced expiratory volume in first

second (FEV1), peak expiratory flow rate (PEER), maximum expiratory pressure

(MEP), maximum inspiration pressure (MIP), breath holding time, systolic pressure

(SP), diastolic pressure (DP), resting pulse rate and dribbling. Post tests were

conducted after a period of 12 weeks of training. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA)

and Scheffe’s post-hoc test were used to test the significant mean differences among
 55

the groups. The study was concluded that 12 weeks of continuous running and fartlek

training significantly improved the selected dependent variables except systolic and

diastolic pressure among football players.

Kulkarni, Vidya S. (2012) conducted a study to find out the effect of selected

exercises in yoga on motor fitness and football skills of boys aged 14 to 16 years. To

achieve the purpose of the study, 60 school level football players from Mumbai were

randomly selected and their age was between 14 and 16 years. They were divided into

two groups of 30 subjects each. Group I assigned as experimental group and Group II

assigned as control group. Experimental group underwent yogic exercise practices for

the period of eight weeks and control group was not assigned to any experimental

training. Pre tests were conducted on selected motor fitness variables and football

skills namely speed, flexibility, endurance, ball control, kicking accuracy and

juggling. Post tests were conducted after a period of eight weeks of training on

selected dependent variables. The data were analysed by using ‘t’ test to evaluate the

significant differences among the experimental and control groups. The study was

concluded that eight weeks of selected yogic exercise practices significantly improved

the selected dependent variables namely speed and juggling among school level

football player.

Bullock, William, et. al. (2012) conducted a study to find out the effect of

45min of soccer-specific exercise in the reactive motor skills test (RMST); a novel

test which measures sprint, passing and reactive agility (RAT) performance. To

achieve the purpose, 42 high-level amateur male soccer players aged between 15 and

22 years were recruited. Participants were familiarised with the RMST prior to initial

testing. Participants undertook 10 repetitions of the RMST before and after 45min of
 56

soccer-specific exercise using the Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test. Eighteen

of these participants repeated RMST for test re-test reliability determination. Paired t-

tests and effect size statistics were used to determine the effect of 45min of

intermittent exercise on RMST performance. Reliability was assessed using the

standard error of measurement. The exercise protocol resulted in moderate decreases

of sprint (3.0+0.9% mean ± SD; 1.030 ± 0.09 ES + 90% Confidence Intervals;

p<0.00001) and RAT performance (1.5 ± 1.1%; 1.015 ± 0.011; p<0.05), but improved

passing task time (-2.7 ± 1.2%; 0.973 ± 0.012; p<0.001) and passing accuracy

(3.6 ± 3.3%; 1.036 ± 0.33). Change in total test time was trivial. The test-retest

coefficient of variation for the test was 2.4 ± 0.8%. The study was concluded that

soccer-specific exercise decreased sprint and reactive agility performance but

improved technical skill performance on a novel, integrative and reliable test of

soccer skill performance. Overall RMST performance time was largely unchanged.

Vandendriessche, J.B., et. al. (2012) conducted a study on the biological

maturation, morphology, fitness and motor coordination as part of a selection strategy

in the search for international youth soccer players. The research was conducted on

the morphology (height, weight, body fat, body mass index), fitness (strength, speed,

agility, flexibility) and soccer-specific (dribbling) and non-specific motor

coordination skills (Korper Koordinations Test Fur Kinder; KTK) of 78 Belgian

international youth soccer players aged 15-16 years with varying biological maturity

status. The more mature players (U16 and U17) possessed higher morphological

measures and outperformed their later maturing peers (U16 Futures and U17 Futures)

on almost all fitness tests. However, soccer-specific and non-specific motor

coordination tests did not distinguish the more mature players from the later maturing
 57

players in both age groups. When adjusted for the confounder (age at peak height

velocity), multivariate analysis of covariance revealed that several morphology and

fitness related parameters did not differ between selection groups, again in both age

groups. These findings indicated that biological maturation affects morphology and

fitness more so than motor coordination skills. The study was concluded that to

prevent the dropout of promising late maturing players, avoid one-dimensional

approaches and to include measures of biological maturity status as well as maturity

independent performance tests during the talent identification and selection process.

Henry, G, et. al. (2012) conducted a study to find out the effects of a feint on

reactive agility performance. This study compared reactive agility between higher-

standard (n=14) and lower-standard (n=14) Australian footballers using a reactive

agility test incorporating a life-size video image of another player changing direction,

including and excluding a feint. Mean agility time in the feint trails was 34% (509 ±

243ms; p<0.001; effect size 3.06) longer than non-feint trails. In higher-standard

players, agility time was shorter than for lower-standard in both feint (114 ± 140 ms;

p= 0.18; effect size 0.52; likely beneficial) and non-feint (32 ± 44 ms; p= 0.22; effect

size 0.47; possibly beneficial) trails. Additionally, the inclusion of a feint resulted in

movement time increasing over three times more in the lower-standard group(197 ±

91 ms; p=0.001; effect size 1.07; almost certainly detrimental) than the higher-

standard group (62 ± 86 ms; p= 0.23; effect size 0.66; likely detrimental). There were

weak correlations between the feint and non-feint trails (r= -0.13 -0.14 ; p>0.05),

suggesting that reactive agility involving a feint was a unique skill. The study was

concluded that higher-standard players were more agile than their lower-standard

peers, whose movement speed deteriorates more as task complexity increases with the
 58

inclusion of a feint. These results supported the need for specific training in multi-turn

reactive agility tasks.

Kannekens, R., et. al. (2011) conducted a study on the positioning and

deciding key factors for talent development in soccer. Talent identification and

implicate recognizing youth players who would be successful in the future and

guiding them to the top. A major determinant of this success was tactical skills. To

identify possible key factors that help in predicting success over time, this study

assessed the tactical skills of 105 elite youth soccer players who participated in a

talent development programme at an earlier stage of their sport career (mean age 17.8

± 0.9). These skills were related to their adult performance level, specifically whether

they became professionals (n=52) or amateurs (n=53). Defenders, midfielders and

attackers completed the Tactical Skills Inventory for Sports with scales for declarative

and procedural knowledge in either attacking or defensive situations. A logistic

regression analysis was performed to identify the tactical skills that contribute to

professional performance level in adulthood. Positioning and deciding appeared to be

the tactical skill that best predicts adult performance level (P<0.05). This was

especially true for midfielders, with the correct classification of elite youth players in

the range of 80%. For players scoring high on this skill, the odds ratios indicated a

6.60 times greater chance that a player became a professional than players scoring low

(P<0.05).

Da Silva, J.F., et .al. (2011) conducted a study on the validity and reliability of

a new field test for soccer players compared with laboratory- based measures. The aim

of the study was to assess the validity (Study one) and reliability (Study two) of a

novel intermittent running test (Carminatti's test) for physiological assessment of

 59

soccer players. In Study one, 28 players performed Carminatti's test, a repeated sprint

ability test and an intermittent treadmill test. In Study two, 24 players performed

Carminatti's test twice within 72 h to determine test-retest reliability. Carminatti’s test

required the participants to complete repeated bouts of 5x12s shuttle running at

progressively faster speeds until volitional exhaustion. The 12 s bouts were separated

by six s recovery periods, making each stage 90 s in duration. The initial running

distance was set at 15 m and was increased by 1m at each stage (90s). The repeated

sprint ability test required the participants to perform 7 x 34.2 m maximal effort

sprints separated by 25 s recovery. During the intermittent treadmill test, the initial

velocity of 9.0 km h(-1) was increased by 1.2 km h(-1) every three min until

volitional exhaustion. No significant difference (P > 0.05) was observed between

Carminatti's test peak running velocity and speed at VO(2max) (v-VO(2max)). Peak

running velocity in Carminatti's test was strongly correlated with v-VO(2max) (r =

0.74,P < 0.01) and highly associated with velocity at the onset of blood lactate

accumulation (r = 0.63, P < 0.01). Mean sprint time was strongly associated with peak

running velocity in Carminatti's test (r = -0.71, P < 0.01). The intraclass correlation

was 0.94 with a coefficient of variation of 1.4%. In conclusion, Carminatti's test

appeared to be a valid and reliable measure of physical fitness and of the ability to

perform intermittent high-intensity exercise in soccer players.

Jovanovic, M., et. al. (2011) conducted a study to find out the effects of the

speed, agility, quickness (SAQ) training method on power performance in elite soccer

players. Soccer players were assigned randomly into two groups: experimental group

(EG; n=50) and control group (n =50). Power performance was assessed by a test of

quickness-the five m sprint, a test of acceleration-the 10-m sprint, tests of maximal

 60

speed--the 20-m and the 30-m sprint along with Bosco jump tests--squat jump,

countermovement jump (CMJ), maximal CMJ and continuous jumps performed with

legs extended. The initial testing procedure took place at the beginning of the

in-season period. The 8-weeks specific SAQ training program was implemented after

which final testing took place. The results of the two way analysis of variance

indicated that the EG improved significantly (p < 0.05) in five m (1.43vs.1.39

seconds) and in 10m (2.15 vs. 2.07 seconds) sprints, and they also improved their

jumping performance in countermovement (44.04 vs. 4.48 cm) and continuous jumps

(41.08 vs. 41.39 cm) performed with legs extended (p< 0.05). In conclusion, the SAQ

training program appeared to be an effective way of improving some segments of

power performance in young soccer players during the in-season period.

Russell, M., et. al. (2011) conducted a study to find out the influence of

exercise on skill proficiency in soccer. They documented that the ability to maintain

technical performances (i.e. skills) throughout soccer match-play was considered to be

crucial in determining the outcome of competitive fixtures. Consequently, coaches

dedicate a large proportion of time to practicing isolated skills, such as passing,

shooting and dribbling. Unlike other elements that contribute to team-sport

performances, it was unusual for coaches to use methods other than observations to

assess changes resulting from technical training. Researchers have employed various

tests to measure isolated soccer skills; however, reliance on outcome measures that

include number of contacts (ball juggling tasks), time (dribbling tasks) and points

scored (criterion-based passing and shooting tests) means that the outcomes were

difficult for coaches to interpret. Skill tests that use video-analysis techniques to

measure ball speed, precision and success of soccer skills offer valid and reliable
 61

alternatives. Although equivocal results were published, skill performances could be

affected by assorted factors that threaten homeostasis, including match-related

fatigue, dehydration and reductions in blood glucose concentrations. While

acknowledging methodological constraints associated with using skill tests with

limited ecological validity and cognitive demands, the effects of these homeostatic

disturbances might vary according to the type of skill being performed. Shooting

performances appear most susceptible to deterioration after exercise. Strategies such

as aerobic training, fluid-electrolyte provision and acute carbohydrate

supplementation have been found to improve proficiency in technical actions

performed after soccer-specific exercise. However, mechanisms that cause

deterioration in skill during soccer-specific exercise remain to be fully elucidated and

strategies to optimize technical performance throughout match-play were warranted.

Schwesig, R., et. al. (2011) conducted a study on the development and

evaluation of a soccer focused complexity test. The aim of the study was to

development and evaluation of a standardized complexity test in soccer (FBKT) for

assessment of the complex sports specific and league specific physical performance.

Soccer has increasingly become a technical - tactical (speed of activity) and athletic

sport over the last years. Simultaneously the new training and contest conditions result

in new challenges to sports science and sports medicine evaluation. Complex, sports

specific field tests for soccer exist rarely and only in low quality. To achieve the

purpose, two regional German soccer teams namely Verbandsliga (VL) and Oberliga

(OL) (n = 27) were assessed with FBKT. The assessment included lactate levels, heart

rate as well as time and error frequency (penalty time per error: five s) for defined

activity series at defined time points. The heart rate (hr (max) = 200 min
 62

(-1)) and metabolic rate (lactate (max) = 17.1 mmol/l) were very excessively high and

did only partially differ between the groups. Furthermore no significant differences

occurred in the following parameters: recovery potential, technical error (p = 0.384),

sprint (p = 0.499), slalom dribbling (p = 0.310), time round one (p = 0.119), shots on

goal (p = 0.585) and crosses (p = 0.676). Significant differences were only found in

the parameters time round two (p = 0.004), time round one and round two (p = 0.013),

overall time (running) (time + penalty) (time) (p = 0.022) and speed dribbling

(p = 0.005).In conclusion, soccer specific complex loads generate very high physical

demands. Although complex, the FBKT proved to be a practical assessment tool with

high standardising potential. The FBKT gave plentiful information under competition-

like conditions such as technical skills, speed, speed endurance or anaerobe capacity.

Ali, A. (2011) reviewed on the measuring soccer skill performance. The

review was reported that the ability to execute skilled movement patterns efficiently

and effectively was the most important aspect of soccer performance and players must

apply cognitive, perceptual and motor skills to rapidly changing situations. There had

been attempts to measure these parameters for talent identification (or development)

purposes and skill acquisition and intervention research; the aim of this review was to

examine the strengths and limitations of these tests. High levels of perceptual and

cognitive skill were characteristics of those players who were able look in the right

places for information and process this information efficiently before deciding on a

suitable course of action. The motor skills required to successfully control, pass,

dribble and shoot the ball at goal were fundamental skills of the soccer player and a

variety of methods had been used to measure these aspects. The tests mentioned in

this review vary in their complexity and the type of skills they purport to measure.
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The assessment of choice must come down to a number of factors including cost,

available time and space, number of athletes in the cohort and experience of

researchers. Furthermore, consideration must be given to the aims of the research and

issues relating to validity and reliability.

Jawahar, C.A. (2010) conducted a study to find out the effect of hypoxic

training and pranayama practices on selected bio-motor variables and soccer

performances among college soccer players. To achieve the purpose of the study, 45

soccer players from Farook College, Calicut, Kerala were randomly selected and their

age was between 18 and 21 years. They were divided into three groups of 15 subjects

in each group. Group I was exposed to hypoxic training, Group II was exposed to

pranayama practices for a period of twelve weeks and Group III was assigned as

control group. Pre and post tests were conducted prior and immediately after the 12

weeks of training on selected bio-motor variables and soccer performances such as

speed, explosive power, cardio respiratory endurance, agility, dribbling, passing and

shooting. Dependent ‘t’ test, Analysis of covariance(ANCOVA) and Scheffe’s post-

hoc test were used to test the significant mean differences among the groups. The

study was concluded that 12 weeks of hypoxic training and pranayama practices

significantly improved the selected dependent variables namely speed, explosive

power, cardio respiratory endurance, agility, dribbling, passing and shooting among

college soccer players.

Silva, Coelho E.M.J., et. al. (2010) conducted a study on the discrimination of

U-14 soccer players by level and position. This study compared the characteristics of

regionally selected and non-selected under- 14 players (U-14) as a group and by

position. Players were classified as local (n=69) and regional (n=45). Weight, height,
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skinfolds, functional capacities, soccer skills and goal orientation were measured and

skeletal age was assessed with the Fels method. Factorial ANOVA was used to test

the effect of selection, position and respective interaction terms, while discriminant

analysis was used to identify the variables that contributed to selection. Selected

players had an advanced maturity status (F=24.97, p<0.01), were heavier (F=30.67.

p<0.01) and taller (F =35.07, p<0.01), performed better in explosive power (F =21.25,

p<0.01), repeated sprints (F=20.04, p<0.01) and ball control (F=3.69, p<0.05) and

were more ego oriented (F=13.29, p<0.01). The two competitive groups did not differ

in agility, aerobic endurance, dribbling, shooting, passing and task orientation.

Position-related variation was negligible. The percentage of players who were

correctly classified in the original groups was slightly lower when the analysis was

performed for the total sample (86%) than by position (86-90%). The study was

suggested for future research on talent identification and selection should adopt a

multidimensional approach including variables related to the physiological,

perceptual, cognitive and tactical demands.

Meylan, C., et. al. (2009) conducted a study to find out the effects of in-season

plyometric training within soccer practice on explosive actions of young players. In

soccer, explosive actions such as jumping, sprinting, and changes of direction are

essential to optimal performance not only in adults, but also in children's games. The

purpose of the present investigation was to determine the influence of short-term

plyometric training within regular soccer practice on explosive actions of early

pubertal soccer players during the in-season. Twenty five children aged between 12

and 14 years were selected as subjects and they were divided into two groups namely

training group (TG, n = 14) and control group (CG, n = 11). All children were playing
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in the same league and trained twice per week for 90 minutes with the same soccer

drills. The TG followed an eight weeks plyometric programme (i.e., jumping,

hurdling, bouncing, skipping, and footwork) implemented as a substitute for some

soccer drills to obtain the same session duration as CG. At baseline and after training,

explosive actions were assessed with the following six tests such as 10-meter sprint,

agility test, three vertical jump tests (squat jump (SJ), countermovement jump (CMJ),

contact test (CT) and multiple five bounds test (MB5). Plyometric training was

associated with significant decreases in 10-ms print time (-2.1%) and agility test time

(-9.6%) and significant increases in jump height for the CMJ (+7.9%) and CT

(+10.9%). No significant changes in explosive actions after the 8-week period were

recorded for the CG. The study was concluded that a plyometric program within

regular soccer practice improved explosive actions of young players compared to

conventional soccer training only. Therefore, the short-term plyomctric program had a

beneficial impact on explosive actions such as sprinting, change of direction and

jumping, which are important determinants of match-winning actions in soccer

performance.

Campo, Sedano S., et. al. (2009) conducted a study to find out the effects of

lower-limb plyometric training on body composition, explosive strength, and kicking

speed in female soccer players. The aim of the present study was to examine how

explosive strength, kicking speed, and body composition are affected by a 12 weeks

plyometric training programme in elite female soccer players. The hypothesis was that

this program would increase the jumping ability and kicking speed and that these

gains could be maintained by means of regular soccer training only. Twenty adult

female players aged between 19 and 27 years were selected as subjects and they were
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divided into two groups namely control group (CG, n = 10) and plyometric group

(PG, n = 10). The intervention was carried out during the second part of the

competitive season. Both groups performed technical and tactical training exercises

and matches together. However, the CG followed the regular soccer physical

conditioning programme, which was replaced by a plyometric program for PG.

Neither CG nor PG performed weight training. Plyometric training took place three

days per week for 12 weeks including jumps over hurdles, drop jumps (DJ) in stands

or horizontal jumps. Body mass, body composition, countermovement jump height,

DJ height and kicking speed were measured on four separate occasions. The PG

demonstrated significant increases (p< 0.05) in jumping ability after six weeks of

training and in kicking speed after 12 weeks. There were no significant times with

group interaction effects for body composition. The study was concluded that a 12

weeks plyometric programme can improve explosive strength in female soccer

players and that these improvements can be transferred to soccer kick performance in

terms of ball speed. However, players need time to transfer these improvements in

strength to the specific task. Regular soccer training can maintain the improvements

from a plyometric training program for several weeks.

Thomas, K., et. al. (2009) conducted a study to find out the effect of two

plyometric training techniques on muscular power and agility in youth soccer players.

To achieve this purpose, 30 males from a semiprofessional football club's academy

were randomly selected as subjects and they were divided into two groups. DJ group

underwent six weeks of depth jump (DJ) training and CMJ group underwent six

weeks of countermovement jump (CMJ) training(twice/a week). Participants in the DJ

group performed drop jump with instructions to minimize ground-contact time while
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maximizing height. Participants in the CMJ group performed jumps from a standing

start position with instructions to gain maximum jump height. Post training, both

groups experienced improvements in vertical jump height ( p< 0.05 ) and agility time

(p< 0.05) and no change in sprint performance (p<0.05). There were no differences

between the treatments groups (p=0.05). The study was concluded that both depth

jump and countermovement jump (CMJ) plyometrics were worth while training

activities for improving power and agility in youth soccer players.

Gomez, Perez J., et. al. (2008) conducted a study to find out the effects of

weight lifting training combined with plyometric exercises on physical fitness, body

composition and knee extension velocity during kicking in football. The effects of a

training programme consisting of weight lifting combined with plyometric exercises

on kicking performance, myosin heavy-chain composition (vastus lateralis), physical

fitness and body composition (using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA)) was

examined in 37 male physical education students divided randomly into a training

group (TG,16 subjects) and a control group (CG, 21 subjects). The TG followed six

weeks of combined weight lifting and plyometric exercises. In all subjects, tests were

performed to measure their maximal angular speed of the knee during in-step kicks on

a stationary ball. Additional tests for muscle power (vertical jump), running speed (30

m running test), anaerobic capacity (Wingate and 300 m running tests) and aerobic

power (20 m shuttle run tests) were also performed. Training resulted in muscle

hypertrophy (+4.3%), increased peak angular velocity of the knee during kicking

(+13.6%), increased percentage of myosin heavy-chain (MHC) type IIa (+8.4%),

increased one repetition maximum (1 RM) of inclined leg press (ILP) (+61.4%), leg

extension (LE) (+20.2%), leg curl (+15.9%), half squat (HQ) (+45.1%),
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and enhanced performance in vertical jump (all p < or = 0.05). In contrast, MHC type

I was reduced (-5.2%, p < or = 0.05) after training. In the control group, these

variables remain unchanged. In conclusion, six weeks of strength training combining

weight lifting and plyometric exercises resulted in significant improvement of kicking

performance, as well as other physical capacities related to success in football.

Ronnestad, B. R., et. al. (2008) conducted a study to find out the short-term

effects of strength and plyometric training on sprint and jump performance in

professional soccer players. The purpose of the study was to compare the effects of

combined strength and plyometric training with strength training alone on power-

related measurements in professional soccer players. Subjects in the intervention team

were randomly divided into two groups. Group ST (n = six) performed heavy strength

training twice a week for seven weeks in addition to six to eight soccer sessions a

week. Group ST+P (n = eight) performed a plyometric training program in addition to

the same training as the ST group. The control group (n = seven) performed six to

eight soccer sessions a week. Pre tests and post tests were one repetition maximum

(1RM) half squat, countermovement jump (CMJ), squat jump (SJ), four bounce test

(4BT), peak power in half squat with 20kg, 35kg, and 50kg (PP20, PP35, and PP50,

respectively), sprint acceleration, peak sprint velocity and total time on 40-m sprint.

There were no significant differences between the ST+P group and ST group. Thus,

the groups were pooled into one intervention group. The intervention group

significantly improved in all measurements except CMJ, while the control group

showed significant improvements only in PP20. There was a significant difference in

relative improvement between the intervention group and control group in One RM

half squat, Four BT and SJ. However, a significant difference between groups was not
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observed in PP20, PP35, sprint acceleration, peak sprinting velocity and total time on

40-m sprint. The results suggested that there were no significant performance-

enhancing effects of combining strength and plyometric training in professional

soccer players concurrently performing six to eight soccer sessions a week compared

to strength training alone. However, heavy strength training significantly improved

the strength and power-related measurements in professional soccer players.

2.5 SUMMARY OF THE LITERATURE

The research reviews relevant to the sand training, offshore training, selected

motor fitness, physiological and performance variables of this study were categorized

and presented in this chapter. The above literature proves that there was a significant

change in motor fitness, physiological and performance variables due to sand and

offshore training. From the review of related literature, it was found that there was a

scope for research in isolated and combined sand and offshore training on selected

motor fitness, physiological and performance variables among inter collegiate football

players. Based on the knowledge gained, the investigator formulated suitable

methodology to be adopted in this research which is presented in chapter III.