THE POLITICAL ECONOMY IN

ANCIENT EGYPT

Prepared by:
Mary Rose C. Salazar

Date Submitted:
February 5, 2022

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

Bachelor of Arts in Political Economy 2 - 2
Sta. Mesa, Manila
 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY IN ANCIENT EGYPT

I. SUMMARY
Ancient Egypt was the ancient world's largest kingdom, unified around 3100 B.C.E., and ruled North
Africa and parts of the Levant until it was conquered by the Macedonians. Egyptian civilization
flourished along the Nile River and thrived since prehistoric times, which provided reliable, fertile soil for
growing crops because of the river's annual flooding. Even though Egypt's rulers, literature, climate,
religion, and boundaries have all changed over time, it remains a modern-day nation. Due to their
geographical location, the Egyptians were shielded from invaders. They had the Mediterranean Sea to the
north and the Nile Delta to the south, for example. On the other hand, this body of water obstructs access
to land. The Egyptians were also shielded from the regions below them by the cataracts in the Nile to the
south. In addition, the ancient Egyptians wrote religious and governmental documents in hieroglyphics, as
well as letters and records in a simple script. This language was more than simply a manner of writing; it
was also a technique of presenting images that were intended to be visually appealing. Most significantly,
it allowed them to pass on their cultural worldview, as well as their scientific and technical achievements,
to their successors and refine them in their own manner.
 
Ancient Egypt was under a theocratic monarchy with a ruler who was appointed by the gods. The
Gods' will is claimed to be represented through the laws and policies made by monarchs, who are
considered mediators between humans and the divine. It has had 31 dynasties throughout its three periods
in which power was handed from one dynasty to another. Until the ruler was deposed, or no successors
were left to reign, a dynasty ruled. The essential cultural value of ma'at, which had been introduced by the
gods at the beginning of time, was the foundation of their law. All one had to do was live a life of
thoughtfulness, awareness, and balance in line with ma'at to be at peace with oneself, one's community,
and the gods.
 
Wheat, barley, vegetables, figs, melons, pomegranates, and vines were all grown by the Egyptians.
Aside from that, they farmed flax, which was used to make linen. Grain is the most significant crop that is
used to make bread, porridge, and beer. After the flooding season, the first crop they cultivated was grain,
then they grew vegetables like onions, leeks, cabbages, beans, cucumbers, and lettuce. The ancient
Egyptians were also excellent marketers. Ships went up and down the Nile River, delivering products to
various ports, and they traded gold, papyrus, linen, and grain for cedar wood, ebony, copper, iron, ivory,
and lapis lazuli. After the items were unloaded, they were transported by camel, wagon, or on foot to
various merchants. Beyond the mouth of the Nile, Egyptian traders encountered traders from other
civilizations to trade for products brought to them, but they seldom ventured far beyond it.
 
The Egyptians did not have a currency in the same sense that people have now. The administration is
overseen by the Pharaoh, who imposes levies on the people. In the absence of a currency, taxes were
collected once a year, known as the "Cattle Count," on commodities produced by ordinary Egyptians. The
Pharaoh's annual tour to each province, also known as the "Shemsu Hor" or "Following of Horus" by the
Egyptians, was to collect taxes on behalf of the Pharaoh and his officials. The head of each district
oversaw calculating the value of each Egyptian's property and then levying a tax on a proportion of what
they earned.

II. PROBLEMATIQUE
Religion and government were inextricably connected in ancient Egypt's political economy. The
pharaoh was the ruler of Egypt and the earth's gods' divine representation. Additionally, female Egyptians
were valued in any situation in the privileged societies, to some extent since marriage organizations  were
crucial to the government's security and dependability. To isolate and cull the elements or factors that
make up a political economic study, agriculture; education, culture, and arts; technology; finance and
taxes; interrelationships among its areas and people; weapons and warfare; ideology, law, and
government; and foreign affairs will be categorized under the four structures Political Economy.
Categorizing the civilization’s institutions, arrangements, and government to the four structures- security,
 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY IN ANCIENT EGYPT

production, finance, and knowledge is important in understanding the political and economic dynamics of
Ancient Egypt. Consequently, Egypt's Political Economy is determined by analyzing the political, social,
and economic structures of ancient Egypt.

III. ANALYSIS
The production structure of a civilization is the totality of all arrangements that determine what is
produced, by whom, and for whom it is produced. Ancient Egypt’s production structure revolves around
its agriculture, region, and people. The interrelationship between Egypt and the Egyptians, the people
at work, their value and worth, and the connection between power and wealth will explain Egypt's
production system.

Peasant farmers made up most of the population, as they did in all ancient civilizations. The land, on
the other hand, belonged to the Pharaoh, one of the temples, which were extremely wealthy, or a noble
family. People who worked for the government, such as irrigation or building projects, were also subject
to a labor tax. Farmers appear to have had greater prestige than craftsmen. These people were working for
the state or for temples. In ancient Egyptian civilization, scribes and administrators had important
positions. Priests, physicians, and engineers were also part of this elite society, and the most powerful
priests, ministers, and courtiers were selected from among them.

Slavery was practiced in ancient Egypt, although the extent of it is unknown. Rather than being
utilized as agricultural laborers, most slaves appear to have been used as domestic staff in rich families.
Slaves, like other people, were allowed to buy and sell or work their way to freedom under the law. In
Egyptian civilization, women appear to have enjoyed a higher social rank than males. They had the same
rights as men to buy and sell property, sign contracts, marry, divorce, inherit, and litigate legal matters in
court. Property might be jointly owned by married couples. As high priestesses, certain women had a lot
of power. Men, on the other hand, were invariably reserved for public office in all ancient
cultures (Ancient Egypt: Location, History and Civilization, 2020).

The Egyptians are recognized as being one of the earliest inhabitants to practice large-scale
agriculture. This was made feasible by the Egyptians' brilliance in developing basin irrigation. Their
agricultural methods allowed them to cultivate both basic food crops like wheat and barley, as well as
industrial crops like flax and papyrus. Horticulture was one of their strong suits. In the floodplains,
orchards and gardens were planted alongside field crops. This horticulture was done away from the Nile's
floodplain, and as a result, it required a lot more effort. Gardeners were obliged to physically transport
water from a well or the Nile to irrigate their crops due to the perpetual watering requirements (Ancient
Egyptian Agriculture, 2020).

In ancient Egypt, agriculture was both the economy's backbone and a necessity for the people's
livelihood. Agricultural operations began in Egypt during the Predynastic Period in the Delta Area of
northern Egypt and in the fertile Faiyum region. However, there is evidence of agricultural use and
exploitation of the soil dating back to 8000 BCE. According to Egyptologist and historian Margaret
Bunson, "ancient Egyptian agriculture is the science and practice of the ancient Egyptians from
predynastic times that enabled them to transform an expanse of semiarid land into rich fields after each
inundation of the Nile". She claims that the annual flooding of the Nile River caused nutrient-rich soil to
be deposited on the land, enabling agricultural development. Egyptian culture could not have taken root in
the Nile River Valley without the flood, and their civilization would never have developed. The Nile
flood was so significant that many, if not all, of the most well-known Egyptian stories are said to be tied
to or directly inspired by it (Mark & Shukir, 2017).

While the Nile provided silt that naturally nourished the valley, gardens had to rely on pigeon feces
for fertilization. These gardens and orchards were used to grow vegetables, vines, and fruit trees. Grain,
THE POLITICAL ECONOMY IN ANCIENT EGYPT

vegetables, and fruits were among the crops grown by the Egyptians for consumption. Their meals, on the
other hand, were based on a variety of staple crops, including grains and barley. Other primary grains
grown include Einkorn wheat and emmer wheat, both used to produce bread. Beans, lentils, and
subsequently chickpeas and fava beans, were also mainstays for most people. Salad crops like lettuce and
parsley were produced alongside root crops like onions, garlic, and radishes.

Plants are used for healing, religious rituals, and the manufacturing of garments. Herbs were
employed in cooking, medicine, cosmetics, and the embalming process. In graves, around 2000 distinct
blooming or fragrant plant species have been discovered. Papyrus was a very adaptable crop that grew
wild as well as being farmed. The plant's roots were consumed as food, although it was mostly grown for
industrial purposes. Boats, carpets, and paper were all made from the plant's stem. Flax was another
significant industrial crop that had various applications. Its main use was in the manufacturing of rope and
linen, which was the Egyptians' preferred garment material. Henna was originally grown for the purpose
of producing dye (Ancient Egyptian Agriculture, 2020).

The ancient Egyptian financial structure was highly reliant on the people's taxes, which were derived
through trade profits. The Egyptians are well-known for their ability to trade. They are in contact with
Syria, and they are importing pottery and Canaanite construction concepts. Obsidian from Ethiopia, gold,
and incense from Nubia in the south, oil jugs from Palestine, and other items from the western desert's
oasis and the eastern Mediterranean's civilizations are also imported (Ancient Egyptian Trade, n.d.).

The Egyptians did not have a currency in the same sense that people have now. The administration is
overseen by the Pharaoh, who imposes levies on the people. In the absence of a currency, taxes were
collected once a year, known as the "Cattle Count," on commodities produced by ordinary Egyptians. The
Pharaoh's annual tour to each province, also known as the "Shemsu Hor" or "Following of Horus" by the
Egyptians, was to collect taxes on behalf of the Pharaoh and his officials. The head of each district
oversaw calculating the value of each Egyptian's property and then levying a tax on a proportion of what
they earned.

In times of need, these resources were saved and exchanged to build the Pharaohs' renowned temples
and pyramids, as well as to feed Egypt's people. Throughout the history of ancient Egypt, the value of
livestock counts fluctuated. In some reigns or times of extended weakness, weaker monarchs had trouble
enforcing taxes on areas, and the livestock count was abolished entirely. The livestock count was replaced
in subsequent eras, such as the New Kingdom, by a system of tax collectors who roamed the land to
collect taxes from the districts and send them back to the central authority (Ancient Egyptian Economy:
Barter, Taxation & Trade, 2021).

Education, culture and arts, technology, ideology, law, and government of Ancient Egypt reflect the
knowledge they accumulated from the others. Priests, a powerful intellectual elite in Egyptian theocracy
who also acted as political bulwarks by limiting cultural diversity, oversaw preserving and controlling
Egyptian culture and education. Priests, who taught in formal schools, oversaw the humanities as well as
practical topics like physics, medicine, arithmetic, and geometry. Vocational talents in industries like
architecture, engineering, and sculpting are often passed down outside of formal education.

Under the supervision of governmental officials and priests, the Egyptians established two types of
formal schools for privileged youth: one for scribes and the other for priest trainees. Students began the
writing school at the age of five and maintained their studies in reading and writing until they were
sixteen or seventeen years old. The schoolchildren were also given practical training in the offices for
which they were being trained at the ages of 13 or 14. Priesthood training began in temple college, where
boys attended at the age of 17 and lasted as long as the requirements for various priestly vocations
required. It is unclear if the practical sciences were included in the temple college's regularly arranged
THE POLITICAL ECONOMY IN ANCIENT EGYPT

curriculum. Since divergence from the conventional pattern of thought was tightly restricted, a rigid
approach and severe discipline were used to establish consistency in cultural transmission. Drill and
memorization were the most common techniques used. However, as previously mentioned, the Egyptians
adopted a work-study system in the last part of scribe training (Chambliss, 2021).

Temple architecture and sculpture from the Ptolemaic period demonstrate the continuous vitality of
local Egyptian creative culture. The Egyptian language was utilized in hieroglyphic and demotic forms
until the late Roman period, and in Coptic form it endured through the Byzantine period and beyond.
During the Ptolemaic period, Egypt's literary culture flourished, and numerous works in demotic were
written. Romantic tales and Instruction Texts, which consist of a collection of moralizing maxims, are the
most popular genres. Greek influence is likely to have influenced Egyptian tale cycles; literary and
technical works were translated into Greek, and an Egyptian priest named Manetho of Sebennytos
produced a Greek history of Egypt's kings under royal sponsorship.

Thus, in Ptolemaic Egypt, there are strong traces of two coexisting but separate cultural traditions. In
a larger societal context, this was undeniably reflected. Although there is little direct evidence of Greeks
discriminating against Egyptians in written sources, there is evidence of Greek and Egyptian awareness of
the Greeks' social and economic superiority from time to time; intermarriage was one method, but not the
only one, by which Egyptians could improve their status and Hellenize. Many native Egyptians learned to
speak Greek, and some even learned to write it; others even adopted Greek names to blend in with the
elite (Baines, Bowman, Dorman, Samuel, & Wente, 2021).

Between the emergence of civilization in 6000 BCE and the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BCE,
ancient Egyptian culture thrived, and it is known for the enormous monuments that commemorate kings'
victories and praise the gods of the country. Civilization is sometimes misinterpreted as being
preoccupied with death. While Egypt's lower classes lived on far less than the wealthy, they valued life in
the same way that the wealthy did. This is demonstrated by the notion of thankfulness and the "Five Gifts
of Hathor" ceremony, in which destitute laborers were urged to examine the five things they were most
grateful for in their lives while looking at the fingers of their left hand. Ingratitude was thought to be a
"gateway sin" since it led to all kinds of poor thinking and conduct. The Cult of Hathor was widely
practiced in Egypt, and it embodies the centrality of gratitude in Egyptian culture (Mark, Ancient
Egyptian Culture, 2013).

Geographical circumstances had a significant role in the development of Egyptian art. The Nile
provided Egypt with the most reliable agricultural system in the ancient world, allowing for the
flourishing of arts and crafts. Deserts and the sea, which surrounded Egypt on all sides, also contributed
to the country's stability by deterring major invasions. The desert hills were rich in minerals and exquisite
stones, ready for artists and crafters to make use of. In general, the pursuit of useful and valuable
resources influenced foreign policy and the construction of trade channels, leading to the enrichment of
Egyptian material culture. See Egypt; Middle Eastern Religions, Ancient for further information (Dorman
& James, 2020).

The Ancient Egyptians were polytheistic people who believed that gods and goddesses controlled the
forces of the human, natural, and supernatural worlds. In traditional Egyptian belief, the fundamental
governing principle was the abstract concept of maat, which is often translated as truth, justice, and
cosmic order. To maintain maat, the living had to constantly worship and make sacrifices to the gods to
pacify the deities and spirits of the afterlife.

The Egyptian pantheon was composed of many gods and goddesses, often arranged into family
groups of three, consisting of a mother, father, and child. Each god or goddess was linked to one or more
places where monumental temples were built to house their images. Gods and goddesses in Egypt took
THE POLITICAL ECONOMY IN ANCIENT EGYPT

many different forms. Many were portrayed in Egyptian art with both human and animal features. Horus,
God of the sky, war, and protection, often appears with the body of a man and the head of a falcon. Others
were portrayed as divine humans. For instance, Osiris, who judges the dead in the afterlife, was portrayed
as a man with a face that was either black or green. Many Egyptian gods were also associated with
attributes or objects with which they performed their divine duties. Isis, goddess of magic and
motherhood, for instance, was often shown holding an ankh or a lotus. In Egyptian society, the highest
position was occupied by the pharaoh, who was believed to be semi-divine and who was credited with
mediating between humans and the gods (Cultures & Traditions - Ancient Egyptian Beliefs, 2017).

The government of ancient Egypt was a theocratic monarchy, as the king ruled by a mandate from
the gods. Initially, he was seen as an intermediary between human beings and the divine and was
supposed to represent the gods' will through the laws passed and policies approved. A central government
in Egypt was evident by 3150 BCE when King Narmer unified the country, but some form of government
existed prior to this date. The Scorpion Kings of the Predynastic Period in Egypt obviously had a form of
monarchial government, but exactly how it operated is not known.
Egyptologists of the 19th century CE divided the country's history into periods to clarify and manage
their field of study. Periods in which there was a strong central government are called "kingdoms," while
those in which there was disunity or no central government are called "intermediate periods." In
examining Egyptian history, one needs to understand that these are modern designations; the ancient
Egyptians did not recognize any demarcations between time periods by these terms. Scribes of the Middle
Kingdom of Egypt might look back on the time of the First Intermediate Period as a "time of woe," but
the period had no official name (Cowen, 2011).

Compared with other ancient civilizations, Egyptian law has yielded little evidence for its
institutions. It was, however, clearly governed by religious principles, as the law was thought to have
been handed down to humankind by the gods on the First Occasion (the moment of creation), and the
gods were held responsible for establishing and perpetuating the law. At the top of the judicial hierarchy
was the king, the representative of the gods and their divine justice, and just beneath him was his vizier.
The Egyptian vizier had many responsibilities, and one of them was the practical administration of
justice. The vizier heard court cases himself but also appointed lower magistrates and, sometimes,
involved himself with local courts if circumstances required it (Ancient Egyptian Law, 2017).

The period between 3000 BC and 3000 BC appears to have been crucial for the advancement of
technology, particularly metalworking. Independently, the Egyptians and Mesopotamians realized that by
combining a tiny number of tin ore with copper ores, they could manufacture bronze that is more durable
and tougher. This sparked a series of related inventions that would not have been possible without the
primary discovery (Ancient Egyptian Inventions, 2016).

The great temples and monuments of ancient Egypt continue to fascinate and amaze people in the
modern day. The sheer grandeur and breadth of constructions like the Great Pyramid of Giza, the Karnak
Temple of Amun, and the Memnon Colossi are awe-inspiring and naturally raise concerns about how they
were constructed. For thousands of years, ancient buildings can be found all throughout the Egyptian
terrain, spawning a plethora of hypotheses about how they were built. The Egyptians developed paper and
ink, cosmetics, toothbrushes, and toothpaste, the precursors of modern breath mints. They were also
involved in the preliminary invention of beer brewing, engineering and construction, architecture,
astronomy, art, literature, and mummification, which produced improvements in every field of knowledge
(Mark, Ancient Egyptian Science & Technology, 2016).

The solar calendar was also created by the Egyptians, who kept track of Sirius's yearly arrival in the
eastern sky. It was a fixed location that corresponded with the Nile's annual flooding. There were 365
THE POLITICAL ECONOMY IN ANCIENT EGYPT

days in the year and 12 months, with each month having 30 days and five festival days at the end of the
year. They did not, however, account for the extra day, and as a result, their calendar progressively grew
out of date.

According to the Edwin Smith Papyrus, the Egyptians created medical surgery. It discusses 48 cases
of head, neck, shoulder, breast, and chest injuries that required surgery. It provides a list of surgical tools
as well as instructions for suturing wounds with a needle and thread, plaster, surgical sutures, and
cauterization are included in this list. It is also the first scientific examination of the human brain.
Scalpels, scissors, copper needles, forceps, spoons, lancets, hooks, probes, and pincers are among the
surgical equipment on display in the Cairo Museum (Ancient Egyptian Inventions, 2016).

Internal and external warfare are unavoidable in ancient civilizations since they are their principal
means of acquiring territory. Consequently, ancient civilizations subconsciously developed security
structures. One of the primary reasons for this is that foreign affairs are inextricably linked to
international relations and the urge to take over the enemy's area. The Egyptians then created weapons to
protect themselves from the dangers and damage brought in by intruders through trade.

The Hyksos arrived when the Middle Kingdom of Egypt fell apart, approximately 1650 B.C.,
according to Manetho. Hyksos chiefs are said to have led an invading force "sweeping in from the
northeast and capturing the northern Nile Delta" during a time when Egypt was in upheaval (Weisberger,
2020).

Aside from the Hyksos, Egyptians fought in many battles to defend their homeland and reclaim it
from invaders. Pharaoh Ramesses III battled the invading Sea Peoples in the Battle of the Delta. The
enemy was annihilated by the archers on land and on the ships. The ships of the Sea Peoples were
overturned, and many people were killed or captured. This was a significant win for Egypt. Another battle
that happened was with the Assyrians, which lasted until 525 BCE. The Assyrian army, well-organized
and armed with iron weapons, surged into Ancient Egypt.

Egypt was invaded by the Persians, headed by Emperor Cambyses II, and ruled until 332 BCE. The
Egyptians lost 50,000 warriors in the fight, while the Persians only lost 7,000. Because the Egyptian
religion forbade hurting cats, the Persian warriors employed cats as shields. However, the Egyptians were
able to reclaim ancient Egypt after Alexander the Great sent his army to assist them in the expulsion of
the Persians (Talevski, n.d.).

The security of Ancient Egypt, like that of other ancient civilizations, was heavily reliant on the
characteristics of the terrain, the army's commander, and battlefield weapons. An Egyptian soldier's life
was tough since he or she had to learn how to retain strength and stamina while also being trained in a
variety of weaponry. The troops worked in the fields during the planting and harvesting seasons, as well
as on many of the construction projects such as palaces, temples, and pyramids. The Egyptian army is led
by Pharaoh, who is assisted by two generals who command the armies in Upper and Lower Egypt. In
exchange, Egyptian army troops were honored and were given plunder from wars as well as a piece of
land when they retired. Furthermore, Egyptians frequently employed foreign mercenaries to fight for
them, particularly in wars that took place outside of Egypt's borders (Ancient Egypt: Army and Soldiers,
n.d.).

During the New Kingdom period, Egypt's military became one of the world's most powerful fighting
armies with borrowed weaponry technology. To defend themselves, ancient Egyptians used crude stone
maces, wooden-tipped spears, axes, and bows and arrows. The Hyksos, a Syrian invading force who
conquered Egypt approximately 1650 B.C., followed with far greater weaponry like lightning-fast
chariots and deadly composite bows (9 Ancient Egyptian Weapons and Tools That Powered the Pharaoh's
 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY IN ANCIENT EGYPT

Army, 2020). Chariots, which were wheeled vehicles driven by two swift warhorses and capable of
carrying two men, were also an essential feature of the Egyptian army. Egyptian troops carried little
armor since their primary defense was a shield. They wore armor in the form of toughened leather straps
when they did wear it (Ancient Egypt: Army and Soldiers, n.d.).

The Egyptians studied their enemies intently throughout the Second Intermediate Period, a century of
foreign humiliation, and developed an armory of lethal new weaponry based on Syrian designs. When
Ahmose I emancipated and unified Egypt, he became the first pharaoh of the New Kingdom, a golden age
in which Egypt expanded its kingdom and grew wealthy from foreign tributes thanks to superior
armament and efficient bureaucracy (9 Ancient Egyptian Weapons and Tools That Powered the Pharaoh's
Army, 2020).

IV. KEY INSIGHTS

Egypt was one of the world's most intriguing, developed, and ancient civilizations. Despite being one
of the world's oldest civilizations, it has influenced a wide range of cultures. The heritage of ancient
Egypt has lasted a long time. Its art and architecture were extensively copied, and its treasures were
exported to far-flung lands. For ages, its massive remains have piqued the interest of tourists and scholars
alike. In the early modern period, Egyptians gained a renewed regard for antiquities and excavations,
which led to scientific research of Egyptian civilization and a deeper awareness of its cultural heritage.

After the Pharaonic period, Egypt was affected by Hellenism, Christianity, and Islamic culture. In
today's Egypt, many aspects of ancient Egyptian culture coexist alongside modern elements, such as the
effect of modern Western civilization, which has ancient Egyptian origins. Humans have all been
influenced in some way by Egyptian inventions, mathematics, literature, medicine, religion, athletics, and
music. The ancient Egyptians created massive movements, pyramids, and temples. Currently, just a few
of the Egyptians' architectural skills are still in use. The Pharaoh's pyramids were massive tombs built for
him. On the other hand, the construction of these architectural wonders was difficult; sophisticated
mathematics and geometry were necessary. They did, however, use arithmetic for a variety of other
purposes, such as keeping track of transactions in the business world.

The need for cultural respect and integrity in excavations was acknowledged by both the Egyptian
government and archaeologists in the twentieth century. All excavations, which are now geared toward
uncovering knowledge rather than wealth, are now approved and overseen by the Ministry of Tourism
and Antiquities. The council also oversees the restoration of Egypt's historical monuments and museums,
as well as the preservation of Egypt's cultural heritage. In general, Ancient Egypt had a significant impact
on the current state of the world's ecosystem. With the quantity of knowledge they have offered, they
have formed our modern world inside and out.
THE POLITICAL ECONOMY IN ANCIENT EGYPT

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