Minerals Engineering 96–97 (2016) 33–38

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Minerals Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mineng

Frother structure-property relationship: Aliphatic alcohols and bubble

rise velocity
Yue Hua Tan, James A. Finch ⇑
Department of Mining and Materials Engineering, McGill University, 3610 University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 0C5, Canada

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study is part of our investigation into the frother structure-property relationship, here focusing on
Received 29 December 2015 aliphatic alcohols. The structure variation is the length of the alkyl chain (C4 to C7), and position of
Revised 3 May 2016 the methyl branch (ACH3) and hydroxyl (AOH) group in five- and six-carbon alcohols. The property
Accepted 16 May 2016
was bubble rise velocity. Single bubble velocity profiles were determined in a 350 cm water column.
Available online 2 June 2016
Velocity at 300 cm as a function of concentration is determined and the concentration to reach minimum
velocity at 300 cm (CMV) estimated. The most significant effect is the chain length which decreases CMV
Keywords:
by about one order of magnitude for each additional carbon. The next strongest effect is the methyl
Frothers
Bubble rise velocity profile
branch position which decreases CMV as it is moved away from the hydroxyl group. The least effect is
Alkyl chain length the position of OH which nevertheless systematically decreases CMV as it is moved from position C-3
Methyl branch position to C-1 (i.e., from the center to the terminus of the molecule). An argument based on surfactant molecule
Hydroxyl position packing on the bubble surface is proposed to account for the effect on CMV. From the results the structure
Velocity at 300 cm of the most effective aliphatic alcohol frother is suggested.
Concentration at minimum velocity (CMV) Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction selected by trial-and-error (Rosen and Dahanayake, 2000). The

Flotation technology, developed at the end of 19th century to
recover minerals, has seen expanding use to other areas, e.g.,
enhanced oil recovery (Pal and Masliyah, 1990), treatment of waste
materials (Rubio et al., 2002), and in some chemical engineering
applications (Mohanty et al., 2003). In mineral flotation, surface-
active agents (surfactants) called frothers are generally added to
produce small bubbles, reduce bubble rise velocity, and stabilize
froth, which together increase the efficiency of the process (Wills
and Finch, 2016). Two frother families are commonly used: alco-
hols and polyglycols. Alcohols are the focus of this study.
Aliphatic alcohol frothers are typically 5–8 carbon atoms with
the alkyl chain in either linear or branched form. The general for-
mula is RAOH (R = CnH2n+1). Aliphatic alcohols, such as methyl-
iso-butyl-carbinol (MIBC), hexanol, and 2-ethyl hexanol have been
used industrially for decades (Crozier and Klimpel, 1989).
The mechanism by which frothers act in flotation systems is not
clearly established (Wasan et al., 1988) and they are usually
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jim.finch@mcgill.ca (J.A. Finch).
properties of surfactants depend upon the molecular structure,
viz. chain length and arrangement of functional groups
(Somasundaran and Wang, 2006). Therefore, a structure-property
relationship would help guide frother selection. Since the struc-
tural variation of commercial frothers is too limited to identify a
relationship empirically, we have included other surfactants from
the frother families. As the frother property, surface tension
depression of water is still sometimes used (Le et al., 2012) but
the concentrations employed are higher by at least an order of
magnitude compared to those used in flotation (Comley et al.,
2002). Two properties that are sensitive at flotation-level frother
concentrations are bubble size (Comley et al., 2002; Zhang et al.,
2012) and bubble rise velocity (Tan et al., 2013). In the current
study we use bubble rise velocity. Surfactants (frothers) slow bub-
ble rise velocity by up to one-half for bubbles in the size range ca.
1–2.5 mm diameter (Clift et al., 1978), that is, in the size range of
interest in flotation (Finch and Dobby, 1990), which increases bub-
ble retention time and consequently increases the number of par-
ticle collection events in the flotation pulp, thereby increasing
kinetics. The objective of this study, therefore, is to determine
the effect of the structure of aliphatic alcohols, namely alkyl chain
length and the position of the methyl branch and hydroxyl group,
on bubble rise velocity.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2016.05.014
0892-6875/Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
34 Y.H. Tan, J.A. Finch / Minerals Engineering 96–97 (2016) 33–38

2. Experimental Table 1
Alcohols for alkyl chain length study.

2.1. Single bubble column setup n Name Chemical Structural diagram Molecule
formula weight
The setup to determine the local rise velocity as a function of 4 1- CH3(CH2)3OH 74.12
distance, or velocity profile, is shown in Fig. 1. It comprises a circu- Butanol
5 1- CH3(CH2)4OH 88.15
lar Plexiglas column 6.35 cm diameter by 350 cm high (20 L capac-
Pentanol
ity) surrounded by a square Plexiglas water jacket 6 1- CH3(CH2)5OH 102.17
(8  8  350 cm). The water jacket maintains a uniform tempera- Hexanol
ture (23 ± 1 °C) and also eliminates the optical distortion associ- 7 1- CH3(CH2)6OH 116.20
ated with curved surfaces. An outlet was positioned at the Heptanol

350 cm level to give reproducible water depth (i.e., constant hydro-

static pressure) above the bubble generating capillary for each
experiment. A measuring tape is placed along the central axis of
the column to locate the position of the rising bubble which is
recorded on video tape by a mobile video camera.
A glass capillary with nominal internal diameter 51 lm was
used to generate bubbles using dry air delivered from a compres-
sor. Two measurements of bubble size were made at right angles
near the capillary to give a mean value which was corrected to con-
ditions at the 350 cm level (i.e., atmospheric pressure at top of
water column) giving a value of 1.45 ± 0.061 mm diameter (stan-
dard deviation based on 30 measurements). (As noted, a
1.45 mm diameter bubble is in a size range both sensitive to sur-
factant addition and relevant to flotation systems.) The 20-l test
solution was prepared with Montréal tap water (Remillard et al.,
2009). The minimum input gas rate to just generate a bubble
was applied, which also respected the bubble frequency of
<80 bubbles/min recommended by Sam et al. (1996). A digital
video camera (CCD Canon GL2, 30 frames/s) stage-mounted
10 cm in front of the column on a chain controlled by a variable
speed motor was driven manually to track the bubble rise. The
experiment was initiated by activating the camera at the moment
of bubble release with the experimenter adjusting speed to main-
tain the bubble in the field of view. The position of the rising bub-
ble relative to the measuring tape was continuously displayed on a
monitor (Sony PVM-1340) through a signal sender and receiver set
(Radio Shack 15-2572). After recording, the images were processed
offline to give position and, from sequential images (i.e., fixed time
interval), the local velocity was calculated.
As a single velocity metric, the velocity at 300 cm was selected.
Five individual bubble profiles were measured to calculate the
mean velocity at 300 cm for each condition. The concentration of
surfactant was increased until the minimum velocity at 300 cm
was attained, the CMV (concentration at minimum velocity).
Before any test the system was flushed repeatedly with tap
water till the known velocity profile in tap water was obtained,
which could require up to 20 times the column volume. This pre-
caution, plus the reproducible water column height and use of
minimum gas rate to just release a bubble, gave the replication
needed for the study (Tan et al., 2013).
2.2. Reagents
Tables 1–3 list the 1-alcohols used to determine the effect of
alkyl chain length and effect of position of the methyl branch
and hydroxyl group, respectively. All reagents were from Sigma-
Aldrich Corporation (Canada) with a purity of 98.5–99.7% and used
as-received.
3. Results
3.1. Bubble velocity profile and velocity at 300 cm

Fig. 2 shows bubble velocity profiles for 1-pentanol and 1-

hexanol at 0.2 mmol/L and 0.4 mmol/L compared to tap water.
All show initial rapid acceleration. At 0.2 mmol/L, the profile for
1-pentanol remains close to tap water. The profiles of 0.2 mmol/L
1-hexanol and 0.4 mmol/L 1-pentanol show a continuous decrease

Table 2
Alcohols for methyl branch position study.

n Name Chemical formula Structural diagram ACH3

position
5 2- CH3CH2CHCH3CH2OH 2
Methyl-
1-
butanol
3- CH3CHCH3CH2CH2OH 3
Methyl-
1-
butanol
6 2- CH3CH2CH2CHCH3CH2OH 2
Methyl-
1-
pentanol
3- CH3CH2CHCH3CH2CH2OH 3
Methyl-
1-
pentanol
4- CH3CHCH3CH2CH2CH2OH 4
Methyl-
1-
pentanol
Fig. 1. Experimental setup for single bubble rise velocity determination.
 Y.H. Tan, J.A. Finch / Minerals Engineering 96–97 (2016) 33–38
Table 3
Alcohols for hydroxyl position study.
n Name Chemical formula
5 1-Pentanol CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2OH
2-Pentanol CH3CH2CH2CHOHCH3
3-Pentanol CH3CH2CHOHCH2CH3
6 1-Hexanol CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2OH
2-Hexanol CH3CH2CH2CH2CHOHCH3
3-Hexanol CH3CH2CH2CHOHCH2CH3
Fig. 2. Local rise velocity as a function of distance (bubble velocity profile) for 1-
pentanol and 1-hexanol.
corresponding to progressive surfactant adsorption onto the bub-
ble surface. The profile in 0.4 mmol/L hexanol reaches minimum
velocity (ca. 15 cm/s) at ca. 20 cm from the injection point. The
profiles are consistent with the three stages described by Sam
et al. (1996): acceleration to a maximum velocity followed by
deceleration to a constant velocity.
Rather than using the full profile to compare structures, we
reduce to a single metric, the velocity at 300 cm. The choice of
300 cm is arbitrary, but is partly based on the assumption that
any variations in bubble motion, for example, due to launch condi-
tions, would be ‘damped’ at this distance.
3.2. Effect of structure on velocity at 300 cm
3.2.1. Alkyl chain length
Fig. 3 shows velocity at 300 cm as a function of concentration
and increasing alkyl chain length. For each case velocity decreases
with concentration until the minimum velocity, ca. 15 cm/s, was
achieved. With increasing carbon (n) number, bubble rise velocity
decreases, indicated by the shift to lower concentration to reach
the minimum velocity. This concentration at minimum velocity,
the CMV, proved a useful further data reduction metric (Tan
et al., 2013). Fig. 3 shows how CMV is estimated from the intercept
of two straight lines fitted through the data.
3.2.2. Methyl branch position
Fig. 4 shows the velocity at 300 cm as a function of concentra-
tion and varying methyl branch position for (a) five- and (b) six-
35
Structural diagram OH position
1
2
3
1
2
3
Fig. 3. Velocity at 300 cm as a function of concentration (log scale) and alkyl chain
length.
carbon alcohols. The common trend is that the CMV decreases
the further the methyl branch is away from the hydroxyl group.
3.2.3. Hydroxyl position
Fig. 5 shows the velocity at 300 cm as a function of concentra-
tion for three positions of the OH group in the five- and six-
carbon alcohols. The impact is small, but again consistent for the
two alcohols: as the OH moves towards the terminus of the mole-
cule (i.e., to C-1), the CMV decreases.
3.3. Structure and CMV
The CMV data are summarized in Table 4. The largest structural
effect is the chain length, the CMV decreasing by approximately
one order of magnitude for each additional carbon. The weakest
effect, marginally over the position of the methyl group, is the posi-
tion of the OH group.
4. Discussion
Predicting frother functions (properties) based on structure is of
interest to flotation chemical suppliers, modelers and plant opera-
tors alike. The property selected was bubble rise velocity. Previous
work had established that the single bubble velocity profile was a
reliable measure, sensitive to surfactant type and concentration
over the range of interest in flotation, and could be represented
by the concentration to reach minimum velocity at 300 cm, the
CMV (Tan et al., 2013). The graphical method of estimating CMV
36 Y.H. Tan, J.A. Finch / Minerals Engineering 96–97 (2016) 33–38

Fig. 4. Velocity at 300 cm as a function of concentration and methyl branch position: (a) five-carbon; (b) six-carbon alcohols.

Fig. 5. Velocity at 300 cm as a function of concentration and hydroxyl position: (a) five-carbon; (b) six-carbon alcohols.

Table 4 coalescence concentration (CCC) from bubble size vs. frother con-
The CMV estimated for the tested reagents. centration (Cho and Laskowski, 2002).
Structure effect Carbon Name CMV (mmol/ The surfactant family selected, the aliphatic alcohols, is one of
number L) the two important frother families. The study determined the
Alkyl chain length n = 4–7 1-Butanol 20.0 effect of hydrocarbon chain length, and the position of the methyl
1-Pentanol 2.30 branch and of the hydroxyl group on the CMV. The findings
1-Hexanol 0.27 revealed a major effect of chain length and minor, but consistent,
1-Heptanol 0.06 effects of the methyl and OH group position, summarized in
ACH3 position 5 2-Methyl-1-butanol 1.95 Table 4. A qualitative interpretation of the structure effect on
3-Methyl-1-butanol 1.25 CMV is offered.
6 2-Methyl-1- 0.23
pentanol
3-Methyl-1- 0.14
pentanol
4-Methyl-1- 0.11
4.1. Mechanism based on surface tension gradients
pentanol
OH position 5 1-Pentanol 2.30 At the moment a bubble is released, the initially clean surface is
2-Pentanol 2.65 progressively ‘contaminated’ with surfactant as the bubble rises.
3-Pentanol 3.05 Fluid shear over the bubble surface transports surfactant to the
6 1-Hexanol 0.27 downstream side (the ‘rear’) of the bubble. This increase in surfac-
2-Hexanol 0.30
tant packing density towards the rear gives a gradient in surface
3-Hexanol 0.36
tension that increases in the opposite direction (i.e., towards the
front of the bubble) and is credited with increasing drag and slow-
is similar to that in determining other physiochemical characteris- ing bubble rise (Dukhin et al., 1995). At dynamic equilibrium, the
tics of surfactants, e.g., critical micelle concentration (CMC) from adsorption rate of surfactant (primarily at the bubble front) equals
surface tension vs. concentration (Castro et al., 2001) and critical the desorption rate (primarily from the rear) and the bubble
 Y.H. Tan, J.A. Finch / Minerals Engineering 96–97 (2016) 33–38
attains minimum (equilibrium or terminal) velocity, which in the
case of a 1.45 mm bubble is ca. 15 cm/s (Clift et al., 1978).
The structure of the molecule controls both the extent of sur-
face tension depression per mole (i.e., surface activity) and the
packing density, which will determine the magnitude of the sur-
face tension gradient and thus extent to which the bubble slows,
measured here by the CMV. The length of the hydrocarbon chain
has a strong influence on surface tension depression of water (or
surface pressure); for example, at equivalent molar concentration
the 6-carbon alcohol gives at least twice the surface pressure as
the 5-carbon alcohol (Posner et al., 1952). While the concentra-
tions at which this effect on surface pressure becomes evident
are at least one order of magnitude higher than those pertinent
here it remains reasonable to claim that a longer chain alcohol will
yield a higher surface tension gradient compared to a shorter chain
alcohol. The chain length also influences the degree of hydrophobic
chain-chain interaction (Lin et al., 1974; Adkins et al., 2010), which
increases packing density, as depicted in Fig. 6a. While a secondary
effect to that of surface activity, increased packing will add to the
surface tension gradient. The end result is that increasing chain
length has a significant effect on lowering CMV.
The position of the ACH3 and OH groups mostly affects the
packing density as they have little impact, compared to chain
length, on surface pressure (Can et al., 2006; Le et al., 2012). For
the methyl group, the effect was to decrease CMV as the ACH3
group moved further from the OH position. One factor controlling
packing density is steric hindrance (Varadaraj et al., 1991):
depicted in Fig. 6b, when the methyl group is near the OH the
effect is to restrict the packing compared to when the methyl
group is further away. A second factor is that the methyl group
has an inductive effect on the hydroxyl group tending to repel elec-
trons towards the O atom (Singh and Yadav, 2010). Moving the
methyl group closer to the OH intensifies this electron repulsion
and tends to enlarge the electron cloud around the OH. Together,
the steric effect and increased size of electron cloud reduce the
Fig. 6. Postulated effect of alkyl chain length and position of ACH3 branch and AOH group on packing.
37
packing density, which decreases the surface tension gradient
resulting in increased CMV.
For the OH group, the effect of position was that CMV decreased
as the OH moved towards the terminus (C-1 position) of the mole-
cule. Alcohol molecules with OH at the C-1 position align more
perpendicular to the interface compared to having OH at a center
C-3 position (Fig. 6c). The perpendicular orientation results in
increased packing density. A study of hexadecanol isomers adsorb-
ing at the air/water interface (Can et al., 2006) also suggested that
the OH in the C-1 position gave the most vertical orientation and
the highest packing density, for example, the area per adsorbed
molecule at monolayer coverage being about half that for the iso-
mer with OH in the C-4 position. In addition, when OH moves from
a terminal to a central position, the alkyl chain could be viewed as
two shorter alkyl chains, which both weakens the chain interaction
effect and produces steric hindrance. These factors, we interpret,
mean increased packing as the OH moves towards the terminus
with corresponding increased surface tension gradients which
decrease CMV.
4.2. Mechanism based on H-bonding
The OH group of the alcohol will H-bond with water molecules
(Hammer et al., 2010). The adsorbed molecules therefore are
hydrated which means the surface of the bubble is hydrated. The
H-bound water associated with the bubble can be considered to
increase surface viscosity. As packing density increases (by the
mechanisms discussed above), we propose this closer array of
OH groups increases the intensity of H-bonding (number of H-
bonds per unit area) and thus increases the surface viscosity and
slows the bubble. We might also argue that the rising bubble
means H-bonds are constantly breaking and re-forming, which
requires energy. The necessary energy to break and reform is taken
from the kinetic energy of the bubble rise, thus the more H-bonds
the higher the energy penalty and the slower the rise. Thus the
38 Y.H. Tan, J.A. Finch / Minerals Engineering 96–97 (2016) 33–38
structure giving higher packing density, and thus greater H-
bonding intensity, will slow the bubble more.
4.3. Practical consequences
In practice, 1-hexanol is used as a frother, 1-pentanol rarely and
the chain lengths of the other 1-alcohols tested here, as far as we
can ascertain, not at all. We can further generalize to observe that
6-C aliphatic alcohol frothers dominate over 5-C ones, and their
more efficient slowing of the bubble, that is, low CMV is one rea-
son. As for the position of the ACH3 and OH groups, the key lesson
is that the most efficient structure (i.e., in the present context that
giving lowest CMV) is when the OH is at the terminal position and
the ACH3 is furthest away from the OH. Putting together, the ‘‘best”
frother (i.e., that giving lowest CMV) from Table 4 is 4-methyl-1-
pentanol. Comparing to the most common 6-C alcohol frother,
MIBC, which is 4-methyl-2-pentanol, MIBC should be ‘‘second
best”. The conclusion that 4-methyl-1-pentanol is technically a
superior frother to MIBC will be tested in a future work.
5. Conclusions
The effect of aliphatic alcohol structure, namely the number of
carbons (n = 4–7) in the alkyl chain and the position of methyl
branch and hydroxyl group in five- and six-carbon alcohols, on
bubble rise velocity profile was determined. The concentration to
reach minimum velocity at 300 cm (CMV) was used to correlate
against the structure. The CMV is decreased in the following man-
ner: by about one order of magnitude for every one carbon addi-
tion in the alkyl chain; as the OH moves to the terminal position;
and as the methyl branch moves away from the hydroxyl group.
The lowest CMV, therefore, is given by 4-methyl-1-pentanol, sug-
gesting it would be a superior frother to MIBC, which is 4-
methyl-2-pentanol. A proposed explanation for the effect on CMV
is based on the role of structure in controlling surface activity
and surfactant packing and the resultant impact on surface tension
gradients and H-bonding.
Acknowledgements
The work was conducted under the Chair in Mineral Processing
funded through an NSERC (Natural Sciences and Engineering
Research Council of Canada), CRD (Collaborative Research and
Development) grant sponsored by Vale, Teck, Xstrata Process Sup-
port, Barrick Gold, Shell Canada, Corem, SGS Lakefield Research,
and Flottec.
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