CHAPTER 1 

 
BASIC CONCEPTS, THEORIES, AND PRINCIPLES IN ASSESSING LEARNING 
USING NON-TRADITIONAL METHODS 

Overview  

To successfully describe what alternative or authentic assessment for learning  is

all about, you need to possess a good grasp of the difference between the traditional  
and alternative assessment of learning, and document the experiences of teachers  who
apply the principles in assessing learning using alternative methods. Moreover,  you
must read satisfactory information and knowledge about the basic concepts and 
principles in assessing learning using non-traditional methods if you want to be more 
familiar on it. You are expected to understand these things before the discussion, 
analysis and evaluation when you meet your teacher in person or in the virtual 
classroom. If this module cannot provide substantial information that you desire in this 
chapter, then you are free to explore other resources particularly online. 

What to Expect?  

At the end of the chapter, the students can: 

1. define and explain the alternative assessment and related concepts,

2. differentiate alternative assessment from traditional assessment, 3.
illustrate each type of alternative assessment, and 
4. demonstrate an understanding of the different principles in assessing learning 
using alternative methods.

What is Alternative Assessment?  

Understanding the meaning and nature of alternative assessment, let us consider 

the definitions as provided by several sources:  

1. Alternative assessment refers to the use of alternative or non-traditional  assessment

strategies or tools to collect information on student learning. At the  core of
alternative assessment is the need to design and implement  assessment tasks or
activities that refrain from using traditional paper-pencil  test, which typically assess
cognitive learning outcomes and thus have right or  wrong answers (David et al.,
2020). 

2. Alternative assessment is any classroom assessment practice that focuses on 

continuous individual student progress. Perhaps the best way to define  alternative
assessment is to say that it's the counter to traditional forms of  standardized
assessment.(https://study.com/academy/lesson/alternative 
assessment-definitionexamples.html) 
3. Alternative assessments, also referred to as performance tests or authentic 
assessments, are used to determine what students can and cannot do, in  contrast
to what they do or do not know. In other words, an alternative  

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assessment measures applied proficiency more than it measures knowledge. 
Typical examples of alternative assessments include portfolios, project work, and
other activities requiring some type of rubric. https://ctl.byu.edu/using alternative-
assessments  

4. Authentic or alternative assignments typically require students to make a  judgment

about what information and skills they will need to solve a given  problem. They ask
the students to answer essential questions in the discipline  by using knowledge in
similar ways to professionals in the field. They can often  be characterized as
realworld situations with accompanying real-world  constraints. Alternative or
authentic assignments should involve written and  performative measures so that
students can develop meaningful and applicable  skills, and advance their
knowledge of the “how” over that of the “what”.  

5. Dikli (2003) described the intent of alternative assessments to assess higher

order thinking skills. Students have the opportunity to demonstrate what they 
learned. This type of assessment tools focus on the growth and the  performance of
the student. That is, if a learner fails to perform a given task at  a particular time,
s/he still has the opportunity to demonstrate his/her ability at  a different time and
different situation. Since alternative assessment is  developed in context and over
time, the teacher has a chance to measure the  strengths and weaknesses of the
student in a variety of areas and situations.  

Finally, Cajigal and Mantuano (2014) explained that assessment is authentic when 
it measures performance or products which have realistic meaning that can be 
attributed to the success in school. Activities, questions and problems with “real-world”  
satisfy the criterion that it needs to be an authentic intellectual work within the given 
situation or contextual practicality of the tasks.  

Characteristics of Alternative Assessment  

In some cases, alternative assessment is also known as formative assessment and 

portfolio assessment. The characteristics of alternative assessment may include: ∙
Usually teacher-generated, as opposed to being passed down from an  ∙ administration,
government, or third-party organization.  
∙ Takes into account the individual background and needs of every unique  learner.  
∙ Considers the big picture of individual student progress over an extended  period of
time.  
∙ Flexible, responsive, and continually developing according to curricular  objectives.  
 ∙ Takes into consideration different learning styles and preferences. ∙ Allows
language learners to demonstrate content knowledge and skills mastery  without
language barrier difficulties.  
∙ Highly effective for use with students who are entitled to accommodations  and/or
modifications.  
∙ Normally documented with qualitative data, such as performance descriptors, 
comparisons with previous work, and skills demonstration.

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What Alternative Assessment IS NOT  

Let us consider what alternative assessment is not:  

∙ Not standardized. Similarly, alternative assessment is not what is sometimes  referred

to as 'large-scale' or 'high-stakes' assessment.  
∙ Not intended to replace or otherwise diminish the importance of traditional 
assessments. In fact, it is intended to serve as a complement to school and/or  state-
mandated standardized assessment programs. 
∙ Not implemented in one specific moment in time, such as at the end of a lesson,  unit,
or semester. 
∙ Not a measurement of how a student performs compared to peers.  ∙ Not normally
reported with quantitative data (e.g., percentage scores or  statistics). 
∙ Not presented in traditional formats, such as multiple-choice, true/false, and fill in-the
blank questions and answers.  
∙ Not perfect, comprehensive, or appropriate in every situation.

Traditional Assessment versus Alternative Assessment 

Traditional Alternative Assessment What Makes it Authentic

Assessment

Requires right Requires high-quality  Students must be able to 

answer performance or product,  along think through why they  made
with justifications of  decisions. decisions that  resulted in
final product.

Questions must Instructions/questions/ Tasks that are to be  judged

be  unknown to purpose must be known to  should be known  ahead of
students in  students in advance. time. Rubrics  should be
advance provided.

Disconnected Tied to real-world contexts  Task is similar in nature  as to

from the  real and constraints. Requires  what would be  encountered
world student to solve realistic  by a real-life  practitioner.
 problem.

Easily scored Includes complex tasks for  Meaningful assessment  and

which there may not be a  right feedback is  emphasized.
answer.

“One shot” Iterative in nature. Knowledge and skills are 

approach used in more than one  way

Given a score Opportunity to provide  Designed to give practical 

diagnostic feedback. experience and improve 
future performance.

Non-Traditional Assessment Models  

In planning their annual assessment projects, the Center for Teaching and Learning 
(2021) at DePaul University suggests the following alternative assessment models. 

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1. Authentic Assessment: Assessing by Doing 
Authentic assessment is based on students‟ abilities to perform meaningful 
tasks they may have to do in the “real world.” In other words, this form of assessment 
determines students‟ learning in a manner that goes beyond multiple choice tests and 
quizzes. 

Developing an Authentic Assessment 

Here are some suggestions for developing an authentic assessment:  ∙ Identify at least one
task students need to be able to do to be successful in  employment and/or continuing
education  
∙ Work with your fellow faculty/staff to determine how students might be able to 
demonstrate their ability to do the task(s)  
∙ Identify criteria to evaluate the task(s)  
∙ Evaluate students‟ abilities to complete the criteria of the task(s) 

Some Authentic Assessment Methodologies  

Examples: 
∙ Biology lab practical  
∙ e-Portfolio  
∙ Music jury  
∙ Mock trial  
 ∙ Acting in a play  

The basic premise of authentic assessment is that if you want to know how well 
someone golfs, the best way to assess it is to have that person play a round of golf.  

Critical Elements in Authentic Assessment 

There are several critical elements to consider before deciding to use authentic 
assessment.  

This type of assessment requires a sense of meaningful tasks that students would 
need to be able to do after they leave DePaul. These meaningful tasks are often linked 
to demonstration of knowledge/skills/abilities needed in the post-college world. 
Authentic assessment typically relies on using a rubric (or some other scoring guide). 

Things to Consider in Developing an Authentic Assessment  

Before deciding to implement authentic assessment, you should consider the following 
two questions:  
∙ Where do students go after they complete your program?  
∙ What do students need to be able to do to be successful in what they do after  they
complete your program?  

Additionally, you should take the following things into consideration:  ∙ Time: Developing the
tasks for students to complete takes time, as does  developing rubrics/scoring guides
and assessing students‟ tasks. 

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∙ Authentic Assessment needs to be done at a developmentally appropriate time. ∙
Students need to grasp knowledge and skills before they will be able to apply  them. 

2. Developmental Assessment: Assessing by Progress 

Developmental assessment looks at students‟ progress in developing skills,  abilities,

values, etc., rather than evaluating students‟ final products.  

Using Developmental Assessment 

Not every type of learning is best assessed by looking at the quality of a final 
product. In fact, sometimes there is no expectation that students should, or even 
could, fully develop in the assessed area by the end of a course or program.  

An example of this is Maslow‟s Hierarchy of Needs. Theoretically, very few people  

ever fully develop to the final “self-actualized” stage. A few advantages of authentic 
assessment are:  
 ∙ Developmental assessment is useful for outcomes based on students’ 
development rather than their abilities to create a final product. 
∙ This assessment is based on relevant principles of development in your 
discipline.  
∙ This type of assessment emphasizes emerging knowledge and skills, rather  than
recognizing only students‟ final products.  
∙ Developmental assessment gives you the ability to focus on strengths and  unique
aspects of your program.  
∙ Developmental assessment is ongoing and may occur in many contexts,  giving
you a richer view of students‟ learning. 

Creating Developmental Assessments 

Developmental assessments require some sort of pre- post- design. If you would like  to
know how much a student has developed their knowledge, skills, abilities, and/or 
values, you need to measure that information at the beginning of a learning   experience,
then again at the end.  

Example:  
One could administer a test at the beginning of a class; then ask the same students to  
take the same test at the end of a class. By comparing students‟ performances on the  
pre- and post-tests, a teacher could determine students‟ levels of development.  

Some Developmental Assessment Methodologies  

Methodologies tend to rely on observational and work sampling techniques that 

continually focus on performance, processes, and products over selected periods of 
time and in a variety of contexts.  

Example:  
An instructor may compare two work samples using a developmental rubric to 
determine students‟ levels of development. 

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Critical Elements in Developmental Assessment  

Developmental assessment requires a theory of how students develop the knowledge, 

skills, abilities, and/or values you intend to measure. The person or people conducting  
the assessment need to have good knowledge of the stages through which students‟  
progress as they develop. Developmental assessment necessarily requires some sort 
of a pre- post- assessment design.  

Things to Consider in Developing a Developmental Assessment 

∙ The purpose of assessment is to collect information necessary to make  important

decisions about students‟ development and educational needs. ∙ Assessment must
 serve in ways that enhance opportunities for optimal growth,  development, and
learning.  
∙ The process of determining individual developmental and educational needs  informs
instructional practices and provides a template for setting individual and  program
goals. 

3. Emergent Assessment: Assessing by Discovery 

Emergent assessment is a model based on Michael Scriven‟s (1967) goal-free 

evaluation model. With emergent assessment, assessment is structured using  “effects”
rather than learning outcomes. This model honors the idea that you may bias  your
assessment by specifically defining what you are looking for (i.e. when you focus 
exclusively on a learning outcome, you may be „putting on blinders‟ regarding the   other
things that may be happening with student learning). This assessment model  tends to
be more qualitative in nature. 

Using Emergent Assessment  

Emergent Assessment addresses concerns about inquiry shared by many disciplines, 

particularly those disciplines that tend to use more qualitative methodologies. A few 
examples of these concerns are:  
1. There may be differences between explicitly stated learning outcomes and their 
associated implicit learning. 
∙ Prevents overlooking unintended outcomes (both good and bad).  ∙ Focus is
on what program actually does, rather than what it intends to  do.  
2. Does defining learning outcome in “testable” ways alter the learning outcomes  (and
not always in desirable ways)?  
∙ With this type of assessment, the assessment process and learning 
outcomes are equally subject to evaluation as student learning.  
3. Are we sacrificing the roles of assessment for the goals of assessment? In other 
words, are we sacrificing the process for the outcomes (i.e., assigning grades  or
writing an assessment report)?  
∙ This assessment method more directly takes students‟ needs into 
consideration than a more traditional assessment model. 

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Developing Emergent Assessment  

Profile the actual effects of instruction or educational program against demonstrated 

needs of students who complete a course or program.  

Step One 
Create a profile of the needs of students who finish your course, graduate from your 
program (that goes beyond what you intend to deliver). 
Step Two 
Identify effects of educational program on students‟ learning using primarily direct 
methods, considering  
∙ both intended and unintended effects  
∙ both positive and negative effects  

Step Three 
Compare the information gained in step one with the information gained in step two.

Some Emergent Assessment Methodologies 

Methodologies may include anything that includes a global, comprehensive look at 
student work, behavior, performance, attitudes, and values to determine what affect  the
academic program is having.  
Examples  
∙Writing Samples  
∙Especially those requiring reflection  
∙ Interviews or focus groups with students  
∙Brainstorming sessions with students  
∙Ecological observation of students engaged in work in a classroom  

Critical Elements in Emergent Assessment  

∙ Assessors need to be competent in the subject of assessment.  ♣
Assessors need to “know it when they see it.”  
∙ Assessors need to be aware of and conscientious of their bias.   ♣ Ideally, the
assessors would have no knowledge of intended learning  outcomes, but this is
generally not possible in assessment.  
 ♣ Assessors do not look for effects solely through the lens of defined  learning
outcomes or intended learning based on course/program academic  content.  
∙ Need to be Critical!  
 ♣ Are you just seeing what you want to see?  
Developing an Emergent Assessment  

∙ First, you should consider the necessarily intrusive nature of this type of  assessment.
Is this appropriate for your setting (i.e., the culture or nature of  your course or
program)?  
∙ Also, this type of assessment can be very time-consuming – both for the faculty  and
for the students. 

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∙ There is a need for both openness and honesty with this assessment model,  which
may not be comfortable for some people. 
∙ Assessment with this model needs to be both balanced and unbiased. Note  that
this requires knowledge from the assessors of their natural biases. 
 4. Learning-Oriented Assessment  

Learning-oriented assessment is assessment that has the purpose of bringing 

about deep and meaningful learning for student. This is a course-based type of 
assessment that focuses on students‟ learning rather than instructors‟ 
teaching.  

Using Learning-Oriented Assessment 

Traditional Assessment Learning-Oriented Assessment

Knowledge transmitted from Students construct knowledge by  gathering &

professor to  students synthesizing information  from different sources

Students passively receive Students are actively involved in learning

information

Emphasis on acquiring knowledge Emphasis on using and communicating 

for the  sake of having the information to address real world issues
knowledge

Teaching and assessment are Teaching and assessment are  intertwined

separate

Assessment used to monitor Assessment used to promote (and  diagnose

learning issues with) learning

Emphasis on the "right" answers Emphasis on making, and learning from, 

mistakes

Huba, M.E. & Freed, J.E. (2000). Learner-Centered Assessment on College Campuses. Allyn and 
Bacon: Boston. 

Developing Learning-Oriented Assessment  

Some suggestions for developing a learning-oriented assessment for a course:  ∙

Develop course-based learning outcomes  
∙ Create learning experiences designed to bring about the learning based on the 
defined learning outcomes  
∙ Engage students in ill-defined (rather than well-defined) problems  ∙ Evaluate
students‟ abilities to complete the criteria of the task(s)  ∙ Provide formative
assessment to involve students in improving their learning  ∙ Gather feedback from
students about instructors‟ teaching and their learning to  involve instructors in
improving students‟ learning  
∙ Adjust instruction based on feedback from students  

Some Learning-Oriented Assessment Methodologies 

 Methodologies tend to focus more on formative assessment and classroom 
assessment strategies. All assessment methodologies should have the purpose of 
contributing to students‟ learning.

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Examples:  
∙ ePortfolios  
∙ Classroom Assessment Techniques (CATs)  
∙ Work on ill-defined problems (example: “grand challenges” in your field) 

Critical Elements in Learning-Oriented Assessment  

This type of assessment breaks down the barrier between instructors and students  ∙
Both are equal partners in students‟ learning  
∙ Requires a lot of formative assessment (students need consistent feedback on  their
learning)  
∙ This is a course-based (rather than a program-based) form of assessment.  ∙
Focuses heavily on formative assessment (rather than summative)  ∙ BUT, still
need to determine how grades will be given in the course  ∙ This type of
assessment is based on an assumption of “backward design”  

Developing a Learning-Oriented Assessment  

Before deciding to implement learning-oriented assessment, you should consider the 

following two questions:  
∙ This type of assessment requires a lot of faculty buy-in (due to its  classroombased
nature)  
∙ Requires a shift in both instructors‟ and students‟ thinking about mistakes  ∙
Making mistakes is to be expected as a natural part of the learning process ∙
Use caution that the classroom does not have a punitive view of mistakes  
∙ Instructors‟ teaching is equally up for evaluation as students‟ learning.  ∙
This is a time-consuming form of assessment.  

Types of Alternative or Authentic Assessment 

Here is a list of alternative assessment strategies that teachers may want to consider. 
Note that these examples are just some of the numerous strategies that are available. 

Abstract Flowchart Podcast Annotated  Bibliography Group Discussion Review of

book Brochure  Autobiography/Biography Review of literature Debate  Blog Letter
to the editor Research Proposal Essay  Statement of Assumptions Methods Plan
Case Analysis  Memo Summary Cognitive Map  Multimedia presentation
Taxonomy Oral Report  Description of a Process Thesis sentence Diary  Personal
Letter Vlog Narrative  Portfolio Diagram Outline  Question
Below are examples of Authentic or Alternative Assessments adapted from Queen’s
University Centre for Teaching and Learning Module on Assessment, and Berkeley 
Centre for Teaching and Learning’s “Alternatives to Traditional Testing.” 

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Letter/Letter  to the ∙ Asks student to write in first person singular perspective,
editor which  can be adapted so that they are writing from the
perspective of a  historical or imagined individual, or
themselves.
∙ Students are asked to develop a coherent written narrative or 
statement for the audience.
∙ Requires research, disciplinary knowledge, communication
skills,  and creativity.
∙ Can be adapted by numerous disciplines.

Memo ∙ Students prepare a one or two-page memorandum or

briefing  about a topic that is being covered in class. Memo
headings can  include: background, problem, solutions with
pros and cons list,  final recommendation.
∙ This exercise allows students to practice being concise and
direct

Presentations ∙ Considered the most readily approachable method of

authentic  assessment.
∙ Applies positive peer pressure, as it is likely that students
will be  better prepared when they have to perform before
others. ∙ Presentations are an opportunity for the
development of  professional skills. Stu- dent will need to
prepare and rehearse,  and develop an appropriate, polished
use of visual aids.  ∙ Enhances professional verbal, visual,
written communication  skills.
∙ Can be easily applied to many disciplines, including the
sciences.

Poster ∙ The nature of the poster presentation can vary. It can consist
presentations of a  summary of a work in progress, or a visual presentation
that is  equivalent to a term paper.
∙ Headings to be included could be a literature review,
description  of topics, observations, claim/thesis, and
conclusions.  ∙ Teaches professional skills for participation in
academic  conferences

Portfolio of  work ∙ Students develop portfolios in order to demonstrate the

 evolution  of their work over the course of the semester.
∙ Students are typically asked to compile their best/most 
representative work and write a critical introduction and brief 
introduction to each piece.

Proposals ∙ Asking students to write a proposal for a larger, more heavily 

weighted project allows students to try out their ideas and set
their  own goals for learning before actually carrying out their
projects.

Policy briefs,  ∙ Policy briefs/reports ask students to address in a

Reports professional  manner a research question, course of action,
decision, or theory  that is of interest and importance. This
allows students to develop  professional skills and become
familiar with the specific  vocabulary and style of writing in
their fields.

Case studies,  ∙ Case studies present fictional scenarios that include a

Simulations dilemma  that requires problem solving. Students must apply
higher order  thinking skills in order to evaluate and apply
knowledge, and to  analyze the problem.
∙ Simulations ask students to play and act out various roles
within a  case. This can include mock trials, mock city council
or legislative

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meetings, and mock meetings of corporation stockholders or  school
boards. In simulations, students require background  information that
they then apply to the role.

Fishbowls ∙ The fishbowl is similar to a debate. A few students are selected to   be in

the “hot seat,” where they respond to questions, concerns,  ideas, about
the given topic. Other students ask questions and  bring forth counter
points.
∙ This type of exercise advances student knowledge and  comprehension,
as well as improving skills in active listening,  critical inquiry, professional
communication, presentation, and  group discussion.

Principles in Assessing Learning using Alternative Methods  

According to David et al. (2020), there are many principles in the assessment of 
learning using alternative assessment methods or non-traditional methods. Based on 
literatures, the following may be considered as core principles: 
 1. Assessment is both process- and product-oriented. 
An assessment gives equal importance to students‟ performance or in  producing
a product. While traditional assessment methods are focused on  assessing
student products or outputs, non-traditional or alternative methods  like
performance assessment and portfolio assessment give value to the  product
developed by students, as well as in the process students have  undergone to
develop the product.  
2. Assessment should focus on higher-order cognitive outcomes.  For assessment
to be valid and authentic, it should require students to  demonstrate their knowledge.
However, the focus should be on providing tasks  or activities that would allow
students‟ demonstration of higher-order cognitive  outcomes (e.g., creating,
analyzing) or skills (e.g., creativity, critical thinking).  The use of non-traditional
methods of assessment like performance  assessment allows the assessment of
both lower-order and higher-order  cognitive outcomes in ways that are more
authentic. 
3. Assessment can include a measure of non-cognitive learning outcomes. 
Traditional assessment focuses on knowledge and other cognitive learning 
outcomes. However, psychomotor and affective learning outcomes are also 
important learning outcomes, and there are learning targets that are non 
cognitive in nature. Hence, an assessment should also consider the  assessment
of these non-cognitive outcomes. Non-traditional assessment tools  like rubrics,
scales, and checklists allow the measurement of non-cognitive  learning
outcomes that allow a more complete and assessment of student  learning.  
4. Assessment should reflect real-life or real-world contexts. Assessment tasks or
activities should be authentic. The assessment should  closely, if not fully
approximate real-life situations or experiences. Authenticity  of assessment can be
thought as a continuum from less authentic to most  authentic, with more authentic
tasks expected to be more meaningful for  students. Performance assessment is
optimal if the performance task to be  demonstrated is similar or closed to what is
expected in the real world.

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5. Assessment must be comprehensive and holistic. 
Assessment should be performed using a variety of strategies and tools 
designed to assess student learning in a more integrative way. Assessment 
should be conducted in multiple periods to assess learning over time. Moreover, 
the use of both traditional assessment and alternative assessment strategies 
and tools should be considered. Non-traditional methods of assessment (e.g., 
use of rubrics, scales) allow the possibility of multiple assessors, including the 
use of self, and peer assessment. This ensures that students are being 
assessed in a more comprehensive and holistic way. 
6. Assessment should lead to student learning. 
This means that assessment should be like classroom instruction. This principle 
is consistent with the concepts of assessment for learning and assessment as 
learning. Assessment for learning refers to the use of assessment to identify  the
 needs of students in order to modify instruction or the learning activities in  the
classroom. In assessment as learning, assessment tasks, results, and  feedback
are used to help students practice self-regulation and make  adjustments in order
to achieve the curriculum outcomes. 

Advantages of Alternative Assessments 

What benefits do students, teachers and the education system can gain through 
alternative assessments? The list below provides some insights into this question. ∙
Students get an opportunity to apply the knowledge that they have learned and 
demonstrate it in a constructive way that provides a solution to a problem.  ∙ They are
encouraged to think, analyze, innovate and apply; and their sense of  reasoning tends
to improve.  
∙ Students also improve on their communication skills as they need to also  explain their
solutions and the logic behind it to examiners. 
∙ These tests are more realistic and bring in an understanding and the  importance of
the knowledge gained.  
∙ A student’s skills are also measured along with the knowledge gained, making  it more
complete and correct.  
∙ Provides educators with a real time understanding on how teaching methods  can be
improved. This is so because they get to see how students have imbibed  what they
have learned and bring it out productively. 
∙ It is easier to grade a student overall like this rather than just scoring marks  through
shallow recitations.  
∙ It is much more transparent and fair as all students are given an equal  opportunity to
apply the knowledge gained in a way they find fit rather than  constraining them.

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