Transportation Geotechnics 29 (2021) 100556

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Transportation Geotechnics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/trgeo

Strength and durability assessment of expansive soil stabilized with

recycled ash and natural fibers
Nitin Tiwari a, Neelima Satyam b, *, Anand J. Puppala c
a
PhD Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Indore, India
b
Associate Professor and Head Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Indore, India
c
A.P. and Florence Wiley Chair, Zachry Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This study explored the coupling effect of the recycled ash and natural fibers to control the expansive soil’s
Expansive soil strength and durability attributes. The bottom ash (BA) was used to chemically treat the expansive soil and coir
Waste utilization fibers (CF) as reinforcement against tensile cracking. The sustainable use of BA and CF to stabilize the expansive
Durability
soil has been demonstrated by assessing - swelling behavior, mechanical and chemical properties. The expansive
Freeze-thaw
Bottom ash
soil was stabilized with 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% BA and reinforced with 0.25%, 0.50% and 1.00% CF. The curing
Coir fibers period of 28 days was considered for the stabilization of the soil. This study presents individual material’s effect
to stabilize the expansive soil subgrade and also the coupling effect of both fibers and ash. The durability of
stabilized expansive soil has been assessed by investigating the mechanical and chemical properties before and
after 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th and 10th freeze–thaw cycles. The BA stabilized expansive soil exponentially reduces the
upward swelling pressure and controls the plasticity behavior. An increase in the percentage of BA has increased
the calcite content, pH, and electrical conductivity. The unconfined compressive strength and split tensile
strength have been increased due to BA and CF. The CF reinforced specimens shows less loss in mechanical
strength during freeze–thaw cycles and gives higher tensile strength. The effective mechanism of BA and CF
stabilized expansive soil is discussed in detail. The BA and CF can be effectively used to stabilize the expansive
soil for the application of road pavements. The approach used here to stabilize pavement subgrades is sustainable
and will provide economical solutions.

Introduction:
The rapid development of urban area and industrialization generates
a shortage of usable land and soil conditions for civil engineering
structures. Expansive soils are the most problematic soils due to
nonrecurring swelling shrinkage nature and low bearing capacity [1].
The presence of expansive soil in the subgrade foundation has an
adverse impact on the performance of lightweight structures, especially
in the case of road pavement. Considering India’s geographical condi­
tions, almost one-fifth of the land area is covered with expansive soil [2].
Damage caused by expansive soil can be observed worldwide, economic
loss of more than $15 billion per year have been reported in the United
States alone [3].
Significant research has been carried out to develop a sustainable
approach to control swelling behavior and improve the expansive soil’s
strength. The soil stabilization can be performed using several processes
such as physical, mechanical, and chemical methods [4–6]. The chem­
ical and mechanical approaches are promising techniques to improve
the strength of expansive soil [7,8]. The chemical methods are highly
suitable to stabilize expansive soil subgrades; however, this method
induced brittle nature in the stabilized soil [9]. Therefore, an alternative
approach by combining the coupling effect of mechanical and chemical
stabilization methods has been developed to counter the chemical sta­
bilization limitations [10–12].
The study aims to examine the coupling effect of industrial waste ash
and natural fibers to stabilize the expansive soil subgrade. Industrial
waste ash and natural fibers are used to develop a sustainable and cost-
effective approach to control the swelling-shrinkage nature and improve
the bearing capacity of expansive soils. In this research, two waste
materials, i.e., bottom ash and coir fibers, have been used to recycle in
road pavement construction. The bottom ash has been used to stabilize
the expansive soil subgrade and fibers to provide tensile strength.

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: phd1801204006@iiti.ac.in, nitintiwari077@gmail.com (N. Tiwari), neelima.satyam@iiti.ac.in (N. Satyam), anandp@tamu.edu (A.J. Puppala).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2021.100556
Received 25 December 2020; Received in revised form 28 March 2021; Accepted 29 March 2021
Available online 1 April 2021
2214-3912/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
N. Tiwari et al.
Various physical and mechanical tests have been conducted on
treated and untreated soils to investigate coupling effect of the bottom
ash and coir fibers. The detailed method of the industrial waste ash
treatment and fibers reinforcement of expansive soil has been presented
in the research. The strength and durability attributes of expansive soil
subgrades during freeze–thaw cycles have been examined. The quanti­
fication of the optimal proportion of bottom ash and coir fibers was
assessed by carrying out various mechanical, chemical, and micro­
structural analyses. Various chemical and mechanical tests together
with microstructural analysis were carried out after multiple freeze­
–thaw cycles to understand the durability attributed to the expansive
soil subgrades.
Background and Research Objectives:
The swell-shrink behavior in expansive soil is caused by the presence
of hydrophobic clay minerals’ layered structure [13]. Various methods
are used to enhance the mechanical strength of expansive soil, such as
chemical stabilization [14–17], moisture control [18], high-pressure
application [19], biochemical stabilization [20–22], and geotextile/
geogrid [23–25].
The investigation on the improvement of expansive soil using the
traditional stabilizer, i.e., lime, cement, is usually effective in improving
expansive soil’s engineering properties [26–28]. However, this
approach alters the clay mineralogy, which adversely affects the
ecological changes in the clay [21]. Cement is the conventional chemical
stabilizer that increases stability and durability [29], which causes
global warming due to CO2 emission [30,31].
The BA produced is generally neglected and discharged into the
environment due to its porous and coarse-grained structure compared to
fly ash (FA) [32]. The use of BA in civil engineering constructions can
reduce the disposal problem; the effective use of BA for subgrade soil
stabilization has been effectively demonstrated [33]. In the current
scenario, less than 30% of the coal ash produced is reused; therefore, it is
necessary to consider measures to improve its use.
The expansive soil stabilized with the chemical method enhances the
unconfined compressive strength and induced brittle nature in the sta­
bilized soil. The brittle behavior of expansive soil gives low tensile
strength. The fiber reinforcement method can be used effectively to
improve the tensile strength of expansive soils [34,35]. Various fibers i.
e. polypropylene, jute, coir, hemp, sisal, and others, are effectively used
for expansive soil reinforcement [36–41]. Moghal et al. (2018) studied
the effect of fiber reinforcement on lime stabilized expansive soil [42].
The study showed that fiber concentration and length have a significant
influence on the stabilization of expansive soil. Chauhan et al. (2008)
investigated the effectiveness of fiber reinforcement in the subsoil
together with fly ash [43].
The combined effect of bottom ash and fibers was studied by Pra­
sannan et al. (2020) and shows the significant improvement of the
hydro-mechanical properties of expansive soil subgrade [44]. Soil sta­
bilization with chemical additives is useful in improving durability to
withstand unfavorable environmental conditions such as freeze–thaw
(FT) [4].
Ding et al. (2020) reported that freeze–thaw cycles have an adverse
impact on the performance of road pavement structures, and this dam­
age occurs in the form of cracking, flaking of the surface layer, and
increased settlement in the subgrade [45]. The damage caused by FT to
subgrade soils can be attributed to the formation of ice lenses during
freezing, which changes the soil structure at micro and macro scales and
reduces its integrity [46,47]. Sudhakaran et al. 2018 studied the effect of
bottom ash and areca fibers to improve pavement subgrade perfor­
mance; however, the study does not present the long-term effect of the
treatment [48]. Therefore, the objectives of this study are:
• To investigate the effectiveness of recycled bottom ash to stabilize
and natural fibers to reinforce the expansive soil subgrades.
2
Transportation Geotechnics 29 (2021) 100556
• To examine the effectiveness of mecho-chemical approach on
swelling behavior, strength, and durability of stabilized expansive
soil subgrade.
• To carry out the microstructural and chemical assessment to un­
derstand the typical behavior of the treated soil subgrades.
This study presents effect individual materials to stabilize and rein­
force the expansive soil subgrade and their coupling effect. The pre­
sented results are applicable for the considered soil with similar index
properties. The applicability of the approach on different soil index
properties needs to be examined before implementing the stabilization
method.
Experimental program
The industrial waste ash and natural fibers are used in this study to
develop a sustainable and cost-effective approach to control the swelling
behavior and improve the bearing capacity of expansive soil. In this
research, two waste materials, i.e., bottom ash and coir fibers, have been
used to reuse them the road pavement construction. The bottom ash has
been used to stabilize the expansive soil subgrade and fibers treatments
on the other hand will provide tensile strength. Various physical and
mechanical tests have been conducted here to investigate the bottom ash
and coir fibers coupling effects on soil properties. Detailed schematic
plan of sample preparation and the testing of expansive soil stabilized
with bottom ash and coir fibers are shown in Fig. 1.
Stabilizer materials
The expansive soil used in this study has been collected from Indian
Institute of Technology Indore (India) from the depth of 2–2.5 m from
the ground surface. The obtained soil specimen has been oven-dried, and
various engineering properties have been evaluated as per Indian
Standards (Table 1a). The soil has been classified as highly plastic clay
(CH) with a free swell index of 120%.
The natural coir fibers have been used in this study to reinforce the
expansive soil. The inert nature of the CF with moisture content makes it
more durable. The higher tensile strength of the CF shows effectiveness
in strengthening the expansive soil. The 6.77 kN/m breaking load and
18.0% strain has been observed for the coir fiber under dry condition.
Whereas in wet conditions, 5.80 kN/m breaking load and 19.33% strain
for coir fiber. The aspect ratio of 114.28 has been maintained for fibers
in this study. Danso et al. (2015) Studied the effect of fiber aspect ratio
on mechanical properties of soil building blocks. The study concluded
that generally, longer aspect ratios produce better mechanical properties
[49]. The property of the CF considered in the study are tabulated in
Table 1b.
The cementation material used in this study is a non-combustible
residue of coal known as bottom ash (BA). The chemical compositions
and mechanical properties of BA are tabulated in Table 1c. The material
was collected from Satpura Thermal Power Station Sarni (India). The
disposal of the bottom ash is a major concern of the thermal power
authority. Its utilization in the expansive soil stabilization leads to re­
duces the uses of several conventional chemical stabilizers like cement
and lime and also reduces its disposal problem.
Sample preparation
The collected soil specimen was air-dried for 24 hrs and then kept to
oven-dried for another 24 hrs at 105 ◦ C. The expansive soil was stabi­
lized by adding the dry mix of BA with 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%. Sud­
hakaran et al. (2018) investigated the effect of bottom ash on clay soil
engineering properties and found that 20% and 30% BA give an almost
similar UCS improvement [48]. A further increase in the BA content
leads to UCS reduction; therefore, BA was considered up to 20% in this
study. Punthutaecha et al. (2014) also reported 20% BA as an optimum
N. Tiwari et al. Transportation Geotechnics 29 (2021) 100556

Fig. 1. Schematic Plan of Sample Preparation and Testing of Expansive Soil Stabilized with Bottom Ash and Coir Fibers.

Table 1a Table 1b
Index properties of Expansive soil. Properties of Coir fiber.
Property Value Property Value

MDD (kN/m3) 17.65 Specific gravity 1.27

OMC (%) 19.2 Length of coir (mm) 40 (avg)
Liquid limit (%) 89 Diameter of coir fiber (mm) 0.35
Plastic limit (%) 47 Aspect Ratio 114.28
Plasticity index (%) 42 Rigidity modulus(dynes/cmL) 1.89241
Shrinkage limit (%) 11 Swelling in water (%) 6
Clay (%) 71.5 Break Load in dry condition (kN/m) 6.77
Silt (%) 24.5 Break Load in wet condition (kN/m) 5.80
Sand (%) 4.0 Break strain in dry condition (%) 18.0
Specific gravity 2.78 Break strain in wet condition (%) 19.33
Free swell index (%) 120
USCS soil classification CH
optimum moisture content and placed in the environmental chamber at
27 ± 2 ◦ C temperature and 65 ± 5% humidity. The mixing of BA, CF, and
limit for expansive soil stabilization [10]. It was also reinforced with coir soil was carried out using a planetary mixer at a speed of 62 ± 5 rpm.
fibers in the proportion of 0.25%, 0.50%, and 1.00% CF. At 1.00% CF The cylindrical specimens of 38 ± 2 mm diameter, 76 ± 4 mm length
content, the UCS reduction was observed since a higher percentage of were prepared to evaluate the unconfined compressive strength before
fiber reinforcement reduced the bond between clay particles. Therefore and after freeze–thaw cycles. The soil mix sample was compacted in an
fiber reinforcement up to 1.00% was considered in this study. A total of equal five-layer using hydraulic pressure. The compacted specimen was
16 combinations of BA and CF have been used to improve the engi­ immediately extracted from the sample mold and wrapped with the
neering properties of expansive soil. Stabilization and reinforcement of plastic cover to reduce moisture loss. The moisture-controlled curing has
expansive soil have been carried out to evaluate BA and CF as stabilizing been conducted in the environmental chamber at 20 ± 2 ◦ C temperature
agents. The coupled effect of BA and CF in expansive soils can also be and 95 ± 5% humidity for 28 days. The unconfined compressive
investigated. The dry mix of BA, CF, and soil has been prepared at strength test was carried out as per IS 2720 (Part 10): 1991. The fully

3
N. Tiwari et al. Transportation Geotechnics 29 (2021) 100556

Table 1c coir fibers do not affect the chemical properties of expansive soil.
Properties of Bottom Ash.
Property Value Analysis of test results and discussion
Specific Gravity 2.43
SiO2 (%) 52.68 Effectiveness of bottom ash stabilization on the plasticity of expansive soil
SO3(%) 0.24
Al2O3(%) 21.52 The liquid limit and plastic limit of the treated and untreated
Fe2O3 (%) 20.37 expansive soil have been investigated. After treatment, the stabilized
CaO(%) 1.17
TiO5(%) 1.1
expansive soil specimen has been crushed and oven-dried at 105 ± 5 ◦ C
K2O (%) 2.08 temperature before investigating Atterberg’s limits. The effectiveness of
MgO (%) 0.23 bottom ash stabilized expansive soil on plasticity characteristics is
Na2O(%) 0.21 shown in Fig. 2. It has been observed that initially, the soil was classified
P2O5(%) 0.32
as highly plastic clay (CH) in accordance with a unified soil classification
Loss on ignition (%) 0.08
system. But after the stabilization, it turned into low plasticity clay (CL).

automatic load frame unit configured with a 2.5 kN S-type load cell and Effect of BA and CF on swelling behavior of expansive soil
25 mm Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) was used to
investigate the unconfined compressive strength behavior. The initial The constant volume swell test has been conducted to investigate the
length, diameter, and weight of the specimen shall be measured and it effectiveness of BA and CF in controlling the swelling behavior of
shall be placed on the loading device’s bottom plate. The upper plate expansive soil. Fig. 3 shows the effect of varying percentages of BA and
shall be adjusted to make contact with the specimen. The test has been CF on swelling characteristics before and after expansive soil stabiliza­
conducted at a 1.25 mm/min strain rate. tion. The upward swelling pressure has been exponentially reduced with
To understand the swelling behavior of expansive soils, samples have an increasing percentage of the BA. However, the effect of fiber rein­
been compacted to a maximum dry density using standard proctor in a forcement is minimal to control swelling pressure. It is also observed
1000 cc mold using an automatic soil compactor. The compacted soil that CF reinforcement effectively works up to 0.5%; beyond this limit,
sample with porous stone plates on both sides was prepared to investi­ swell pressure started increasing. The fiber effect on a higher concen­
gate the swelling behavior. Three replicates of each specimen have been tration of BA is negligible. The BA is non-expansive in nature, and while
prepared to evaluate the the standard deviation and repeatability of mixing the BA content, the specific surface area of clay content has
experimental results. reduced; and as a result, the reduction in the swelling pressure was
observed.
Test performed The calcite content formed due to pozzolanic reaction of BA, and it
bound the soil particles and produced a strong soil matrix (Eqs. (1)–(4)).
The strength and durability attribute of the treated and untreated The formation of calcite content effectively stabilized the expansive soil,
specimens were assessed by carrying out the unconfined compressive and therefore, low upward swell pressure was observed. The upward
strength (UCS) IS 2720(Part 10): 1991 and Brazilian split tensile swell pressure of BA stabilized soil has been reduced from 69.62 kPa to
strength (STS) IS 10,082 (1981) tests before and after the freeze–thaw 32.50 kPa; however, when reinforced with CF, it decreased from 69.62
cycles. The initial mechanical strength of all three groups of specimens kPa to 59.21 kPa. While considering coupling effect of BA and CF, the
has been assessed, and then the samples were placed in the freeze–thaw upward swell pressure has been reduced by 67.65%. The optimum
chamber for the durability study. highest reduction in upward swell pressure was observed when expan­
The freeze–thaw’s closed chamber has been configured to the tem­ sive soil stabilized with 20% BA content and 0.50% CF. The higher
perature variation from − 20 ◦ C to +20 ◦ C [50]. The cycles of 12 hrs for concentration of CF content reduces the chemical stabilization bonding
each stage, i.e., freeze and thaw, have been carried out up to 10 cycles between soil particles and, therefore, an increase in swell pressure
since, after the 10th cycle, expansive soil reflects constant deformation observed.
[51]. UCS assessed the effect of F-T on each group of specimens, and STS,
after the 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th, and 10th cycles.
A constant swelling pressure test was performed to understand the
swelling behavior of stabilized expansive soil. The initial seating load of
50 gf/cm2 was applied before immersing the specimen in water. The
swelling pressure and change in vertical height were measured using a 2
kN capacity S-type load cell and 25 mm LVDT. The experiment
continued until all samples reached equilibrium condition, i.e., no
changes in vertical displacement and upward swell pressure were
observed.
The various chemical and mineralogical properties of expansive soil
have been altered with the addition of the BA. To investigate the effect of
the BA on chemical properties of the expansive soil, pH, electrical con­
ductivity, calcite content tests have been carried out. Due to the
pozzolanic reaction of BA during the hydration process, calcite content
has been formed, and therefore, the formation of calcite content has
been quantified. The electrical conductivity and pH signify the change in
the chemical state of expansive soil with the addition of BA.
ATR- FTIR analysis has been carried out on KBr pellet specimens to
understand the change in the chemical bond during the treatment pro­
cess. The IR scans have been made from 400 cm− 1 to 4000 cm− 1 using
the ATR-FTIR spectrometer (PerkinElmer). In all the chemical and Fig. 2. Effect of Bottom Ash on Atterberg’s Limit of Treated and Untreated
mineralogical analyses, only the effect of BA content was analyzed since Expansive soil.

4
N. Tiwari et al.
Fig. 3. Effect of bottom ash and Coir Fibers on swelling behaviour of expansive soil.
The change in vertical height has been presented as percentage
expansion in a specimen. Percentage expansion has been showing a
similar trend as observed in upward swell pressure. With CF and BA
stabilization, the percentage expansion has been reduced by 29.5% and
80.8%, respectively. The highest control in percentage expansion
(84.5%) has been observed with 20% BA and 0.5% CF stabilization.
CaO + H2 O→Ca(OH)2
Ca(OH)2 →Ca2+ + 2(OH)−
Ca2+ + 2(OH)− + SiO2 →CSH
Ca2+ + 2(OH)− + Al2 O3 →CAH
Effect of BA and CF on unconfined compressive strength and split tensile
strength
The Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS.) of the expansive soil
with varying percentages of the bottom ash and coir fibers content are
shown in Fig. 4. UCS values increased exponentially with BA stabiliza­
tion, which determines that industrial waste bottom ash effectively
Fig. 4. Effect of bottom ash and Coir Fibers on unconfined compressive
strength of expansive soil.
Transportation Geotechnics 29 (2021) 100556
improves the expansive soil property. The strength of stabilized expan­
sive soil has increased due to the formation of hydrated calcium silicate
(C–S–H); during the curing. C–S–H gel binds the soil grains and
improves the cohesive nature of expansive soil.
The CF had minimal effect on the UCS of expansive soil with
expansive soil without BA stabilization. It has also been observed that
the higher concentration of CF is not uniformly distributed in the sample
(1)
and therefore creates a weak plane, subsequently reduces UCS. The
reinforcement with the CF increases interfacial mechanical interactions.
(2)
However, higher CF content decreased the soil binding property;
therefore, a reduction in the UCS. was observed with the addition of 1%
(3)
CF. The maximum improvement has been observed when the soil was
amended with the 20% BA and 0.50% CF
(4)
The coupled behavior of the BA and CF treatment has effectively
increased the mechanical strength of expansive soil. The BA stabilized
expansive soil specimens showed higher compressive strength and
exhibited ductile behavior under loading. The ductile nature of the
subgrade material is not suitable for the road pavement due to cyclic or
repetetive loading which result in accumulated plastic deformation;
therefore, to improve the tensile strength, the coir fibers have been used.
Fig. 5 shows the effectiveness of BA and CF admixtures on the split
Fig. 5. Effect of bottom ash and Coir Fibers on split tensile strength of
expansive soil.
5
N. Tiwari et al.
tensile strength of expansive soil. It is ascertained that the CF increases
the tensile strength due to a strong reinforcement system. The results
above indicate that the combined use of 20% BA and 0.50% CF improves
properties of expansive soil subgrade.
Effect of freeze-thaw on unconfined compressive strength
The unconfined compressive strength of the BA stabilized and CF
reinforced expansive soil under F-T cycles have been evaluated (Fig. 6).
The durability of the treated specimen depends on its unconfined
compressive strength observed after the various F-T cycles.
UCS values have been recorded after every even cycle of F-T i.e., 2nd,
4 , 6th, 8th, and 10th, to assess the durability of the treated soil speci­
th
mens. The strength and stiffness of the BA-treated specimens have been
increased due to the formation of a stable spatial network structure [51].
However, during F-T cycles, the specimens undergo the nonrecurring
volumetric change, and as a result, the bond of CSH gel breaks and
reduction in the strength is observed with increasing F-T cycles. It is
observed that the lower concentration of the BA content produced less
CSH gel, and subsequently, a higher loss of strength has been reported. A
higher concentration of the CSH gel produced a strong soil CF matrix,
which further shows a minimum loss in UCS strength during the F-T
cycles.
Effect of freeze-thaw on split tensile strength
The increase in the split tensile strength (STS) values has been
observed with the addition of the BA content; however, the addition of
BA also increased the brittle nature of the treated specimen. An STS test
has been carried out to assess the effects of BA and CF fibers treatment
on tensile strength of expansive soil. All the treated specimens before
Fig. 6. Effect of Freeze-thaw on unconfined compressive strength of treated and untreated BC soil.
6
Transportation Geotechnics 29 (2021) 100556
and after F-T cycles have been tested for the split tensile strength to
explore the impact on tensile cracking mitigation in expansive soil
(Fig. 7). The CF fibers increase the interfacial interaction of soil parti­
cles, which increases the tensile strength in the expansive soil. The CF
reinforced expansive soil subgrade shows higher tensile strength.
The tensile strength up to 0.50% CF has been increased; however, the
further addition of CF fiber reduced the bond between soil particle and
tensile strength reduced. It is also observed that after 6th F-T cycle, the
untreated expansive soil specimen failed; hence the value of the STS has
been reported zero. Since the CF fibers are inert in temperature varia­
tion, therefore a very minimal effect of F-T has been observed with CF
reinforced specimens and retained maximum STS strength. However,
due to nonrecurring swelling-shrinkage behavior during the F-T cycles
break the CSH gel bond, and as a result, the reduction in the STS values
has been observed with the increasing F-T cycles [52]. The higher STS
strength has been observed with 20% BA and 0.5% CF content.
Effect of BA on pH, calcite content, and electrical conductivity
The chemical alternation with the varying content of the BA is pre­
sented in Fig. 8. The calcite content (CCt) is shown on the primary Y-
axis, and pH and electrical conductivity values (EC) on the secondary Y-
axis. The value of the EC is increased with the increasing percentages of
BA. The increase in the EC values depicts the chemical alternation in the
soil-BA mix. During the hydration process, temperature of soil-BA mix
has been increased, which subsequently increased the EC [53].
The pH of the soil-BA mix was raised, and it depicts the change in the
nature of the mixture toward acidic nature [54]. Goodarzi et al. (2016)
show that the increase in the pH values also ascertained the increment in
shear strength of soil [55]. The hydration reaction of BA formed CSH gel,
which is observed in the form of calcite content.
N. Tiwari et al. Transportation Geotechnics 29 (2021) 100556

Fig. 7. Effect of Freeze-thaw on split tensile strength of treated and untreated BC soil.

Fig. 8. Effect of bottom ash on electricidal conductivity, pH and

Calcite content.

The CCt test has been conducted to quantify the percentage of the
Calcite in treated specimens. The calcite content has been increased by
up to 7.5%, with 20% BA content. This signifies that the higher con­
centration of the BA content formed more Calcite in the specimen.
Higher calcite content formation improves soil matrix and, as a result,
improves the strength and durability of the stabilized expansive soil.
Effect of BA on chemical bonding of expansive soil
The IR analysis has been performed on the varying percentages of the
BA content (Fig. 9). The IR spectra have been compared with four per­
centages of the BA content i.e. 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%. The I.R. range of
Fig. 9. FTIR Spectra of Bottom Ash Treated and Untreated Expansive Soil.
500 cm− 1 to 1200 cm− 1 shows the mineral, 1200 cm− 1 to 3000 cm− 1
organic matters and 3500 cm− 1 to 4000 cm− 1 clay minerals [56]. The
hydroxyl group of kaolinite and illite has been observed in the IR band of
3092 cm− 1–3717 cm− 1.
The moisture is observed at 3433 cm− 1 in the control specimen, and
this peak has been reduced with BA stabilization. A broad IR peak has
been observed at the 3454 cm− 1, which shows CSH gel formation in the
treated specimen [57]. An intensified peak has been observed with 20%

7
N. Tiwari et al.
BA content, which shows a higher amount of CSH gel formation with a
higher content of BA. The broad IR band is observed due to free dis­
solved CA, which offers nucleation for geopolymerization [58].
A C–O bond peak has been observed at 875 cm− 1 and 1469 cm− 1.
Increasing BA content reduced the C–O bond peak, which ascertained
the carbonate reduction [59]. The carbonation peak division was ob­
tained at 1469 cm− 1 to 1429 cm− 1 due to the hydration product’s partial
carbonation [60]. The presence of the quartz was obtained at the IR peak
of 799 cm− 1 and 781 cm− 1. The IR peak was observed at 3623 cm− 1 to
ascertain montmorillonite mineral presence. This peak has been reduced
by increasing BA content. This shows the addition of the BA content
controls the presence of hydrophobic minerals.
Conclusions
The coupling effect of the bottom ash and coir fibers on strength and
durability performance has been explored in this study. A sustainable
approach to control the expansive soil behavior by considering indus­
trial wastes has been proposed. The various mechanical, chemical and
microstructural tests have been conducted to quantify the BA and CF’s
coupled effects on expansive soil. Based on the detailed experimental
investigation, the following conclusions have been drawn:
• The bottom ash possesses the cement-like property and can be used
as an alternative for expansive soil stabilization as a sustainable
approach. The addition of the BA concentration shows the densified
soil- CF matrix. The formation of the CSH gel also reduces the
expansive soil cavity.
• The BA content inclusion shows higher unconfined compressive
strength values; however, minimal split tensile strength has been
observed. Coupled effect of BA and CF shows an exponential incre­
ment in unconfined compressive strength and split tensile strength
and reduction in upward swelling pressure.
• The inert nature of CF under F-T cycles shows the higher durability of
CF reinforced expansive soil and shows minimal loss of strength.
However, BA stabilized specimens undergo higher strength loss
during F-T due to nonrecurring volume change.
• The detailed experimental analysis shows that the 20% BA and
0.50% CF combination are highly effective for treating expansive soil
and can be considered optimum proportions.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Nitin Tiwari: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing - original
draft, Investigation. Neelima Satyam: Supervision, Writing - review &
editing, Resources, Conceptualization. Anand J. Puppala: Supervision,
Writing - review & editing, Conceptualization.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
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