Korean public education structure is divided into three parts: six years of primary school, followed by three years of

middle school and then three years of high school. In 1996 only about five percent of Korea's high schools were
coeducational. The proportion of coeducational schools has increased by almost ten percent. However, classes in many
coeducational high schools are still divided along gender lines. The curriculum is standardized so now both boys and girls
study technology and domestic science.
The primary curriculum consists of nine principal subjects: moral education, Korean language, social studies,
mathematics, science, physical education, music, fine arts, and practical arts. English-language instruction now begins in
the third grade, so that children can start learning English in a relaxed atmosphere through conversational exchange, rather
than through rote learning of grammatical rules as is still the practice in many middle and high schools. The major
objectives, as stated in a 1996 background report by the Ministry of Education, are "to improve basic abilities, skills and
attitudes; to develop language ability and civic morality needed to live in society; to increase the spirit of cooperation; to
foster basic arithmetic skills and scientific observation skills; and to promote the understanding of healthy life and the
harmonious development of body and mind.” The seventh annual curriculum, which began implementation in March
2000.

Upon completion of primary school, students advance to middle school, which comprises grades seven through
nine. The curriculum consists of 12 basic or required subjects, electives, and extracurricular activities. While
elementary school instructors teach all subjects, middle school teachers, like their colleagues in the United
States, are content specialists.

High schools are divided into academic and vocational schools. In 1995, some 62 percent of students were
enrolled in academic high schools and 38 percent in vocational high schools. A small number attended
specialized high schools concentrating in science, the arts, foreign languages, and other specialized fields. This
is still the case.

The aims of education at the high school level are stated as "to foster each student's personality and ability
needed to preserve and strengthen the backbone of the nation; to develop students' knowledge and skills to
prepare them for jobs needed in society; to promote each student's autonomy, emotional development, and
critical thinking abilities to be brought to bear in and out of school; and to improve physical strength and foster
a sound mind."

The School Calendar and School Days

The school calendar has two semesters, the first extending from March through July and the second from
September through February. There are summer and winter breaks, but 10 optional half days at the beginning
and end of each break¾which are attended by practically all students¾reduce each of these biennial vacations to
the remaining 10 days.

A typical day finds high schoolers studying before school begins at about 8:00 A.M. Classes run for 50 minutes
each, with a morning break and a 50-minute lunch period. The afternoon session resumes at about 1:00 P.M.,
and classes continue until about 4:00 or 4:30, followed by the cleaning of the classroom. Students may then take
a short dinner break at home, or they may eat at school. Teachers typically move from room to room, while
students stay in one place.

Students return to the school library to study or attend private schools or tutoring sessions until between 10:00
P.M. and midnight. They return home where they may have a snack, listen to music, or watch television before
going to bed. Elementary and middle school students have similar but somewhat less rigorous days with shorter
hours and more recreational activities.
Attendance requirements call for a minimum of 220 days at all three levels. The curriculum is prescribed by
law, as are the criteria for the development of textbooks and instructional materials. There have been periodic
curriculum revisions, most recently in March 2000, and the trend is definitely toward decentralization in
determining, diversifying, and implementing the curriculum.

The well-educated person—according to the curriculum and perhaps shedding further light on what is valued in
Korean society—is healthy, independent, creative, and moral.

The high schools that we saw were large and rather barren in appearance. Invariably, a large grassless area in
front of the school serves as the playing field as well as accommodates schoolwide assemblies and other
meetings. Inside, classrooms line the straight, sparsely furnished halls and are typically filled with 50 or 60
uniformed students and an instructor.

Most instruction we observed consisted of teacher lectures, with only rare interruptions for questions. If
students had questions, they might speak to the teacher after class. There is considerable interest in computers.
At the end of 1999 there was about 1 computer per every 23.8 primary and secondary school student and 1 per
every 1.4 primary and secondary school teachers. The Ministry of Education planned to raise the ratio to 1
computer per 17.4 students and 1 per every teacher by the end of 2000. The computer laboratory we visited was
equipped with about 50 terminals meant to serve 3,000 students, but at the time only teachers were in the room.

As we noted, discipline problems were infrequent, and great respect for teachers was evident. Students bowed,
as is the custom, when passing teachers in the halls and appeared hesitant to enter faculty offices. We learned
that discipline cases are generally referred to the student's homeroom teacher, who then talks with the student
and his or her family. In addition to administering discipline, which may but infrequently includes corporal
punishment, homeroom teachers offer counseling, help students with college applications, and maintain contact
with parents.

We were told in 1996 that in years past when teachers informed parents of discipline problems, parents
responded by sending the teacher either a small amount of rice as an apology for having caused the teacher
worry and trouble or a switch for the teacher to discipline the child. Since 1999, teachers no longer have the
legal authority to administer corporal punishment. This change has created some confusion as to the extent of
teachers' authority.

In Chile, educational centers' administration has become more complex over time as school coverage has increased.
When there are more students, there are also more schools that need to be managed correctly. This evolution has led to
many adaptations of the scholar system in the country. Even there are many actions to take still, in 2016, Chile
presented the best educational coverage rate in Latin America—almost universal coverage in primary education (99.4%)
and the best scores in standardized tests, such as PISA and TERCE, not to mention that Chile has the highest graduation
rate in Latin America (Banco de Desarrollo de América Latina, 2016). However, public and private schools in Chile are
very diverse. Moreover, parents have been enrolling their children in private schools, more and more every year
(Ministerio de Educación de Chile, 2015a, 2017).

During the three past decades, Municipalities nationwide were the stakeholders of public schools. e Military
Government promoted municipal administration to have local management of schools and other public services since a
centralized model made all processes non-efficient; though, the technology of the time and the context of the country
must be considered. e decision to transfer the establishments' administration was organized under the subsidiarity
principle that guided the Military Government's work. According to this principle, it is desirable to allow private
individuals' participation in activities where the State should not necessarily be the sole provider. Private persons,
natural or legal, were allowed to create private subsidized primary and secondary education institutions; in higher
education it was allowed for privates to create and manage technical training centers, professional institutes, and
universities (Dittborn, 2021; Ministerio del Interior de Chile, 1979). It is essential to keep in mind that at that time, due
to the economic difficulties the State was going through, it seemed convenient for individuals to contribute with their
effort and resources, otherwise many urgent needs could have been impossible to assume. is was the most important
economic and social crisis that affected the country in the 20th century (Dittborn, 2021).

In 2015 the President introduced a bill to create a Public Education System (PES) and modify other legal bodies
associated with education. In 2020, after more than thirty years of municipal administration of education—since the
government of Augusto Pinochet—a new type of administration is being implemented by Law 21,040. Seventy Local
Public Education Services (LPES) were created and linked to the executive through the Ministry of Education, which
covers all the municipalities in the country. e purpose of the services is to provide the educational service through the
establishments of their dependency and ensure quality, continuous improvement, and equity with technical and
pedagogical support, and management support, while respecting their autonomy. The Direction of Public Education
(DPE) answers the Ministry of Education and supervises the LPES (Ministerio de Educación de Chile, 2017).

Municipalization was an administrative decision to decentralize the management of education. Today,

demunicipalization is a mixture of municipalization and a new centralization of the system. It takes municipalities out of
the equation (Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional de Chile, 2018). The process of (demunicipalization) started at the
beginning of 2020, and, up to October 2020, seven out of seventy LPES have been established in the national territory,
and nearly 400 educational establishments in 25 municipalities have been transferred, with an approximate enrolment
of 108,000 students (Ministerio de Educación de Chile, 2020a). It is essential to analyse the characteristics of the Chilean
educational system and the educational policies' situation after having a panoramic vision of the decisions that have
been made.

The main objective of this research was to describe the road traveled to reach the current administration. the specific
objectives were to present a timeline of the norms that have shaped the education system and to analyze the school
principals' professionalization in public schools. This was qualitative research with a descriptive approach, based on a
literature review. In order to understand the current school administration and management in Chile, the next sections
consist of a chronogram of the advances in school coverage, the evolution of the State's administration of education, the
current form of access to the position of school principal in the country, and a comparison with other management
models.

SERBIA

Only 20% of teachers in Serbia perceive their profession as being valued by society (compared with 31% on average in
TALIS countries), and those with more experience are even less likely to share this view.

However, teachers in Serbia who say that their school provides staff with opportunities to actively participate in school
decisions are more than twice as likely to say that teaching is valued.

71% of teachers in Serbia have completed some teacher education programme, compared with the TALIS average of
90% of the teachers.

In Serbia, slightly fewer teachers than on average in TALIS countries report that their formal education included the
content (93% vs. 95%), the pedagogy (89% vs. 92%) and the practical components (78% vs. 89%) for some or all of the
subjects they teach.
The areas in which teachers in Serbia report the highest level of need for professional development include teaching
students with special needs (35% of the teachers) and teaching for new technologies in the workplace (21%).

Nearly all teachers in Serbia (97%) agree that their role is to facilitate students' own inquiry (compared with 94% on
average for TALIS countries), and 83% of teachers agree that thinking and reasoning processes are more important than
specific curriculum content, which is similar to the TALIS average (84%).

In Serbia, constructivist teaching beliefs are good predictors of teachers’ use of active forms of teaching practices, such
as having students work in small groups to come up with a joint solution to a problem or requiring students to use ICT
for their projects or class work.

Among teachers in Serbia, 75% report receiving feedback following observation of their teaching and 48% after an
analysis of their students' test scores. This feedback comes from principals according to most teachers (70%), while 38%
of teachers in Serbia say they receive feedback from other teachers.

Feedback is a significant predictor of teacher job satisfaction, though feedback that is perceived to be done largely to
fulfil administrative requirements may cause job dissatisfaction.

Receiving feedback on classroom management is particularly strongly related to higher self-efficacy in Serbia. Further,
teachers who receive feedback on classroom management also report higher levels of job satisfaction.

On average across TALIS countries and economies, many teachers report positive impacts following feedback they
receive about their work, including on their classroom teaching.

Compared with other countries, in Serbia, more teachers report that the feedback they received led to positive changes
in their teaching practices (67%), their methods for teaching special-needs students (60%) or their use of student
assessment to improve student learning (68%).

Teachers in Serbia tend to report participation rates similar to the TALIS average for a number of different PD activities,
including courses and workshops (70%), observation visits to other schools (15%), in-service training in outside
organisations (11%), networks of teachers (33%), and individual or collaborative research (32%), but higher than average
participation in education conferences (60%).

Teachers in Serbia tend to report spending slightly fewer days than average engaging in PD activities in the past 12
months. On average they report spending six days on courses and workshops (compared with eight days on average for
all TALIS countries).

The great majority of teachers’ lesson time is spent teaching. On average in TALIS countries and in Serbia, teachers
report spending approximately 80% of their class time on actual teaching and learning.

Teachers in Serbia report spending 10% of their class time keeping order in the classroom.

Teachers in Serbia report spending similar numbers of hours per week on a variety of work-related tasks compared with
the TALIS average. They report spending 18 hours teaching and 8 hours for planning their lessons.
Denmark

National legislation covers the aims and framework of education, funding and in some cases curricula, examinations and
staffing.

The Danish education system is centrally managed by the following ministries:

The Ministry of Education is responsible for early childhood and care as well as primary and lower secondary education

The Ministry of Higher Education and Science is responsible for higher education and formal adult education

The Ministry of Culture is responsible for the non-formal adult education and training

The Ministry of Defence is responsible for specialised education programmes within the Danish defence.

Education is, however, largely the responsibility of the Ministry for Children, Education and Gender Equality and the
Ministry of Higher Education and Science.

The Ministry of Education is responsible for setting up the framework for curricula at primary and secondary level. The
contents of the courses are then finalised by the teachers themselves with their pupils. The Ministry of Education
oversees the municipal primary and lower secondary school (the Folkeskole) in collaboration with the municipal
councils.

In the field of vocational education and training, sectoral committees with equal representation of the labour market
organisations concerned play an important role in defining and developing vocational qualifications and stipulating the
training conditions. Technical colleges and business colleges are independent institutions under the overall authority of
the Ministry of Education.

The Ministry of Higher Education and Science is largely responsible for higher education. As mentioned, some of the
higher education programmes within the arts fall under the responsibility of the Ministry of Culture, e.g. the schools of
visual arts and the academies of music. Specialised education programmes within the Danish Defence are managed by
the Ministry of Defence.

In Denmark, primary education consists of integrated primary and lower secondary education. The educational
institutions at which primary and lower secondary education takes place is called primary and lower secondary schools
(in Danish: Folkeskole). Primary education is compulsory between the age of six and 16 and consists of one pre-school
year (grade 0) and nine school years (grades 1-9). It is possible to prolong the compulsory education with a tenth grade,
but that remains optional.

Following the primary and lower secondary education, students are free to choose the educational path they wish. In
brief, the choice is between between academically oriented general upper secondary education programmes and
secondary vocational education programmes.

General upper secondary education programmes take place at several institutions whereas some institutions offer
various types of programmes: 

The three-year upper secondary school leaving examination (STX) takes place at upper secondary schools (in
Danish: gymnasium)

The three-year higher commercial examination (HHX) takes place at commercial upper secondary schools, also
known as business colleges (in Danish: handelsgymnasium)

The three year higher technical examination (HTX) takes place at technical upper secondary schools, also known
as technical colleges (in Danish: teknisk gymnasium)

The two-year higher preparatory examination (HF) usually takes place at upper secondary schools (in Danish:
gymnasium), but the programme is also offered at adult education centres (VUC Centres).
The duration of the three first-mentioned programmes is three years. Students usually start at the age of 16 and
graduate at the age of 19. However, this depends on several factors, including whether the student in question has
taken the tenth grade. The duration of the last-mentioned, HF, is two years, and the age of the students vary greatly.

Secondary vocational education programmes vary in duration depending on the programme in question. More
specifically, the duration varies from 1½ to 5½ years, the most typical being 3½ to 4 years. The programmes are offered
at vocational/ technical schools (in Danish: erhvervsskole). The age of students when starting and graduating varies
greatly.

Following the general upper secondary education programmes and secondary vocational education programmes, there
is a great variety in the students’ educational opportunities. In general, general upper secondary education qualifies for
further studies at the level of higher education, while secondary vocational education qualifies for the labour market.

Higher education takes place at different educational institutions:

Short-cycle programmes are offered at business academies

Medium-cycle programmes are offered at university colleges

Long-cycle programmes are offered at universities

Indonesia

The Ministry of National Education and Culture (MOEC) is the organizational structure of the Indonesian educational
system. It consists of seven principal units at the central level. These seven units are the Secretariat General, Office of
Educational and Cultural Research and Development, Inspectorate General, Directorate General of Basic and Secondary
Education, Directorate General of Higher Education, Directorate General of Out-of-School Education and Youth and
Sports, and the Directorate General of Culture.

These positions assist the Minister of National Education in setting forth an administrative structure of education,
developing curriculum, financing education, establishing the infrastructure and providing for equipment necessary for
carrying out educational activities, and training faculty and staff to serve the education system.

At the local level, the Ministry of Education and Culture is represented by an Office of Education and Culture in each of
the 27 provinces, and by a district office in each of Indonesia's 305 districts. The major task of the provincial and district
offices is to interpret and implement ministerial policies on education and culture with recognition given to distinctive
features of the local area.

The Ministry of Religious Affairs is responsible for the Islamic preschools, primary schools, junior secondary schools, and
senior secondary schools. Provision of higher education is managed by the Ministry of National Education and Culture
through the directorate general of higher education, as well as by the Military Academy and the College for Civil
Servants.

Finance: Technically, the government is responsible for financing education. However, costs for education carried out by
the community is recognized as the responsibility of those institutions. In some cases the government funding is limited
to specific elements of compulsory education. The education programs funded by the government are mainly financed
through the administration's annual budget along with a separate development budget. Other funding sources are
international aid (loans and grants) and assistance from regional governments and the private sector.

Primary school is free and theoretically requires no fees. Routine assistance for financing the middle and higher levels of
education is the responsibility of the family in the form of a school fee paid to the state by each school to be reallocated
back to the schools through an account known as the Education Funds Support. While the government offers subsidies
to universities and among the various regions, it strongly encourages the participation of the local government,
community and business in educational finance. Essentially each educational institution is expected to manage its own
admission process and finances.

The Ministry of Education budget has expanded continuously over time. Within the first five-year development planning
period or Repelita (1969-1973) the budget was 147 billion rupiah. There was a marked increase in monies appropriated
in 1973 in support of the presidential decree launching the compulsory six years of primary school education. The
budget increased to 12.9 trillion rupiah during the Fifth Repelita (1989-1993), and financial allocations for the first year
of the Sixth Repelita (1994-1999) expanded to 4.6 trillion rupiah. The annual percentage of MOEC budget fluctuates in
close proximity to the gross domestic product (GDP).

During the Fifth Repelita, 83.5 percent of the routine budget of the MOEC was designated for salaries and employee
related expenditures. This concentration of the routine budget on employee-related expenditure resulted in limited
availability of funds for procurement of teaching supplies, educational facility development, and administrative
activities. Most consistently noted in allocations is the preeminence given by the Indonesian government in making of
good citizens through the teaching of Pancasila. For example, in the school year 1997-1998, approximately 1.3 percent
of the budget was allocated toward the development of "Followers to Believe in God" whereas the government
allocated 2 percent of the total allocations toward producing more professional educators.

Also during the Fifth Repelita, international loan assistance amounted to 51 percent of the total development budget.
Loans from the World Bank (International Bank for Reconstruction and Development) amounted to US$457 million, and
loans from the Asian Development Bank totaled more than US$507 million. The World Bank provided assistance to
Indonesia during 1970-1995 for developing education in the amount of US$1.54 billion. The total amount of Asian
Development Bank loans during the period 1975-1995 was US$1.39 billion.

Peru

After periods of mass inflation and political insurrection through the 1980s and 1990s, Peru has blossomed economically
over the last few years and has become a major tourist destination. In the educational realm, this is reflected by an ever
increasing number of overseas students coming to the country to study for short and long-term programs. Today in fact
there are more U.S. students in Peru than there are Peruvian students in the United States. Nonetheless, the country
still faces challenges in offering equal educational opportunities to all of its citizens.

In 1996, the government of Peru passed education reforms that extended free and compulsory school education to all
students aged between 5 and 16, known as educación básica (general stream) y técnico productiva (technical). However,
the secondary period of compulsory education is somewhat aspirational as approximately one quarter of the relevant
age group does not currently enroll in upper secondary education (UNESCO, 2013). This is especially the case in remote
parts of the Andean Highlands and across the sparsely populated Amazonian rainforest in the country’s interior.

While public education is free, private schools operate at all levels of the education system. Schools in both the public
and private sectors follow the national curriculum, set federally and overseen by local education authorities, as
mandated in a 2008 ministerial decree.

The academic school year is entirely contained with one calendar year, running from the beginning of March through to
November/December. The reason for this is that Peru sits in the southern hemisphere, so autumn there begins in March
and the summer holidays are taken from the end of December to February. There is also a winter holiday in July,
although the exact timing varies by region.

The language of instruction is Spanish. However, in some regional primary schools, a local language such as Aymará or
Quechua is the language of instruction with Spanish offered as a second language.

Education is offered at four main levels:

Primary
Secondary
Vocational and Technical
University

All education policy, legislation and curriculum guidelines are set by the Ministry of Education, which is the overarching
authority from preschool through to higher education. The local education authorities in the 25 regiones (states)
administer and implement ministry policy at the primary and secondary level.

In January 2015, a new higher education authority, the Superintendencia Nacional de Educación Superior Universitaria
(SUNEDU, National Superintendency of University Higher Education), replaced the Asamblea Nacional de los Rectores
(ANR, National Assembly of Rectors) under a new higher education law that seeks to improve quality standards within
the sector. The new body is charged with carrying out quality assurance procedures and also with approving university
operating licenses. It also sets higher education policies under direction from the ministry, although precise roles for this
new body are still somewhat unclear.

By level of study, Peruvian students in the United States are fairly evenly split between the undergraduate and graduate
levels, mirroring fairly closely overall level-of-study trends among international students in U.S. higher education.

Primary schooling consists of up to six teaching hours per day and 30 hours a week (1,100 hours a year). Mandatory
subjects include:

Mathematics
Communications
Art
Personal development
Physical education
Religious education
Science and environment
For curricular purposes, the six years of primary education are divided into three two-year cycles.
The ministry of education sets a very broad and general national curriculum at the secondary level. It includes the
following subjects which every student must take:

Mathematics (3 hours per week minimum, but typically 4)

Communication (3 hours minimum, but typically 4)
Foreign language (English) / indigenous (2 hours)
Art (2 hours)
History, geography and economics (3 hours)
Civics (2 hours)
Social skills (2 hours)
Physical education (2 hours)
Religious education (2 hours)
Science, technology and environmental studies (3 hours)
Vocational training (2 hours)
Elective hours and personal studies (9 hours)

Secondary education is made up of seven teaching hours per day, 35 hours a week and 40 weeks a year (1,400
instructional hours a year). For the first two years of the secondary cycle, all students follow a general education
curriculum. For the final three years, students choose to follow either the technical stream or the academic stream. Both
provide access to university study.

Students following the technical upper secondary stream attend colegios secundarios con variante técnica, which make
up about one third of secondary schools. Students attending technical secondary schools account for approximately half
of secondary-level enrollments in the technical and vocational sector. The program of study is known as Educación
Secundaria Diversificada.

Students who graduate from secondary school receive the Certificado Oficial de Estudios de Educación Secundaria.
Students holding the school leaving certificate are eligible to sit for university entrance examinations.

Technical and Vocational Training (educación tecnico-productiva)

Students follow a general curriculum for the first seven years of schooling through to the end of the primary level.
Students who do not enter the upper secondary cycle can enroll in one of the nation’s 2,150 centros de educación
tecnico-productiva (CETPRO) at the completion of the primary cycle, or even if they do not finish primary schooling.
There is also an entry gateway to this level at the completion of the first two years of general upper secondary schooling.

Although most technical and vocational schools are private, they are all supervised and licensed by the Ministry of
Education.

Students entering after primary school enroll at the basic level (ciclo básico) of the modular educación tecnico-
productiva system. Those who have completed the first two years of the secondary curriculum enroll at the middle level
(ciclo medio).

Comparison

While people have different views on the role that digital technology can and should play in
schools, we cannot ignore how digital tools have so fundamentally transformed the world outside of
school. Everywhere, digital technologies are offering firms new business models and opportunities to
enter markets and transform their production processes. They can make us live longer and healthier,
help us with boring or dangerous tasks, and allow us to travel into virtual worlds. People who cannot
navigate through the digital landscape can no longer participate fully in our social, economic and
cultural life.
This is not exactly a new phenomenon, but the speed, volume and reach of information flows
in the current digital ecosystem have created the perfect conditions for fake news to thrive, affecting
public opinion and political choices. In this “post-truth” climate, quantity seems to be valued more than
quality when it comes to information. Assertions that “feel right” but have no basis in fact become
accepted as truth. Algorithms that sort people into groups of like-minded individuals create social
media echo chambers that amplify views, and leave individuals uninformed of and insulated from
opposing arguments that may alter their beliefs. There is a scarcity of attention, but an abundance of
information.
The more knowledge that technology allows students to search and access, the more
important becomes deep understanding and the capacity to make sense of content. Understanding
involves knowledge and information, concepts and ideas, practical skills and intuition. But
fundamentally it involves integrating and applying all of these in ways that are appropriate to the
learner’s context. Reading is no longer mainly about extracting information; it is about constructing
knowledge, thinking critically and making well-founded judgements. Contrast this with the findings
from this latest round of PISA, which show that fewer than 1 in 10 students in OECD countries was
able to distinguish between fact and opinion, based on implicit cues pertaining to the content or
source of the information. Education has won the race with technology throughout history, but there is
no guarantee that it will do so in the future.